
Boole. 
%rightN». 



WORKS OF HALBERT P. GILLETTE 
AND RICHARD T. DANA 

Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data. 
By Ralbnit P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. 
1750 pages, illustrated, 4% x 7 in,, flexible binding. .. .$6.00 

Handbook of Cost Data, by Gillette. 

A reference book, giving methods of construction and 
actual costs of materials and labor on numerous civil 
engineering works. 
1878 pages, illustrated, flexible binding, 4% x 7 in $5.00 

Handbook of Construction Plant. 

By Richard T. Dana. 
Gives net prices, shipping weights, capacities, outputs, 
etc., of all kinds of construction machinery. 
700 pages, flexible binding, 4% x 7 in $5.00 

Handbook of Rock Excavation; Methods and Cost, 
by Gillette. 
840 pages, 184 illustrations, flexible binding, 4% x7 in.. $5. 00 

Handbook of Earth Excavation; Methods and Cost, 
by Gillette. 
In preparation, over 800 pages, illustrated, flexible bind- 
ing, 4%x7 in $5.00 

Handbook of Clearing and Grubbing; Methods and 
Cost, by Gillette. 

240 pages, 67 illustrations, 4% x 7 in $2.50 

Cost Keeping and Management Engineering. 

By Ralbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana. 
A treatise for civil engineers and contractors. 
360 pages, 184 illustrations, cloth, 6x9 in $3.50 

Concrete Construction; Methods and Cost. 

By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles S. Hill. 
A treatise on concrete and reinforced concrete structures 
of every kind. 
700 pages, 306 illustrations, cloth, 6x9 in $5.00 

Handbook of Road Construction; Methods and Cost. 
By Halbert P. Gillette, and Charles R. Thomas. 
In preparation, over 800 pages, illustrated, flexible bind- 
ing, 4%x7 in $5.00 

The Trackman's Helper. 

By Richard T. Dana and A. F. Trimble. 
400 pages, cloth, 4% x 6 % in $2.00 

Note: For full descriptions of these books see the advertising 
pages at the end of this volume. 



HANDBOOK 

OF 

MECHANICAL and ELECTRICAL 

COST DATA 

Giving Shipping Weights, Capacities, Outputs, and Net Prices 

of Machines and Apparatus, and Detailed Costs of 

Installation, Maintenance, Depreciation and 

Operation, Together with Many Principles 

and Data Relating to Engineering 

Economics 



BY 

H ALBERT P. GILLETTE 

Consulting Engineer, Member American Society of Civil Engineers, 
Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Member 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Late Chief * 
Engineer of the Washington Railroad Commission 

AND 

RICHARD T. DANA 

Consulting Engineer, Member American Society of Civil Engineers, 

Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, 

Member Yale Engineering Association, Chief 

Engineer Construction Service Company 



FIRST EDITION 



McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 

239 WEST 39th STREET, NEW YORK 



LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO,, Ltd. 
6 AND 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 

1918 



m5\ 



Copyright, 1918 

BY 

CLARK BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 



OCT 14 1918 
©aA506233 



-VI t \ 



PREFACE 



Our principal reason for thinking that these notes would be use- 
ful to others, is that we have found them indispensable within our 
own practice and not available m other form. Although the civil 
engineering field has long been provided with two cost handbooks, 
no similar book in the mechanical and electrical field has been 
obtainable. 

The main purpose of this book is to place under the hand of the 
engineer in the most convenient form for reference the largest 
practicable amount of information bearing upon economic and in- 
tensive construction production and transportation in the me- 
chanical and electrical fields. So far as possible, the material has 
been classified along the lines of the work that one man is likely 
to be called upon to do at the same time, and this arrangement has 
been supplemented by a very careful and thorough index, which 
should be freely used in order to get the maximum benefit from the 
book. We have borne in mind particularly the practical require- 
ments of 

The Designer, 

The Appraiser, 

The Chief of Construction, 

The Superintendent of Operation, 

The Engineering Student. 
This Handbook of Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data is 
designed to be a companion volume to our two civil engineering 
books, the Handbook of Cost Data by Gillette, and the Hand- 
book of Construction Plant and Its Cost by Dana. In method 
of treatment it resembles both of these, but its field, as the title 
indicates, is mechanical and electrical'. These three handbooks are 
so written as not to overlap, and can be used to supplement one 
another. This has enabled the authors to devote almost the entire 
1716 pages of this volume to purely electrical and mechanical sub- 
jects. Thus, there is very little in this book on excavation, con- 
crete, structural steel work, water pipe and other work classed un- 
der civil engineering and treated in Gillette's Handbook of Cost 
Data. Nor does this volume contain many cost data relative to 
derrick.s, concrete mixers, motor trucks, rock crushers, etc., which 
are treated in Dana's Handbook of Construction Plant and Its 
Cost. 

For more than twenty years we have specialized in cost data, 
and during that time have conducted detail appraisals aggregat- 
ing $650,000,000 and embracing every class of plant treated in our 
handbooks. It is not to be inferred that the authors claim to 
have personal knowledge of every detail covered by their valuation 
work, but their staff of engineering assistants has been so or- 
ganized as to supply all the detail knowledge required for appraisals 
of every character ; and tO' this staff was intrusted much of the 
work involved in the preparation of this work. 

Rewriting a book on cost data is often regarded as being neces- 

V 



vi PREFACE 

sary every time that the levels of wages and prices change sub- 
stantially. If this were true, a cost book would scarcely be off 
the press before rewriting would be necessary, for the prices of 
some things change every month. The authors have gone to con- 
siderable pains in the Introduction, Chapter I, to show how cost 
data are usable even where wages and prices have changed since 
the compilation of the cost data. Those who are inclined to criticise 
any given cost on the score that it is " not up to date " are re- 
quested to read the first part of this Introduction with care. 

Where the methods used are the same methods in use today, 
the age of cost data has nothing to do with their value provided the 
original rates of wages, etc., are given. Applying the present rates 
of wages will then make the cost data absolutely up to date. 
Why this has not been more thoroughly recognized by critics of 
cost data we do not know, but it seems to be the fact and we must 
guard against it as much as we can by this warning. 

Several professors of engineering have expressed the intention 
of having their students use this book in making estimates of cost, 
and for this purpose it has been suggested that all our data should 
have been reduced to some " standard wage " and " standard price " 
basis. Admirable as such a standardization might be, it is one of 
those things that the student fails to find anywhere. Instead of 
helping him by standardizing the data for him, we conceive that 
we should be hindering his progress ; for one of his functions as a 
practicing engineer will be the interpretation of published cost data 
that conform to no standard whatsoever. 

One of the greatest difficulties that we have to contend with in 
the use, as well as the presentation of cost data, is found in the 
fact that they come to us, whether originally or at second hand, 
in various kinds of forms. A cost statement on one job will in- 
clude overhead charges, superintendence, interest, depreciation, etc., 
and the final unit costs will represent perhaps very nearly the 
total unit cost to be reckoned with in an estimate. Another state- 
ment from perhaps a neighboring job, possibly collected by the same 
man in the field, will give costs which do not include overhead 
charges, interest or depreciation. In making use of such data it 
is naturally essential for the reader to appreciate not only what 
is included but what is omitted, and not allow himself to be mis- 
led by the incompleteness of the statement at hand. Published costs 
are frequently incomplete, yet very useful in spite of incompleteness. 
For example, " overhead costs " may not be stated although all the 
"direct costs" are given; or, again, operating expenses may not 
include repair and depreciation costs. Nevertheless, a skilled esti- 
mator can use such incomplete costs to advantage, for he can him- 
self estimate the missing elements. To facilitate supplying such 
omissions and to aid in correcting underestimates of " overhead 
costs " and " upkeep costs," we have given a good many data in 
Chapter I, accompanied by a somewhat detailed discussion of these 
important elements of cost. 

In general, our plan has been to give capacities, weights and 
average normal net prices (f. o. b. factory) of machines and equip- 
ment of different types and sizes, together with labor and other 
costs of installation. Detail operating expenses, inclusive of repairs 
and renewals, are given for many plants ; and, wherever possible, 
these costs have been accompanied by concise descriptions of the 
plant and its first cost. We have selected for this purpose prices 
and expenses that existed prior to the world war ; and in most 
cases the data are presented in such a way that relatively little 



PREFACE vii 

work will be involved in applying- them to existing conditions in any 
part of America, by following the methods outlined in Chapter I. 

No book on cost data is any more fool proof than any other 
technical publication. It requires as much judgment to use costs 
intelligently as to use tables of safe stresses in engineering de- 
sign. To the man of judgment and experience it is believed that 
the information contained in this book will prove to be indispen- 
sable, as we have found it so in our own office. To the technical 
student of limited experience it should offer an introduction to the 
economics of engineering. 

In the compilation of data we have drawn largely from those col- 
lected by us in the course of our appraisal and rate case work. 
Valuable unit costs have also been placed at our disposal by Messrs. 
Henry L. Gray, Arthur R. Kelley and P. S. Burroughs, valuation 
engineers. 

We believe that the greatest courtesy we can offer to the writer 
of a technical masterpiece is to place his material in permanent 
form where it can be most readily utilized, and we have therefore 
made the freest use of the data obtainable from all sources. In 
doing- so we have made it a rule to g-ive credit to its original 
source throughout the text and we wish to express our obligation 
and that of the entire engineering community to those men who 
have contributed by their labors and out of their ripe experience to 
the periodical literature of our profession. We wish also in par- 
ticular to acknowledge our indebtedness to those members of our 
engineering staff and that of the Construction Service Company 
who have so ably assisted in compiling the data and reading 
proofs : Messrs. Allan C. Haskell, James M. Kingsley, John C. 
Black, Arthur P. Ackerman, Charles R. Thomas, Jr., and Walter L. 
Anderson. 

The Authors. 

New York, July 1, 1918. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Chapter I. General Economic Principles 1 

Definitions of Economic Terms. — General Discussion of 
Economics. — Various Sub-divisions of Costs. — Tables of 
Overhead Costs. — Common Errors in Capitalizing Values. 
— Alternative Plant Methods of Valuation. — Value of 
Plant Location, of Right-of-Way and of Water Rights. — 
Value of Attached Business. — Rate of Fair Return. — 
Return on Investment in Sundry Manufacturing Corpora- 
tions Not Under Governmental Control. — Cost of Estab- 
lishing a Business. — Development Cost. — Separate Plant 
Theory of Prorating Joint Costs. — When is it Profitable to 
Retire an Old Plant Unit? — The Calculation of Rates 
for Electric Current. 

Chapter II. Depreciation, Repairs and Renewals , . .82 

Definitions. Plant Units and Their Relation to Depreciation. 

— Weighted Average Age of Plant Units. — Analysis of 
Maintenance Accounts and Upkeep Costs. — Methods of Es- 
timating Annual Upkeep Cost. — Suggested Improvements 
in Maintenance Accounting. — Amortization Before or After 
Depreciation Has Occurred. — Accrued Depreciation and 
Depreciated Value. — Per Cent. Condition. — Straight Line 
Depreciation Formula. — The Declining Balance Deprecia- 
tion Formula. — Defects of Straight Line and Sinking Fund 
Depreciation Formulas. — Rational or Unit Cost Deprecia- 
tion Formula. — Criterion for Retiring Obsolete or Inade- 
quate Plant. — Depreciated Plant Value Only a Part of 
Total Value. — Life Tables of Plant Units. — Useful Life 
of Reciprocating Engines, Generators and Turbo-Genera- 
tors. — An Example of the Determination of Repair and 
Depreciation Costs of an Electric Company. — Cost of Re- 
pairs and Life of U. S. River Improvement Plant. — Life of 
Vessels on the Great Lakes and Tidewater. — Methods of 
Handling Battery Maintenance Charges for Large Systems. 

— The Cost of Freight Car Repairs. — Comparative Costs of 
. Repairing Steel and Wooden Cars. — Life and Mainte- 
nance of All-Steel Cars. — Cost of Repairs for Polyphase 
Motors. — Life of Wooden Stave Pipe. — Cost of Maintaining 
Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 

Chapter III. Buildings ... 145 

Economic Principles of Building Construction. — Cost of Items 
of Buildings by Percentages. — Cost of Office Buildings. — 
Comparative Cost of Wood and Steel Frame Factory Build- 
ings. — Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. 
— Cost of Mill Buildings. — Cost of Buildings of Wood, 
Concrete and Steel Framing. — Cost of Reproducing Build- 
ings and Yearly Cost Variation. — Comparative Cost of 
Slow Burning and Concrete Buildings in Chicago. — Brick 
per Square Foot of Floor and Approximate Costs of Mill 
Buildings. — Unit Costs of Reinforced Concrete for In- 
viii 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

dustrial Buildings. — Cost Chart for a Reinforced Concrete 
Factory Building. — Cost of Two Story Reinforced Con- 
crete Factory. — Unit Costs of Forms and Concrete in 
Building Construction. — Cost of a Concrete Storage Ware- 
house Using Precast Members. — Cost of a Brick and 
Steel Factory in Pennsylvania. — Cost of Buildings for 
Small Pumping Stations. — Construction Camp Building 
Costs. — Cost of Mill Erection. — Cost of Shop Drawings 
for Structural Steel. — Estimating Structural Steel. — Cost 
of Carpenter Work. — Mortar Required' and Cost of Brick 
■ Laying. — Cost of Brick-work in Five One-Story Manufac- 
turing Plants. — Cost of Powerhouse Brickwork in Indiana. 

— Cost of Laying Common Brick and Fire Brick in a Foun- 
dry Building. — Cost of a Pump-Pit. — Building Costs for 
Electric Light and Power Station. — Cost of Buildings for 
Compound-Condensing Steam Plants without Chimneys. — 
Cost of Street Car Barns. — Cost of Electric Railway Car 
Shops. — Cost of Buildings and Equipment for a Smelter in 
Arizona. — Construction and Cost of a Reservoir and Pump- 
house. 

Chapter IV. Chimneys 216 

Relative Economy of Various Types of Chimneys. — Sizes 
of Chimneys for Boilers. — Height and Diameter of Chimney 
for Plants of Moderate Size. — Cost of Chimneys. — 
Cost per Horsepower of Various Chimneys. — Design and 
Quantities for a 220-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Chimney at 
Penarth, Wales. — Design, Construction and Cost of a 
Concrete Chimney at Coldwater, Mich. — Cost of a Rein- 
forced Concrete Chimney. — Cost of Chimney for a Cop- 
per Smelter. — Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Chimney 
in Philadelphia. — Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Stack 
from the Inside. — Dimensions, Lining and Lightning Pro- 
tection of Radial Brick Chimneys. — Cost of Brick Chim- 
neys. — Cost of a Very High Brick Chimney. — Chimney 
for Acid Gases. — Cost of Demolishing a Brick Chimney 
with Dynamite. — Weight per Foot of Sheet Steel Chimneys. 

— Cost of Steel Chimneys. — Cost of Steel Stack and 
Breeching. — Dimensions of Steel Chimney Foundations. — 
A Self-Supporting Steel Stack. — Cost and Size of Wedge 
Rope Sockets. — Cost of Removing and Replacing Top of a 
Steel Stack. — Cost of Erecting a 160-Ft. Steel Stack. 

Chapter V. Moving and Installing 245 

Cost of Loading and Unloading Machinery. — Cost of Haul- 
ing One-Piece Loads. — Effect of Grades on Cost of Haul- 
ing. — Truck-Drawn Pole Trailers. — Cost of Hauling 
Poles and Cross-Arms. — Cost of Mule-Back Transportation 
of Machinery in Mexico. — Cost of Hauling Machinery for 
a Pumping Plant. — Cost of Installing Rotating Electrical 
Machinery. — Cost of Installing Transformers, Rectifiers, 
etc., of Less Than 75 kw. Capacity. — Cost of Installation 
of Power Transformers of 75 kw. and Over. — Cost of In- 
stallation of Electrical Rotating Machinery Up to 10,000 
lbs. — Cost of Installing Motor Generator Sets. — Cost of 
Installing a 500 kw. Motor Generator. — Cost of Installing 
a 1,000 kw. Turbo-Generator and Auxiliaries. — Cost of 
Installing 2,000 kw. Turbo-Generator, Boiler, Superheater 
and Other Auxiliaries. — Cost of Foundations. — Cost of 
Erecting a 300 kw. Motor Generator. — Labor Cost of In- 
stalling 850 kw. Generator and Exciter. — Cost of Installing 
and Testing Meters. — Cost of Underground, Cypress Fuel 
Oil Tank. — Cost of Installing Tools and Equipment in a 
Smelter. — Cost of Installing Mining Equipment. — Cost of 
Preliminary Work in Mill Construction. — Cost of Miscel- 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

laneous Foundations. — Cost of Erecting Miscellaneous 
Machinery. — Installation of Pelton and Doble Wheels. 

— Weight of Electrical Apparatus and Prime Movers. 

— Setting Horizontal Return Tubular Boilers. — Floor 
Space for Reciprocating Engines. — Cost of Space for 
Different Types of Boilers. — Cost of Erecting Har- 
rington Automatic Stoker Under a Return Tubular 
Boiler. — Cost of Setting Two 200 h.p. Boilers. — Cost of 
Two Engine Foundations. — Cost of Moving and Erecting 
a 400 h.p. Corliss Engine and 500 kw. Generator. — Cost of 
Wrecking a Plant after a Fire. — Installation Costs of 
Miscellaneous Equipment. 

Chapter Vi. Fuel and Coal Handling 291 

Calculation of Steam Coal Required by Power Plants. — 
Theoretical Mechanical Equivalent in h.p. Hours, of Heat 
Energy Contained in Common Fuels. — Economy to the 
Consumer Resulting from the Purchase of Coal Under 
Specifications. — Economic Points in the Selection and 
Purchasing of Coal. — Specifications for Purchasing Coal. 

— Economic Hints on Calorific Tests of Coal. — Methods 
of Estimating the Heat Value of Fuel. — Relative Value of 
Anthracite and Semi-Bituminous Coals. — The Cost of Coal 
Analyses. — Coal Size and B.t.u. per $1 Cost. — Evaporation 
Tests as a Check upon Coal Analysis. — The Weathering of 
Coal. — Variation of Car and Mine Samples of Coal. — 
Calorific Value of Selected Free-Burning and Caking Soft 
Fuels. — Influence of Ash on Value of Coal. — Cost of Pre- 
paring Powdered Coal. — Coal Burned per Sq. Ft. of Grate 
Area. — Cost of Briquetting Coar. — By-Products Coke 
Ovens. — The Cost of Manufacturing Coke. — Economic 
Comparison between Beehive and By-Product . Ovens. — 
Output of Gas from a By-Product Plant. — Cost of Gas 
from a By-Product Coke Oven Plant. — Cost of Burning 
Charcoal. — Comparative Costs of Fuel. — Comparative 
Cost of Power with Coal versus Oil Fuel. — Comparative 
Cost of Coal and Oil Fuel for Railroads. — Comparative 
Sizes of Smoke Stacks Necessary with Fuel Oil as Com- 
pared with Coal. — Comparative Qualities of Oil and Coal 
Consumed for the Same Quantity of Power Produced. — A 
Comparison of the Economy of Powdered Coal, Oil and 
Water Gas for Heating Furnaces. — Oil and Coal Costs 
Compared. — Fuel Values of Coal, Gas and Oil. — Benzol as 
a Motor Fuel. — Oil Consumption of a Diesel Engine Ocean 
Vessel. — Fuel Oil for Steamships. Effect of Diesel En- 
gines on Fviel Supply and Cost. — Types of Storage Plants 
for Anthracite Coal, Their Economic Features and Cost 
of Construction and Operation. — Labor Costs of Han- 
dling Coal and Ashes at Locomotive Coaling Stations. — An- 
nual "Operating and Maintenance Cost of Several Loco- 
motive Coaling Stations. — Comparative Cost of Han- 
dling Fuel in a Boiler House by Hand and by Telpher. — 
Cost and Economic Features of Modern Locomotive Coaling 
Stations. — Cost of Handling Coal and Ashes by Loco- 
motive Cranes at These Plants. — Cost of Handling Coal 
by the Mechanical Plant of the Wabash R. R. at Decatur, 
111. — Cost of Erecting a Small Bucket Coal Elevator. — 
Comparative Cost of Handling Locomotive Cinders by a 
Pneumatic Conveyor and from an Open Side Pit. — Cost 
of Ash Handling by Vacuum Conveyor, — Cost of Operating 
a Vacuum Ash-Handling System. 

Chapter VII. Steam Power 379 

Economic Value of Furnace Efficiency. — Relation Between 
the Cost of Power and Load Factor for Steam Turbine 



CONTENTS xi 

PAGE 

Plants of 25,000 k.w. Capacity and Larger. — Costs of 
Producing Power, Comparison of Estimated Costs with 
Those from Actual Tests. — Reduction of Steam Cost in 
Boiler House by Elimination of Human Labor. — Saving in 
St^am Costs Due to Superheat. — increasing the Economy 
and Capacity of Steam Boilers by the Use of Forced Draft. 

— Relation Between Boiler Output and Steam Consumption 
of Driven Fan. — Reduction in Coal Costs by the Use of a 
Balanced Draft System. — Increase in Capacity of Boilers 
Effected by an Increase in Grate Area Without Increas- 
ing the Heating Surface. — Annual Saving from the Use of 
Soft Water in 1,000 h.p. Boiler Plant. — Results from 
Operation of Water-Treating Plant. — Costs of Cooling 
Ponds. — Cost of Steam Power. — Coal Consumption of 
Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Availability of Ex- 
haust Heat from Different Types of Engines. — Summary of 
Operating Results in Steam Turbo-Electric Plants from 
200 to 20,000 kw. Capacity. — Floor Space Required by 
Corliss Engines and Turbines. — Cost of Power for Various 
Industries Under Ordinary Conditions. — Labor Costs in a 
Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Fixed Charges in 
Compound Condensing Steam Plant. — Fuel and Water Con- 
sumption for Compound Condensing Steam Engines of 
1,000 h.p. Upward. — Choice of Power for Textile Mills. — 
Power Plants in Textile Mills. — Cost of Steam and Electric 
Power for Operating Flour Mills Producing 54,000 Bbls. 
of Flour Per Yr. — Typical Solution of the Power Plant 
Problem for an Assumed Industrial Plant in Canada. — 
Heating and Power Costs in New York City Isolated 
Plants. — Cost of Power in a Large Apartment House. — 
Cost of Power, Light and Heat from Steam for 19 Build- 
ings. Operating Records of a Large Loft Building. — 
Power and Maintenance Costs of 12-Story Loft Building. — 
Cost of Power for a Large Semi-Public Building at Kan- 
sas City, Mo., as Compared with Cost if Purchased from 
the Central Station. — A Comparison of Efficiencies and 
Costs of Steam, Water, Gas and Oil Power Generation. — 
Comparative Costs of Power by an Oil Engine and a Steam 
Engine in Small Units. — Comparative Figures for 500 h.p. 
Oil Burning Steam Plant Converted to a Diesel Engine 
Drive. — Comparative Cost of Electricity Generated by 
Gas and Steam Engines. — Cost of a Gas Engine and of a 
Combined Steam Plant. — Comparative Costs of Power 
by Diesel-Engine and Steam Turbine in Plants of 600 
k.w. Capacity. — Cost of Power in a 700-kw. Electric Plant 
and a Comparison Between That and the E.stimated Cost 
in a Steam Turbine Plant. — Comparative Costs of In- 
stallation and Operation of Gas, Oil and Steam Engines. 

— Comparative Costs of Power in Small Units of Gasoline, 
Gas, Steam and Electricity. — An Arithmetical Study of 
the Co.st of Power. — Comparative Power Station Costs of 
Steam, Gas and Diesel Engines. — Average Costs of In- 
stalling and Operating Coal Burning Steam Power Plants. 

— Boiler Room Equipment Costs per Rated Boiler Horse 
Power. — Cost of a 10 h.p. Steam Plant. — Cost of a 60 h.p. 
Steam Plant. — Average Cost of Compound Condensing 
Steam Plant. — Approximate Cost per h.p. of Steam Power 
Plants Complete. — Sirnple Condensing. — Cost of a Steam 
Power Plant for a Textile Mill. — Cost of Steam Boilers of 
Various Kinds and of Various Sizes and Weights. — Floor 
Area Occupied by Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers. — 
Settings for Fire Tube Boilers. — Cost of Boiler Tubes and 
Various Boiler Equipment; — The Co.st of Fuel Economizers. 

— The Prices and Cost of Setting Various Steam Engines. 

— The Prices of Various Steam Engine Auxiliaries. — 
The Cost of Feed Water Heaters, Injectors, Pipe Covering, 



xii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Lagging, Piping, etc. — Cost of Water Purification Plants. 

— Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six 
Years. — Cost of Stokers. — Dimensions, Weight and Cost 
of Steam Turbines. 

Chapter VIII. Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Pro- 
ducers 616 

Principal Economic Factors of Gas Power. — Mechanical and 
Thermal Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engines. — Ef- 
fect of Elevation upon the Power of a Gas Motor. — Eco- 
nomic Limits Between Which Prime Movers of the Va- 
rious Types may be Advantageously Used. — Cost of Power 
for Pumping with Internal Combustion Engines Using 
Various Fuels. — Cost of Power Generation in Small Plants. 

— Fuel Consumption Tests of Small Oil and Gasoline En- 
gines. — Cost of Producer Gas Power Plants. — Cost of 
Gas Engines. — Approximate Cost of Gas Power Installa- 
tion. — Electric Railway Gas Power Plant Costs. — Manu- 
facturing Plant Gas Engine and Producer Power Costs. 

— Cost of Generating Current with Producer Gas Engines 
at Charlotte, N. C. — Costs of Power from Four Producer 
Gas Plants. — Cost of Power Generated by 50 Brake h.p. Suc- 
tion Producer Gas Plant. — First Cost and Annual Operat- 
ing Cost of Four Small Producer Gas Plants. — Annual 
Costs of Two 400 kw. Producer Gas Plant Units. — Cost of 
Power by Burning Wood in Gas Producers in Mexico. — 
Cost of Power in a Small Plant Using Illuminating Gas 
for Operating Gas Engine. — Amount of Power Available 
from Furnaces. — Operating Costs of Small Gas Engine 
Plant for Electric Light Service. — Oil Engine Costs and 
Operating Expenses for Different Types in Small Plants. 

— Cost of Diesel Engine Power for a Textile Factory. — 
Cost of Power by Diesel Engine Using Retort Tar. — Cost 
of Power for Two American 225 h.p. Diesel Engines. — 
— Operating Expenses of a Hot-Surface Oil Engine Plant in 
New Mexico. 

Chapter IX. Hydro-Electric Plants . . . .' . . . . 684 

Unit Basis for First Cost Estimates of Hydro-Electric 
Plants. — Cost of a Subterranean Hydro-Electric Generat- 
ing Plant in Sweden. — Relation of K. W. Cost to Size of 
Plant in Switzerland and Sweden. — Cost of Power in 
Switzerland. — Cost of Developing a Water Power at Val- 
lorbe, Switzerland. — Cost of Various Hydro-Electric De- 
velopments in Ontario. — Yearly Cost of Power, Chicago 
Sanitary District Section. — Cost of a 1400 kw. Hydro-Elec- 
tric Plant. — Cost of 36,000 kw. Low Head Plant in Massa- 
chusetts. — Cost of Hydraulic Power Plants of from 100 to 
1,000 h.p. and for 10 to 40 Ft. Heads. — Comparison of K.W. 
Cost of Steam and Hydro-Electric Power. — Analysis of 
Efficiencies of Component Parts of a. Hydro-Electric Sys- 
tem. — Data Necessary in Purchasing Water Wheel. — Cost 
of Water Wheels and Turbines. — Cost of Steel Pen- 
stocks. Concrete Penstocks. — Wood-Stave Pipe for Water- 
Power Penstocks. — Cost of Timber Flume for Water Power 
in British Columbia. — The Economics of Pipe Line Diam- 
eters. 

Chapter X. First Cost and Operating Expenses of Com- 
plete Electric Light and Power Plants . . . .740 

Graphical Analysis of Operating Costs Into Fixed and Va- 
riable Expenses. — Output of Large Generating Systems. 
— ^ Relation of Peak Load to Capacity. — Proportions of 
Steam and Hydro-Electric Equipment to Load. — Analysis 



CONTENTS xiii 

PAGE 

Of K.W. Hour Costs of Combination System. — Operating 
and Cost Data for Electric Railway Power Stations. — 
Labor Costs of Operation in Street Railway Power Plants. 

— Relation of Unit Labor Costs to Size of Plant for Central 
Station Work. — Cost of Generating Electric Power for 
Operating the Elevated and Subway Cars in Manhattan, 
New York City. — Cost of Generating and Distributing 
Electricity for Lighting and Power. — Cost of Electric 
Power. — Cost of Power in a Plant with a Relatively Large 
Railway Load. — Installation and Maintenance of a Small 
Electric Light Plant. — Design and Operation of Cleveland 
Municipal Electric Light Plant. — Cost of Operating City 
Lighting Plant in Detroit. — Cost of Construction and Op- 
erating Expenses of the Municipal Electric Lighting Plant 
at Burlington, Vt. — Yearly Operating Costs in Four Typical 
Central Stations in Massachusetts. — Central Station Gross 
Receipts and Diversity Factors. — Operating Expenses of 
Massachusetts Steam Stations. — Generation and Distribu- 
tion Expenses of a Middle West Company. — Comparison 
of Costs of Operation of Gas Engine Station and Steam 
Generating Station. — Central Station Labor Costs. — 2,200 
Volts Versus 13,200 Volts for Rural Extensions. — Distri- 
bution-Line Economics. — Factors that Determine Econom- 
ical Life of Transformers. — Costs of Steam Turbo-Electric 
Central Stations. — Construction Costs of Power Houses. — 
Cost of Constructing Steam-Driven Electric Power Plants. * 

— Average Construction Costs of Steam Turbo-Electric 
Power Plants. — Unit Costs of a Large Steam Station in 
Ohio. — Cost of Elements of Small Steam Electric Power 
Plants. — Checking Power Plant Construction Cost Esti- 
mates by Percentages. — Cost of Substations. — Area per 
h.p. Occupied by Various Power Groups. — Reconstruction 
Cost of a Storage Battei-y Plant. — Cost of Constructing a 
Turbo-Generator Power Plant, Transmission Line and 
Substructures. — Distribution Equipment Cost on a Small 
System. — Cost of Additions and Improvements for Central 
Stations. — Central Station Equipment Costs. — Plant Ex- 
tensions. — Cost of Control Apparatus for 19,000-volt 
Power Station. — Cost per Pound of Electrical Machinery. 

— Miscellaneous Central-Station Construction Cost Data. 

— Storage Batteries for Isolated Lighting Plants. — Prices 
of Electrical Equipment. 

Chapter XI. Overhead Electrical Transmission and Dis- 
tribution • . . 878 

Cost of Wooden Poles. — Weights of Poles. — Detail Cost of 
Preparing and Setting Wooden Poles. — Cost of Digging 
Holes and Setting Poles; — Improved Method of Stenciling 
Poles. — Labor Costs of Pole-Line Construction. — Value of 
Treating Poles and Equipment. — Cost of Concrete Bases 
for Wood Poles. — Joint Pole Construction at Los An- 
geles. — Cost of Setting Poles by Block and Tackle. — Detail 
Cost of Cross-Arms. — Labor Co.st of Stringing Guys. — Con- 
crete Poles. — Cost of Concrete Electric Railway Trolley 
Poles. — Cost of Concrete Telephone Poles. — The Eco- 
nomic Design of a Distributing System. — Labor Costs of 
Building a Transmission Line. — Reducing the Cost of Line 
Construction. — Itemized Cost of a 28 Mile Telegraph 
Line. — Relation Between Span and Size of Wire. — Tow- 
ers for Transmission Lines. — Ratio of Labor to Material 
Costs in Steel Tower Transmission Line Construction. — 
Cost per Mile of Pole Lines for 3-Phase 2,300 to 6,000 Volts, 

— Comparative Costs of Transmission Lines. — Cost of La- 
bor and Materials of 6,600 Volt Transmission Line 4.6 
Miles Long. — Steel Towers vs. Wooden Poles for Elec- 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 
trie Lines. — Cost and Operating Data on 6,600-Volt Lines. 
— Cost of Constructing a Short 11.000-Volt Transmission 
Line. — Cost of 19,000 Volt Transmission Lines in New 
England. — Method and Cost of Erecting 20,000-Volt Trans- 
mission Line Towers in Assembled Condition by Means of 
Guy Poles. — Method and Cost of Constructing 22,000 
Volt Iron-Wire Steel-Pole Transmission Line. — Cost of 
Constructing Wooden Towers for a 60,000 Volt Transmis- 
sion Line 25 Miles Long. — Cost of 66,000 Volt Transmis- 
sion Line. — Cost of Erecting 110,000 Volt Transmission 
Lines. — Cost of Various Transmission Line Material. — 
Comparison of Aluminum and Copper Wires for Equal 
Resistances per Unit Length. 

Chapter XII. Underground Electrical Transmission and 

Distribution 964 

Underground Conduit. — Pump Log Conduit. — Cost of Trans- 
mission Conduit Installed. — Fiber Duct, Advantages and 
Materials Required for Installing. — Vitrified Clay Con- 
duits. — Cost of Repairing Openings in Pavement. — Cost 
of Trench Work Through Brick Pavements for Wire Con- 
duit. — Armored Cable Versus Conduit Systems. — Compara- 
tive Costs of Tile and Fiber Conduit. — Vault or Man- 
hole Construction. — Cost of Brick Manholes. — Main Un- 
derground Cable. — Lateral Underground Cable. — Rodding 
Underground Cable. — Removing Underground Cable. — 
Method and Cost of Cable Splicing. — Cost of Installing 
Street Lighting Cables in Boston. — Underground Tele- 
phone Cable. — Pulling Underground Cables in St. Louis. 

Chapter XIII. Lighting and Wiring 1023 

Candle-Power Ranges of Old and New Lamps. — Factory ' 
Illumination Costs. — Current Requirements for Lighting. — 
Power Required for Illumination with Tungsten Lamps. — 
Comparison of the Cost of Lighting by Various Systems. — 
Cost of Operation of Practical Lighting Systems. — Cost 
of Street Lighting in Various Cities. — Costs of Gas and 
Electric Lighting Compared. — Maintenance Costs of Arc 
Lamps. — Cost of Arc Lighting. — Cost of Installing Lumi- 
nous Arc Ornamental System. — Efficiency of Arc Lamps. — 
Economics of Factory Lighting. — Comparison of Arc and 
Incandescent Lighting in a Shop Building. — Lighting of 
Railroad Stations with Gas. — The Kauffman Lighting Sys- 
tem. — Cost of Lamps. — Cost of Wiring a Two-Story 
House. — Cost of Wiring and Conduit Work for a Power 
Plant. — Labor Costs in Interior Construction. 

Chapter XIV. Belts, Shafts and Motor Drives .... 1079 

Cost of Split Pulleys. — Cost of Belting. — Cost of Adjustable 
Shaft Hangers. — Selection of Economical Belts and Pul- 
leys. — Friction Load of Shaft hearings. — Steel Belts for 
Power Transmission. — The Cost of Electric Motors, 
Tables. Etc. — Cost of Individual Electric Drive. — Steam 
Engine vs. Motor Drive for Small Machine Shops. — Cost of 
Motor Drive in a Six-Story Factory. — Electrification of 
Shops of Wabash Railroad. — Power Required to Drive 
Shafting, B. R. & P. Ry. — Cost of Eleotiic Drive in a 
Foundry. — Power Required to drive Wood-Working Tools. 
— .Application of Electric Drive to Paper Calenders. — 
Electric Motors on a Farm. — A Comparison of Gas and 
Electric PoAver for Drawbridsre SAvinging — Cost Record 
of an Electric Power Shovel. — Cost of Operating Mo- 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

tors in Lime Plants and Quarries. — Farm Imple- 
ment Manufacturing- Power Requirements. — Electric 
Motors in Harvesting- Machine Works. — Electric Drive in 
Cotton Gins. — Electric Drive in Sand and Gravel Plants. — 
Motor Service and Heating Costs in a Jewelry Factory. 

Chapter XV. Compressed Air 1132 

Compressors of Various Kinds. — Turbo-Auxiliary to Piston 
Compressor in an English Mine. — Economy in Compressed 
Air Mining Plants. — Air Compressor Economy in New 
York. — Comparative Costs of Compressing Air by Steam 
and Electricity. — Efficiency of Compressed Air Transmis- 
sion. — Methods and Cost of Laying 6-in. and 8-in. Wrought 
Iron, Screw-Joint Pipe for a Compressed Air Main. — Profit 
in Reheating. — Air Used per Motor Horsepower. — Air and 
Power Requirements of Pneumatic Hammers. — Compressed 
Air and Pneumatic Tools in the Foundry. — Pneumatic Tool 
Costs in Shipbuilding. — English Costs on Scaling Boilers. — 
Hydro-Compressor Installation Costs. — Cost of Compress- 
ing by Water and Electric-Driven Compressors and the 
Direct Action of Water. 

Chapter XVL Gas Plants 1182 

Percentage of Gas Manufactured on Which There is No Re- 
turn. — Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 90,000. — 
Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 25,000. — Detailed 
Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 15,000. — Cost of a 
Gas Plant in a City of 2,600. — Reproduction Cost of 
the Properties of the Kings County Lighting Company. — 
Cost of Service Connections. — Unit Costs of Gas Mains. — 
Effect of Length on Cost of Laying 2-in. Gas Main. — Cost 
of Relaying Pavement. — Cost of Buildings and Equipment 
of a Large Gas Plant. — Miscellaneous Data Pertaining to 
Various Complete Plants. 



Chapter XVII. Pumps and Pumping 1241 

Various Classifications and Types of Pump. — Pulsometers. — 
Belt Driven Pumps, etc. — Prices of Pumps of Various 
Classifications. — Hydraulic Rams. — Pumping Losses. — 
Operating Costs of Various Pumping Engines. — Actual 
Cost of Pumping in Various Cities. — Cost of Complete 
Pumping Stations. — Pumping Engine Economy. — Cost of 
Pumping by Gas Engines, and by Steam Pumps. — Cost of 
Pumping Machinery for Water Works. — Comparative Cost 
of Plant and Operating Expenses for Pumps Driven by 
Reciprocating Steam Engines, Steam Turbines and Diesel 
Oil Engines. — Cost of Pumping Oil Long Distances. — 
Operating Costs of Various Pumping Stations. — Costs of 
Pumping with Gasoline and Cheaper Fuel Compared. — 
Concrete Muffler and Operating Clost of a Small Diesel 
Engine Pumping Plant. — Comparative Cost of Pumping 
Water by Steam and Producer Gas in a Municipal Pumping 
Plant. — A Water Pumping Diagram. — Efficiency Test of 
an Air Lift Pump. — Total Fixed Charges and Operating 
Costs of Rotary Pumps Compared with Those of High- 
Duty, Vertical, Triple-Expansion Type. — Cost of Pumping 
Water for Irrigation. — Cost and Efficiency of Various 
Units in Irrigation Pumping in California. — Cost of Small 
Irrigation Pumping Plants. — Cost of Mine Pumping. — 
Formula for the Most Economic Size of Pipe to Carry 
Pumped Water. 



xvi CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter XVIII. Conveyors, Hoists, Cranes and Elevators 1340 

Belt, Flight and Screw Conveyors. — Cost of Belt Renewals 
and Power for Driving Beits. — Cost of Loading Bricks 
into a Box Car Using a Portable Belt Conveyor. — Bucket 
Elevators and Conveyors. — Economic Speeds for Bucket 
Elevators for Various Materials. — Bucket Elevator Fac- 
tors.- — Average Costs of Standard Bucket Conveyors, Etc. 

— Test of Motor-Driven Coal-Conveyor System. — Suction 
Conveyors. — Operation of the Automatic or Gravity Rail- 
way. — Comparative Cost and Value of First Quality and 
Second Quality Hemp Rope. — The Life of a Wire Rope and 
the Effect of Oiling Thereon. — Cost of Locomotive Cranes. 
— Capacity, Cost and Operation of Locomotive Cranes. — 
Cost of Handling Lumber in a Railway Shop by a Loco- 
motive Crane Compared with Hand Work. — Mechanical 
Handling in Storage Yards. — Installation and Operating 
Costs of Cranes. — Operating Speed, Cost and Capacity of 
Electric Traveling Cranes. — Cost of Electro-magnets. — 
Cost of Handling Locomotive Tires and Heavy Castings by 
a Magnet and Crane. — A Specially Designed Traveling 
Crane. — Cost of Hoisting Water in Unwatering Mines. — 
Comparison Between Electric and Steam Hoisting Systems. 

— Electric Passenger Elevator System. 

Chapter XIX. Heating, Cooking, Ventilating, Refrigerat- 
ing AND Ice Making 1421 

Cost of Heating Buildings. — Figuring the Coal Consumption 
for Apartment and Office Buildings. — Cost of Heating and 
Power Plant Apparatus. — Comparative Cost of Heat When 
Generated by Coal, Gas and Electricity. — Operating Costs 
of Steam and Furnace Heating Plants. — Cost of Install- 
ing Underground Steam Mains. — Efficiency of Under- 
ground Steam Mains. — Saving in Coal Due to Pipe 
Covering. — Labor Costs of Applying Magnesia Covering 
to Pipes and Fittings. — Metered Service vs. Flat-Rates for 
Steam Heating. — Prices of Heat from Central Heating 
Plants. — Comparative Cost of Heating a 25-ft. Car, 45 Ft. 
Over All, by Hot Water and by Electricity, Based on 
Operating Conditions on a 32-Mile Interurban Railway. — 
Comparative Costs of Heating Cars. — Comparative Costs 
of Gas and Electric Cooking. — Heater Capacities of Simple 
Devices. — Power Required for Electric Thawing of Frozerx 
Mains. — The Power Consumption of Domestic Heating 
Devices Electrically Operated. — An Electric Heater for 
Thawing Explosives. — Cost of Electric Heating in Shoe 
Factory. — Cost of Various Heating and Ventilating Equip- 
ment. — Cost of Manufacture in Distilled Water Ice Plants. 

— Refrigerating Costs in Large and Small Plants. — Cost 
of Refrigeration for a Skating and Curling Rink. 

Chapter XX. Electric Railways 1517 

Detailed Appraisals of Various Railways. — Cost of One Mile ^ 
of Single Track. — Special Work. — Cost of Overhead Tro.l- 
ley Systems. — Overhead Line Construction. — Cost of Track 
Bonding. 

Chapter XXI. Miscellaneous 1645 

Prices of Various Mechanical and Electric Apparatus. — Cost 
of Tool Operation in Engine Manufacturing. — Cutting 
Speeds in Machine Tools. — Cost of Tempering Tools. — Cost 
of Equipment for a Boiler and Blacksmith Shop. — Cost of 
Equipment for a Smelter Plant Machine and Blacksmith 



CONTENTS xvii 

PAGE 

Shop. — Cost of Drafting- Equipment. — Painting Materials 
Required and Surface Covered per Gallon. — Cost of Sand 
Blast Cleaning- of Structural Steel. — Electric Arc Welding 
Apparatus. — Cost of Electric Welding. — Speed of Electric 
Welding. — Thermit Process Welding-. — Method and Cost 
of Welding Rails by the Thermit Process. — Cost of Cutting 
Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc. — Miscellaneous 
Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting Costs. — Cost of Vari- 
ous Acetylene Operations. — Cost of a Davit Collar and 
Pump Repairs. — Handling- Scrap by Magnets and Locomo- 
tive Cranes. — Ratio of Average Load to Connected Load. 

— First Cost and Maintenance of Portable Batteries for 
Automatic Signals. — Cost of Electric Riveting. — Cost of 
Thawing Water Pipes by Electricity. — Cost of an Electric 
Sign. — Power Required for Motor-Driven Farm Machinery. 

— Comparative Costs of Gas and Fuel Oil in Heating 
Japanning Ovens. 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTEICAL 
COST DATA 

CHAPTER I 
GENERAL. ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 

Engineering is the application of science to the problems of 
economic production. The engineer's ultimate aim, therefore, is 
to effect a desired result at a minimum cost. To this end, where 
it is feasible, the engineer should formulate a unit cost equation in 
which all the dependent variables and constants are included, and 
he should then solve for a minimum unit cost. But whether he 
is able to employ this ideal method or must use cruder methods, 
he must eventually express all the items in terms of money or its 
equivalent. 

Put differently, every economic problem resolves itself into the 
determination of quantities to which unit costs are applied. No 
economic problem can be solved merely by the use of qualitative 
terms ; yet many a poor reasoner attempts to solve the most com- 
plex of economic problems without the use of a single item to 
which a definite cost is assignable. Volubility is vainly made to 
serve instead of valuation. 

Imperfect Cost Data. The term data is coming more and more 
to designate statistical facts rather than qualitative facts. Cost 
data are obviously essential in solving economic problems. Yet 
there still exists a prejudice against published cost data. If, 
however, each engineer were to rely solely on cost data gathered 
by meager pickings from his own little crab-apple tree of ex- 
perience, economic progress would be decidedly restricted. Accord- 
ingly each year witnesses more complete and detailed publication 
of costs in most lines of engineering work. It is true that many 
of the cost data are incomplete, or insufficiently explained, and 
therefore apt to be misleading. It is also true that men entirely 
inexperienced in the use of cost data may misinterpret even the 
most complete data. But neither the deficiences»in published data 
nor defective reasoning in their application should serve as an 
argument for restricting the publication of such information. In 
spite of the risk of misuse, " a half -loaf is better than none." More- 
over a half-loaf of knowledge on a given subject is almost uni- 
versally the precursor of a full loaf. 

Published cost data are usually defective, but defectiveness is 
characteristic of nearly all economic data whatsoever. Who, for 

1 



2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

example, can accurately forecast the natural life of any generator, 
or any pump of given size and type under any specified service? 
Although we still remain ignorant of many economic facts, we 
shall scarcely become wiser if we fail to make use of such data as 
we do, possess on the ground that the data are imperfect. Let us 
have done with fatuous criticisni of published cost data, and bend 
our efforts to the gathering and publishing of more complete costs 
of all kinds under varying conditions. 

How to Use Cost Data. If a unit cost has been so analyzed as 
to show the quantities of each kind of labor and of each kind of 
material involved in the production of the given unit, such a unit 
cost may be quite as serviceable a generation or more after its pub- 
lication as it was when first published. Thus, the yardage costs 
of excavating earth with drag-scrapers and horses which Elwood 
Morris published in 1841 are applicable now, three-quarters of a 
century later ; for we still use drag-scrapers for earth excavation, 
and we have merely to substitute present team and man wages for 
those used in the time of Morris. Curiously enough many men, even 
engineers, have failed to see that " out of date " cost data can often 
be thus brought up to date. 

Rates of wages are frequently omitted in giving unit costs, but, 
if the date when the cost was incurred is given, it is usually pos- 
sible to ascertain the wage rates that then prevailed. An expe- 
rienced engineer often knows offhand the prevailing rates of wages 
that were paid in any part of the country at any given time. While 
it is true that wages of individual workmen often differ quite widely 
even in the same locality and at the same time, it should be re- 
membered that this difference is usually consequent upon their 
individual differences in efficiency. Thus, when railway carpenters 
were paid $2.50 a day and contractors' carpenters were paid $3.00 
in the same locality for the same class of work, the carpenters 
working for a contractor did fully 20% more work daily. Hence 
the unit cost of carpenter work did not differ materially even where 
the wage differed 20%. 

The labor cost of installing a machine is very often estimated as 
a percentage of the cost of the machine. Supi:)ose, for example, a 
given machine was installed 20 years ago at a labor cost that 
was 10% of the cost of the machine. If the general level of wages 
and machine prices has risen 75% since that time, then the ratio 
of labor cost of installation to machine cost would still remain 10%; 
and the labor cost data of 20 years ago would remain applicable 
today if applied as a percentage to the present cost of the given 
machine. 

The labor cost of installing equipment is frequently estimated in 
dollars per ton of weight. Although the weight of a machine of 
given size and type is seldom given in an article containing costs 
of machinery installation, the weight is usually ascertainable from 
tables such as are given in this book ; and then a published labor 
cost of installation of a machine may be converted into a cost per 
ton. Old installation costs per ton may be brought up to date by 
making proper allowance for the rise in wages. 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 3 

In making tables that give the prices of machines and equipment 
of different types and sizes we have given also the weights. It is 
therefore possible to deduce from our tables the price per lb. of 
each size and type of plant-unit. Our prices were normal prices 
at the factories in 1913 and 1914, prior to the world war. It might 
seem at first sight that these tabular prices will be valueless at 
least until the war is ended and normal economic conditions are re- 
stored. Yet a little consideration of the matter will show that 
our tables of equipment prices may be used effectively now. To 
illustrate, suppose it is desired to estimate the present price of 
electric transformers of different sizes. Secure either the price actu- 
ally paid recently for a given tran.sformer, or secure a quotation, 
then divide this price by the price given in our table, and thus 
establish the factor by which to multiply other prices in the same 
table to get present prices. This procedure will save time and 
trouble. Moreover, it will be found much easier to secure a few 
quotations from manufacturers or their agents than to secure as 
many as may be needed for an approximate appraisal or a pre- 
liminary estimate of cost of a proposed plant unit. 

In this connection it should be noted that manufacturers usually 
quote higher prices when they think the prices are to be used for 
preliminary estimating or for appraising than when they regard 
their prices as actual bids upon equipment to be furnished. As 
our price tables are based on bids or on plant actually purchased, 
it is evident that these tables will YvslVq value for many years to 
come, if intelligently used as suggested. 

In estimating costs there is always danger of omitting items, 
either through ignorance or carelessness. If the cost data in this 
book served no other purpose than to prevent such omissions, the 
publication of the book would be justified. Danger of omission of 
cost elements is particularly acute when the estimator is dealing 
with a class of work with which he is not ttioroughly conversant. 

Estimates of the cost of plant are usually preliminary to an 
estimate of the unit cost of the product or service of the plant. 
When this is the case it is important to realize that probable er- 
rors in estimating the per cent, of " fixed charges " and the " load 
factor " are apt to outweigh probable errors in estimating the cost 
of the plant. Thus the "fixed charges" (interest, depreciation and 
taxes) may be estimated by A at 10%, whereas B may estimate 
the same at 15%. If A were to estimate the first cost of the plant 
at $150,000, B could estimate it as low as $100,000. and the two 
estimators would arrive at the same annual cost of fixed charges. 

Comparatively few engineers seem to realize the relatively great 
importance of accuracy in estimating the percentages allowed for 
" fixed charges," yet the same engineers will split hairs over esti- 
mates on the first cost of a plant. This fact is repeatedly made 
evident in rate cases before public utility commissions where acri- 
monious debates of considerable length often occur as to the 
" value " of plants, only to be followed by the most cursory dis- 
cussion of depreciation annuities and " rates of fair return " on the 
investment. It is exceedingly important to bear in mind this rule : 



4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Each per cent, of difference between two estimates of fixed charges 
divided by the total percentage allowed for fixed charges in the 
lower estimate, gives the percentage of increment in plant invest- 
ment that is at stake. Thus if two estimators agree on a plant 
value but one estimator, A, allows 10% for fixed charges, whereas 
the other estimator, B, allows 14%, dividing the difference of 4% by 
10% gives 40%, which is the percentage by which A would have to 
increase the plant value to get annual fixed charges equal to those 
of estimator B. 

When estimates of plant are thus viewed in the light of subse- 
quent calculations of " fixed charges," there is apt to result far 
greater study of the questions of depreciation, interest and tax 
rates, to say nothing of insurance and even repair rates which 
are also commonly applied as percentages of the plant investment. 
Moreover, it is also perceived that great precision in estimating 
the cost of a plant, even were it attainable, is a useless refinement 
where equal precision in estimating " fixed charges " is not at- 
tainable. 

By a parity of reasoning it will be seen that unless the load 
factor, or ratio of actual output to capacity output, of a plant can 
be estimated with great accuracy, it is fruitless to estimate the 
cost of the plant with great accuracy. Here, again, engineers have 
been inclined to give relatively scant consideration to average 
output factors while splitting hairs over estimates of plant cost. 
What avails it, for example, to estimate the probable cost of a 
factory with considerable precision, if there is to be nothing but 
a crude guess as to the average " load factor " or annual output 
of the factory? 

Engineers have often excused themselves for not estimating 
carefully such things as " fixed charges " and output factors, on 
the ground that these were matters for the owners or managers of 
the plants to decide. „ But the day when such an excuse will be 
acceptable is gone. Even a designing engineer is now presumed 
to study and apply all the economic factors, for if he does not he 
can not design the most economic plant for the given purpose. 

Unfortunately depreciation data and output factors (or load 
factor data) are not as abundant as could be desired. They are 
cost factors of great importance, and their usefulness is little im- 
paired by age. We have made a beginning in recording miscel- 
laneous data of this character in this book, but we are well aware 
that it is only a beginning. 

Definitions of Economic Terms. Few economic terms are used 
in the same sense by all authorities. There have not been many 
attemi)ts to standardize econoinic nomenclature, and it is not likely 
that standard terms will be generally adopted for many years to 
come. This makes it important that the student of economics 
shall early form the habit of carefully defining the terms that he 
himself uses, and critically examining the definitions that others 
use. 

Many writers do not define the economic terms that they em- 
ploy, apparently taking it for granted that any dictionary will 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 5 

elucidate their meaning. Not infrequently such writers them- 
selves have a rather hazy conception of the scope of the several 
economic words. 

The definitions that follow in this chapter are those that the 
authors have adopted or have formulated for their own purposes. 
They conform fairly well with " general usage," but are not in 
every instance in general use. 

Economy is the judicious expenditure of labor, materials and 
energy in the attainment of a required end. 

Economics is the science of the general principles applicable in 
securing maximum economy. 

Economic Efficiency is the ratio of actual performance to an 
ideal or standard performance. The single word efficiency is often 
used, instead of economic efflciency, in this sense. 

Engineering is the application of science to the problems of 
economic production 

Engineering Economics is that part of economics most com- 
monly applied in the practice of engineering 

Industrial Economics is that part of economics most commonly 
applied in financing, organizing, purchasing, producing and selling. 

Political Economics is that part of economics, most commonly 
applied in political or social management. 

General Discussion of Economics. The word economics is de- 
rived from a Greek word meaning household management. Po- 
litical economists have attempted to restrict its use to their own 
particular branch of economics ; but this limitation of the 
word is not approved by those interested in other branches of 
economics. Engineers in particular refuse to use the term economics 
solely in reference to the science of political management. 

Economics is often defined as being " the science that deals with 
the production and distribution of wealth," or more briefly as " the 
science of wealth." But such definitions seem to be too broad. 
Engineering also deals with the production and distribution of 
wealth. It seems better to define economics in such manner as to 
make clear the fact that it deals solely with principles of general 
application in securing economy The manufacturer, the merchant, 
the engineer and the politician may all apply the general principles 
of securing economy, and to this end they should study economics. 
But each in his own sphere should possess not only a knowledge 
of certain principles applicable in securing economy of perform- 
ance, but should have acquaintance with many facts and details 
not classifiable as parts of the general science of economics. 

To a merchant the " required end " is a maximum annual profit 
with the aid of the capital that he commands. Hence for him a 
maximum annual profit is the " maximum economy." 

To an engineer the " required end " is usually a minimum unit 
cost, which is the " maximum economy " that he seeks 

By every class of designer or manager of productive plants a 
maximum of economy is the desideratum in the attainment of 
which the science of economics is immeasurably valuable. 

Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank 



6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of New York, said at a recent convention of a school of finance 
for business executives : " I believe we are a nation of economic 
illiterates. There is a science of business. It is something teach- 
able." Yet a few years ago when engineers began to say that 
there is a science of management and that it is teachable, the 
scoffers almost drowned the announcement with laughter " Sci- 
ence, indeed ! " they exclaimed " You can't teach management. 
Managers are born, not made." Now it is admitted that man- 
agers are first born and then made. 

Value is exchangeable worth, usually expressed in money. 

Price is the quantity of money exchanged for property or service. 

Cost is the money outlay and debits incurred in securing prop- 
erty or service. The price charged by a seller is always part of, 
and may be all of. the cost to the buyer. " Debits incurred " will 
be explained later. 

Profit is the excess of the price secured over the cost incurred 
by the seller. 

Unit Price is the price per unit of property or of service ; e. g. 
$20 per ton, or 10 cts. per kilowatt-hour. 

Unit Cost is the cost per unit of property or of service 

U7iit Wage is the wage per unit of employee's time ; e. g. 30 cts. 
per hour. 

General Discussion of Value, Price, Cost and Profit. Economics 
might roughly be defined as the science of value, price, cost and 
profit, so important and far reaching are these four words. One 
of the commonest errors is to suppose that the full import of these 
words is attainable by reading of short definitions such as those 
above given. 

Value is exchangeable worth, it is true, but this tells nothing as 
to how the value of a waterfall, or a mine, or a factory site, or 
a patent, or the " good will " of a business is ascertainable. 

Cost is money outlay and debits incurred, but this tells nothing 
about what the true debits are. 

Profit is excess of selling price over cost, but since true profit 
depends on what constitutes true cost, not much is explained by 
the definition of profit uijtil there is a very thorough understand- 
ing of what constitutes a true and complete cost. 

Scores of thousands of men are both deceived and self-deceived 
every year as to values, cost and profits, because they have never 
studied economics. The majority of industrial failures is attributed 
to lack of knowledge of cost keeping and cost estimating, but this, 
important as it is, is only one phase of the broad subject of 
economics. 

Cost has two meanings, one quite elementary and the other 
more complex. In its elementary sense, the cost of a thing to a 
given owner is the sum of the prices, or total price, paid or pay- 
able by that owner at the time the thing was acquired. This may 
be called elementary cost. 

a given time is the sum of all net debits chargeable to the thing 
up to the given time, including the value of the owner's time. 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 1 

This cost might be called economic cost, in order to distinguish 
it from elementary cost. 

Elementary cost differs from economic cost in that it does not 
include sacrifice costs. 

Sacrifice cost is any payment (such as interest, supervisory 
wages, depreciation annuity and risk insurance) foregone during 
the period that a business is being developed or built up to a point 
where it earns a normal return on the investment. Sacrifice cost 
may therefore include interest during construction as well as its 
sequel, development cost or accumulated deficit in fair return on 
the investment. 

The following are five broad definitions of cost terms : 

Cost of production includes money outlays, debits incurred, pro- 
prietary losses of normal income and compensation for risks in- 
volved in production. 

Cost may be divided into two classes of business debits : 

1. Debits of the business to others than the proprietor. 

2. Debits of the business to the proprietor. 

In well kept ledgers all of the first-named class of costs will 
be found, either as property costs or as operating expenses, but 
it frequently happens that not all — and sometimes not any — of 
the second class of costs are entered in the ledgers. 

Costs of production may be divided into two parts : 

1. Direct costs. 

2. Indirect costs. 

Direct Costs are those costs directly assignable to a group of 
similar units of product without prorating. 

Joint or Indirect Costs are costs that cannot be directly assigned 
to a group of similar units, but must be prorated among different 
groups of units. 

Unit Cost is the cost per unit of product, and is determined by 
dividing the total cost assigned to a group of units of product by 
the total number of units. 

A unit cost includes all the direct costs and it may include all 
or nearly all the indirect costs, depending upon the method of 
accounting or cost analysis. 

In appraisal work, as well as in estimating the cost of projected 
work, it is customary for engineers to use unit co.sts that include 
only i)art of the indirect cost, the remainder of the indirect cost 
being called " overhead cost." 

Overhead Cost is that part of the indirect cost not included in 
the unit costs. 

No hard and fast line can be drawn between unit cost and over- 
head cost. It is entirely a matter of more or less arbitrary defini- 
tion. If a company does its construction work by contract, the 
contractor's unit prices are the company's unit costs; but the con- 
tractor's unit prices include all of his overhead costs. Hence, if a 
company does its construction with its own forces, its overhead 
costs will ordinarily be greater than if it does its work by con- 
tract, due to the differences in accounting. 

Several recent decisions of public utility commissions serve to 
09,11 attention to a rather general lack of knowledge about over- 



8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

head costs. One decision even goes so far as to impute dishonest 
motives to certain engineers who had estimated overhead costs at 
what appeared to be a very high percentage. Dishonesty is rarely 
to be found in appraisals of " overheads," but ignorance is cer- 
tainly more in evidence. At times this ignorance results in ex- 
cessive allowances for overhead costs, but quite as often it leads 
to under-estimates. Why, it may be asked, are engineers ever 
ignorant in such matters? An answer will be given to this ques- 
tion first, and then to several other related questions that often 
bother commissioners as well as company managers. 

To begin with, the term overhead costs, or its equivalent, has 
no generally accepted meaning. In its broadest sense any cost is 
an overhead cost if it cannot be directly assigned to a given class 
of construction units, and in this sense overhead cost is identical 
with " indirect cost." A better conception of the difficulty of de- 
fining overhead cost, except in a general manner, will be evident 
upon defining " cost " and " unit cost." 

The impression prevails that all the actual costs of a plant are 
to be found in the plant account of a well kept set of ledgers. The 
fact is that some cost items rarely appear in the plant account at 
all, notably interest during construction. And again, operating 
expenses are often charged with plant or capital costs, notably 
managerial costs. 

Appraisal engineers usually, although by no means universally, 
limit the items of construction " overhead costs " to the following : 

1. Engineering and Inspection. 

2. Supervision (other than gang foremen and the profits of con- 
tractors). 

3. Organization (preliminary to construction). 

4. Administration, Accounting and Clerical. 

5. Legal. 

6. Insurance (casualty, fire and title) and Damages. 

7. Taxes. 

8. Interest. 

9. Contingencies, Omissions, Waste and Incidentals. 

10. Broker's Fees. 

11. Promoter's Profit. 

Broker's Fee and Promoter's Profit are not infrequently omitted 
by appraisal engineers, but the remaining nine items usually ap- 
pear, either separately listed or grouped together. They are com- 
monly expressed as percentages, either of all the direct charges 
taken as a whole or of some of the direct charges, or of the direct 
charges plus some of the overhead charges. This variation in 
practice is itself confusing, but when we add to it variations caused 
by the " burying " of some of these eleven " overheads " in the 
unit prices, the confusion often is so great as to lead to complete 
misapprehension on the part of those not accustomed to cost analy- 
sis. Indeed even skilled estimators are frequently found to be 
using " overhead percentages " erroneously. 

It will be observed that we have omitted " Going Value " or 
" Development Cost " from the list of " overheads," and in doing so 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 9 

we follow present practice, although " Development Cost " is itself 
largely interest during construction and its sequel — 'deficit in in- 
terest during the development period. 

We are informed by C. M. Larson, chief engineer of the Wiscon- 
sin Railroad Commission, that his estimated " overhead costs " 
exclude items 6, 10 and 11 of the above list. Item 6, Insurance, 
is included in the unit prices that he uses. Item 10, Broker's Fee, 
is taken into consideration by the Wisconsin Commission (as we 
interpret their decisions) in arriving at the proper rate of " fair 
return " on the investment, since brokerage fees commonly con- 
stitute part of the discount on bonds. Item 11, Promoter's Profit, 
appears not to receive recognition by the Wisconsin Commission. 
Mr. Larson informs us that he usually adds to the direct costs 
15% for overhead costs on " the larger properties which show a 
high type of construction," and he intimates that, of this 15% very 
little constitutes Item 10, or Contingencies, because his " inven- 
tories are usually made quite complete by means of co-operation 
of the officers and agents of the companies." For small plants 
Mr. Larson commonly allows 12% for overheads. These percent- 
ages — 12 and 15 — seem very low, and we believe they are low 
where a utility company does mqst of the construction with its 
own forces. Mr. Larson, however, uses unit prices that are as- 
sum.ed to be fair contract prices for the plant " in place," which 
puts a somewhat different light on these low overhead percentages. 

As to unit prices he says : " These prices cover contractors' 
profits, liability insurance, and, in a woi'd. every item which is 
ordinarily included in the same to a general contractor." Since 
a general contractor is a business manager, and since his sub- 
contractors are really superintendents, it follows that, when their 
services are paid for in the form of profits included in their unit 
prices, Items 2 and 4, Supervision and Administration, are smaller 
than where a company does the construction with its own forces. 
This alone explains a considerable part of the diffei'ence between 
percentages estimated by different appraisers for overheads. Even 
the same appraiser may use different overhead percentags at dif- 
ferent times, if for no other reason than to enable him to have an 
appraisal that can be readily compared with the accounting rec- 
ords. Thus, in Gillette's appraisal of the steam railways of Wash- 
ington State, he included the general contractor's 5% profit in the 
unit price, by adding 5% to ^ the subcontractor's price. Thus a 
large part of Item 2, Supervision, was automatically " buried " in 
the unit price, which was in accord with steam railway accounting 
practice. But in our appraisals of electric railways, electric power 
and light properties, and telephone plants, knowing that many 
companies do most of their construction with their own forces, we 
have used unit prices that often included relatively little or no 
Supervision (other than gang foremanship). Even in these cases 
it occasionally happens that a manufacturing company undertakes 
to do much of the engineering and supervision involved in laying 
out and installing apparatus, and then a large part of such " over- 
heads " as engineering and supervision are automatically buried in 
the prices charged for apparatus installed " in place." 



10 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In the appraisal of land and right of way it often happens that 
the appraisal engineer has no voice as to " overheads." Then all 
" overheads " may be lumped in with the price fixed upon the land 
by real estate experts. This was what was done in the original 
appraisal of the steam railways of Washington, and it has led not 
a few writers to misapprehension as to the overhead percentages 
used in that appraisal. 

In Item 2, Supervision, we find that some utility companies in- 
clude " dead time," traveling expense, unapportioned freight and 
carriage, and the like, under this head. To put the " dead time " 
(due to bad weather and holidays) of laborers in this account is a 
mistake, it seems to us. Similarly, traveling expense of laborers 
and unapportioned freight should not be called Supervision. Never- 
theless they are sometimes charged to such an account. Even tool 
expense may be occasionally found there also. 

Perhaps we have gone far enough in this discussion of details 
to indicate the danger that lurks in ordinary comparisons of " over- 
head percentages," particularly when the accounting practice of 
different companies is not thoroughly understood. But one more 
instance — -a very striking instance — should be given to empha- 
size this point. Most large companies build additions to plant at 
the same time that they make repairs and renewals. Often the 
same gangs make both renewals and additions simultaneously. 
The same engineering, managerial, and executive forces are usually 
engaged in maintenance as well as on new construction. There- 
fore, it becomes necessary to prorate engineering, supervision, etc., 
to two or more distinct classes of work. Such prorating may be 
done according to different theories, the two most common being : 
(1) In proportion to the cost of direct labor, and (2) in propor- 
tion to the combined cost of labor and materials. These two meth- 
ods rarely give the same results ; often the results are widely dif- 
ferent. Maintenance work generally involves a relatively high 
proportion of labor to material costs, whereas the converse is often 
true of new construction. Hence a company whose practice is to 
allocate engineering and supervision between maintenance and 
new construction in proportion to the direct labor involved will 
have a plant account containing lower overhead costs than a com- 
pany whose practice is to allocate these overheads in proportion 
to combined costs of material and labor. Evidently the theory of 
such prorating has an important bearing upon final results. As an 
illustration we may cite one company whose new construction 
annually amounts to many millions of dollars and whose main- 
tenance costs are equally large. Upon analysis of that company's 
costs, we found that its overhead charges on new construction 
would have been 3% greater than they appeared in the plant ac- 
count had they been apportioned according to total costs instead 
of according to direct labor costs. 

Some companies charge all general management, auditing, legal 
expense, etc., to operating expense, and thus reduce the overhead 
plant chargs. 

It may be said that overhead percentages should be determined 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 11 

solely by analysis of construction costs of companies during con- 
struction periods and prior to beginning- operation. But to confine 
analysis to such companies would eliminate most of the new con- 
struction of public utility companies throughout America. 

Often it is said that it matters not in the end whether overhead 
charges are improperly prorated or not, for by as much as the 
capital account is undercharged, by that much will operating ex- 
penses be overcharged. The users of this argument lose sight of 
the fact that an appraisal usually marks the passing from the 
old regime of laissez faire to the new regime of state regulation. 
One of the objects of such an appraisal then is to start the new 
plant account as nearly right as practicable. 

True plant cost is independent of accounting methods, of 
whether property has been paid for or out of earnings or by 
the sale of securities. But accounting records can be used as 
evidence, from which true plant cost may be inferred, and to that 
end it is desirable that both the property accounts and the main- 
tenance accounts be carefully analyzed at least for a number of 
years back. Upon such analysis adjustments can be made. Then 
correct unit costs and correct overhead costs can be derived. To 
this use of accounting records many engineers do not resort ; their 
failure thus to use accounting records explains most of the ig- 
norance respecting overhead costs, and makes clear why engineers 
have so frequently underestimated " overheads" 

In this connection it may be remarked that while most engineers 
are fairly familiar with contract prices, and while some engineers 
are equally familiar with actual unit costs, relatively fevv^ engineers 
know from personal study of accounts what overhead costs aver- 
age under given conditions. Until quite recently the accounting 
records of few utility companies were open to the study of engi- 
neers. And even when the records were available not many engi- 
neers analyzed them thoroughly, both as to operating and con- 
struction charges. The consequence has been that engineers em- 
ployed by public service commissions have commonly underestimated 
overhead costs. Engineers employed by companies have ordinarily 
been closer to the mark, but occasionally have grossly overestimated 
overhead costs because they were guessing. 

In a recent commission decision, the overhead costs estimated by 
a commission's engineers were rejected as being too high, although, 
in fact, they were much too low. in our judgment. The commission 
reasoned that because the plant account of the company showed 
nominal charges for engineering and supervision, and no charges 
for interest during construction, it could not be possible that the 
company had spent much for these items. This is an instance of 
a sort of blind faith in " book values," a faith, by the way, that 
would quickly have ebbed had the company been found to have 
" book values " that greatly exceeded the commission's engineer's 
estimate of reproduction cost. ■ 

Interest. Very few operating companies charge any " interest 
during construction " when new construction proceeds pari passu 
with renewals. In other words, after the original nucleus of a 



12 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

plant is built, the " interest during construction " account, if ever 
there was one, is closed. In the case of railvv'ays, the interest ac- 
count contains only interest on bonds and notes. Hence it usually 
does not adequately represent full interest on all the plant even 
during the original construction period. In our early appraisals 
we did not recognize this fact and accordingly underestimated 
" interest during construction." 

On the other hand there is often a slight duplication of interest 
charges arising from the practice of making a per diem charge for 
" train service " which is itself high enough to cover interest on 
the rolling stock. Analogous to this is the practice of charging 
for transporting their own freight over their own lines at rates 
that are high enough to cover part, if not all, the interest on the 
track and equipment. 

Interest during construction, as we now view it, should be 
charged at the full " fair return rate " rather than at the bond 
interest rate. Otherwise the investor fails to get a " fair return " 
on his money during the construction period. 

Brokerage. It has often been claimed that hond discount is a 
proper " overhead charge," but usually this claim has been rejected 
by commissions. Commissions have reasoned that bond discount 
merely reflects the rate paid for the use of money, and is, there- 
fore, to be considered only as a factor in determining the " rate 
of fair return " on the investment. This reasoning, however, is not 
wholly correct. Bond discount is a composite of two entirely dis- 
tinct things: (1) Brokerage fee and (2) advance payment to the 
bond purchaser. The broker requires part of the discount to com- 
pensate him for investigating the property, giving it the endorse- 
ment of his approval, circularizing his clientele, advertising and 
selling the bonds. First, in the case of a large issue, there is the 
wholesale broker, and, second, there are many smaller firms, who 
retail the bonds that they have bought from the wholesaler. Se- 
curities are thus sold as if they were merchandise. It costs money 
to market them. The brokerage fee, therefore, is just as much a 
part of the cost of the property as is the engineering. Indeed, there 
is often not a little engineering involved in the study of a property 
by the representatives of investment brokers. 

Occasionally a witness who has testified as to brokerage fees is 
asked such a question as this: "If Jones builds a $10,000 house 
with his own money, whereas his next door neighbor, Smith, builds 
a $10,000 house with borrowed money, is Smith's house worth more 
than Jones'? " 

The answer is no, and upon receiving such a reply i\. is pre- 
sumed that the entire argument in favor of brokerage as an over- 
head cost is overthrown. But let the cross-examiner himself be 
asked . " If Jones, who is an architect, builds a house, and his 
neighbor, Smith, who is not an architect, but hires one, builds a 
duplicate hou.se, is Smith's house worth more than Jones'?" 

Here the negative answer might with equal reason be used to 
support the contention that architect's fees are not a proper over- 
head charge. The fallacy in this line of reasoning arises from 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 13 

the confusion of cost with value. The " worth " of a thing is its 
value, which may be quite distinct from its cost. Appraisals of 
utility properties are cost of reproduction estimates whenever they 
consist of a summation of priced-out quantities. The commercial 
value of a utility property is the present worth of its prospective 
earnings, or its equated annual net earnings capitalized by dividing 
them by the rate of fair return. While neither interest during 
construction, nor taxes, nor brokerage fee, nor many another item 
adds to the commercial value of a property, it does add to its cost. 
Whatever normally increases cost is an element to be appraised 
by one who is seeking either true investment or true cost of re- 
production. 

Among court decisions on this point of brokerage fee, none is 
better expressed than the decision (Jan. 13, 1913) of the Royal 
Courts of Justice relating to the purchase of the National Telephone 
Co. by Great Britain. The Court said : 

Next, it is said that the cost of raising the capital necessary to 
construct the plant is not an item to be taken into account in finding 
the cost of its construction. . . . The company has given evidence, 
by way of example, that it cost them 4.41% to raise £5,500,000. No 
one has given evidence that it would not cost anything, nor has that 
proposition been put forward even in argument. I know of no 
commodity and no service that can be procured as of a right for 
nothing. I am clear that, as a fact, money cannot be procured 
for nothing. ... It is not true to say that this involves the propo- 
sition that the value of plant varies with the credit of the con- 
structor. The cost to be considered is the cost to the hypothetical 
constructor who is a person in good credit. 

Accordingly the Court allowed a commission or brokerage fee 
of about 2% of the construction cost of a telephone plant having 
a total cost of about $65,000,000. 

The brokerage fee on small properties is usually a higher per- 
centage than on large properties, for reasons that are quite ap- 
parent. 

Contingencies. Contingencies, as the term is ordinarily used by 
appraisal engineers, denotes the probable aggregate cost (or value) 
of items not formally listed in the appraisal inventory. 

Contingencies may be divided into three classes : 

1. Omissions of quantities through carelessness, ignorance or 
oversight. 

2. Omissions of minor quantities, purposely left out of the formal 
inventory, either because of the difficulty of enumerating them or 
because of their relatively small value. 

3. Underestimates of unit costs or values. 

Some appraisers include an allowance for contingencies in their 
unit costs, in which case contingencies may not appear as a sepa- 
rate item, yet may in fact exist in the appraisal. 

An allowance for contingencies is usually made by engineers in 
estimating the probable cost of projected work. Such an allowance 
is seldom less than 5% of the total of the schedule estimate, more 
commonly is 10%, and not infrequently reaches a much higher 
percentage, depending on the carefulness with which the plans 



14 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

have been prepared, the degree of certainty as to the conditions 
that will be encountered, the experience of the engineer, and finally, 
the optimism of the engineer. A higher allowance for contingencies 
should ordinarily be used in estimating the probable cost of future 
works than in estimating the cost of replacing or i-eproducing 
existing works. It sometimes happens that the engineering records 
of quantities and the accounting records of costs are so complete 
and reliable that no allowance at all need be made for contingencies 
•in an appraisal of existing works. This is particularly true when 
the works are comparatively new. However, as an engineer gains 
experience in estimating and particularly after he has had occa- 
sion to check over the appraisals of other engineers, whether in 
his own employment or as independents, he is more likely to recog- 
nize the necessity of some allowance for contingencies in nearly 
every instance. What this allowance shall be is a matter of judg- 
ment, but not necessarily a matter of mere guess-work. 

Perhaps at the basis of the phenomenon of underestimating there 
is the psychological fact that most men are optimists. The hope 
that work can be done cheaply is father to the too low estimate. 
In addition to this well known cause there are many other reasons 
why estimates of cost tend to be too low. Some of these are not 
generally recognized even by expert appraisers. For example, in 
not a few articles, decisions and books on appraisals, there appear 
diagrams and tables of unit prices of materials — such as copper, 
steel, water pipe, etc. — accompanied by statements that the aver- 
age of these prices over a period of years was used as the base 
price in the appraisal. This seems a philosophical method to use 
when average prices are sought, but closer investigation discloses 
the fact that it is not so philosophical as it seems, for sight is lost 
of the following basic fact in the business world where the law of 
supply and demand operates : 

In general, average weighted prices are higher than average un- 
weighted 2)^^t'es, because more materials are bought during periods 
of high prices than during periods of low prices — the higher prices 
being, in fact, the result of the greater deuiand. 

This generalization is deducible from the law of supply and 
demand, but it may be arrived at inductively from the actual pur- 
chase records of large companies that have been in existence many 
years. As a corollary of this generalization, we can immediately 
infer that even the " average monthly " or " average yearly " prices 
of materials as published in the technical journals are often de- 
ceptively low, for they, too. are unweighted averages. The sale 
price of 1,000,000 lbs. of copper in the first week of a month is 
given as much weight as the sale price of 5,000,000 lbs, in the 
last week of the month, in arriving at the " average monthly " 
price. 

The correct method of arriving at a true average, or weighted 
average price, is this: INIultiply the number of units in each sale 
by the sale price, total these i)roducts and divide by the total num- 
ber of units to get the weighted average price. 

In this excess of weighted average price over unweighted aver- 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 15 

age price, we have a good example of the sort of underestimating 
that justifies a contingency item in many appraisals. 

Another common cause of underestimates by engineers is trace- 
able to their lack of familiarity with the detailed records of the 
accounting department. The engineer may keep quite careful cost 
records in the field, yet fail to know some of the very important 
elements of cost that disclose themselves only in the records of the 
accounting department. This, perhaps, has been one of the greatest 
sources of underestimates in the past, but is fast becoming less in 
importance now that engineers are more frequently familiar .with 
accounting practice and records. 

In the following list of items will be found some of the things 
that not infrequently result in underestimates. Of course most of 
these items will ordinarily be provided for in the unit prices, but 
the fact remains that unit prices usually do not include sufficient 
provision for all items of cost. Hence the reason for an allowance 
for Contingencies and Omissions made up of such elements as the 
following : 

ACCIDENTAL OMISSIONS OF QUANTITIES AND COST ITEMS 

1. Quantities inventoried in the " field survey " but overlooked 
in the final summary. 

2. Quantities seen but omitted because they were believed not 
to belong to the company. 

3. Quantities not visible : 

(a) Underground obstructions. 

(b) Sewer connections. 

(c) Foundations in quicksand, piling, etc. 

(d) Rock excavation, hardpan, etc., beneath an earth surface. 

(e) Clearing, grubbing and trimming. 

(f) Pole butts treated. 

(g) Ground braces, bog settings, concrete settings, etc., for 
poles. 

(h) "Work abandoned due to changes of plans after Avork was 
begun. 

4. General cost items overlooked : 

(a) Casualty insurance and contractor's indemnity. 

(b) Fire insurance. 

(c) Title insurance. 

(d) Brokerage fee. 

(e) Demurrage. 

(f) Miscellaneous items. 

(g) Value of leases. 

(h) Taxes during construction. 

5. Damage costs : 

(a) Changing location of a highway, incident to building the 
utility plant. 

(b) Ditto sewers, water pipes, etc. 

(c) Ditto buildings. 

(d) Ditto water courses. 

(e) Severance damages. 



16 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



ITEMS PROPERLY OMITTED IN THE INVENTORY TO BE COVERED BY A 
GENERAL PERCENTAGE ALLOWANCE (2 TO 59,) 

1. Material vv^asted, stolen, etc. 

2. Excess material needed for splicing, joining, trimming, etc. 

3. Increased length of wire and cables, due to sags, dips, map 
shrinkage, inclines and slopes of ground. 

4. Small items of hardware, miscellaneous small supplies, etc. 

5. Disconnected installations and wiring, available for use. 

6. Cost of reels and freight thereon. 

7.* Changes made after construction is begun, resulting in prop- 
erty lost, e. g., pole holes. 

UNDERESTIMATES OF UNIT COSTS AND OVERHEAD COSTS 

1. Use of average prices instead of weighted average prices. 

2. Use of wholesale unit costs when, under no rational hypothesis: 
could v/ork be done entirely wholesale. 

3. Use of car-load freight rates throughout, when less than car- 
load rates would often be incurred. 

4. Assumption of good weather conditions throughout, when bad 
weather, night work, etc., would normally occur for at least part 
of the v/ork. 

5. Assumption of continuous work, when delays due to non-ship- 
ment of materials and freight congestion on railways, would nor- 
mally add to some unit costs. Other delays, such as those in- 
volved in securing right of way, also occur. 

6. Assumption that surface conditions are sufficiently indicative 
of subsurface conditions, or that a few borings are. ample to indi- 
cate subsurface conditions, resulting in underestimates of unit costs 
of excavation, hole digging, etc. 

7. Assumption that existing plans and specifications were fol- 
lovv'ed, resulting in underestimating the cost incurred because of 
change of plans and specifications, which changes were not re- 
corded. 

8. Assumption that all the general and overhead costs of con- 
struction appear in the construction ledgers. Some items may have 
been improperly charged to operating expense. Some may have 
never been charged at all. 

9. Insufficient allowance made for higher unit costs occasioned 
by the existence of other plant units that obstruct work, as Avhen 
overhead v.'ires make it difficult to raise poles ; or when proximity 
to underground pipes makes work on conduits difficult. 

10. Assumption that unit costs based on work with relatively 
small and well trained gangs of picked men can be equaled where 
the work is extensive, and particularly where the work is both 
extensive and scattered. 

Since overhead costs are indirect costs and since indirect costs 
are usually prorated or apportioned to different direct costs, it is 
inevitable that overhead costs should ordinarily be expressed as 
percentages. Yet the very fact that they are so expressed has 
often produced an impression that overhead costs are less real — 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 17 

more visionary — than unit costs. This unfortunate misapprehen- 
sion has received apparent confirmation because of the different 
overhead percentages used by diiferent appraisers for overhead 
items bearing the same name. 

Engineering. We have pointed out the fact that until one knows 
just what an appraiser has included in his unit prices it is im- 
practicable to compare most of the overhead costs of two different 
appraisals. It seems desirable to add that even the same words 
used to designate overhead items are not always used in the same 
sense. The term " Engineering " may or may not include inspec- 
tion, architects' fees, office expenses incident to engineering, etc. 

In this connection it may be added that " office expenses " may 
or may not include interest and taxes on the office floor space. 
These fixed charges on office buildings, etc., are sometimes over- 
looked entirely. At other times they are cared for under Interest 
and Taxes. Again at other times they are distributed among 
other overhead items. Considering all such variations, it is scarcely 
to be wondered that percentages allowed for Engineering may vary 
considerably. But, if in addition to these variations we have cases 
where the engineers are also superintendents of construction, we 
have a satisfactory explanation of the fact that Engineering ranges 
from 3 to 10% or more. 

As indicative of the errors that are being made through rather 
blindly adopted overhead percentages used by other appraisers 
without also understanding what their unit costs contain, we quote 
again from one of Mr, Larson's letters to us : 

" Some commissions in the Southwest have been known to quote 
the Wisconsin Commission as putting on only 12 to 15% [for over- 
head costs], which they declare cover not only the items enumerated, 
but also promotion, discount on bonds and going value. I wish to 
mention this only that it may call to your mind the fact that these 
overhead charges are not intended to cover such items. 

" It should be noted that when a telephone company purchases a 
switchboard the cost of a large part of the engineering on that 
switchboard is included in the price paid the supply company. 
When a gas company purchases a gas tank the cost of a large part 
of the engineering is. paid to the supply company. Since we [the 
engineers of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission! place the price of 
these items at the amount paid by the local companies to the supply 
comi)anies, this fact must be taken into account in applying our 
overhead charges." 

We have been so frequently asked by public service commis- 
sions to explain why our percentages for overhead charges exceed 
those used by the engineers of the Wisconsin Railroad Commission 
that we found it desirable to secure from Mr. Larson a statement 
as to what his overhead, costs included and what they excluded. 
The correspondence between Mr. Larson and us on this subject is 
quoted in full below. 

Letter of Gillette to W. Larson, Dec. 8, 1911 In estimates made 
by your department I have frequently noticed the allowance of 
12% for engineering and other overhead charges. Will you be kind 
enough to let me know what overhead charges are included in this 
12%? I infer that it covers engineering, business management, 



18 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

clerical expense, plant expense, legal expense, interest during con- 
struction and contingencies. 

In the course of our investigations of the actual costs of con- 
struction for a considerable number of utility companies 1 find 
that the overhead charges, as I use them, are very much in excess 
of 12%, without any allowance for contingencies. However, I re- 
alize that it is the practice of many appraisers to include certain 
overhead charges in their unit prices. Contingencies, for example, 
are often, placed there; likewise much of the general superin- 
tendence is also included in unit prices by some appraisers and I 
have done this myself in many cases. For instance, in my ap- 
praisal of the railroads for the Washington Railroad Commission, I 
allowed 57o for general contractor's charge, which was added to 
the unit prices. It had been the practice of nearly all the large 
railways in that State to award their contracts for large work to 
some general contractor on a percentage basis, the percentage be- 
ing usually 5%. This contractor, who was in fact the business 
manager of the construction, then sub-let nearly all the work at 
unit prices. Now it is evident that this 5% could either be added 
to the unit prices or treated as an overhead charge, to be subse- 
quently added to the grand total, and in the case of the Washing- 
ton railways I chose the former method. It has always been my 
practice to include in the unit prices all costs of foremen and 
local superintendents engaged directly on the work, as well as 
time-keepers, etc. 

In a recent investigation of a large utility company. I found 
the following actual percentages for the overhead charges named 
below : 

Per cent. 

Engineering and inspection 5.0 

Genei'al supervision 1.3 

Clerical expense 2.0 

Executive, legal and accounting dept 1.8 

Traveling 0.6 

Rent and furniture expense 0.6 

Stationery, postage, etc 0.4 

Miscellaneous 0.3 

Total 12.0 

This did not include liability insurance, as you will note. May 
I ask whether it is your practice to include liability insurance in 
the unit prices? The above 12% did not include the local foremen 
and time-keepers, whose costs are regarded as direct costs and 
therefore included in unit prices. 

Since the above 12% is rather typical of a good many com- 
panies, you will see that I am at a loss to understand how you 
can use so low a percentage as 12% to include not only the above 
items, but to provide for interest during construction, contingen- 
cies and the preliminary expenses of organization. 

I would greatly appreciate as detailed a reply as you care to 
make to these questions, for as you will realize, the precedent 
established by the Wisconsin Commission is largely followed by 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 19 

other commissions, and I am frequently confronted with the state- 
ment that the Wisconsin Commission never allows more than 12% 
for overhead charges. Realizing that the practice of engineers 
differs as to where they place the overhead charges, that is, whether 
they are included in unit prices or not, I anticipate that you may 
have distributed your overheads to a large degree in the unit prices. 

Letter of Larson to Gillette, Dec. lit, 191^. 1 have your letter of 
the 8th instant concerning overhead charges allowed by us in 
making valuations of physical property. 

It is our custom to allow from 12 to 15% for these charges; in 
general, 15% is allowed on the larger properties which show a high 
tjq)e of construction. This item is supj)osed to cover engineering 
and sur)erintendence during construction, general organization and 
legal expenses during the same period ; also interest during con- 
struction and omissions, such as items not included in the in- 
ventory or items of cost which are not discovered at the time of 
making the valuation. These latter are rather low, as our inven- 
tories are usually made quite complete by means of co-operation 
of the officers and agents of the companies. 

This overhead per cent, is applied to a figure which is supposed 
to include the total cost of labor and material, including con- 
tractors' profit, liability insurance, etc. Furthermore, it is not 
supposed to include any promotional profits nor is it expected to 
cover the item of discount on bonds ; in other words the overhead 
charge together with the figure to which it applies will repre.sent 
the actual value as nearly as may be determined of the physical 
property, assuming that money shall have been provided for the 
construction of the property. 

I realize that there are plants which show higher costs for specific 
items than may be allowed, and it is entirely possible that in some 
cases where excessive difficulties are met with that engineering 
and allied charges may run as high as that cited by you. How- 
ever, in the absence of specific information on these subjects, the 
valuation engineer is. expected to report as the value of the prop- 
erty the most probable value, taking into account conditions as he 
finds them as compared with conditions under which he obtains 
his cost data. 

I have had the accounts of many companies investigated under 
my direction, and the actual costs of specific items have been ap- 
plied to the specific costs of construction, and I am led to conclude 
4.hat with few exceptions 15% is high enough to cover the items 
mentioned in the first part of my letter. 

In a recent valuation of the Milwaukee Gas Light Company, a 
?10,000,000 property in Wisconsin, a very careful study of the 
probable cost of overhead charges was made by the manager of 
that company and by members of our staff. This was made by 
several methods, one of which was to make a very liberal estimate 
of the force necessary to construct the property. The very highest 
figure to be obtained under this method was 18%, and that was 
based upon construction of the entire $10,000,000 worth of prop- 
erty before operation began ; and this, as you know, is not the 



20 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

way plants are constructed. We finally iDlaced an overhead al- 
lowance of 15% in this case. 

We have in this state a hydro-electric property designed and 
constructed by an engineer who charged for his services 10% on all 
items handled by him. After the entire plant was constructed the 
books were examined and the specific costs of construction found 
to be something over $1,000,000. As applied to this cost the entire 
charge was : 

Per cent. 

Engineering and superintendence •. . . . 4.51 

Legal expense 0.27 

Organization and office expense 2.30 

Insurance, taxes and damages 1.71 

Interest during construction 5.87 

Discounts and commissions 0.58 

Total 15.24 

The period of construction was twp years. It should be said 
that these overhead expenses include a;lso preliminary expenses 
incurred some two years before construction began. 

During our studies we have received statements of extremely 
high overhead charges and have proceeded to investigate some of 
them. One case which was cited by a Wisconsin corporation was 
that of a large power company jn the west. It was reported to us 
that the cost of specific construction was approximately $5,000,000, 
while the cost of overhead charges was 49.6% of that — nearly $2,- 
500,000. This was given with sufficient detail to appear to be 
good evidence. However, we inspected the details of the book- 
keeping accounts and found that in the overhead had been charged 
such items as camp equipment, repairs and renewals, $131,000; 
construction equipment investment, $232,000 ; repairs and renev.^als 
to same, $44,000; auxiliary and operation equipment, $209,000; 
small tools, $22,000 ; dismantling plant, $4,000 ; boarding house 
loss, $9,000; suspense credits, $88,000; warehouse operation, $29,- 
000 ; undistributed hauling, $41,000 ; employment expense and trans- 
portation, $45,000; liability insurance, etc., $54,000; watching, light- 
ing and guarding, $38,000 ; hauling and erecting construction equip- 
ment, $4,000 ; and a number of other small items which we include 
in our cost of specific construction. If, now, all these items had 
been added to specific construction it would have raised the con- 
struction cost to a considerably higher figure and would have re- 
duced the overhead charges a corresponding amount ; the per cent, 
of overhead would then have been reduced to a reasonable fig- 
ure. 

I have cited the above simply as instances which illustrate the 
point I have in mind, and not at all as representing the extent of 
our investigation. 

I have had many call;5 for information on the above subject, and 
would be very glad to have as much detailed information as pos- 
sible. Some commissions in the <;outhv7eF.t have b3en knov/n to 
quote the Wisconsin Commission as putting on only 12 or 15'^, 
which they declare covers not only the items enumerated, but also 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 21 

promotion, discount on bonds and going- value. I wish to mention 
this only that it may call to your mind the fact that these over- 
head charges are not intended to cover such items. 

It has not been our practice to distribute the overhead charges 
to the unit prices except as mentioned above ; that these prices do 
cover contractors' profits, liability insurance and, in a word, every 
item which is ordinarily Included In the same to a general con- 
tractor. 

It should be noted that when a telephone company purchases a 
switchboard, the cost of a large part of the engineering on that 
switchboard is included in the price paid the supply company. 
When a gas company purchases a gas tank, the cost of a large 
part of the engineering is paid to the supply company. Since we 
place the price on these items at the amount paid by the local com- 
panies to the supply companies, this fact must be taken into ac- 
count in applying our overhead charges. 

I shall always be glad to discuss this or related matters with 
you or "other engineers, and shall be glad to have from you any 
statement you can make in regard to your own practice. 

Letter of Gillette to Larson, Dec. 22, IDlli. I have your, letter of 
Dec. 17, relating to overhead charges. 

I am interested to note that you are at present allowing about 
15% for overhead charges on the larger properties which show a 
high type of construction. 

I think that the more we study the accounting records of the 
large companies the more we shall perceive that most of them 
make inadequate charges to the construction account for what we 
term overhead costs. 

I have just completed the analyses of overhead costs of a large 
utility company in New England, and find that at least 4% should 
be added to their book value for overhead costs (exclusive of in- 
terest). Too large an amount of overhead costs has been charged 
to operating expense. 

What may be termed expenses of administration, including legal 
expense and general accounting, are very frequently charged en- 
tirely to operating expense, although upon no correct accounting 
theory can this be justified. This alone may amount to 2% or more 
of the cost of construction if properly prorated thereto. I am 
speaking now of companies that do a very large amount of con- 
struction each year. 

Another point to be considered is the manner of prorating these 
overhead charges. The company above referred to has prorated 
all its engineering, superintendence, etc., in proportion to the direct 
labor, arid not in proportion to the total cost of work done. Their 
practice is unquestionably erroneous, at least for certain of the 
overhead charges, and the tendency of this practice is to reduce 
the per cent, of overhead charges to the construction account, be- 
cause the repairs and renewals involve a far larger percentage of 
labor than is the case with additions to the plant. 

Let me thank ^ou for your very interesting and instructive 
letter. 



22 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 



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GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 27 



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GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 31 

OVERHEAD COSTS 

Table I gives detailed overhead costs used in various appraisals 
of public utilities. The different items included under " Detailed 
overhead percentages " are as follows : 

A — Engineering. 

B — Supervision. 

C — Organization. 

D — Legal expenses. 

E — Interest charges. 

F — Taxes. 

G — Brokerage and discount. 

H — Omission and contingency. 

I — Miscellaneous (stated). 

Accounting Terms. Every engineer should acquaint himself 
thoroughly with bookkeeping and accounting. Hatfield's " Modern 
Accounting " is an excellent work on the theory of accounting and 
the terms used in accountancy. 

As engineering has suffered from lack of knov/ledge of account- 
ing practice, so accountancy has suffered from lack of engineering 
knowledge of cost analysis. Many terms used in accounting will 
ultimately be revised and given greater definiteness as a result of 
engineering analysis. 

Gross Operating Earnings or Revenues are the total income from 
the sales of the product of a plant or property. 

Operating Expenses are the costs of operating and maintaining 
the plant. Usually operating expense includes taxes, but often 
taxes are not included in the so-called operating expenses, and are 
treated as " fixed charges." Current repair expenditures are al- 
ways included, but depreciation annuities to provide for future 
renewals are seldom included. Hovv^ever, there is no fixed prac- 
tice as to the treatment of depreciation charges (see Chapter II). 

Net Earnings are the balance remaining from gross earnings 
after deducting operating expenses. Net eai'nings are sometimes 
crudely designated as profits. Unless taxes and depreciation an- 
nuities are included in operating expenses, the net earnings should 
properly be called apj)arent or ledger net earnings. But if taxes 
and adequate depreciation annuities are deducted, the balance may 
be called true or actiial net earnings. Very few ledger accounts 
show true net earnings and are therefore apt to be deceptive. 

Fixed Charges, as the term is commonly used, includes interest 
(on funded debt, real estate mortgages, and floating debt), con- 
tractual sinking fund requirements, and accrued taxes (if taxes are 
not carried as an operating expense). Also it is occasionally the 
practice to include depreciation annuities as a part of fixed charges. 
The term " capital costs " is often used to designate interest, de- 
preciation and taxes. 

Dividends are the so-called " profit " distributions to stock- 
holders. 

Surplus, as the term is commonly used, is the balance remain- 



32 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ing- after deducting fixed charges and dividends from " ledger net 
earnings." 

While, as above stated, it is the practice of many companies to 
provide for bond sinking fund requirements as a part of Fixed 
Charges, other companies treat the matter differently and deduct 
the annuities for bond sinking funds from Surplus. Some com- 
panies also make a similar deduction from Surplus to provide an- 
nuities for a Replacement Reserve, instead of providing for such 
a reserve in the form of a depreciation fund considered as part 
of the operating expense. It is important, therefore, not to assume 
that all actual renewal expenditures will necessarily be found under 
the Maintenance Expenses, that is, among operating expenses. 
Where a Replacement Reserve is provided for out of Surplus, it is 
a common practice to pay for all heavy renewals out of this Re- 
serve, in which case such payments never appear as an operating 
expense. Because this is done it should not be assumed that main- 
tenance expense does not contain a considerable expenditure for 
true renewals, for it usually does. In brief, both the maintenance 
expenses and the credits to the Replacement Reserve should be 
analyzed to ascertain the total actual expenditures for renewals. 

In providing a Replacement Reserve it is not uncommon to esti- 
mate as follows what should be placed annually in the reserve : 
Take 20 or 25% of gross annual earnings, and deduct therefrom 
the actual annual maintenance expenses of the previous year ; the 
balance is the amount to be put into Replacement Reserve. 

While this forms a good rough and ready rule in many cases, it 
is apt to lead to serious error in a given case. A much more 
rational method, where the appraised value of the plant is known 
In detail, is to estimate the annual depreciation of each class of 
plant units, take the sum total and deduct therefrom the average 
annual expenditure for renewals that have been charged to main- 
tenance during the previous year ; the balance is the sum to set 
aside in the renewal reserve. (See Chapter II.) 

Interest is the payment for the use of money. The payment 
for the use of real estate is rent, but the term rent is often ap- 
plied also to payment for the use of other sorts of capital except 
money. 

Interest includes not only a return for the use of money but 
insurance against risk and compensation for at least some pro- 
prietary supervision. Interest may also include compensation for 
taxes paid on money loaned. 

Economists assign a single cause for the payment of interest, 
namely, the preference of present goods to future goods. Although 
this is the immediate cause of interest, the statement of desire as 
a cause is merely a platitude that yields no deeper insight into 
the phenomenon than was already had. We must look back to 
the mediate or remote causes. There are many motives that lead 
to borrowing and the consequent payment of interest. The most 
common motive in the present age is the desire to command labor 
?rd through successful command to secure profit. Interest has 
thus become a device for selecting the highest officers of the in- 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 33 

dustrial armies. Interest on invested capital has heretofore proved 
to be an economic instrument of much greater efficiency than 
election, appointment, examination or other device used to select 
leaders. 

Interest rates in America range from 3 to 12% depending 
largely on the risk involved, but also depending on the size of the 
loan and the amount of proprietary supervision on the part of the 
lender. The general average rate is between 5 and 6%, where risks 
and proprietary supervision are relatively small. It should be re- 
membered, however, that there is always danger of error in ap- 
plying any " general average " factor of this kind in a cost prob- 
lem. Each case should be studied carefully as a problem in Itself. 

Profit is the excess of selling price over cost. 

We have just seen that " cost " is sometimes used in a sense 
that does not include " sacrifice cost." "When so used " profit " 
includes " sacrifice costs," such as proprietary supervision and 
interest on the proprietor's capital. There is no unanimity of 
practice respecting the use of the word profit, for obviously its 
significance depends upon the definition of the word cost. 

The present tendency is to include in cost a charge for the 
proprietor's time as well as rental on his real estate and interest 
on his other capital and development cost. Then profit covers 
only the income that constitutes a reward for superior judgment, 
management, luck and insurance against risks and depreciation 
not included in the operating expenses. 

Where the word profit occurs in a law or in a contract, it is 
evidently possible for dispute to arise unless the word cost is 
very fully and carefully defined. 

Normal Return on capital is the sum of normal Interest and 
normal profit. Normal interest rate may be designated as a bond 
or mortgage interest rate on property similar to that in question, 
Avhere there is a substantial eauity above the bond. 

Normal profit covers both a normal return for proprietary super- 
vision and for insurance against all risks not provided for in the 
operating expenses. Among these risks are loss of income arising 
from general or local business depressions, loss of income from 
public enactments, and loss of income from direct and indirect 
competition. Functional depreciation may also be regarded as one 
of the forms of risk, and should be provided for in the profit rate 
if not already provided for as an operating expense. Totaling up 
we may have some such statement as this : 

Per cent. 

Normal interest rate 5 

Normal profit rate — 

Proprietary supervision 2 

Functional depreciation 2 

Insurance on permanency of income 1 

Total normal return rate 10 

These percentages are here given merely for illustration. An 
Interest rate, such as 5%, contains elements of proprietary super- 
vision and insurance. 



34 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Mistakes in the use of rates for capitalizing expenses or incomes 
are so common as to be almost universal. Let two things be re- 
membered and many of these mistakes will cease: First, that the 
normal return rate and not a bare interest rate must be used in cap- 
italizing. Second, that the normal return rate depends in part upon 
what exists in the operating expenses in the form of j)roprietary 
supervision and functional depreciation. 

A normal return rate is what public service commissions usually 
aim to allow a comi)any to earn, and they commonly call it a 
" fair return rate." Although it is customary to estimate a " fair 
return " as a percentage on an investment, it is perhaps better 
to proceed as follows : Allow an ordinary interest rate, say 5 
or 6% on the investment, and thereto add a percentage (for pro- 
prietary supervision and risk) of gross annual income, say 8 to 
12%; the sum of these two constituting a "fair return" for capital, 
proprietary supervision and risk. Suppose, for example, the ra- 
tio of gross income to capital investment is 1 to 5 and that 10% of 
the gross is allowed for proprietary supervision and risk ; then this 
is equivalent to 2% on the capital investment, which added to 
67r interest on the ca))ital gives a fair return rate of 8%. 

Capitalized Value. The capitalized or discounted value of a 
property is the present worth of its prospective net earnings. The 
word value is commonly used instead of capitalized value when 
reference is had to the commercial worth of productive property. 

The process of deriving the present worth, or value, by dividing 
annual net earnings by an interest rate is called capitalizing the 
net earnings. If the annual earnings are $12,000, and if the in- 
terest rate is 6':'f, the capitalized value is $12,000-^0.06 = $200,000. 

Capitalized Cost. The capitalized cost of a property is the 
equated or true average annual cost divided by the interest rate. 
If the true average annual charges, including interest, operating 
expense, depreciation annuity, etc., are $30,000 and the interest 
rate is 6%, the capitalized cost is $500,000. The first cost of a 
plant plus its capitalized annual operating expense, inclusive of 
depreciation and taxes, obviously amounts to the capitalized cost 
of the plant. 

Equated Annual Costs. The annual costs of repairs and re- 
newals are seldom uniform, but tend to rise in an irregular 
" curve " as a plant grows older. The pi-ocess of finding a true 
economic average annual cost is called equating the cost. This 
can be done correctly only by a sinking- fund method of calculating 
wherever capital is susceptible of being invested so as to yield 
interest. Notwithstanding this seemingly obvious fact there are 
men so little trained to logical reasoning that they deny the neces- 
sity of using sinking fund formulas or tables in calculating either 
average annual costs, projierty values or depreciated plant values. 

Before a rational comparison can be made between alternative 
plants, it is essential to express all costs either as equated annual 
costs or as capitalized annual costs that have been equated. To 
equate, as h^-re used, means to secure a true average by a sinking 
fund method of calculation. When, for example, the cost of re- 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 35 

pairs is irregular, varying from year to year, no rational com- 
parison of repair costs can be made until they are equated to an 
average annual amount. This cannot be accurately done by add- 
ing all the annual repairs together for a term of years and di- 
viding by the number of years in the term. The correct process 
is as follows : 

Calculate the total cost of rei^airs of the first year at com- 
pound interest up to the end of the last year of economic life of 
the unit in question. Calculate similarly the cost of repairs of 
the second, the third, etc., years up to the end of the last year. 
Add all these compounded costs together and multiply by the an- 
nual deposit in a sinking fund which started at the begiiming of 
the life will redeem $1 at the end of the life of the plant unit. 
The product is the equated aimual cost of repairs. 

If the annual cost of repairs is actually uniform, year after 
year, throughout the life, say $100, the above given rule gives $100 
as the result, thus checking the correctness of the rule. 

If the repairs all come at the very end of the life, and thus 
constitute an entire renewal, obviously the rule gives the correct 
answer, namely, the sinking annuity required to redeem the in- 
vestment at the end of the life. 

Common Errors in Capitalizing Values. The capitalized value 
method is used not only in estimating the value of land, of water 
right.s, of franchises, and of all property that has a prospective 
earning capacity, but it is used by engineers in comparing the 
relative plant designs and plant locations. In spite of such exten- 
sive use of this method, it is probably more often used erroneously 
than correctly. To use it correctly there must be complete under- 
standing of the interrelation of all the factors, and this is rarely 
had. 

To begin with the percentage used in capitalizing should never 
be an ordinary interest rate, unless the annual costs have been 
equated (as above described). To capitalize an annual income by 
dividing by an ordinary interest rate, say 6%, tacitly as.vumes that 
the income will be perpetual, or if not perpetual that due deduc- 
tion has been made in foim of a sinking fund annuity. 

In a recent address to engineering students a professor said that 
the average engineer is worth $55,000 more to society than if he 
had no engineering education. It was stated that the average 
" technically-trained graduate of our engineering colleges earns 
annually, on the average, at least $3,000." This is stated to be 
$2,200 in excess of the average earnings of a " trade-trained man." 

The $2,200 annual gain was capitalized at 4%, giving $55,000 
as the " increased potential value to the community " resulting 
from the engineering training received by each engineering 
graduate. 

Not only is this an incorrect appraisal of " increased potential 
value to the community " but it is not a correct appraisal of the 
worth of an engineering education to the average engineer. 

If the duration of the average engineer's earning capacity Is, 
say, 40 years, the present worth of an average $2,260 gain is not 



36 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

$2,200 H- 0.04 = $55,000, but $2,200 -^ (0.04 + 0.01) = $44,000. 
The 1% is added to the 4% because the 1% gives the amount of 
the annuity required to amortize the value in 40 years. 

In another form the error of tacitly assuming a perpetual life 
vi^hen capitalizing a value occurs whenever any one fails to allow 
for functional depreciation due to inadequacy or obsolescence. If 
allowance is not made for this factor by means of an adequate 
depreciation annuity as a part of the equated annual operating 
expenses, it should be made by adding the depreciation annuity 
rate to the interest r.^.te to get the j:)ercentage rate used in cap- 
italizing the annual cost. Throughout Wellington's admirable treat- 
ise on '• The Economic Theory of Railway Location " the error is 
made of ignoring functional depreciation when capitalizing the 
operating expenses of alternative railways lines. 

Another common error in capitalizing values is to use bond inter- 
est rates, say 4 to 5% instead of normal (or "fair") return rates, 
say 10%. Consideration of the facts previously brought out in 
our discussion of " fair return rates " will make it clear why such 
rates should be used in capitalizing net earnings to arrive at 
commercial values. 

In this connection it should be observed that it is immaterial 
whether every item of insurance (commercial risk, fire, bad debts, 
etc.) be treated as an exT)ense or whether it be converted to a per- 
centage of the plant value and added to the " fair return rate " 
to get the capitalization rate, but one or the other of these alter- 
natives must be adopted. Similarly as to the item of proprietary- 
supervision, it must either appear in toto in the operating ex- 
penses, which rarely happens, or it must appear as part of the 
percentage rate used in capitalizing the net income. Many a plant 
has been commercially appraised at too high a value because of 
failure to understand the principles just stated. This is particu- 
larly the case with small plants where proprietary supervision is 
usually so large a factor relative to the total annual cost. 

Alternative Plant Method of Valuation. A criterion of the 
value of a given thing is the cost of securing the next best air 
ternative that will perform th^ same function. The only limita- 
tion in the application of the alternative plant method of valuation 
may be stated thus : The market price of the product of the 
plant must be such that its net earnings give a normal rate of 
return on the cost of the alternative plant. Average prospective 
net earnings car)italized at the normal rate of return give the 
value of a productive property. It is conceivable, of course, that 
an alternative plant might cost so much that its product could 
not be marketed at a price that would yield a normal return on 
the cost. Obviously, then, the value of the plant could not equal 
its cost. But within this limit, the alternative plant method of 
valuation is strictly applicable. 

It follows, then, that if the gross earnings are not affected by 
the substitution of an alternative for any part of a plant, the cor- 
rect criterion of the value of a part of a plant is found by the rule 
given below in italics. 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 37 

Assuming gross-income to he unchanged by substituting an al- 
ternative part in a plant, the value of any part is the first cost of 
its most economic alternative plus the capitalized difference in 
their respective average annual operating expenses. 

Expressed algebraically this rule ib : 

E — e 

V = C -\- . 

R 

This formula also gives the depreciated value of a plant unit 
(see page 100). The derivation of the formula follows. 

C - first cost of the most economic alternative plant. 

c ~ ditto of existing plant. 

^ r= average ("equated") annual operating expense inclusive of 
repairs, natural depreciation and taxes, but exclusive of functional 
depreciation and interest, for the most economic alternative plant. 

e — ditto for the existing plant. 

/ = sinking fund rate per cent, of annual functional depreciation. 

G — average annual gross income with the alternative plant. 

g = ditto with the existing plant. 

12 =: a capitalization rate — r -\- f. 

r = interest rate — " fair return rate." 

V — value of most economic alternative plant. 

V = ditto of existing plant. 

G—iE + fC) 
V = (1) 

r 

9—(e + fc) 
v= (2) 

r 

(E — e)+f(.C — c) — (G — g) 

v-Y- (3) 

r 

If the gross income is the same for both plants, then G — g; 
but in order that either plant shall have any commercial value 
as a working plant it must ])roduce gross earnings sufficient to 
pay its operating expenses and fixed charges. Assuming this to 
be the case, and that all earnings in excess of this requirement are 
" going concern value," it follows that V = C, or that the value 
of an alternative plant is its first cost. Then sub.stituting C for 
V in Equation (3) and remembering that G — g — 0, we have: 

(E — e) +/(C' — v) 
v = C + (4) 

r 

If the existing plant were sold at its value v, then to the pur- 
chaser its " firt't co:-t " would be c, or v — c, whence : 

(E~€) + f(C — c} 
v = C + (5) 



38 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

E — e 



r-\ t 



(6) 



EJquation (6) gives the depreciated value of a plant unit, under 
the condition that a new plant unit yields the same output as 
the old plant unit. This same equation is derived in another way 
in Chapter II. 

Equation (4) is the equation to use when the value of land, 
water rights, or the lil<e is to be calculated, and there v includes 
not only the value of the existing plant but the value of the land, 
water rights or the like associated there with it and indispensable 
thereto. 

Value of Plant Location of Right of Way and of Water Rights. 
The value of a right of way, or of a plant site, or of water rights, 
of coal or indeed of any land entity is correctly calculable by the 
alternative plant method (Equation 4), just discussed. But in 
making the calculation it should be remembered that it is always 
assumed that the gross income will be sufficient to pay a " fair 
return" on the value thus determined. 

In the case of farm or mineral products there is ordinarily an 
" open market " wherein the prices of the products are established. 
Given the unit prices, and knowing the number of units that will 
be produced annually from a given piece of land, the average 
annual gross income is readily estimated. Equation (2), above 
given, determines the value of the plant inclusive of land, water 
rights, coal or whatever caintal is involved in the production. 
Then the total value thus ascertained, less the depreciated value 
of the plant, is the value of the land, water rights, coal, or other 
land entity. Why, then, is it necessary in such a case to use 
Equation (4)? It is not, if all the data are available, but one of 
the difficulties inherent in such problems is the determination of 
the probable gross income. But it is usually easy to ascertain 
what an alternative plant with the necessary land would cost. If 
this can be done, Equation (4) offers a simple solution of the 
problem. 

To illustrate : 

Certain water rights are owned, leased or otherwise controlled 
by a water company. Their value is in question. The appraiser 
must arrive at the value by considering the most economic alter- 
native sources of water. Suppose the water company has a water- 
shed from which it secures a water sui^ply that is impounded near 
the city and is delivered by gravity. Two alternatives may pre- 
sent themselves: (1) Another but more distant watershed from 
which a gravity supply is obtainable, and (2) a nearby river from 
which the water must be pumped and filtered. 

An estimate is made of the first cost and operating expense of 
each of these two alternatives, and of the corresponding operating 
expense of that part of the existing plant that would be displaced 
were either of the alternatives used. 

The following example will illustrate the solution of such a prob- 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 39 

lern. Let the first cost of the alternative gravity system be esti- 
mated to be as follows: 

Watershed rights, 10,000 acres at $10 per acre. ... $100,000 

Pipe line right of way, 16 miles 16,000 

Head works, supply pipe line and reservoir 460,000 

Total $576,000 

Overhead charges and contingencies 30% 172,800 

Total first cost $748,800 

Let the yearly operating expense, including maintenance, de- 
preciation and taxes, be $23,000 on this alternative water supply 
system. Let the corresponding first cost of the existing supply 
system be : 

Headworks. pipe line and reservoir $400,000 

Overhead charges and contingencies, 25% 100,000 

Total first cost $500,000 

Let the yearly operating expense be $15,000. 

Then, if a normal return rate is %%, the value of the existing 
supply system including its water rights and lands associated 
therewith is $748,000 + ($23,000 — $15,000) ^ 8% = $848,000. Since 
this includes the $500,000 first cost of the existing supply system, 
it follo^vs that the water rights (and lands associated therewith) 
of the existing system are worth $848,000 — $500,000 = $348,000. 

Four important points are to be noted: (1) The estimated cost 
of acquiring watershed rights must be included in the first cost of 
the alternative water supply system but must be excluded from 
the first cost of the existing water supply system. 

(2) The interest rate used in capitalizing the difference in oper- 
ating expenses — 8% assumed in this case — must be a normal 
return rate on .such an investment. It must not be a bare Interest 
rate oh well secured loans. If functional depreciation is not pro- 
vided for in the operating expenses it should be provided for by 
increa.sing the normal return rate, and this is preferable where 
the water right values themselves are depreciable. 

(3) Estimated allowances for contingencies should ordinarily 
be considerably higher for a plant not built than for one in ex- 
istence, particularly where engineering and accounting records of 
the existing plant are fairly complete. 

(4) If water is brought from a great distance a larger dis- 
tributing re.servoir is needed in or near the city than if the supply 
line is short. Breaks in a long line are more likely to occur, and 
the fire risk correspondingly increased if the distributing reservoir 
is small. 

"Where an alternative supply .system involves pumping and fil- 
tration or other treatment of the water, the annual expenses when 
capitalized may become very great, and will correspondingly in- 
crease the value of the water rights of an existing pure, gravity 
supply. 



40 MECHANICAL AND ELECT TUCAL COST DATA 

For an extended, discussion of water right valuation see three 
articles by Halbert P. Gillette in Engineering and Contracting, 
Apr. 17 and Dec. 4, 1912. and Sept. 1. 1915. 

For a discussion of the real or commercial value of a plant site 
or a railway right of way. see " Some Important Considerations in 
Right of Way Valuation " by Halbert P. Gillette, in Engineering 
and Contracting. June 30, 1915. 

Value of Attached Business. The value of any property, as 
above stated, is the present worth of its prospective net earnings. 
It is often desirable to segregate this value into two parts which 
are variously designed; a.s, (1) "tangible" and (2) "intangible," 
(1) "'physical" and (2) "non-physical." (1) "plant" and (2) 
"good will," (1) "tangible property" and (2) "going concern 
value,." etc. In the case of public service corporations the non- 
physical value is often called '• franchise value." 

In every case the procedure is first to capitalize the prospective 
equated net earnings and therefrom deduct what is regarded as 
the " value " of the physical or tangible property, the remainder 
being the non-physical value or the value of the attached business. 
But it should be remembered that this segregation is justifiable 
only on the hypothesis that the existing physical property ■ — the 
plant, etc. — is replaceable by an equivalent, without changing the 
gross income. 

Having calculated the value of the existing physical property 
by the alternative plant method, as above described, deduct the 
physical property value from the capitalized value of the pros- 
pective net earnings and the balance is the " value of the attached 
business " or. more properly, the value of the business in excess 
of that needed to yield a fair return on the value of the physical 
property. 

Often, but quite improperly, the cost of developing or establish- 
ing a business is spoken of as " going value " ; it may properly 
be designated as " going cost," but it certainly is not value. 

It is important to realize that many of the items of physical 
or tangible cost are quite as non-physical or intangible as those 
commonly classed as non-physical. Thus after a plant has been 
built there is no physical thing in the plant that can be designated 
as •' interest during construction," or as " cost of construction ac- 
counting." or as " cost of engineering," which are all regarded as 
parts of the total physical cost. These are quite as non-physical 
or intangible in fact as the " cost of attaching the business." which 
is classed as intangible. Hence the terms physical and non- 
physical, tangible and intangible, at bottom denote no fundamental 
difference in the costs or values to which they relate, but are 
merely convenient expressions for classifying^ costs or values, v.hich 
classification each appraiser adopts rather arbitrarily for his pur- 
poses, but in which few appraisers are consistent with their own 
theories. Men are so commonly deceived by words that it is not 
unusual to find engineers, public utility commissioners and judges 
floundering in a morass of quibble as to whether a given item of 
cost or value should be classed as " tangible " or " intangible." In 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 41 

truth no cost is either physical or tangible except in relation to 
the money with which it w^as paid for. Mental services relate to 
things that affect the senses, but once such services have been 
performed and paid for no tangible substance may remain to in- 
dicate the fact. It is pure sophistry, therefore, to argue that the 
service rendered by a timekeeper on construction work is a whit 
more entitled to be called tangible than is the service of a man 
who attaches customers. to a plant by soliciting or advertising. 

Rate of Fair Return. Public service commissions have adopted 
the expression " rate of fair return " to denote the percentage of 
annual net operating revenue allowed by them upon the appraised 
value of a public utility property. The " net operating revenue " 
is the balance remaining after deducting from gross operating 
revenue the operating expenses, taxes and depreciation annuity. 

Public service commissions have commonly allowed 6 to 8% as 
a " fair return rate." Few decisions have indicated that much 
study has been given to the subject of the " fair return rate." The 
Wisconsin Railroad Commission analyzes the rate into tvv^o ele- 
ments: (1) The interest rate and (2) the profit rate. Thus a 
6% interest rate plus a 2% profit rate give an 8% " fair return 
rate." The profit (2%) presumably covers risk and leaves a mar- 
gin for what may be called proprietary reward. 

Adam Smith in his " Wealth of Nations " (written about the 
time of our Revolutionary War) speaks of the normal "profits" 
of manufacture, merchandising, etc., as being double the normal 
interest rate, or about 12%, but he used the word "profit," as 
many people still use it, to include a normal interest on the in- 
vestment. 

A rate of fair return may be analyzed into three elements : 

1. Interest on well secured capital. 

2. Insurance against risks covered neither in the operating ex- 
penses nor in the interest. 

3. Reward for proprietary supervision. 

Ordinary interest rates contain at least some insurance against 
financial risks, but this insurance is relatively slight in the bonds 
of large, well established companies. 

A 4.5 to 5% interest rate usually includes comparatively little 
risk insurance and very little proprietary supervision. 

Risk insurance should always be considered in connection with 
the depreciation armuity, although the two rarely have been viewed 
together as parts of one whole. A depreciation annuity is largely 
an insurance against obsolescence and economic inadequacy. 
Hence if little or no provision is made for there factors in the 
form of a depreciation fund, it follov/s that the " rate of fair 
return " should be made correspondingly greater. Almost v/ith- 
out exception, however, this important matter has been disre- 
garded in establishing rates of "fair return." The same rate has 
repeatedly been applied to tAvo similar companies, one of v/hich set 
aside a liberal depreciation reserve while the other provided no 
reserve at all. 

It has often been said that the element of risk Is largely elim- 



42 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

inated under public regulation of rates. But this is not true. In 
nearly every state the municipalities are free to build competing 
plants, and they often do so. Wars and other causes of " hard 
times " continue to make every business somewhat hazardous. 
Then there is the ever present hazard of poor management. Let 
bad judgment be used in making additions to or changes in the 
plant, and much of the profit may be absorbed in " development 
cost," leaving little or nothing for dividends. Against these and 
other risks the public guarantees nothing. The rates paid for the 
service are assumed to provide the insurance. It is true that 
rates found to be inadecLuate may be raised, but the public ill-will 
that usually follows a rise in rates is often very costly to a com- 
pany, even where it is practicable to increase rates. 

Every public utility plant that has been properly designed for 
a growing community, is more than adequate for its present needs, 
in at least some of its parts. This is inevitable, for the engineer 
plans not merely for today, but for several years in advance. 
Let something occur to reduce the rate of growth considerably 
and it will often be found impracticable to charge rates that will 
yield a "fair return" on the entire investment until the old rate 
of growth is resumed. There are plants that are badly " over- 
built " — too large for the present population — and they do not 
and can not yield a " fair return." To insure against .such risks 
as this, a higher rate of return must be provided for plants in 
general. 

A common sophistry is found in the arguments of those who 
hold that 6% is a " fair return rate " in the case of old and suc- 
cessful companies, even if not sufficient in the case of new com- 
panies. This sophistry is perhaps best exposed by showing what 
Vi'ould happen v/ere the securities of all utility eojnpanies owned 
by one company or person. Then, it is clear, the deficits in fair 
return suffered by the unfortunate companies would have to be 
counterbalanced by the surpluses earned by the remaining com- 
panies, else the total net income would fall short of being a " fair 
return." V/herever the item of insurance rate enters an economic 
problem, it must be applied as an annual percentage to a large 
number of similar units. Hence if the rate of " fair return " 
includes ini'urance against certain risks, as it should, it is mani- 
festly unsound to confiscate the risk insurance in the case of a 
financially successful company by reducing its rate of return. 

Althoush the element of risk insurance may be discussed by it- 
self, it is closely associated with the third element in the " fair 
return rate," namely the reward for proprietary supervision, that 
is the reward to the owners of the property for exercise of judg- 
ment and the courage of their convictions. In nearly every utility 
company there is at least one stockholder upon whose judgment 
a very great deal depends. He is the financial leader to whom 
men are attracted because of his recognized ability at making 
his investments "make good." He may not be, and often is not. 
the active manager of the company, but he frames its larger 
policies and he directs their execution. Associated with him are 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 43 

other investors, and his financial power usually depends largely 
upon them. Such a leader, if successful, is unquestionably en- 
titled to reward. He must share the reward with his financial 
associates, else they will flock to other leaders. The reward is the 
profit in excess of normal interest, and it is, of course, so inter- 
twined with the risk insurance element as not to be precisely 
separable*. 

Altogether too much stress has been put upon the risk element 
and too little upon the proprietary reward element in discussions 
of fair return rates. That a stockholder should be rewarded for 
what appear to be entirely the acts of other men has not seemed 
equitable. Whether it is ideally equitable or not is hardly ger- 
mane. The election of public oflficials, for example, is not an ideal 
process of selecting such oflicials. We may well form ideals, but 
we should not hastily condemn all that fails to fit the mold of 
perfection. So, while it may not be a scheme without flaw to 
reward all stockholders because some few greatly merit reward, we 
can not escape doing so as long as the financial world is as it is. 
Furthermore, let us beware of denying merit to the man who is 
merely capable of discovering merit. The little stockholder who 
saw in James J. Hill a great railway man is perhaps entitled to 
reward for so seemingly small a thing as his vote of confidence. 
At any rate, the time has not yet come to declare the stock com- 
pany system of co-operative risk and profit a failure. It con- 
tinues to bring to the front a goodly supply of strong men, who, 
with all their frailties, are seemingly the fittest to lead. 

In a small plant the proprietor often draws little or no salary, 
but looks to the dividends on his stock for his main compensation, 
even though he devotes considerable time to the general manage- 
ment of the plant. Where this is the case the rate of fair return 
should far exceed the ordinary allowance of 7 to 8%. Moreover, it 
should be remembered that the risk insurance element is usually 
greater for a plant serving a small city than for one serving a 
large city. The closing down of a few large industries in a small 
city may seriously reduce the net earnings of a utility plant that 
serves them. The higher rate of interest that small companies pay 
on their bonds indicates, in part, the greater risk involved. 

In establishing what a rate of fair return should be it is cus- 
tomary to show, by the testimony of local bankers and real estate 
men, what the prevailing rates of interest on mortgages are. Also 
it may be shown that such a business as banking itself commonly 
yields a return of 8% or more on the invested capital and surplus. 
The average " return " earned by national banks in America has 
exceeded 9% for many years. 

It is also well to establish what the normal " profits " from vari- 
ous classes of business enterprises are. To do this some well- 
known auditing firm may testify as to their experience, and with- 
out naming individual cases may submit lists of examples of 
" profits " normally earned by various classes of companies whose 
books have been audited by them. (See Table I A, p. 44.) 

A rate of fair return for a public utility company should be one 



44 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

that will attract new capital for additions and improvements. If 
the rate is too low capital will How into other fields. But, al- 
though it is conmion to speak of capital as if it were a thing im- 
personal in the extreme, money is, in fact, an order to command 
labor ; and the commission to execute the order is virtually given 
to some capitalistic leader. It is of prime importance that the 
leader be progies.sive. Capital will doubtless flow at low rates 
into long established, conservatively managed businesses in old 
communities, but the fact that it does so is no evidence that low 
fair return rates should be fixed. Better far. for the sake of ulti- 
mate low unit cost, is a higher rate of return that will fire the 
imagination of a progressive financial leader. Under the guidance 
of such a man business can be made to thrive and, thriving, the 
unit charges for product or service will decrease almost auto- 
matically. 

It is fast becoming evident that there are grave defects in the 
plan of allowing only a fixed rate of return on the cost or value 
of a plant. Proprietary brains deserve reward not for what is 
expended in plant construction, but for what is saved. Ultimately, 
perhaps, a normal interest rate of say 6% will be allowed upon the 
Investment in a utility plant, plus a profit that rises as the unit 
charge for the service to the public falls. The sliding scale of 
dividends allowed to certain gas companies, as in Boston, illus- 
trates the trend toward a more rational rate-making theory. For 
each 5 cts. per thousand reduction in the price of gas, the dividend 
rate on the stock is permitted to rise a stated fraction of 1%. 

Some years ago we suggested the plan of periodic rate fixing, 
under which the rates of charge would not be lowered by public 
act for a term of years, and during which a company would be 
like the owner of a patent, entitled to earn all that could be 
earned. Recently the rates of the New York Telei)hone Co. were 
fixed bj' the public service commission for a period of three years. 
While this is much too short a period in most cases, it illustrates 
the point and may forecast a trend. 



TABLE lA. RETURN ON INVESTMENT IN SUNDRY MANU- 
FACTURING CORPORATIONS NOT UNDER 
GOVERNMENTAL CONTROL 



Average 

Company, manufacturer, annual net 

or type of industry Period investment 

Musical instruments . . . 1913 $;t.557.242 

Brewerv 1912 2,392.010 

Office devices 3 years to 1913 11.646,224 

Small brewery 1913 376,125 

Textiles 3 years to 1913 151.018 

Photographic supplies.. 1913 525.078 

Rubber goods 3yearstol913 1.368,722 

Drugs 3 years to 1913 288,031 

Motion pictures 3 V- years to 1 91 3 677.404 

Fertilizers 3vearstol913 5.112.926 

Leather goods 3vearstol913 2.390,725 

Musical instruments. . ..2 years to 1913 10,909,986 



Percent- 


i. 


ige of 




profit 


Average 


to 


annual 


invest- 


profit 


ment 


$779,415 


8.14 


156,745 


6.55 


1,789,433 


15.37 


61.865 


16.44 


46,315 


30.67 


88.973 


16.94 


161,485 


11.80 


33.161 


11.51 


293.354 


43.30 


385,415 


7.54 


341.126 


14.27 


3,740,196 


34.30 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 



45 



Percent- 
age of 
profit 
Average Average to 
Company, manufacturer, annual net annual invest- 
or type of industry Period investment profit ment 

Textiles 1913 3.607.648 1,204,9:^1 33.40 

Textile machinery 1913 1,410,840 62,106 4.40 

Hair (taken from hides, 

skins, etc.) Vi year to 1913 97,044 21,378 44.06 

Textile machinery 1913 1,560.704 21,390 1.37 

Cotton goods 1913 1,716,176 123,870 7.22 

Steel 1913 2,238,109 538,874 24.08 

Cement 1913 1,392,216 115,141 8.27 

Paper 1913 1,099,212 42,715 3.89 

Textile machinery 1913 371,122 57,036 15.37 

Refrigerating apparatus 1913 3,010,087 330,735 10.99 

Tinwax-e, aluminum, etc. 1913 1,438.225 131,332 9.13 

Tinware, aluminum, etc. 1913 490,597 48.522 9 89 

Iron and steel 1913 3,799.603 225,115 5.92 

Manufacturing stationery 1913 11,452,084 594,390 5.18 
Grinding and crushing 

machinery 1913 2,928,370 262.605 8.97 

Wire 1913 950.821 116,705 12.27 

Brass 1913 22,131,599 1,917.605 8.66 

Chemicals 1913 337,794 78.919 23.36 

Carpet 1913 1,726,558 229,941 13.31 

Rubber goods 3913 248,129 53,279 21.47 

Rubber goods 1913 658.896 108,027 16.39 

Electric lighting fixtures 1913 95,395 69,680 73.04 

Automobile .specialties.. 1913 460.458 516.138 112.09 

Steel chains 1913 304,271 17,045 5.60 

Cost of Establishing a Business. The cost of establishing or 
building up a business is a cost item that not infrequently exceeds 
the full first cost of an expensive plant, and rarely is less than 20% 
of the first cost of a manufacturing or public utility plant plus the 
depreciation accrued but not yet paid. Aside from the costs of 
advertising for and soliciting new business, there are the cost of 
training new employees besides the accumulated deficit in fair re- 
turn on the investment. All these development costs, as we term 
them, may be calculated very readily if three annual items are 
known from the time of the initial investment down to the time 
that deficits in fair return cease. 

It is customary to class the interest on the investment during 
the period of plant con.struction as an item by itself, called " in- 
terest during construction," but it might with perfect propriety be 
included as a part of the development cost. 

Intangible cost is the cost involved in attaching business to a 
plant. 

Intangible value is that part of the total value (deduced by 
capitalizing prospective net earnings) remaining after deducting 
the tangible or physical value from the total. 

Intangible cost is given various names, such as " development 
cost," " development expense^" " going cost," " going value," " go- 
ing concern value," " cost of e.stablishing the business," etc. 

Intangible value is also given various names, such as "franchise 
value," "going concern value" (occasionally abbreviated to "go- 
ing value"), "good will," etc. 



46 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Since some terms like " going concern value " are used by some 
people to mean intangible cost, whereas other people use the same 
terms to mean intangible value, no end of confusion and illogical 
reasoning results. 

" The franchise value " of a public utility corresponds to the 
" good will " of a business that is not operated under a franchise, 
for both are dependent on prospective net earnings. There is, 
however, such a thing as " franchise cost," which is the cost of 
securing a franchise. This has no necessary relation to the value 
of the franchise. 

There are two commonly used methods of estimating going or 
development cost: (1) The deficit method as applied to the ac- 
tual plant investment, income and expenses; (2) the deficit method 
as applied to a hypothetical projected new plant, the construction 
of which is supposed to start at the time of the appraisal and its 
customers subseciuently attached until its net revenue equals that 
of the existing plant, but without competing with the existing 
plant. The first of these methods is often called the historical or 
Wisconsin method. Tlie second is often called the Alvord method. 

We now propose a third deficit method, which resembles the Al- 
vord method except in that it is assumed that the new hypothetical 
plant must compete with the existing plant. 

Each of these three deficit methods makes the going or develop- 
ment cost a sequel to " interest during construction." for the deficit 
is the deficiency in a fair interest return on the investment. Each 
method compounds the interest on the deficit. The interest rate 
used is a " fair return rate." 

It will be seen that the historical or Wisconsin method of de- 
riving the development or going cost logically associates this cost 
with the actual cost of the physical plant and not with the esti- 
mated cost of reproducing it under present conditions. The Al- 
vord method, however, was devised to secure a development cost 
that could logically be associated with the cost of reproduction 
of plant under recent past -and immediately prospective conditions. 
However, we think it falls short of accomplishing this end, and 
for that reason have proposed the third method. 

The advocates of appraising the cost of reproducing the physical 
plant under recent past or prospective conditions, and of assign- 
ing a functional as well as a natural depreciation, have apparently 
not realized that in essence they were proposing to set up an 
alternative plant as a criterion by which to judge the value of the 
existing plant. But even if they have clearly seen this implica- 
tion they have not seen its corollary, to wit: If a new alternative 
plant is set up as a criterion of the worth of the existing old plant, 
then a new alternative business must also be estimated to attach 
to the new alternative plant. But a new alternative business can 
be secured only by competing with the old existing plant. 

To establish business under such a competitive condition will 
cost far more than under the Alvord theory, and that the Alvord 
method therefore gives an irreducible minimum, if present and 
prospective conditions are assumed. But we object to the claim 



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48 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

that the Alvord method is wholly consistent with the " cost of 
reproduction method." An alternative plant spells competition, 
and therefore a business built up under competition and not under 
the ideal condition assumed in the Alvord method. 

Street railways, electric interurbans, steam railways, telephone 
lines and even water works have been built to compete with ex- 
isting plants. They have in nearly every case encountered very 
great development cost, often so great as to make the new projierties 
dismal failures. This is strikingly seen in the so-called " inde- 
pendent telephone companies," whose development cost has usually 
been ruinous to them. Such alternative plants may have been built 
because their promoters assumed that lower plant costs could be 
had than were actually incurred by the old Bell plants. But the 
promoters failed to estimate their probable development or going 
cost under competitive conditions. Could an assumption of the 
Alvord method conditions have been realized in practice the con- 
sequent low development cost might have justified the building 
of " independent telephone " systems. But practice and theory 
failed to meet there, as they fail to meet anywhere when it is as- 
sumed that a new alternative plant can be built to serve a com- 
munity habituated to use the existing old plant, yet without en- 
gaging in a competitive flght for business with the existing plant. 
In other words, while v.-e can conceive the ideal conditions of the 
Alvord method, and while we grant that those conditions yield a low 
development or going cost we refuse to admit that the Alvord 
method is fully concordant with any reproduction method of esti- 
mating the cost of physical properties. 

Alvord Method. For a comiilete discussion of this method of 
estimating development cost the reader is referred to a paper 
read before the American Society of Civil Engineers by Metcalf 
and Alvord entitled " The Going "Value of Water Works." The 
paper was reprinted in Engineering and Contracting, March 29, 
1911. 

In Table II we give a recent application of this method to a 
water works that served about 8,000 people in the year 1914. The 
investment in the plant alone was about $100,000 exclusive of 
overhead costs. Its gross revenue and operating expense for 1914 
are given in the table as $24,000 and $14,000 respectively, and 
after deducting an estimated depreciation correction for that year 
the net earnings were $7,800. Construction of the hypothetical 
new plant was assumed to begin and end in 1914, and result in a 
$6,000 operating expense (organization of staff, soliciting business, 
etc.), with no income from, operation. 

The business of the old plant was assumed to continue its pre- 
vious rate of growth for five years, and that of the hypothetical 
plant was assumed to overtake that of the old plant in 1919. The 
eighth column, " Total Difference," is found by subtracting the net 
earnings of the new plant from those of the old plant. The items 
in the eighth column are multiplied by the " present worth factor " 
in the ninth column to get the " net difference " in the tenth col- 
umn — that is, the present amount (in 1914) of the difference in 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 49 

net earnings betv/een the old and the new plants. The " present 
worth factor " is taken from a compound interest table, such as 
that on page 12 of Gillette's "Handbook of Cost Data." The de- 
velopment cost by the Alvord method is thus calculated to be 
$26,360 in this case. This $26,360 was added to depreciated value 
of the old plant. 

y/isconsin Method. Applying the Wisconsin method to this same 
water works, as far back as the accounting records were available,, 
and the result is shown in Table III. The original nucleus of the 

TABLE III. PLANT INVESTMENT AND EARNINGS 

Plant, Gross Apparent Apparent 

Year Jan. 1 earnings expenses net earnings 

1900 $ 76,200 $13,000 $9,500 $3,500 

1904. 77,200 13.800 10,700 3,100 

1902 77,900 13,500 10,000 3,500 

1903 79,100 14,200 9,800 4,400 

1904 81,500 15,200 10,400 4,800 

1905 82,800 15,700 10,000 5.700 

1906 85,300 17,600 12,100 5.500 

1907 87,200 18.300 15.100 3,200 

1908 88,300 18.400 14,400 4.000 

1909 91,300 19,900 15.000 4.900 

1910 93.500 20,700 13,900 6,800 

1911 96,800 21,800 14,900 6,900 

1912 98,300 22.400 16.100 6.300 

1913 99.000 23.900 14.500 9,400 

-1914 100,000 24,000 14,000 10,000 

Total $1,314,400 $82,000 

'plant was built in 1885, but It had passed through a receivership 
and no accounting records back of 1900 were available. In such 
a case it might at first appear impracticable to apply the Wiscon- 
sin method, but it is possible to approximate quite closely to the 
development cost incurred during the period for which the annual 
earnings and operating expenses are available. Thus the repro- 
duction new cost of the plant, less overhead charges and land 
values, was about $100,000 as of .Jan. 1, 1914. Overhead charges 
were eliminated, for those that had been charged did not appear 
in the ledger plant account, but in operating expense. The second 
column in Table HI was arrived at by deducting successively the 
yearly additions to plant, recorded in the ledgers, starting with 
$100,000 as the base in 1914. Thus it was established that the 
plant investment was $76,200 as that of Jan. 1. 1900. The gross 
earnings and operating expenses (in round numbers) were set up 
in columns 3 and 4, from which the " apparent net earnings " in 
column 5 were deduced. The " apparent expense " includes taxes 
and current maintenance but includes no depreciation fund annuity. 
Table IV starts with the $76,200 property investment derived 
from Table III and column 4 of Table TV is the same as column 5 
of Table ITT. An 8% "fair return rate" was assumed, and $76,200 
multiplied by 8% gave $6,100 (in round numbers), which was 
entered in column 3, Table IV. Since the net earnings were only 
$3,500, there was a deficit of $2,6(>0 below the fair return of 



50 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE IV. DEVELOPMENT COST BY THE WISCONSIN 
METHOD 

Property 8% fair Apparent Plant 

Year Jan. 1 return net earning-s Deficit additions 

1900 $ 76,200 $ 6,100 $ 3,500 $2,600 $1,000 

1901 79,800 6.400 3,100 3,300 700 

1902 83,800 6,700 3,500 3,200 1,200 

1903 88,200 7,060 4,400 2,660 2,300 

1904 93,160 7,450 4,800 2,650 1,300 

1905 97,110 7,770 5,700 2,070 2,500 

1906 101,680 8,130 5,500 2,630 1,900 

1907 106,210 8,500 3,200 5,300 1,100 

1908 112,610 9,010 4,000 5,010 3,000 

1909 120,620 9,650 4,900 4,750 2,200 

1910 127,570 10,200 6,800 3,400 3,300 

1911 134.270 10,750 6,900 3,850 1,500 

1912 139,620 11,170 6,300 4,870 700 

1913 145,190 11,610 9,400 2,210 1,000 

1914 148,400 11,870 10,000 1,870 

Development cost including overhead charges 
on the $23,000 additions to plant from year 
1900 to 1914 $50,370 

$6,100, so this deficit was entered in column 5. During 1914 
plant additions of $1,000 were made, as shown in the sixth column. 
Hence if we add this $1,000 and the. deficit of $2,600 to the $76,200 
we have a total property cost of $79,800 as of Dec. 31, 1900, or 
as of Jan. 1, 1901. Accordingly this $79,800 is entered in the 
second column opposite 1901, and the same sort of calculations 
is made for 1901 as for 1900. Thus the table is built up, result- 
ing in a development cost of $50,370 for this plant during the 
15-year period. How much more it was prior thereto no one knew, ' 
but it was scarcely worth inquiring into in this case, for here 
already was a development cost equal to nearly half the physical 
cost. It is true that this $50,370 includes those overhead costs 
(on the $23,000 of plant additions) which were improperly charged 
to operating expense from 1900 to 1914. But this may be readily 
estimated and deducted. The most important thing to note is that 
the development cost thus deduced should be added to the cost new 
of the physical plant and not to its dejrreciated value. The reason 
for this is that the operating expenses include no depreciation an- 
nuity, hence no provision for the accrued depreciation existing in 
the old plant. Were an adequate depreciation annuity included 
in operating expenses each year from the time the plant was built 
down to date, it should be at least sufficient to build up a depre- 
ciation fund equal to the accrued depreciation. And were this 
done the development cost would be increased by exactly the 
amount of the depreciation fund. Had that been done, then the 
resulting development cost would be properly added to the depre- 
ciated value of the plant to get the total investment in " tangible " 
and " intangible " property. 

An article on " Development Cost " in Engineering and Con- 
tracting, June 26, 1912, gives a long reprint of one of Gillette's 
appraisal reports on an electric utility in which are outlined many 
of the details to be considered in applying the Wisconsin method. 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 51 

These details were worked out prior to the decision of the Wis- 
consin Railroad Commission (Hill vs. Antigo Water Co., 3 W. R. 
C. R. 623), in v/hich they first adopted what is now styled the 
Wisconsin method of determining " going value." But prior to 
that other engineers had suggested and applied the same method. 
In fact this deficit method is prescribed in a contract between the 
city of New York and the Empire City Subway Company dated 
May 15, 1891, from which we quote: 

" The said party of the second part shall, at any time after 
Jan. 1, 1897, upon demand of the commissioners of the Sinking 
Fund in the City of New York . . . sell, assign, transfer, convey 
and set over to the Mayor, Aldermen and commonality of said city 
the subways, conduits and ducts constructed by it, as aforesaid, 

. . and other property : . . upon payment of the actual cost 
thereof; and if the said company shall not have earned 10% per 
annum on actual cost during the terms of this contract a further 
payment shall be made in addition to the cost not exceeding 10% 
on such cost to the extent of such deficiency in annual earnings, 
or such less sum as may be agreed upon." 

Doubtless older contracts of this nature exist. 

Below we quote from a decision of the Federal Court rendered 
in 1904, in which the Wisconsin method was repudiated by the 
court five years before it was adopted in Wisconsin. It is inter- 
esting to note the false reasoning used by the court in repudiating 
the deficit method. The court says : 

" The company may have purchased a plant larger and more 
expensive than necessary ; the current rates of interest may have 
been abnormally high ; many causes which have absolutely no 
relation to the value (typographical emphasis ours) of the 
company's business now as a going concern may have Increased 
or diminished the deficiency in revenue. [165 Fed, 657 (C. C. 
W. D., Cal., 1904).]" 

Note how the court slips from a discussion of cost into a dis- 
cussion of value. A deficit in fair return is a cost, and it not only 
may not but actually does not have any necessary relation to the 
value, for the latter depends entirely on capitalized prospective not 
earnings. The court falsely sets up a criterion of value as a way 
of discrediting an actual cost, yet the court does not thereupon con- 
clude to adopt value (capitalized net earnings) as the appraisal 
base. This sort of sophistry is met on every hand. Attorneys 
frequently attempt to discredit a given cost by showing that it has 
no commensurate value. Yet they repudiate entirely the use of 
value (capitalized net earnings) as a rate-making base. In such 
cases if the appraiser has a clear conception of the distinction be- 
tween cost and value, no great difficulty is found in making the 
distinction clear to the commission or court. Both " going cost " 
and " franchise value " should be presented for consideration, but 
they should be kept entirely distinct. 

Separate Plant Theory of Prorating Joint Costs. Where a plant 
is used to produce only one class and size of units no question 
arises as to prorating joint costs, for then the total cost during a 



52 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

given period of time divided by the total number of units produced 
in that time gives the true and full unit cost, assuming that the 
depreciation costs, lost time, etc., have been properly equated. But 
where a plant produces units of different classes or sizes the ques- 
tions of prorating the joint costs often becomes vitally important. 

The history of industry furnishes many examples of crippled 
business, attributable largely to improper methods of prorating 
joint costs. If one of the joint products is priced at less than is 
equitable, while another product is priced at more than is equitable, 
the resulting large demand for the underpriced product may speed- 
ily pile up losses, while at the same time the decreased demand 
for the overpriced product may cut down the profitable sales to a 
vanishing point. 

Another source of loss from inequitable prorating of joint costs 
is to be found where a " side line " of products is improperly loaded 
with cost charges and made to appear to be unprofitable. Thus 
many a " side line " is stifled before it has had a chance to become 
more than a " side line." 

Before a rational theory of prorating joint costs can be de- 
veloped, the prime objects of cost keeping and cost analysis must be 
considered. Correct unit costs are desirable for two purposes : 
(1) To furnish a basis for fixing equitable and profitable unit prices ; 
and (2) to provide acurate criteria by which to judge the economic 
efhciency of men, machines and methods. Both these objects are 
attained when joint costs are so prorated that the resulting unit 
costs may be compared with similar unit costs incurred where no 
prorating is necessary. Thus a merchant who deals in many kinds 
of goods should so prorate the joint costs — rent, insurance, deliv- 
ery, clerical, management, etc. — that he may compare the unit cost 
of any class of goods with the unit price charged by a competitor 
who specializes in that particular class of goods. For example, the 
unit cost of candy sold by a department store should be com- 
parable with the unit price of candy charged by a candy store, 
or, better still, with the unit cost of candy in a candy store. 

If a prorating theory is such as to prevent equitable comparison 
of unit costs of joint production with unit costs of separate pro- 
duction, then the economic efhciency of joint production can not be 
gaged by comparison with separate production. Furthermore, 
equitable unit prices that will attract business and secure adeqviate 
profit can not readily be made unless the unit costs of joint pro- 
duction are strictly comparable with those of separate production. 

If this is a sound economic premise, it follows that a rational 
method of prorating joint costs must be one that is based on costs 
incurred under the most economic production of each class of units 
by a separate plant for each class. 

In this connection it is well to note the significance of the fact 
that joint costs can not be prorated at all where separate produc- 
tion of each of the units is not possible. Thus, the total joint cost 
of all the parts of a beef may be known, but the unit cost of each 
of its various rnarketable parts — sirlbin, chuck, liver, etc. — ^ can not 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 53 

be determined. If under such a condition joint costs can not be 
prorated, it follows that the one condition precedent to prorating 
joint costs is the ability to secure unit costs of each class of units 
where no other class of units is produced. 

We thus come to this important generalization as to prorating 
joint costs : 

Where several classes of units are produced jointly, the total 
costs of joint production must he prorated among the several classes 
in proportion to the cost of producing each class (or its equivalent) 
hy a separate plant designed solely for the economic production of 
the given number of units of that class. 

For convenience of reference let us term this rule the separate 
plant theory of prorating joint costs, or, briefly, the separate plant 
theory. When the by-product cost theory — which will be con- 
sidered later — is not involved, this separate plant theory is ap- 
plicable under all conditions, and the application of it will disclose 
both the true economic efficiency of production and the equitable 
unit price of each class of products jointly produced. 

Joint production of different classes of products is an economic 
mistake unless the total resulting cost is less than the sum of the 
costs of producing the products separately or in joint groups of 
fewer different classes. The saving effected by joint production 
is to be allocated to the different classes of products. The sepa- 
rate plant theory allocates this saving in proportion to the costs 
of separate productions. Were two independent manufacturers of 
different products intending to join forces, and were these manu- 
facturers making the same percentage of profit on the cost of their 
products, it is evident that each would regard it as fair to accept 
his share of the increased profit resulting from the consolidation in 
proportion to his total original cost of production. 

Similarly if a company whose sole business was furnishing elec- 
tric power to a street railway were to consolidate with a company 
whose sole business was furnishing electricity for street lighting, 
the resulting saving in the cost of generating current in a joint 
power plant would be equitably allotted to each company in pro- 
portion to its independent cost of generating current, the only pro- 
viso being that each company had an economic generating plant, 
^ince, under such conditions, the investment in each of the two 
separate generating plants would be roughly proportional to their 
respective peak loads, it follows that an approximation to the 
separate plant theory is had when the first cost of a joint generat- 
ing plant is prorated to the different classes of electric service in 
proportion to the separate peak load of each class. The peak load 
theory of prorating investment is therefore justifiable only when it 
conforms in its results rather closely to the results obtained by ap- 
plication of the separate plant theory. 

While generating plant investment is a function of peak loads, 
fuel expense is a function of the amount of current generated, as 
well as of certain other factors such as the shape of the load curve. 
But all these varying factors are given their proper recognition 



54 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in prorating joint fuel expense when the separate plant theory is 
applied. Likewise every other operating expense is properly pro- 
rated on the separate plant theory. When this fact is clearly per- 
ceived, a key is had to the solution of all the troublesome prorating 
problems that confront the person who is trying to ascertain what 
are equitable rates of charge for electricity or other public utility 
service furnished to different classes of customers. Indeed the 
separate plant theory, when fullj^ understood, leads to a pi'oper 
recognition of the various competitive conditions that are so apt to 
break down any system of rates of charge based on the ordinary 
methods of cost analysis. 

Turning back to the rule for prorating, above given, it will ba 
seen that the separate plant need not produce precisely tlie same 
sort and number of units, provided it produces their equivalent. 
By this we mean the competitive equivalent or substitute service. 
To illustrate, assume the existence of a steam railway paralleling 
a navigable river and handling a heavy freight traffic, but a light 
passenger traffic. If it were not for the freight traffic an electric 
trolley line would handle the passenger traffic most economically. 
Were it not for the passenger traffic, the freight would be most 
economically hauled in barges. But, by virtue of the combined 
traffic, the steam railway is more economic than a separate trolley 
line and a separate barge line. The total annual joint costs of the 
steam railway are properly prorated to the two classes of traffic — 
freight and passenger — in proportion to the annual costs by the 
most economic separate plants, namely, a barge line and a trolley 
line. The barge line would not give precisely tlie same sort of 
service as the steam rail service, but it would give its equivalent — 
an economic substitute service. 

One paragraph of digression may perhaps be pardoned. The ef- 
forts of railways to eliminate water competition have caused many 
unfavorable comments, re.sulting finally in legislation to prohibit 
.such " iniquitous throttling of free competition." Yet a better 
understanding of the principles of economies may fully justify the 
elimination of water borne traffic in many places. Certainly if one 
railway line can handle the combined traffic at a lovv-er cost than 
the sum of the costs with separate railway and boat lines, it is 
economic to eliminate water traffic. But when such elimination is 
effected, equitable rates of charge are to be determined by ap- 
plication of the separate plant theory. 

Avera<je Cost Fallacies. Unless the separate plant theory, or 
some approximation to it, is applied in cost analysis, so-called 
" average unit costs " are often calculated and used in price making. 
Yet the " average " may be improperly applied in price making. 
Thus, the average cost of generating electric current in a central 
station may be 1 ct. per kw.-hr., where the average station load 
factor is. say, iOTi. But to use this 1 ct. cost as a basis for charging 
residence lighting customers would be economically wrong, even 
were there no distribution and service costs. Residence customers 
causing a station load factor of lo'^c, business customers 22*^, and 
large power customers 60%, maj* so amalgamate as to cause an 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 55 

average of 40% station load factor ; but, as none of the three classes 
would alone cause a 40% average, none should equitably be charged 
on the basis of the average 1 ct. generating cost. 

While the electrical engineers and managers recognize the im- 
portance of such a distinction, the general public often does not. 
Even keen business men are frequently so ignorant of the principles 
of correct prorating of costs that they are easily misled by such 
sophistical arguments as this : " Small shippers of freight are 
charged the same car load rates as are large shippers. Hence 
small users of electric current should be charged the same rate as 
large users — a rate based on the average cost and therefore not 
discriminatory." 

The average cost sophistry is often best exposed by insisting 
upon the application of average cost to individual cases only where 
the individual case corresponds with the same average economic 
conditions. 

It has been seriously proposed to estimate all rates of charge for 
railway freight service of a given class by application of a rule like 
this: To a fixed cost of blank cts. per- ton add blank cts. per ton- 
mile. 

In estimating the cost of hauling uniform loads by wagon, such 
a rule is applicable, provided all conditions are the same as those 
upon which the cost rule is based. But in hauling miscellaneous 
freight with a railway plant, the prorating of fixed costs upon any 
general average theory leads to economically absurd results. In a 
given railway it might be concluded that if the total costs not 
affected by the length of haul were divided by the total tons of 
freight, there would be an average cost of, say, $1 per ton. Then 
the cost of moving the freight might be 14 ct. per ton-mile. If 
rates were based on such an application of averages in allocating 
total costs, this absurd result would occur : That it would be 
cheaper to haul freight 10 miles by wagons than by rail. Now, 
as a matter of fact, precisely that sort of economic absurdity 
is actually to be found not only in freight rates but in the .prices 
charged for all sorts of products and services. When traced to the 
cause, the cause will usually be found to be improper prorating of 
joint costs and the use of so-called " average costs " as a basis for 
pricing. 

Fallacies in Prorating Proi)orlionally to Direct Costs. Almost 
as prolific in error as the " average cost theory " is the theory of 
prorating all joint costs in proportion to direct costs. Yet all books 
on accountancy concur in recommending this method of prorating. 
There are, it is true, certain joint or indirect elements of cost that 
are almost direct functions of certain direct cost. Thus the gen- 
eral foreman in charge of several gangs doing different kinds of 
work is likely to give each gang an amount of his time proportional 
to the number of men in each gang. So, too. shop rent is closely 
related to the number of workmen in certain cases, and therefore is 
properly prorated to the direct cost of labor where wages are 
relatively uniform. But there are endless conditions under which 
joint costs are not direct functions of direct costs. Indeed certain 



56 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

joint costs, notably plant interest, may inciease as the direct costs 
decrease. For example, where power iy generated hydro-eleclrically 
the direct labor costs grow relatively smaller as the investment in 
the power plant increases. How irrational, then, it is to appor- 
tion interest and dejjreciation charges in proportion to the co.st of 
direct labor in such a plant. 

Estimating Direct Costs by ApproxUnation, Direct costs are 
those directly assignably to a unit or group of similar units of 
product. If it were possible to l^eep a record of the time spent by 
each workman on each class of units, no prorating of labor costs 
would be necessary except as to the cost of idle or lost time. It is 
often impracticable to keep continuous time records of each class 
of work done by each workman. In such cases some simple method 
of prorating the labor cost is used, and the common mistake is to 
use too simple a method — one that secures simplicity at the ex- 
pense of accuracy. Thus joint labor is frequently prorated in pro- 
portion to the number, of units of material handled, shaped or placed 
by the laborers. 

Prorating labor according to the units of material is often an 
excellent plan if judiciously carried out. It should involve periodic 
timing of all the labor processes in relation to the units of material 
treated by each process. Thus, by minute-hand timing of, say, 5 
•or 107c of the labor time each month, it is often possible to allocate 
<correctly the entire labor of the month by ascribing certain labor 
•costs to each different class of units of material handled under 
given conditions. But serious errors may arise if the timing is not 
■carefully done and at regular intervals not too far apart. 

Even where the units of material handled are not counted the 
method of timing labor processes periodically is often an excellent 
method of ar)proximating the amount of direct labor on each process. 
The i)eriodic-timing method is so inexpensive that it is remarkable 
how seldom it is applied as a means of approximating direct labor 
costs. 

Where workmen use machines the direct cost both of the labor 
and the machines is ascertainable in the manner just indicated. 
In cases where a rather expensive machine is used, it will usually 
pay to record the length of time the machine is used for each 
process. Then the direct cost of the machine is readily assignable 
to each process and only its idle time remains to be prorated. 
This method is far preferable to prorating machine corts in pro- 
portion to direct labor, unless the same labor cost occurs per unit 
of time in every case that the given machine is used. 

Real estate rental can usually be quite accurately prorated ac- 
cording to the floor area assigned to each machine, or to each 
w^orkman. or to each process. The cost of heat and light is simi- 
larly apportionable. 

The cost of accounting is usually quite closely related to the 
number of entries made. Hence by counting the number of entries 
that each account averages per month, a very close approximation 
to the direct cost of accounting can be secured. 

Once the importance of approximating the direct cost of each, 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 57 

process or product is appreciated, comparatively simple yet ef- 
fective methods of approximation will be devised. By doing so the 
remaining amount of joint costs will be materially reduced, and 
thus render any errors of prorating less serious. 

Prorating N on-Productive Time. Since neither machines nor 
workmen are usually worked continuously to full capacity, it often 
becomes important to determine the cost of non-productive time and 
to prorate that cost equitably. 

Non-productive time is to be allocated in proportion to pro- 
ductive time, but it is usually desirable to record the resulting unit 
cost of non-productive time separately from the cost of productive 
time. By doing so attention is focused upon the cost of lost time, 
and this generally leads to greater effort to increase the "load 
factor." Furthermore, one of the main causes of wide fluctuations 
in unit costs from week to week or year to year is the variation 
in the percentage of idle time. Hence unless the idle time cost is 
shown separately, there can be no satisfactory comparison of unit 
costs sCt different periods. 

In case the by-product theory of co.st keeping is to be applied, 
the cost of idle time is not prorated to the by-products. 

By-Product Theory. Hitherto v.'e have considered costs under 
what may be termed the full cost theory. In order to increase total 
profits under competitive conditions, it is often necessary to assess 
against certain by-products only the additional costs of producing 
them. But a philosophical analysis of the reason for doing so 
brings us back to our separate plant theory in its broadest form ; 
for if a by-product can not normally be sold at a price in excess 
of the added cost of producing it with a given plant, then some 
other separate plant must be producing that class of product at a 
lower cost than the market price. 

Proratina Accordincj to Sales. The prorating of joint costs in 
proportion to the sales of each class of product is at first sight 
wholly irrational, for it would seem that this is placing effect be- 
fore cause. Nevertheless this method of prorating is not wholly 
irrational, and in some cafes it is preferable to other methods 
because it may be a .Simple way of approximating the separate 
plant method of prorating. Obvioui^ly if a product is sold in a 
competitive market, the fact indicates that the average unit price 
over a long period is sufficient to yield a fair profit to some one 
of the competitors, if not to all of them. Since the competitor who 
is able to fix the price of a product often is equipped v/ith a plant 
especially designed to make that product and no other, it follows 
that other plants that produce the same product plus several other 
products, are thus automatically forced to adopt the separate plant 
theory of prorating their joint costs. 

Conclvsion. The subject under discussion is susceptible of such 
a diversity of treatment and has so many ramifications that we 
have been able to touch "the high places" only in this article. 
We shall have accomplished our object, however, if we have made 
it clear that one general, underlying theory — the separate plant 
theory — is applicable in every case, and that all other tenable 



58 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

theories of prorating joint costs are short-cut approximations to 
the general iheory. 

When Is It Profitable to Retire an Old Plant Unit? Business 
succeiss often depends largely on the judgment used in scrapping 
a comparatively new plant to malie way for a newer one. British 
manufacturers have been proverbially slow in Retiring old ma- 
chinery, whereas Americans have more often gone to the other 
extieme. 

The problem has been put to a score of engineers, to several 
skilled accountants, and to a few business men, not one of whom 
gave a completely correct solution. It was submitted also to a 
well known business correspondence school, which likewise failed 
to give a correct answer. That school in turn passed the problem 
on to an expert accountant and to a well advertised " efficiency 
engineer," both of whom gave erroneous replies. It may be as- 
sumed, therefore, that the problem is of a sort whose seeming 
simplicity is itself a cause of hasty reasoning where deliberate and 
painstaking study is actually required. 

This is a case where it will not suffice to give an answer in 
general terms without ex])laining in detail the precise quantitative 
meaning of every economic term. Thus, one general rule that was 
submitted was this: 

Retire any old plant when the annual profit will be increased by 
substituting a more economic plant. 

This is correct as far as it goes, but it is completely correct only 
when the term "profit" is fully defined. Since profit dei)ends on 
cost, a definition of cost must be given, even to every element that 
enters into cost. As will be shown later, the cost elements are 
numerous and several of them are not understood even approxi- 
mately by most men. 

Professor Taussig, of Harvard, gives a general rule in his " Eco- 
nomics," Vol. ir, p. 85, as follows: 

"It will be profitable to tear down an old or ill-adapted building 
and replace it with a new building only when the new one prom- 
ises to yield not only enough to pay a satisfactory return on its 
own cost, but in addition enough to compensate for the loss of net 
revenue which the old one still yielded." 

Here the ambiguous terms are " a satisfactory return " and " net 
revenue," both of which require no small amoimt of explanation. 
Professor Taussig's rule borders dangerously close to an error that 
is most commonly made in attempts to solve this problem. It is 
quite generally believed that a new plant can not economically 
replace an old plant unless the net earnings that the new plant 
yields are sufficient to pay interest charges on the original cost of 
the old plant as well as on the first cost of the new plant. Yet 
this rule is entirely false, no matter what the definition of net earn- 
ings may be. 

A correct solution of this problem was given by Gillette in 
Engineering and Contracting July 14, 1915. but. as it was some- 
what buried in an article entitled ** A Rational Method of Cal- 
culating Depreciated Value" (see Chapter II), it seems wise to 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 59 

outline a solution of the problem here and to discuss more fully 
the reasoning upon which it rests. 

As between two plant units the choice obviously falls upon the 
one that yields the greater profit over a term of years. But when 
one of the two plant units is already owned and in service, while 
the other must be purchased new, it is not obvious at once that 
in calculating the cost of the product, the original cost of the old 
plant unit has nothing whatever to do with the case. This is the 
first logical pitfall. The second pitfall is encountered when the 
element of depreciation is reached, for it has never been perceived 
that, in order to solve the problem correctly, natural depreciation 
must be entirely separated from functional depreciation and that the 
latter must be treated precisely as if it were an item of insurance. 
Natural -depreciation is the loss of value due to the action of the 
forces of nature ; whereas functional depreciation is due to inven- 
tion, growth of business that renders a plant inadequate, and other 
social forces. In calculating the annual cost, natural depreciation 
should be classed with repairs, for that is what it is in essence. 
But on the other hand, a functional depreciation annuity should be 
classed with a fire insurance premium — an element to be provided 
for by an annuity based on past experience covering many in- 
stances. This distinction is vital. Having ascertained from a study 
of the history of many plant units of the same general class what 
the average functional life of the given plant unit may be expected 
to be, it is a 'simple mathematical matter to determine what per- 
centage should annually be allowed as the functional depreciation 
rate (F). 

For any given new plant unit, we may express the annual 
profit derivable from it, thus : 

P=G — K (7) 

P ■=■ annual profit. 

Q =: annual gross income. 

K ■=■ annual cost. 

If we use capital letters for the new plant unit and lower case 
(small) letters for the old plant unit, we have for an old plant unit: 

p = g-^Tc (8) 

If the new plant unit and the old one are equally profitable : 

P = p, or (9) 

G — K-g — h (10) 

If, as is ordinarily the case, the gross income is not altered by 
substituting a new plant unit for an old one, then G = g, and : 

K-k (11) 

Let 

E = Annual operating expenses (including repairs and taxes) 

equated during the estimated economic life of the new unit. 
e = Ditto for the old plant unit during its remaining economic life. 
C — First cost of new plant unit. 
jR ~ Salvage value of new plant unit, 
s = Ditto of old plant unit. 



60 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

r --- Interest rate, including any risk insurance not covered by F or 

elsewhere 
F — Functional depreciation rate (not including depreciation from 

natural causes, such as wear and tear, rot, etc., which are 

covered by "repairs"). 

Then 

K ■■-- E -\- (C — S) F -\- r C * ( i 2 ) 

Only a little study is needed to make the truth of Equation (12) 
evident ; but much more study is ordinarily required to make it 
evident that Equation (13) is equally true. 

k - e -{■ rs (13) 

To almo.^t every one it has seemed essential that the equation 
of annual cost for an old T>l?int unit should contain the same number 
and kinds of terms as for a new plant unit. Here it is that the 
reasoning process must be carefully scrutinized. Why does the 
term (c — s)F vanish in Equation 13? Because c — s. Why so? 
Because the condition that is tacitly assumed when K -: Ic is that 
the old plant unit has depreciated and can therefore be purchased 
at a dejireciated value (c). which value (o) can be no greater 
than its salvage value (s) if the time to retire the old plant unit 
has arrived. 

A more elegant, but more elaborate, process of reaching the same 
conclusion is given in Chapter IT. There are several other ways 
of indicating the correctness of the above reasoning as to Equa- 
tion 13. 

Suppose, for example, the choice between a new and an old 
second-hand machine were in question, and that each could be 
bought in a market. Suppose the market price of the old machine 
were little above its scrap value. Then it would be perfectly clear 
that Equation 13 would give the annual cost of production with 
the old machine. 

Suppose, as another example, that an old machine is owned but 
that it had been purchased several years ago as a small part of 
a large second-hand plant, and that the price paid for it is un- 
known. Would it be rational to insert in Equation 13 a factor c 
representing its cost to the original owner, even if it were ascer- 
tainable? Assuredly not. for that would not be the cost to the 
present owner, nor would it be any more helpful to attempt to es- 
timate (by prorating) its cost to the present owner when the 
rnachine was newer than it now is; particularly if the present 
owner had paid altogether too much for the entire plant. 

Suppose, as a third example, that the present owner of a plant 
has received it as a gift or as an inheritance, and that therefore 
the cost of the old plant unit to him has been nil. Should c then 
be made of Clearly not. for the owner is not concerned with the 
original cost to him. which is in this case nothing, but with its 
present cost of replacement, or its true market value. This, under 
the assumed condition of expired economic life of the old machine, 
is its salvage value (s). 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 61 

Since K — fc, we have : 

S + (O — S) F -\- r C = e + r s (14) 

This is the equation of condition by which to judge whether an 
old plant unit has just reached the age of retirement, assuming 
the gross-income from both new and old plant units to be identical. 
When the gross-incomes are not identical, the method to be pur- 
sued is now self-evident. When the new plant unit is economically 
superior to the old. there results an inequality : 

E + {C — S)F + rC<e-\-rs (15) 

Now a few words as to F. This factor, namely, the annual rate 
of functional depreciation, is perhaps the factor most likely to 
puzzle those who have not studied the different kinds of depreciation 
and their economic significance. Functional depreciation is the loss 
of value due to obsolescence and economic inadequacy. Average 
functional life is the term of years that a plant unit of the given 
class remains in use before it is superseded by an improved or 
larger unit. The functional depreciation rate is the annuity rate 
which compounded at the interest rate (r) will yield an amount 
equal to unity at the end of the average functional life. 

Another expression requiring explanation is " equated annual 
expense." As here used, to equate means to secure an economic 
average by a sinking fund method of calculation. To equate annual 
repairs, for example, calculate the total cost of repairs of the first 
year at compound interest up to the end of the last year of economic 
life of the given plant unit. Calculate similarly the total cost of 
repairs of the second year, the third year, etc., up to the end of 
the last year of economic life. Add all these compounded repair 
costs together and multiply by the annual deposit in a sinking 
fund which if started at the beginning of the life will redeem $1 
at the end of the economic life of the given plant unit. The product 
is the equated annual cost of repairs. Of course if repair ex- 
penditures are uniform, they automatically equate themselves, but 
this is rarely the case. 

Since it is commonly believed that a new plant unit must show 
an increased profit sufficient to pay interest on the original cost 
of the old plant unit that it displaces, it is well to point out the 
fallacy. This is a fallacy of confusion of a general class of im- 
provements with a particular improvement. Progress costs money. 
Functional depreciation is a loss of value due to progress. Hence 
it is the cost of progress. But progress implies increasing profit, 
which must be at least sufficient to equal the functional depreciation. 
In other words, the profit from progress in general must pay for 
the cost of progress in general. 

Now comes the curious mental twist by which this truth is dis- 
torted into an error, thus : ' The profit from each individual in- 
stance of progress must pay for the cost^ of that particular in- 
stance of progress. Whence naturally follows the blunder in the 
final conclusion that every new plant unit must be sufficiently efl^i- 



62 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cient to pay not only its own individual interest charges but those 
on the orig-inal cost of the plant unit that it displaces. As pre- 
viously pointed out, a functional depreciation annuity is precisely 
like a fire insurance jn-emium. Each is based on the law of 
averages for a given class of risks. It would be evidently illogical 
to refuse to erect a new factory building to replace one that had 
burned, unless the new one would yield an increased profit sufficient 
to pay interest both on its own cost and on the value of its prede- 
cessor. Equally illogical is the reasoning that would make an im- 
proved machine bear the interest burden of its obsolete predecessor. 

These examples of false reasoning should serve to indicate the 
necessity of studying the general processes of reasoning in a sys- 
tematic manner. Nearly every trained engineer can juggle equa- 
tions with skill and accuracy, but such ability is no evidence of 
equal ability in the reasoning that should precede the setting up of 
an equation that correctly and completely embodies all conditions, 
implied or connoted as well as exi^licitly stated. 

The Calculation of Rates for Electric Current. The following 
is an abstract of a i-eport to the Oro Electric Company relative to 
a schedule of electric rates for a proposed hydroelectric plant in 
California. 

The method of attacking this problem is of general applicability in 
all electric rate problems where it is desired to base the rates to 
each class of customer on the cost of serving that class. It is not 
to be inferred, however, that each rate should necessarily be based 
on cost. But it is usually desirable and often necessary to deter- 
mine the relation of rates to costs, and for this purpose the following 
method of solving the problem will be found helpful. 

Definitions. There is as yet no unanimity as to the meaning 
of terms used by appraisal and rate making engineers. For the 
purpose of this discussion the following definitions will apply. The 
definitions are arranged alphabetically. 

Active Load. The maximum load in kw. recorded on a cus- 
tomer's demand meter of the Wright type. 

Apparent Diversity Factor. The quotient found by dividing the 
total connected load by the station peak load. See Diversity Factor. 

Additional Cost Rate. A rate based not on. the full cost of the 
service including fixed charges, etc., but upon the additional cost 
of furni.shing the additional service. See Full Cost Rate. 

Capacity Cost. See Demand Cost. 

Cajyacity Load Factor. The ratio of the number of kw.-hrs. ac- 
tually generated to the number of kw.-hrs. that would be 
generated in a given pei-iod, were the plant operated continuously 
at full rated capacity; the average kw. load, divided by the kw. 
capacity of the generating station. See Station Load Factor, and 
see Connected Load Factor. 

Connected Load. The total kw. capacity of all the motors (out- 
put capacity), lam.ps (input capacity), and current consuming 
devices connected to se given circuit. 

Connected Load Factor. The ratio of the metered kw.-hrs. to 
the number of kw.-hrs. that would be consumed during a given 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 63 

period if the connected load were consunning current at its full 
rated capacity. Unless otherwise stated, the assumed period is a 
year of 8760 hrs. 

Cost. The sum of operating expenses, taxes, depreciation an- 
nuity, and interest, but not including profit. (See Profit and see 
Expense.) 

Consumer Cost. The cost that can be charged directly against 
each consumer, in distinction from Demand Cost and Output Cost. 
(See Service Cost.) 

Demand Cost. This term is used by the Wisconsin Railroad 
Commission as a synonym for Capacity Cost, which latter term 
was originally coined by Henry L. Doherty. In Volume 4 of its 
decision, p. 662, the Wisconsin Commission gives this definition: 
" The expenses which are thus chargeable to demand are sometimes 
said to consist of all expenses which do not depend on output 
(kw.-hr. ) and at other times, again, of all expenses which go on 
or continue even if the plant is shut down. . . . Experience shows 
that it is difficult, if not im])Ossible, to lay down a definition that 
will apply under all conditions." 

In view of this indefiniteness, and particularly in view of the 
Wisconsin Commission's error of prorating interest and depre- 
ciation charges among Demand Expense, Output Expense and Con- 
sumer Expense, in proportion to. those several expenses (see Dis- 
trihution cost), we prefer not to use the term "demand cost." 

Demand Factor. The ratio of the Active Load to the Connected 
Load. The reciprocal of the Demand Factor is the Consumer's 
Diversity Factor. (See Diversity Factor.) 

Depreciation Annuity. The annuity deposited in a sinking fund 
to replace plant units at the expiration of their economic life. 
This does not include the cost of repairing parts of plant units, 
such as the flues of a boiler, the cost of which is provided for by 
current maintenance expense. (See Functional DejJreciation and 
Natural Depreciation.) 

Distribution Cost. The cost of distributing the current from the 
substation to consumer, which embraces interest, depreciation, and 
taxes on the distribution system, including customer's transformers 
and the operating expense (including proportion of general ex- 
pense) attached thereto. Although Distribution Cost has no logical 
relation to Demand Cost, as the latter term is used by the Wis- 
consin Commission, it corresponds rather closely to it in dollars 
and cents. 

Diversity Factors. Due to the fact that all customers do not 
simultaneously require current enough to run their connected loads 
to full capacity, but have a diversity of demand, the number of 
kws. of station capacity is always less than the number of kws. 
of connected load. If there were no losses of current, the Total 
True Diversity Factor would be the quotient obtained by dividing 
the Total Connected Load by the Station Peak Load. However, 
there are always losses of current (transmission, transformation, 
etc.). Hence, if the Total Connected Load is divided by the Sta- 
tion Peak Load, the quotient is the Total Apparent Diversity Fac- 



.64 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tor. Apparent Diversity Factor is, then, the product of True 
Diversity Factor by Line Efficiency. (See Line Efficiency.) 

Just as there are successive efficiencies, the product of which 
gives the combined or total efnciency, so there are successive di- 
versity factors, the pi'oduct of wliich gives the total true diversity- 
factor. 

The successive diversity factors are : 

1. Meter Diversity Factor. 

2. Transformer Diversity Factor. 

3. Substation Diversity Factor. 

4. Station Diversity Factor. 

Meter Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing the 
connected load of a group of meters (customers) by the peak load 
at the line transformer that serves the group. 

Transformer Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing 
the sum of the peaks of a group of line transformers by the peak 
on the feeder wire that serves the group. 

Substation Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing 
the sum of the peaks on a group of feeder wires by the peak on 
the substation bus bar that serves the group. 

Station Diversity Factor is the quotient found by dividing the 
sum of all the substation peaks by the peak at the station. 

Each of these four diversity factors is an " apparent diversity 
factor " if line losses are not eliminated, but each becomes a " true 
diversity factor " if line losses are eliminated. 

The Active Load (see definition) divided into the Connected Load 
gives a quotient that mi^ht be called the Custoviers' Diversity 
Factor. The reciprocal of this is the Demand Factor", (See De- 
mand Factor.) 

Efficiency. The quotient found by dividing the pov/er generated 
into the difference betv.'een the power generated and the power 
lost, or E = iP — L) ^ P. (See Line Efficiency.) 

The efficiency of water wheels, generators, and transformers de- 
creases as the load upon them decreases. Hence the all day average 
efficiency is less than their efficiency at capacity load. 

Expense. As here used, expense means operating expense and 
does not include fixed charges. (See Cost.) 

Fnir Return Rate. The percentage rate of annual fair return on 
•the value of the property. The sum of the Interest Rates and 
PxqM iRa'tes.. 

Fixed Charges.. The sum of Interest, Depreciation Annuity, and 
'Ta:xes. 

F0li C'Ost Raie. A rate (Of -charge that includes all prorated ex- 
penses, fixed charge ,and iprofit. ;(.See Additional Cost Rate.) 

Ffiinatiouiivl iDefiweciation.. Depreciation due .to economic inade- 
quacy and obsolescence. (See Natural Depreciation.) 

General Expense. This includes operating <expenses ;not directly 
assigned to Generating or Production Expense and to Distribution 
Expense. As here used, it does not include Ta?:es, which are fre^ 
quently classed under General Expense, 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 05 

Interest Rate. The annual percentagre paid for capital that is 
well secured. It does not include Profit. (See Profit.) 

Kilowatt (kvv.) = 1.34 Horse Power (h.p.). 

Kilowatt-Hour (kw.-hr. ) = 1.34 h.p.-hrs. 

Line Efficiency. The term as here used includes not only the 
efficiency of the transmission and distribution lines but of the step 
up and step down transformers, line transformers, and customers' 
meters. 

Load Factors. See Capacity Load Factor, Connected Load Fac- 
tor and Station Load Factor. Unless otherwise stated, all load 
factors are for the full year of 8760 hrs. 

Maintenance Expense. The current expense for upkeep, including 
current repairs and renewals, but not including Depreciation An- 
nuity, which latter may well be regarded as a depreciation reserve. 
. Natural Depreciation. Depreciation that results from the action 
of the forces of nature — rot, rust, abrasion, wear and tear, and 
the like. (See Functional Depreciation.) 

Operation Expense. All operating expenses exclusive of main- 
tenance. 

Operating Expense. All expense of operation and maintenance. 
This does not include Fixed Charges. (See Fixed Charges.) 

Output Cost. The cost (of electric current) that is a function 
of the kw.-hr. output of the station. There is no agreement among 
rate experts as to what costs are a function of output. In a steam 
plant the fuel cost is clearly a function of output, but it is often 
contended that practically all other station expenses are fixed and 
independent of output. On the other hand, there are thot-e who 
regard practically all expenses of operating the generating station, 
transmission line and substations as being Output Expenses. Some, 
like the Wisconsin Railroad Commission, regard most of the fixed 
charges on the generating plant, transmission line and substations 
as being Output Costs. They also prorate other Fixed Charges, 
as well as General Expense, between Demand Expense, Consumer 
Expense and Output Expense, in proportion to the direct distribu- 
tion of these three classes of expenses. 

Peak Load. The maximum (short time) kw. load during a given 
period, which period unless otherwise stated, is a year. The Station 
Peak Load is the maximum (short time) load at the generating 
station. 

Plant Unit. An appraisal unit of plant, such as a generator, a 
building, a pole, etc. 

Profit. The balance left after deducting Operating Expenses and 
Fixed Charges from Gross Operating Income. Fair profit plus 
interest is Fair Return. 

Production Cost. The cost of generating, transmitting, and 
transforming at the substation. This includes all operating ex- 
pense and fixed charges on the power plant, transmission lines 
and substations, plus its assigned part of General Expense. This 
Production Cost corresponds roughly with what the Wisconsin- 
Railroad Commission includes under Output Cost But it differs in. 



66 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

that no other fixed charges are assigned to the Production Cost 
than those directly assignable to the producing system, i. e., the 
power plant, transmission system and substations. It also differs 
in that General Expense is not arbitrarily prorated to Production 
Cost in proportion to a so-called " output expense," but only such 
General Expenses are allotted to Production Cost as would be 
incurred were current produced for wholesale at the substations. 
That this is a rational treatment of the problem is well seen when 
one proceeds to determine a fair wholesale rate for power at the 
substation. The -Production Cost gives the proper wholesale rate 
at the substation for any given station load factor created by the 
customer. 

Rate. A charge for service. It should include cost plus profit. 

Repairs. Renewals of parts of a Plant Unit. 

Real Diversity Factor. See Diversity Factor. 

Service Cost. This includes the operating expenses and fixed 
charges that pertain to the service connections and customers' 
meters, plus clerical and other general expense involved in caring 
for customers' accounts, collecting bills, and the like. 

Station Load. The load in kilowatts at the power station. 

Station Load Factors. The ratio of number of kw.-hrs. actually 
generated to the number of kw.-hrs. that would be generated in 
a given period were the plant operated continuously at the x>(^(^h 
load of the period. Unless otherwise stated, the period is a year 
of 8760 hrs. Stated otherwise, the Station Load Factor is the 
average kw. station load divided by the peak load. (See Capacity 
Load Factor.) 

Rates based on full cost. It is assumed that every rate of charge 
for electric current is based on the full cost plus a fair profit. 

Classification of Cost Items. For rate jnaking purposes, the cost 
of electric current can best be distributed under three heads : 

1. Production Cost. 

2. Distribution Cost. 

3. Service Cost. 

As stated under the definition of Production Cost, this part of 
the cost corresponds rather closely to what the Wisconsin Railroad 
Commission calls Output Cost. However, the methods used by the 
Wisconsin Commission in prorating General Expense and Fixed 
Charges among Demand, Output and Customer Expenses, do not 
seem logical. Accounting authorities are cited by the Wisconsin 
Commission in support of prorating "indirect expenses" (General 
Expense and Fixed Charges) according to the distribution of 
" Direct Expenses," but a careful study of the writings of those 
accounting authorities will show that their experience has been 
limited to mercantile and manufacturing pursuits, where interest, 
depreciation and taxes were a relatively small part of the total 
cost. When we come to consider public service companies in gen- 
eral, and hydro-electric companies in particular, we find that fixed 
charges assume large proportions. 

This difference between mercantile and utility companies is con- 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 67 

ceded. At once we are struck by the incongruity of prorating 
the fixed charges of a hydro-electric plant according to the dis- 
trilDUtlon of the direct operating expense. To do so is to make 
the tail wag the dog ; we might almost say, to make the hair 
on the end of the tail wag the dog. Interest and depreciation are 
not direct functions of direct operating expense, as assumed by 
the old accounting authorities. In fact, interest and depreciation 
are more apt to be inverse or reciprocal functions of direct operat- 
ing expenses. Thus, in a steam plant, the direct operating expense 
is large in proportion to the fixed charges, whereas in a hydro plant 
the reverse is true. The absurdity of many a general rule is best 
disclosed by applying it to extreme cases, and nowhere does the 
prorating of interest and depreciation according to direct operating 
expense show forth with greater absurdity than in the case of a 
large hydro-electric plant. 

For these reasons, and because the wholesale price of current at 
the substation must so frequently be determined, the cost of current 
has been classified as above shown. Production Cost then becomes 
the full cost of current at the substation, and it includes all oper- 
ating expense and fixed charges incident to generating, transmitting 
and transforming the current at the substation. 

Prodxiction Cost. Production Cost of a given plant may be re- 
garded as being composed of two classes of cost items: (1) Fixed 
Cost, and (2) Variable Cost. 

Fixed Cost includes all fixed charges (interest, depreciation and 
taxes) and all operating expenses that are not affected by increase 
or decrease in kw.-hr. output. Variable Cost includes only the 
costs that vary with the output. In the case of a hydro plant 
the variable costs are almost infinitesimal compared with the fixed 
costs, unless a value is assigned to the water used. In the case of 
a steam plant, the variable cost consists almost entirely of the fuel 
cost. 

Therefore, the Production Cost per kw.-hr. of a hydro plant 
varies inversely as the station load factor. With a steam plant 
the same holds true of practically all costs except fuel. The fuel 
cost would be a constant cost per kw.-hr. were it not for the lower 
efi^iciency of the generating plant at lower loads. 

Having calculated the total annual Production Cost for a hydro 
plant determine the kw.-hr. cost of a 100% station load factor. 
For other station load factors of a hydro plant the kw.-hr. pro- 
duction cost will be inversely as the station load factor. 

The Station Load Factor assignable to any class of customers 
is estimated by multiplying the True Diversity Factor (assignable 
to that class) by their Connected Load Factor. Thus, if residence 
lighting customers have a true diversity factor of 5 and a con- 
nected load factor of 4, their station load is 20%. In the case of 
a hydro plant whose Production Costs are as tabulated below, the 
production cost at 20% Station Load Factor would be 1.25 cts. 
per kw.-hr. if there were no line losses, or 1.67 cts. per kw.-hr. if 
losses were 25%. 



68 MECHANICAL ANP ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE V. 


PRODUCTION 


OHAIUJE 


PlOIl 


KW 


.-HK IN 


CENTS 


Station 


















load factoi 






Tra 


ru^foraier a 


nd line 


losses 




per cent. 


]So loss 


JO'.'r 


1 5',); 


20% 




25% 


30% 


3 00 


0.25 c 


•ts. 


0.28 ct.« 


;. 0.2!)c'ts. 


31 cts. 


0.33 cts. 


36 eta. 


iM) 


0.28 




0.31 


0.3 3 


35 




0.37 


0.40 


80 


31 




0.3 4 


36 


0.39 




0.41 


0.4 4 


70 


36 




0.10 


0,42 


0.4 5 




0.48 


0.51 


60 


0.-I2 




^7 


0,4<« 


52 




0,56 


0,60 


50 


0,50 




0.56 


0.59 


62 




0,67 


0.71 


40 


63 




0,70 


0.74 


0.79 




0.84 


0.90 


35 


0,71 




7 It 


0,81 


0.84 




0.9 5 


1.01 


30 


83 




0.1)2 


0.H8 


1,04 




1.11 


1.19 


25 


1 00 




1,11 


118 


1.25 




1 33 


1.43 


20 


1.25 




1 39 


1.47 


1.56 




1.67 


1.79 


15 


1 67 




1 S5 


1 96 


2 09 




2 23 


2 39 


12 


2 (IS 




2 31 


2,^5 


2.60 




2', 7 7 


2.97 


10 


2 50 




2.78 


2.9 4 


3.12 




3.33 


3.57 



'Checkinct Estiyiialed Appftrcnl D'.vcrsi'u Factors. From the 
:abcw« given defuiit ions of Diver.^ity Factors it is evident that ap- 
par.e-jart: diversity factor may be expressed by the formula 

d - d, X (h X (h X (li X E (16) 

That is, apiiarent diversity factor is the iiroduct of successive 
'True Diversity Factors and I^ine Efficiency. Line Efficiency is itself 
,a product of successive efTiciencies, including an average all day 
^efTiciency factor. (See Live Efficiency.) 

Station Load Factor assignable to any class of customers may 
^e expressed by the formula 



df 
E 



(17) 



/ being connected load factor. 
E " line efliciency. 

It should be remembered that, in equity, each class of customers 
is entitled to benefit from the general diversity of use of the cur- 
rent by different kinds of customers at different times of the day 
or year. Thus if the peak of a railway load is 1,200 kws. ontho 
railway circuit, while the peak of the lightin,^: load is 1,800 kws. on 
the lighting circuit, and. if the two peal;s are not simultaneous, it 
may happen that the station peak is only 2,500 kws. This would 
give a Station Diversity Factor Uli) of 

3000^ 2500 - 1.2 

Both classes of customers are equally entitled to the benefit of 
this diversity factor, if a full cost rate is to apiily. 

Likewise, if a class of irrigating customers use current only 6 
summer months during the year, at full load, while a class of 
lighting customers use current only during the remaining 6 months 
at their full load, there is a resulting Station Diversitj' Factor 
(fZi) of 2 from this cause alone, assuming that there are no other 
circuits. 

Great care must be exercised in allowing for class diversity of 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES GO 

the sorts just indicated, for they frequently cause a very high Sta- 
tion Diversity Factor, or Class Diversity Factor. 

The Apparent Diversity Factor assigned to any class of customers 
must be based on the record of loads for the entire year, and must 
be ;the product of the four classes of successive diversity factors, i.e. 
Meter, Transformer, Substation, and Station Diversity Factors. 

We may now develop two important rules for checking any 
estimates as to diversity factors for different classes of customers 
of a given plant, and a rule for calculating Station Load Factor. 

Rule I. Divide the Total Connected Load of each class of cus- 
tomers by its Apparent Diversity Factor, and the quotient will be 
its prorata of the kw. station peak load. The sum of these quo- 
tients for all classes of customers is the station peak load during 
the year. 

Rule. II. Multiply the Connected Load of each class of custom- 
ers by its. Connected Load Factor, and- the product will be the 
kw.-hrs. sold annually to that class of customers. The sum of these 
products for all classes of customers is the total kw.-hrs. sold 
annually. 

Rule III. Multiply the True Diversity Factor of each class of 
customers by its Connected Load Factor and the product is the 
Station Load Factor assignable to that class. 

It will be found that if Rule 1 is applied to the electric rate 
cases that have been handled by public service commissions, some 
surprising errors as to assumed diversity factors will often be dis- 
closed. Also it is noteworthy that the existence of successive di- 
versity factors, whose product is the total diversity factor of a, 
given class, has not usually been recognized. Finally, it has seldom; 
been perceived that there is such a thing as an Apparent Diversity^ 
Factor as distinguished from a True Diversity Factor. In other 
words, the effect of Line Efficiency has been lost sight of. 

Distrihutioyi Cost. To the Production Cost must be added a 
Distribution Cost chargeable to all customers who do not buy their 
current at the substation. The Distribution Cost includes all 
operating expenses and fixed charges that pertain to the distribu- 
tion system. The distribution system includes poles, wire, line 
transformers, etc., between the substation and the customer's 
" service." Any part of the General Expense that would be in- 
curred if the distribution system Avere operated independently of 
the rest of the plant, should be allotted to the Distribution Cost. 
Parts of the distribution system can be charged directly against 
certain classes of customers : thus, street lighting circuits are 
chargeable to the municipality. Other parts of the distribution 
system are used in common by two or more classes of customers, 
and must be prorated. Perhaps the best theory of prorating is the 
Separate Plant Theory. According to this theory, the cost of the 
separate plant for each class of customers is calculated, and the 
existing plant is prorated according to the respective costs of the 
separate plants that would be required if the classes of customers 
were served entirely independently of one another. 

A close approximation to this theory is obtained by applying 



70 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL CO^T DATA 

what may be called the Peak Load or Demand Theory. According 
to this theory, the cost of a plant, or part of a plant, that is used 
in common by several classes of customers is prorated among them 
according to their peak demands. This is the theory most com- 
monly used by rate making engineers for prorating costs of plant ; 
but in prorating operating expenses it is often best to go back to 
the Sei)arate Plant Theory to get a clear idea of the most rational 
distribution of expenses that are common to two or more classes 
served. 

Having prorated the cost of the distribution sj'Stem to the dif- 
ferent classes of customers, it is usually fair to charge to each 
customer his prorata according to his connected load, for it is 
highly probable that at some time or another he will use his 
entire connected load to its full capacity. Active load might be 
used as a basis of such prorating, in special cases, but there is 
usually little known as to active load, and where it is known, it is 
usually found to be a fairly uniform percentage of connected load 
for any given class of customers. Hence it seems to us not only 
confusing, but of doubtful value to split hairs by trying to introduce 
an individual Active Load element in a rate case. 

Service Cost. This includes the operating expenses and fixed 
charges that pertain to the service connections and customers' 
meters, plus the clerical and other general expense involved in 
caring for customers' accounts, collecting bills, advertising for and 
soliciting new customers, and the like, 

Reading, inspecting, and maintaining customers' meters comes 
under this cost heading. So do customers' repairs and renewals, 
as well as renewals of incandescent lamps, where such renewals are 
paid for by the Company. Office rent is to be prorated to Pro- 
duction Cost, Distribution Cost, and Service Cost, on the separate 
plant theory. And the same holds true of the salaries of general 
officers, insurance, and other general expenses. 

Formulas for Calculating Costs and Rates. The above enumer- 
ated costs of electric current can be concisely expressed in formulas 
that cleaiiy show the relation of the different constants and vari- 
ables. The formulas will serve not only as a basis for equitable 
rate making, but for a study of the economics of generating, 
transmitting and distributing current. 

The following formulas give the costs, but to use them for de- 
termining rates it is merely necessary to make the Fixed Charges 
include the Profit as well as the Interest on the investment. 

Symbols 

C — total annual Service Cost for all customers. 

c = annual Service Cost per customer. 

D — total Apparent Diversity Factor for the plant. 

d — Apparent Diversity Factor for a given class. 

di = True JMeter Diversity Factor for a given class. 

di ■= True Transformer Diversity Factor for a given class. 

ds = True Substation Diversity Factor for a given class. 

di = True Station Diversity Factor for a given class. 

E — total line Efficiency. 

ei = Customers' meter efficiency. 



GENERAL ECONOMIC FRINCIFLES 71 

€2 = Customei's' transformer efficiency. 

€3 = Feeder line efficiency. 

€4, = Substation efficiency (step down). 

65 = transmission line efficiency. 

Ca = step up transformer efficiency. 

e =: ratio of all day effici'ency to the peak load efficiency. 

F = total Connected Load Factor (annual). 

/ = Connected Load Factor (annual) of given class. 

G- = total annual Distribution Cost. 

g = annual Distribution Cost per k.w of Connected Load of 
a given class. 

Ji = Fixed Annual Cost per kw. of Connected Load of a given 
class. 

K = kw.-hr. average cost for all classes. 

Jc = k.w.-hr. cost for a given class. 

L = total Station Load Factor. 

{ = Station Load Factor of a given class. 

m = Annual Fixed Distribution and Service Cost per cus- 
tomer of a given class. 

n = number of kw. connected load of given customer or of a 
typical customer of a given class. 

p = Production Cost per k.w-hr. 

B = Total annual Fixed Production Cost when the Station 
Load Factor is 100'/^. 

r = ditto per kw. of Station Peak Load. 

s = Variable Production Cost per kw.-hr. (i.e. cost of fuel) 
which constitutes nearly all the Variable Production 
Cost.) 

T = total yearly cost for entire plant. 

(r s \ g c 
■ + - + + (18) 
SIQOIE EJ SlGOf 87G0/U 

h = g + — (19) 

n 



\ 8760?^ E I 



(20) 



m = gn-\- c ( 21 ) 

rf = Uhdidsdi) E ( 22 ) 

i<7 = ei 62 63 64 65 e (23) 

df 

1 = (24) 

E 

For rate making purposes it is usually sufficiently exact to assign 
roughly approximate value of E3 to all residence and business light- 
ing customers : but in the case of large power customers more pre- 
cision should be used. 

Formula for k.w.-hr. costs : 

(r s \ g c 
■ + — I +■ + (25) 
STGOIE E I 8760/ 8760 //i 

The three terms in the right hand member of the equation are 
respectively the kw.-hr. Production Cost, the kw.-hr. Distribution 
Cost, and the kw.-hr. Service Cost. 

The values of 7c may be plotted in a curve for any assumed values 



72 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of d and n, the abscissas of the curve being / (the connected load 
factor), and the ordinates being k (the correspondence kw.-hr. 
coot). Since for diffierent classes of customers there are different 
values of d (d being- a function of I as in Equation 24) and n, it is 
necessary to plot different cost curves for the different classes. 

As above stated, the Variable Production Cost (s) consists al- 
most entirely of the fuel cost. In a hydro plant, s may be re- 
garded as having- no appreciable existence, unless a value is as- 
signed to the water itself. 

Fuel cost per kw.-hr. is commonly regarded as being constant 
for any given plant, and for any given price of fuel. It is, how- 
ever, constant only where the load is constant, A variable load 
causes variation in generating and transforming efficiency, which 
often causes wide fluctuation in the cost per kw.-hr, for fuel. Due 
allowance should be made for this when estimating s. 

Formulas for Tivo Payment Rates. It is frequently desirable to 
charge a fixed annual (or monthly) rate (h) per kw. of connected 
load plus a kw.-hr. rate (p) on the total kw-hr. used. To do this 
it seems best to determine the fixed annual kw. rate by adding the 
Distribution Cost to the Service Cost. Then the Production Cost 
is used as the basis for the kw.-hr, rate. 

Then we have 

7j :-- j (7-1 I for the connected kw. rate (26) 

P - ( • H I for the k\v,-hr. rate (27) 

\87Q0 1E E J 

It might be argued that in the case of a hydro-electric plant 
nearly all the costs are fixed, and that the logical rate would there- 
fore consist almost entirely of a large fixed kw, connected load rate 
plus a very small k\v,-hr, rate. This, however, would lead to the use 
of small installations which would be run almost continuously, 
whether the current was really needed or not. The great objection 
to flat rates arises from this very reason. There is, besides, an 
innate prejudice against rates that do not result in substantial de- 
creases in monthly charges when current is used sparingly. 

Formula for Miniunim Rates. Equation (26) gives a rational 
"minimum annual cost" per kw. of connected load. If it is de- 
sired to express this as a minimum annual cost per customer, we 
have 

m = gn + c (28) 

It has been argued by some that only c, the Service Cost, should 
be regarded as the minimum cost, but this ignores the fact that 
the distribution sj'stem stands ready to serve the customer, and 
that he should be at least willing to pay his prorata of the fixed 
charges thereon. Indeed, it may rationally be claimed that the 
minimum rate should be high enough to include the customers' 
prorata of the fixed charges on the power plant, transmission line 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 73 

and substations, based on the customers' demand thereon. It is 
good busmess, however, to stop short of this hist claim, and it is 
evident that this belief is quite general, for the standard $1 per 
month minimum charge for residence lighting customers is fjir below 
wliat is necessary to cover a customer's prorata (jf all the fixed 
charges of the average plant. 

In applying formula (28), there may be some doubt as to the 
value of n (the connected kw. load) of a customer of a given class. 
It seems fair to select on average value of n, found by dividing 
the total connected load of all the customers of a given class by 
the number of customers in that class. If we were to go to the 
extreme of selecting the connected load of the smallest customer, 
the probable result would be to lead to a still further decrease in 
the number of lamps installed by the smallest customer, which in 
turn would result in a decided decrease in the diversity factor of 
customers of that class, and a consequent rise in the Production 
;Cost for customers of that class. In brief, lowering of the mini- 
mum rate charged to li.^hting customers, if based on a very smali 
connected load, -would result in a lowering of the diversity factor, 
and a rise in the Production Cost. Hence, the minimum rate can- 
not usually be lowered without making it necessary to raise the 
kw.-hr. rate. 

Finally, it Is impracticable to ]ieep a careful check on the con- 
nected loads of the smallest customers, for they can. readily sub- 
stitute larger lamps for smaller and change their loads. 

For these reasons, it seems fair to assume an average value for 
n, in any given community. 

Cost of Oro Electric Corporation Poiver Plant, Transinissio^h 
Lines and Substations. Having discussed the general methods tc 
be used in analyzing the kw.-hr. co.st of current, we come to an 
application of the principles to the City of Stockton, California. 

The first step in the analysis is to estimate the cost of the pro- 
posed hydro-electric plant to be built on Yellow Creek and the 
cost of the transmission lines and substations necessary to convey 
and transform the full amount of current that will be generated 
The following Is the itemized estimate of this cost : 

TABLE VT. ESTIMATED COST OF CONSTRUCT INCx YELLOW 
CREEK POWER PLANT AND TRANSMISSION LINES. 

(38,000 kw.) Voltage on main conductors, 130,000. 

ROADS, RAILWAYS AND CONSTRUCTION PLANT 

1. Roads $ 30,000 

2. Railway spur .50,000 

3. Railway to quarry for dam 20,000 

4. Incline 20,000 

5. Power line (less salvage) , . . . . 30.000 

6. Tools, constr., equip., camps, etc '100.000 

7. Railway along flow line (pays for itself by timber 

hauled out and sold) ..... 

Total — Roads, rys., etc $ 250,000 



74 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

DAMS AND HEADWOUKS 

Huinhuu Da III: 

8. Excavation, 23.000 cu. yds. at $1 ,..$ 23,000 

9. liock Fill, 110,000 cu. yds. measured in the dam at 

$1.50 210.000 

10. ('oncrete toe. 2,600 cu. yds. at $10 2(),000 

11. Timber face, 4'60 M at 25 12,000 

12. Spillway 30,000 

13. Gate house, gates, etc 20,000 

Total — Humbug Dam $ 321,000 

14. Other headworks , 12,000 

Total for dams and headworks $ 333,000 

CANALS AND CONDUITS 

Forest Conduit: 

15. Tunnel (5 by 7 >/j) 5,200 ft. at $12 $ 62,400 

16. Adit. 100 ft, at $10 1.000 

17. Ditch, 84,000 cu. yds. at $0.50 42,000 

18. Culverts, waste gates, etc 6,000 

Total for Forest Conduit , $ 111,400 

Cataract Conduit: 

19. Wood stave pipe (7 ft., 9 4 ft., b.m. per lin. ft., 183 

lbs. bands and 48 lbs. shoes, nuts, etc., per lin. ft. 

19,560 lin. ft. at $15 $ 293.400 

20. Steel Pipe at bends. 236,000 lbs. at,$0. 08 18,800 

21. Excavation (mostly along present ditch), 26,000 cu. 

yds. at $0.75 19.500 

22. Back fill. 12,000 cu. yds. at $0.50 6.000 

23. Trestle, 1,100 ft. at $8 8.800 

24. Manholes. 8 at $200 1,600 

25. Tunnel (7 ft., 2.7 cu. yds. excav. and 1.0 cu. yd. con- 

crete per lin. ft.) 12,900 lin. ft. at $30 387,000 

26. Tunnel adits. 4.000 cu. yds. at $6 24.000 

27. Pipe at adits, 86,000 lbs. at $0.07 6 000 

28. Manholes and bulkheads 5.000 

Total for Cataract Conduit $ 770,100 

Butt Creek Conduit: 

29. Ditch trimmed, 3,200 lin. ft $ 3,200 

Surge Pipe, etc.: 

30. Surge pine or shaft $ 20.000 

31. Pipe through dam. 170,000 lbs. at $.07 11,900 

Total for Surge pipe, etc $ 31 ,900 

Total for Canals and Conduits $ 916.600 

PRESSURE PIPES 

32. Tunnel (12 ft.) 6.^00 cu. yds. at $6 $ 38.400 

33. Excavation, 30,000 cu. yds. at $2.50 75 000 

34. Concrete (anchors, etc.) 1.000 cu. yds. at $0.12 12,000 

35. Steel pipe — 

6.S0,000 lbs. (riveted) in tunnel at $.07 47 600 

630.000 " " at $0,065 40,950 

4,550.000 " lap welded at $0,075 341.250 

36. Manholes, etc 10,000 

Total for Pressure Pipe $ 565,200 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 75 

POWER STATION 

Per k.w. 

37. Power house 4.47 % 170.000 

38. Excavation, 10,000 cu. yds. at $2.00 0.53 20,000 

5.00 

39. Water wheels, gates and governors 4.35 165,000 

40. Generators, exciters, etc 4.20 160.000 

41. Switchboard and wiring 2.63 100.000 

42. Step up transformers 2.36 90,000 

43. Crane, etc. (50 ton) 0.26 lO.OUU 

44. Heating and miscel 0.26 10,000 

Total for Power Station 19.06 $ 725,000 

MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS 

45. Operator's quarters, etc $ 30,000 

46. Machine shop, equip., etc 20,000 

Total — Miscel. Bldgs $ 50,000 

Total power plant (Items 1 to 46) $2,839,800 

47. Contingencies and overhead charges, 30% of items 1 

to 46 851,940 

Total power plant $3,691,740 

TRANSMISSION LINES 

48. steel towers (660 ft. apart), 190 miles at $2,300 .... $ 437,000 

49. Copper for 190 miJes of tower line (6 wires), 3,250,- 

000 lbs. at $0.19 617,500 

50. Labor string, wire on towers: 1,030 miles at $40. . . . 41,200 

51. Insulators (9.100) on towers, 56,000 elements (10 lb.) 

at $1.25 70.000 

52. Hardware for above 10,000 

53. Grounding wire 10,000 

54. Telephone 1 90 miles at $125 23,750 

55. Fencing and misc 25,000 

56. High towers, etc 25,000 

57. Switching stations 14,000 

58. Pole transmission lines: 

100 miles at 1.600 160,000 

100 miles at 1,000 100.000 



Total for items 48^0 58 $1,333,450 

59. Contingencies and overhead charges 25% of items 48 

to 58 333,360 



Total for Transmission Lines $1,666,810 

WATER RIGHTS, LAND, ETC. 

60. Water rights, land and right-of-way $ 600,000 

SUBSTATIONS 

61. Sectionalising Stations $ 50,000 

62. Sub.stations for 38,000 kw. at $.8 304,000 

63. Tie line transformers 60,000 

64. Regulating apparatus 25,000 



Total for Substations, etc $ 439,000 

65. Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% of items 

61 to 64 $ 109,750 



Total for Substations, etc $ 548,750 

Grand Total for (38,000) kw. plant complete $6,507,300 



76 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

SUMMARY 

Roads, rys. and const, plant $ 250,000 

Dams and headwoiks 333,000 

Canals and conduits 916,600 

Pressure pipes 565,200 

Power station 725,000 

Misc. bldgs., etc 50,000 



Total $2,839,800 

Contingencies and overhead charges, 30% of above items. 851,940 

Total power plant. 38,000 kw. at $97 $3,691,740 

Transmission lines $1,333,450 

Contingencies and overhead charges on same, 25%; 333.360 

Total transmission lines $1,666,810 

Water rights, land and right-of-way $ 600.000 

Substations, etc $ 439,000 

Contingencies and overhead charges 25% on same 109,750 

Total substations, etc $ 548,750 

Grand Total, 38,000 kw. at $171 $6,507,300 

Cost of ElecMc Cxcrrent at the Substalion. Careful gaugings 
that have extended over nearly 8 years show that there will be 
sufficient water to develop at least 19,000 continuous kws. or 38,000 
kws. on a 50% load factor. This can be done with a flow of 165 
sec.-ft. ; but. as a matter of fact, there has been no time in the 
last 8 years when 179 sec.-ft. could not have been averaged had 
there been a storage reservoir of the size planned. The 165 sec.- 
ft. has been assumed in order to provide for the possibility of two 
very dry years in sequence. It will be pointed out later that the 
full 179 sec.-ft. and even more, can be i)rofitably utilized if a steam 
auxiliary plant of about 4.000 kws. is provided. 

Assuming for the present only 38,000 at a 50% load factor we 
have 164,600,000 kw.-hrs. generated annually. The production cost 
of this current at the substations will be shown to be 0.5 ct. per 
kw.-hr. on the assumption that none of the current is lost in trans- 
mission and transforamtion (step up and step down). And with a 
10% loss the cost at the substation will be 0.56 ct. per kw.-hr. 
The deduction of this cost follows. 

Annual Operating Cost. We shall now consider only the cost of 
operating the plant down to and including substations, reserving 
for later discussion the co.st of distribution and service cost. The 
following will be the annual operating expense of the power plant, 
transmission lines and substations, exclusive of repairs and de- 
preciation : 

Poiver Plant Expense: 

Wages and supplies $ 32,000 

TransHiission Line Expense: 

Wages, supplies, etc . 8.000 

Substation Expense: 

Wages, supplies, etc 26,000 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 77 

General Expense: 

Salaries 28,000 

Rentaly 4,000 

Insurance, legal and damages ., 15,000 

Miscellaneuus 10,000 



Total general expense % 57,000 



Total operating expense, exclusive of maintenance $123,000 

Annual Cicrrent Repairs on a plant of as permanent a character 
as this will not exceed 1% of the total plant cost. For many years 
to come the repairs will be less than V/t. _In addition to Current 
Repairs, a depreciation annuity of 2% of the plant investment should 
be earned. This 2% set aside annually and compounded at 5% 
interest will amortize the entire investment in 25 years. 

It is expected that capital can be secured by the sale of bonds, 
etc, at such rates that the interest charge will be 1% on the cost 
of the plant. Hence the annual repairs, depreciation and interest 
total 10%, distributed thus: 

Per cent. 

Current repairs 1 

Depreciation annuity 2 

Interest 7 

Total 10 

Since the investment in the plant, up to and including substa- 
tions, v/ill be $6,500,000, we have the following annual cost: 

Interest, repairs and depreciation (10% of $6 500,000) $650,000 

Operating expense, exclusive of maintenance and taxes.... 123,000 
Taxes on the above 52,000 

Total annual production cost $825,000 

As above stated, 164.600.000 kw.-hrs. will be generated annually. 
Hence, the Production Cost is $825,000^164,600,000"= 0.50 ct. (half 
a cent) per kw.-hr. generated. If we assume a transformer and 
transmission line loss of 10%. the cost of current distributed at the 
substations will be 90% -=- 0.50 :- 0.555 ct. per kw.-hr. when the 
station load factor is 50%. 

Table V gives the Production Cost per kw.-hr. for any given 
Station Load Factor assignable to any given class of customers, 
and for any given losses of current involved in the step up and 
step down transformers, transmission, distribution and metering. 

Cost of Current for Residence Customers. Having calculated the 
production cost for various Station Load Factors we can determine 
the total cost of current per kw.-hr. sold to residence customers. 

At the low price proposed by the Oro Electric Corporation, the 
average residence customer can be counted upon to create a Sta- 
tion Load Factor of at least 20%. This is equivalent to a con- 
nected load factor of 4.57t. and k True Diversity Factor of 4.5, the 
product of these being 207f. or the Station Load Factor. In other 
words, the average resid'^nce customer with a connected load of 
0.75 kw, will use 300 kw.-hrs. per annum. 



78 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Referring to Table V, we see that for a Station Load Factor of 
20% and a Line and Transformer Loss of 25%, the Production Cost 
is 1.67 cts. per kw.-hr., to which must be added the Stockton (Cal.) 
local tax of 2%, making a total production cost of 1.71 cts. To this 
must be added the Distribution and Service Costs, which are as 
follows : 

For the average residence customer there will be the following 
investment in Distribution System : 
Poles, etc. : Per customer 

0.5 pole at $13 in place $ 6.50 

1.2 cross arm and hardware at $1.25 1.50 

Total poles, etc $ 8.00 

Wire, etc. : 

35 lbs. at 0.21 (including labor, pins, insulators, etc.) 
in place $ 7.35 

Transformers : 

0.5 kw. at $12 in place 6.00 

Miscellaneous : 

Telephone, tools, stores, etc 2.65 

Total $24.00 

Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 6.00 

Total per residence customer $30.00 

(Note. Service connection and meter are given later.) 
The interest, depreciation and repairs on this investment of $30. 
per residence customer are : 

Per cent. 

Interest '. 7 

Depreciation and repairs 6 

Total 13 

The annual distribution charge per residence customer is : 

Per customer 

Interest, depreciation and repairs 13% of $30 $3.90 

Salaries, insurance, etc 0.40 

Taxes 0.30 

Total, 300 kw-hrs. at 1.53 cts $4.60 

Hence the distribution cost is 1.53 cts. per kw.-hr. 
The investment in service connection and meter is as follows 
per residence customer : 

Per customer 

Service connection $ 4.00 

Meter 12.00 

Total $16.00 

Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 4.00 

Total per residence customer $20.00 

The interest, depreciation and repairs on the service and meter 
are as follows : 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 79 

Per cent. 

Interest 7 

Depreciation and repairs 8 

Total 15 

In addition to this annual cost of 15% on the $20. investment 
(or $3 per year) per residence customer for service connection 
and meter, there is a service expense of $4 per annum, which is 
itemized as follows : 

Salaries of officers $0.30 

Accounting- 1.00 

Billing and collecting 0.60 

Rate clerk, etc 0.30 

Stationery and printing 0.20 

Bad accounts and cut outs 0.10 

Meter reading and transfer 0.40 

Soliciting and advertising 0.20 

Telei)hone, telegrai)h, etc 0.20 

Rent 0.20 

Miscellaneous (legal, insurance, etc.) 0.50 

Total service expense per customer $4.00 

(Note. Part of the salaries of officers is to be found under 
Production Cost and part under Distribution Cost, and the same 
holds true of certain other items.) 

Summing up the Service Cost per residence customer per annum, 
we have: 

Per customer 

Interest, depreciation and repairs, 15% of $20 $ 3.00 

Service expense 4.00 

Taxes 0.50 

Total, 300 kw.-hrs. at 2.50 cts $ 7.50 

Summing up the average kw.-hr. cost for residence customers, we 
have : 

Cts. per kw.-nr. 

Production co.st 1.71 

Distribution cost • 1.53 

Service cost , 2.50 

Total cost per residence 5.74 

The base rate proposed for residence customers is 6.5 cts. and 
the average residence customer will fall within this rate, for the 
rate does not begin to decrease until a customer uses more than 
100 kw.-hrs. per month. In considering the Connected Load Factor, 
it should be remembered that a lower price for current causes a 
greater consumption, and consequently a greater Connected Load 
Factor. A customer having a net rate of 6 cts. per kw.-hr. uses 
much more current than a customer having an 8-ct. rate. 

Cost of Current f6r Business Lir/hting Customers. Following the 
same method of cost analysis above applied to residence customer 
rates, we shall consider the three items of cost per kw.-hr. for busi- 
ness customers: (1) Production Cost; (2) Distribution Cost, and 
(3) Service Cost. 



80 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The average business lighting customer will create a Station 
Load Factor of at least 25%, and, referring to Table V, we see that 
the Production Cost is 1.33 cts. per kw.-hr. when the Station Load 
Factor is 25% and the line losses are 257c, adding 2% for local tax 
we have 1.36 cts. per kw.-hr. as the production cost. 

The Distribution Cost is derived as follows: 

The average business customer with 1.6 kw. connected load will 
reciuire an investment of less than $208 in underground conduits, 
underground service, cables, transformers, etc. (exclusive of meters 
and outside service connections, which are a part of the service 
cost). This distribution system cost is estimated liberally as fol- 
lows per kw. of connected load : 

Ducts:' Perkw. 

100 ft. vitrified ducts at 35 cts 35.00 

Manholes : 

.03 manholes at $175 $5.25] 

.08 manholes at $90 7.20 f 12.45 

Switches, etc. in Manholes: 

Junction boxes, switches and miscellaneous 4.00 

Laterals and Risers : 

0.2 Lateral (3 in. pipe, 60 ft.) at $75 15.00 

Cable: 

30 ft. lead covered cable in ducts at $0.70 $21] 

20 ft. cable in laterals at $0,20 $4 1 25.00 

Transformers : 

0.8 k.w. at $10.00 8.00 

Miscellaneous : 

Stores, etc. . .- 5.00 

Total $104.45 

Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 26.10 

Total underground system $130.55 

The annual interest depreciation and repairs on the underground 
distribution system will be : 

Per cent. 

Interest 7 

Depreciation and repairs 5 

Total 12 

The annual Distribution (~'ost per Ivw. of connected load will be: 

Interest, depreciation and repairs 12% of $130.55 .... $15.67 

Operation expense 1.50 

Taxes 1.43 

Total annual distribution cost per k.w $18.60 

Hence a business lighting customer averaging 1.6 kws. of con- 
nected load should be charged with an annual Distribution Cost 
of 1.6 X $18.60 - $29.76. 

The average business lighting customer has a Connected Load 
Factor exceeding 11%, and a True Diversity Factor exceeding 2.5, 



GENERAL ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 81 

making a Station Load Factor exceeding 11% X 2.5 = 27.5%. The 
annual consumption of current by the average business customer 
having 1.6 kw. connected load exceeds 1,500 kw.-hrs. Hence di- 
viding the $29.76 by 1,500 kws. we have 2.00 cts. per kw.-hr,, 
which is a liberal estimate of the Distribution Cost for business 
customers in the " underground district." 

The investment in meters and in the individual services (not 
included in the underground system above given) will be as follows, 
per business customer : 

Per customer 

Service (in addition to underground service) $10.00 

Meter 15.00 

Total $25.00 

Contingencies and overhead charges, 25% 6.25 

Total individual service and meter $31.25 

The annual interest depreciation and repairs will be : 

Per cent. 

Interest 7 

Depreciation and repairs 7 

Total 14 

Hence, the annual Service Cost per business customer will be: 

Per customer 

1. Interest, depreciation and repairs 14% of 31.25 4.37 

2. Service expense (previously estimated) 4.00 

3. Taxes 0.63 

Total service cost $9.00 

Since the average business customer uses at least 1,500 kw.-hrs. 
per annum, the Service Cost will be less than $9 -^ 1,500 = 0.60 ct. 
per kw.-hr. 

Summing up we have the following kw.-hr. cost of current sold 
to the average business lighting customer: 

Cts. per kw.-hr. 

Production cost 1.36 

Distribution cost 2.00 

Service cost 0.60 

Total 3.96 

The base rate for business lighting customers is 6 cts. per kw.-hr. 
up to 95 kw.-hrs. used in a month. Then the rate drops to 5.8 
cts. for current used up to 125 kw.-hrs. per month. Then the 
next drop is to 5.6 cts. per current used up to 160 kw.-hrs. It is 
evident, then, that the average business customer who used 1,500 
kw.-hrs. per year, or 125 kw.-hrs. per month, will enjoy a rate 5.6 
cts. per kw.-hr., less the discount for prompt payment. 



CHAPTER II 
DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 

Depreciation. Depreciation is loss of value. It may occur as 
a result of the loss of useful life of a plant-unit or its parts or be- 
cause of the invention or design of a more efficient plant unit, or be- 
cause a larger plant unit is more economic, or in consequence of a 
drop in the prices of equivalent plant units, or because of accidental 
Injury, or in consequence of any change that makes it more eco- 
nomic to render an equivalent service with another plant-unit. 

The cost of renewing an entire plant-unit is properly called a 
depreciation cost or charge. The cost of renewing a part of a 
plant unit is properly called a repair expense. But, as is stated 
below in the discussion of the term Plant Unit, there has been 
no very clear recognition of this important distinction by ac- 
countants and engineers. 

Careless writers of recent years and almost all writers ten or 
more years ago, usually have made no distinction between the 
annual cost of repairs and the annual charge for depreciation or 
depreciation annuity. Consequently many estimates of operating 
costs are deceptive. Two other causes of error as to '■ upkeep costs " 
(i.e. combined repair and depreciation costs) are common: (1) 
Failure to distinguish between natural and functional depreciation; 
(2) Failure to equate rei)air costs of the entire life of the plant 
unit. Both of these factors will be discussed later. 

For ordinary purposes it is well to classify depreciation under 
two general heads: (1) Natural Depreciation and (2) Functional 
Depreciation. 

Natural Depreciation is loss of value due to physical or chemical 
changes in plant units, e.g., rot, rust, electrolysis, " wear and tear." 
Loss of value due to an accident, such as the burning out of a 
generator, may also be classed as natural depi-eciation. 

Functional Depreciation is loss of value due to (a) obsolescence, 
(b) inadequacy, or (c) drop in prices. Obsolescence arises wholly 
from " imjjrovements in the art " — inventions. Inadequacy arises 
from, increased demands upon plant-units rendering them economi- 
cally too small or too light for the increased service required. Drop 
in prices occurs as a result of any combination of causes that 
increases the supply relative to the demand. Natural deiireciation 
is attributable to the forces of nature, whereas functional deprecia- 
tion is attributable to the foices of society. 

The forces that commonly cause Natural Depreciation are: (1) 
Chemical action. (2) electrical action, (3) mechanical action, and 
(4) vital action. Rust is an example of chemical action; electro- 
lysis is an example of electrical a^tion ; abrasion or wear is an 
example of mechanical action ; totting of wood is an example of 

82 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 83 

vital action, as is also the progress of senility of animals resulting 
finally in death. 

The forces that commonly cause Functional Depreciation are : 
(1) Invention, (2) growth of business that renders a plant unit 
inadequate economically, (3) public enactment that causes either 
loss of part or all of the economic use of a plant unit, (4) competi- 
tion that results in a reduction in unit prices. 

It needs but to make these classifications of the causes of de- 
preciation to give us pause when we undertake to say that any 
single simple method of estiinating accrued depreciation can be ap- 
plicable to all these sorts of depreciation. Inspection, for example, 
may disclose approximately the amount of v/ear that has occurred in 
the piston and cylinder of an old pump, but mere inspection may not 
disclose whether an old pump is as economic in the use of fuel 
as a new one. Testing alone will demonstrate the fuel efficiency 
of pumps. Testing alone, however, will not show the depreciated 
value of a pump or of any other apparatus that is to be compared 
with some apparatus of standard value. To make such a com- 
parison accurately we must apply mathematics, even though it be 
of a very simple sort, as will be shown later. 

Plant Units and Their Relation to Depreciation. Before any clear 
cut distinction can be drawn between terms such as " cost of re- 
pairs," " cost of renewals," " maintenance expense," and " depre- 
ciation annuity," it is essential to define what a ])lant unit is. No 
book on accounting or ratemaking gives a definition of plant unit, 
consequently there is endless debate as to the " true meaning " 
of all terms relating to " upkeep costs." 

Plant Unit is any unit to which a unit cost is assigned. Since 
the cost of a machine may be split up into many units to each of 
w^hich a unit cost may be assigned, it follows that appraisers may 
differ greatly as to what they call a plant unit. We prefer to call 
a whole machine — such as a generator or a boiler — a plant unit, 
and to treat the depreciation of the machine as a whole. The 
expense due to loss of life of the parts of the machine, we prefer 
to classify under the term Repairs. Plant units such as the fol- 
lowing have been used : A pole, a square yard of pavement, an 
engine, a building, a pound of copper wire, etc. 

Obviously it is possible to group the elements of a plant into 
" units " of any desired size and class. Thus an entire transmis- 
sion line may be called a "plant unit." If that is done, then the 
renewal of separate poles would" be a repair expense, and only the 
renewal of the entire transmission line would be a depreciation 
charge. 

A single pole with its cross-arms, guys, insulators, etc., but not 
including the transmission wires, may be regarded as a plant unit. 
In that case the renewal of a cross-arm would be a repair expense. 
But even a cro.ss-arm may be regarded as a plant unit, in which 
case its renewal would be a depreciation charge. 

Although no attempt has ever been made to define every plant 
unit of a given plant — except in ratemaking case.'^ — still it has 
\isually been the practice in accounting to treat all short lived 



84 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

small priced elements as chargeable to repairs when renewed, while 
renewals of long--lived, high-priced elements have been charged to 
depreciation. Railway ties, and even rails are commonly charged 
to " current maintenance," or " repairs," when renewed ; whereas 
locomotives, bridges, and buildings would be charged to a deprecia- 
tion fund if such a fund existed. In the absence of depreciation 
funds built up from depreciation annuities and interest thereon, rail- 
ways and other corporations have charged renewals of every sort 
to " current maintenance." 

It is important to know how to avoid the endless confusion that 
still exists in accounting and cost estimating, because of lack of 
definitions of what are to be regarded as plant units. It is equally 
important to know that this confusion is so universal as to make 
much of the published matter on repair expense and depreciation 
costs of doubtful value. With this warning, the authors must leave 
the reader to his own interpretation of many " upkeep costs " given 
in this book. 

Weighted Average Age of Plant Units. The average age of any 
group of plant units of equal value is calculated thus : Multiply the 
total number of plant units of the same age by the number of 
years that they have been in use ; add together all such products 
for the given class of units, and divide the sum by the total number 
of plant units. The quotient is the average age of the given 
class of plant units. 

If the plant units of a given class vary in first cost, then the 
weighted average age is found thus : 

Multiply the money expended each year in the construction of the 
plant units now in existence by the age in years ; add those prod- 
ucts together and divide by the total cost. The quotient is the 
weighted average age of the given class of plant units. 

In applying this last rule, care must be taken to make adjust- 
ments needed to provide for fluctuations in unit prices, so that 
standard unit prices may be applied to all. Care must also be 
taken to ascertain whether any plant units as originally built have 
been renewed ; and to this end both the original construction ac- 
counts and the maintenance and renewal reserve accounts should 
be investigated. 

If practically all the structures shown in the accounting records 
al-e still in existence, and the money expended each year for each 
class of structure is known, it is a very simple matter to figure 
the average age of the money invested in such structure, which, 
after all, is what is needed in estimating present value. To illus- 
trate, suppose there are a number of station buildings in existence, 
whose age is not known. Suppose, however, that $10,500 was 
spent for such buildings in 1896, $20,000 in 1900. and $5,000 in 1902. 
Then, in 1906, the average age of the money invested in these 
buildings is ascertained thus : 

$10,500 X 10 yrs. equals $105,000 one year 

$20,000 X 6 yrs. equals $120,000 one year 

$5,000 X 4 yrs. equals $20,000 one year 



$35,500 X 7 yrs. equals $248,500 one year 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 85 

This g-ives a total of $35,500 invested 7 yrs. ; for $35,500X7 yrs. 
equals $248,500 one year. 

The rule to be followed in all such cases is to multiply the money 
expended each year for structures of a given class by the age in 
years, add all these products together, and divide by the total 
cost of all the structures under consideration. The quotient is the 
average age of all the structures, or, more strictly speaking, the 
average age of the money invested in the structures. If some of 
the structures are no longer in existence, this method can still be 
applied. Take railway cross-ties, for example. Ascertain the total 
value of cross-ties in the track, then go back through the records 
of cost and tie renewals, by years, until the total cost of the 
renewals adds up to the total value of ties now in the track. 
Then compute the average age as above shown. If the price of ties 
has fluctuated, ascertain the actual price paid, and reduce all yearly 
expenditures of renewals to the present price. 

Analysis of Maintenance Accounts and Upkeep Costs. Before 
the true net earnings of a plant can be accurately ascertained, it 
is necessary to analyze the maintenance accounts, for it will 
usually be found that the actual expenditures for upkeep in any 
given year are less than the average expenditures for upkeep will 
be in the years to come. Simply because a plant is old it must not 
be assumed that its upkeep expenditures have reached a normal 
or average condition. Yet this erroneous assumption has been 
made in many rate making cases. 

Upkeep Cost is the actual expenditure for current repairs and 
current renewals (maintenance) plus the depreciation annuity not 
provided for in the actual expenditure for renewals. 

Current Maintenance, or maintenance as the term is commonly 
used by accountants, is the actual expenditure for current repairs 
and current renewals. 

Repair Expense is the current expenditure for keeping the parts 
of plant units in serviceable condition. 

Renewal Expense is the current expenditure for the renewal of 
whole plant units, and does not include a depreciation annuity. 

Annual Depreciation, as used here, is the estimated annual loss 
of value from all causes, including natural and functional. Annual 
depreciation usually exceeds annual Renewals in plants that are 
not very old. Hence the extreme importance of not assuming that 
annual renewals are probably sufficient to cover annual deprecia- 
tion. Annual renewals are usually only a part of annual deprecia- 
tion, and annual depreciation is, in turn, only a part of annual 
upkeep cost, for annual depreciation does not include annual re- 
pairs. Great confusion still exists in the minds of many people as 
to these terms, partly because they are not used in the same sense 
by all engineers. Serious errors have occurred, both on the part 
of public service companies and public service commissions, in 
estimating the probable annual upkeep cost. Sometimes in such 
estimates, annual repairs have been omitted, but more often the 
error has arisen because actual annual renewals of the previous 
year were assumed to cover all probable annual depreciation. 



86 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It has been proposed to use the term " maintenance " in place of 
" upkeep cost," and to segi-egate it into " ordinary maintenance " 
and " deferred maintenance." Then " ordinary maintenance " would 
cover repairs and renewals " which are made each year as needed " ; 
while " deferred maintenance " would cover repairs and renewals 
" which cannot economically be made each year but which are 
made at frequent intervals." Engineers who propose such a classi- 
fication have evidently never kept corporation books. 

Many careless estimators have not used the term " annual de- 
preciation " to cover renewals of parts (or repairs) as well as 
renewals of entire plant units, but have actually forgotten to include 
an allowance for repairs. When it is considered that the repairs 
of steam locomotives annually average 18% of their first cost, 
whereas the renewals of entire locomotives are about 4%. it will 
be appreciated that an engineer who estimated only 4% for depre- 
ciation of locomotives and allowed nothing additional for repairs 
would fall into serious error. Yet precisely this sort of blundering 
occurs with considerable frequency, and largely because of failure 
to understand the meaning of the' term " annual depreciation." 

Method of Estimating Annual Upkeep Cost. Having defined 
terms as we shall use them and having briefly explained accounting 
practice as to certain important features, we may pass to a sum- 
mary of the proper method of estimating the annual upkeep cost 
of a public utility plant. 

As at present conducted, no public utility company keeps its 
accounts in such a manner as to segregate Maintenance Expenses 
into Repairs and Renewals, using these terms as above defined. 
Yet, if we are to make proper estimates for depreciation funds. 
or if we are to ascertain the " true operating expense," it becomes 
essential to analyze Maintenance into Repairs and Renewals. 

If the weighted age of any given set of plant units is less than 
half the total life of units of that class, the expenditures for 
Renewals of the plant units are below what they must ultimately 
be. Thus, if the life of interurban railway cross-ties is 10 years, 
and if the weighted age of a given lot of ties is 3 years, it is evi- 
dent that tie renewals are still below normal. "When, however, the 
weighted age becomes 5 years (i.e., half the life), it is evident that 
tie renewals have reached a normal stage, for there will then be 
ties of all gradations of age, from those just put in the track to 
those just ready to be taken out. 

If the weighted age of few classes of plant units in a plant has 
yet reached half the total life, it becomes exceedingly important 
to anal.vze the maintenance accounts. Otherwise, if the present 
maintenance expenditures were regarded as being normal, no ade- 
quate allowance would be made for depreciation that is now going- 
on but is not yet being paid for. 

In the same manner current repairs increase with increasing age 
of the plant units. Hence neither Repairs nor Renewals can be 
properly judged until an analysis is made of the maintenance ac- 
counts and until the weighted age of each class of. plant units is 
determined. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 87 

Maintenance, as before t;aid, is the cost of Repairs plus the cost 
of Renewals of such plant units as have been charged to the op- 
erating- account. When a plant is young, repairs are usually inex- 
pensive and there may be a few or no renewals of plant units at 
all. Hence, unless a renewal reserve account is provided, there may 
be little or no charge for annual plant depreciation shown on the 
book.s, although depreciation is actually occurring. When a large 
plant is old, there are heavy repair expenses v/hich are quite uni- 
form but the actual renewals of many classes of plant units fluctuate 
from year to year. In other words, the annual expenditures to re- 
place plant units are apt to fluctuate, and the fewer the number 
of plant units the greater the fluctuation. 

Having analyzed the annual maintenance expenses of a plant 
.so as to show what has been expended for Renewals and what for 
Repairs, the next step is to compare the actual expenditure for 
Renewals with the estimated annual Depreciation. In the case 
of most plants it almost invariably happens that the actual Re- 
newal expenditures fall below the estimated annual Deprecia- 
tion. 

The true total upkeep expen.se is the sum of two items: (1) Re- 
pairs and (2) Depreciation. While the actual maintenance expense 
is the .sum of two items: (1) Repairs and (2) Renewals. Since 
Depreciation usually exceeds Renewals and always exceeds it in 
the case of a new plant, it is of the utmost importance that the 
excess be accurately ascertained before passing upon the question 
of rates charged for service. 

Suppose, for example, that the estimated depreciation of cross- 
ties is 8% per annum, and that the total cost of the ties is $20,000, 
then the annual depreciation is $1,600. If the actual tie renewals 
for a given year show a cost of $600, it is evident that tie renewal 
costs for that year are $1,000 below normal. 

Where the number of plant units of any given class is large, 
and where they are of varying ages, a normal condition of renewals 
is not reached until the weighted age of all the plant units of that 
class is half the total life of a plant unit of that class. Keeping 
this fact in mind, it is possible to tell roughly whether or not the 
renewals of a given class of plant units have been normal during 
a given year, provided only that we know the weighted age of the 
plant unit.s. But the more precise method to use is the one above 
outlined, which may be summed up thus : 

Segregate the actual annual maintenance expenses into Repairs 
and Renewals. Deduct all the Renewals and add the estimated 
annual Depreciation. The resulting sum will he the total true 
annual upkeep cost. 

When nothing but the ordinary accounting records are available, 
the segregating of Renewals from Repairs often seems like an 
impossible task in the case of certain classes of expense items, but 
usually a way can be found that will enable a sufliciently close 
approximation to be made. A study of the " stock slips," for ex- 
ample, will disclo.se the purposes for which given amounts of ma- 
terials were used. Having ascertained the amount of materials 



88 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

(copper wire, for example) used for renewals, the labor required 
to put the given length of wire in place may be estimated. 

Some maintenance accounts, lil<e those for ties and rails, contain 
only the cost of materials used for renewals. In such cases, also, 
the labor of placing these materials in the plant can be estimated, 
and then added to the cost of the materials. 

The " requisitions " show all the purchases of equipment, and a 
study of the equipment and accounting records discloses whether 
a given purchase was for Renewals or for additions to plant. 

Suggested Improvements in Maintenance Accounting. Since pub- 
lic service commissions will hereafter limit net income to a "rea- 
sonable return," it becomes of prime importance so to keep the 
maintenance accounts as to segregate Repairs from Renewals. To 
this end a company should subdivide its maintenance accounts 
so as to show the labor cost corresponding to the cost of each class 
of materials used in Repairs and Renewals. Every maintenance 
cost item should not only be divided into labor and materials, where 
such division is practicable, but Rejjairs should be segregated from 
Renewals. It is also desirable that there be a separate mainten- 
ance account for every plant distribution account. Thus, if there 
is a plant account for bridges, there should be a corresponding 
maintenance account for bridges, and this account should be sub- 
divided into Labor and Materials. By providing a maintenance 
account corresponding to eacli class of plant items, it will be 
possible to express each kind of annual maintenance cost as a 
percentage of the first cost of the corresponding plant items. 

The method above suggested for recording maintenance expenses 
is not in use by any public service company, so far as we know, 
but the necessity for securing more accurate maintenance data to 
be used in rate making cases alone justifies the adoption of this 
method. Furthermore it will enable any one better to judge past 
maintenance expenses and to predict future upkeep costs with 
greater accuracy. 

Analysis of Upkeep Cost. In estimating the probable annual cost 
of upkeep, plant units should be segregated into two groups : 

Group I : 

Those plant units of a given class (railway ties, for example) 
that are numerous and of ail gradations in depreciated value from 
nearly zero to 100% value. 

Group II : 

Those plant units of a given class that either are not very 
numerous, or if numerous, do not have much gradation in depre- 
ciated value. 

In the first group would fall railway ties, if the railway were 
one in which ties of every gradation in age were to be found in 
the track. Likewise poles of a distribution system would come in 
the first group, if the- poles were of all gradations in age. In such 
cases the average age of the plant units is 50% of the total life of 
a plant unit of that class. Obviously no depreciation fund is needed 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 89 

in that case, for the annual renewals will be made according to the 
straig-ht line formula. Thus, if poles have a life of 17 years, and 
if they are of all ages from brand new to nearly 17 years old, the 
normal renewals will be at the rate of 6% per year. Renewal of 
plant units in Group I is therefore to be calculated by the straight 
line depreciation formula. 

Renewal of plant units in Group II is to be calculated by the 
sinking fund formula, the sinking fund annuities being made only 
sufficient to amortize the depreciated value (not the new value) 
of the given plant units. If the plant units are of a kind whose 
repaii-s to parts of a unit will rise as time goes on, then the unit 
cost depreciation formula is the one to apply in estimating incre- 
ments in future upkeep. 

Amortization Before or After Depreciation Has Occurred. Con- 
tention is often made that depreciation should be amortized after 
a renewal has been made and not before. Where only natural de- 
preciation is involved, there is little to support such a contention. 
But where functional depreciation is involved, the contention takes 
on more force. It is then reasoned as follows : 

Functional depreciation of a particular old plant is always at- 
tended by functional appreciation of the property due to the eco- 
nomic advantage of the new plant that displaces the old. The cost 
of this depreciation is less than the profit of the appreciation, and 
out of this profit must be paid the cost of depreciation. Therefore 
no charge should be made for functional depreciation until there 
is a gain accrued with which to meet the charge, that is, until 
the saving effected by the new plant provides funds with which to 
amortize the investment in the plant displaced. 

Thus, it is contended, does the burden fall where and when it is 
due, whereas to anticipate functional depreciation by setting aside 
annuities before the functional depreciation occurs, results in as- 
sessing costs prior to the enjoyment of benefits. 

It is but one step from this conclusion to the next : Functional 
depreciation is non-existent until the old plant is actually removed. 
In other words, functional death does not occur until the inade- 
quate or obsolete plant is permanently retired. 

This last proposition is seriously supported by many men, but is 
untenable. On the other hand, there is some justification for the 
view that functional depreciation should be amortized after the 
fact, although the justification is upon grounds not hitherto clearly 
set forth. 

Before correct answers can be given to the questions here in- 
volved, it is necessary .to distinguish shari^ly between the eco- 
nomics of free com.petition and the economics of full or partial 
monopoly. It is also necessary to distinguish between economic 
improvements caused by forces exterior to an owner or employe of 
a plant and economic improvements caused by the owner or em- 
ploye of a plant — interior forces. Competition and other exterior 
forces may compel an action ; but complete, and often even partial 
monopoly, may lead to non-action. 

An invention made by men exterior to a public utility company, 



90 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

for example, may force the company to buy the improved apparatus 
in order to protect itself from possible competition, or in order to 
■meet existing competition. In such an event, functional deprecia- 
tion cannot always be amortized out of subsequent g-ains. This is 
the condition that exists for most manufacturers, and makes it 
imperative for them to insure themselves either through a functional 
depreciation annuity or through large profits prior to the occur- 
rence of the anticipated improvement. Even they can usually 
amortize some of the functional depreciation after the fact, be- 
cause of the partial monopoly that every well established business 
enjoys. 

Functional depreciation caused by forces over which the owner 
of a plant has little o;' no control is closely akin to loss of property 
by fire. It should be insured against as far as possible and in 
advance. If such depreciation strikes the man who has built up 
no reserves against it, his property is as surely and almost as 
swiftly swept away as by a conflagration. Hence the fallacy of 
the generalization that all functional depreciation should be amor- 
tized after the fact. Hence, too, the fallacy that no property has 
functionally depreciated until it has actually been retired. Such 
generalizations evidently need decided qualifications, to which we 
now come. 

Invention by men exterior to a plant is to be provided for by a 
functional depreciation reserve built up prior to the invention, as 
far as possible. Invention by men within the plant usually needs 
no such protection. This distinction is vital to any complete theory 
of accrued depreciation and depreciation reserves. Invention from 
xvithout may cause a sudden and irretrievable loss of value to a 
given plant. Invention from within also causes destruction of 
existing property value but the loss is not irretrievable and is, in 
fact, never incurred unless there is overpowering belief in the 
ability to recoup it out of savings effected by the particular inven- 
tion. The enjoyment of the fruits of the invention is assured in 
one or more ways: (1) Patents, (2) secrecy, (3) inertia of com- 
petitors, (4) monopoly of the business, partial or complete. Where 
invention is not patentable, some sort of partial or complete 
monopoly of the business is usually the source of the protection 
needed to stimulate the effort to secure improvement. This holds 
also of all economic improvements whether or not they are entitled 
to be ranked as inventions. 

Economic improvement from within an organization occurs only 
under the stimulus of some sort of protection in the enjoyment of 
its benefits, and in that case the depreciation that it causes is 
properly amortized subsequent to the fact. But economic improve- 
from without an organization results in a depreciation that should 
be insured against, as far as possible, in advance of the fact. 

Every industrial invention is a gain to society at large, but 
whether it is a gain to any particular group of men depends upon 
their partial or complete protection from the competition with the 
invention for a period of time. In the absence of such protection, 
an invention may cause great loss of property to some men. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 91 

When thiough the enjoyment of a franchise or of an established 
business, or both, a public utility company has gained the protec- 
tion that a partial monopoly secures to it, the custom has been to 
amortize functional depreciation after its occurrence. This is en- 
tirely defensible, either as an economic or an ethical proposition. 
Where such a policy has existed, it is certainly not ethical for a 
government to change the policy by a sudden fiat, thus depriving a 
company of the opi)ortunity to amortize its functionally retired 
plant units. And even were it ethical to do so, it would be uneco- 
nomic for a government , thus to destroy a company policy by fiat, 
for the inevitable result would be to stop almost every effort to 
economize further. Certainly no company would initiate improve- 
ments under such conditions and it would be equally certain to put 
every obstacle in the way of improvements initiated by others. 

In ascertaining the depreciated value of a plant, only the actual 
depreciation should be deducted from the cost new. But in creating 
depreciation or renewal funds for future use, not only should pro- 
vision be made for the natural depreciation that is certain to occur, 
but for all the functional depreciation that will probably occur, 
provided only that the annual surplus after paying operating ex- 
penses and a fair return on the investment is large enough to per- 
mit the creation of such a depreciation fund. Only the most 
profitable companies can do this. During the " development 
period " no company should attempt to provide a fund for future 
functional depreciation, for functional depreciation may not occur, 
although it is probable that it will. 

In brief, a financially strong company should provide a fund to 
amortize probable functional depreciation in advance of its occur- 
rence, while a financially weak company should pay for functional 
depreciation only when it occurs and should amortize such depre- 
ciation after its occurrence. Intermediate between these extremes 
will be found many companies that provide depreciation funds or 
surpluses to take care of part of the probable functional depre- 
ciation. 

In the event that no depreciation fund is to be provided for future 
functional depreciation, the rate of fair return on the investment 
should be high enough to cover probable functional depreciation. 

Stated otherwise. In making provision for the future, the probable 
future functional depreciation due to future inventions, future 
growth, etc., must be fully provided for, either in the form of de- 
preciation funds or in a rate of " fair return " sufficiently high to 
recoup the investor for the chance he takes that functional de- 
preciation will reduce the value of his plant. Perhaps the most 
rational plan is to use a combination of these two methods by : 
(1) Providing a depreciation fund that will include all probable 
depreciation due to inadequacy, predicated upon the past growth of 
demand upon the plant and upon similar plants elsewhere; and (2) 
permitting a rate of fair return sufficiently high to provide for 
probable depreciation due to obsolescence. 

Accrued Depreciation and Depreciated Value. Taking the original 
cost of a plant unit as the base cost, and deducting from this base 



92 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the depreciated or present value, the remainder is its accrued de- 
preciation. In an ideal system of accounting and financial manage- 
ment, there would exist a depreciation fund equal to the sum of 
the accrued depreciations of all the plant-units. Such an ideal 
system would provide a depreciation fund out of which would be 
paid all current rei)air expenses as well as the cost of renewing 
entire plant-units. This ideal is seldom attained in practice. 

Depreciated value is often spoken of and regarded as being 
" second-hand value," but to do so is a mistake. Second-hand value 
is the net price that a used plant-unit will bring in the open market. 
The day after a new machine is put into use it can rarely be sold 
for as much as it cost. Frequently it will not bring half its 
original cost even though perfectly new. This is partly due to the 
expense incurred in marketing it, but largely to the distrust with 
which any used machine is viewed by prospective purchasers. 

Obviously, then, the second-hand value of an old plant-unit is 
not necessarily its depreciated value, provided the owner of the 
plant-unit can find further economic use for it. 

Depreciated value of a plant-unit is its economic worth as an 
instrument of production, which worth is correctly ascertainable 
by the application of the unit cost depreciation formula hereinafter 
explained. In this formula, as will appear later, the standard of 
value by which any plant-unit is rated is the unit cost of produc- 
tion or service with the most economic plant-unit available for the 
given service. It is impracticable to define true depreciated value 
completely in a few words, without the use of some expression or 
terra that must itself be defined in the form of a rule or formula in- 
volving several elements of the unit cost depreciation formula 
(which will be deduced later) may be expressed in words thus: 

Ascertain the total cost per unit of product (or service) that the 
old plant-unit yields, and deduct therefrom the corresponding total 
unit cost of product that the most economic new plant-unit yields ; 
multiply this saving in unit cost by the number of units annually 
produced by the old plant-unit and capitalize this total annual 
saving by dividing by the interest percentage. The quotient is the 
accrued depreciation of the old plant-unit, which, subtracted from 
its original cost, gives its depreciated value. 

This formula gives results that sometimes approximate those 
obtained by more commonly used formulas ; but it can and will be 
demonstrated that it is the only depreciation formula that is 
strictly rational and perfectly general in its applicability. 

The commonly used (but less general and often erroneous) de- 
preciation formulas are three in number : 

1. The Straight Line Formula. 

2. The Declining Balance Formula, 

3. The Sinking Fund Formula. 

Each of these formulas will be briefly discussed before passing 
to the Unit Cost Depreciation Formula. Four terms must first be 
defined, but it .should be noted that there is no general acceptance 
of these definitions. 

Recovery Value, or " recoverable value," is the net value remain- 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 93 

ing in a plant unit upon the expiration of its natural or functional 
life. Of course, it is understood that we are now speaking of its 
life in its particular place in the plant under consideration. Re- 
covery value is salvage value minus cost of removal. 

Wearing Value, or " service value," is the difference between the 
cost new and the i-ecovery value of a plant unit. Therefore " wear- 
ing value " is the only part of the value that depreciates. 

Sc7-ap Value is the selling price of an old plant unit that has so 
depreciated as to be worthless for further service in any part of 
any plant until it has been re-manufactured. The term applies to 
many metals that can be used again after re-melting, re-rolling, 
and the like. 

Salvage Value is the selling price of an old plant unit after its 
removal. It can never be less than its scrap value, and may be 
considerably more if the plant unit can be used again in a plant 
without being entirely re-manufactured. 

The term " Minirnuvi service value " is sometimes used instead of 
salvage value ; but it is also used to denote the least value arbi- 
trarily assigned to a plant unit still in service. One author (Pos- 
ter) has confu.sed these two meanings and has given erroneous data 
of salvage value. 

Recovery value may be less than salvage value or even less than 
scrap value, as happens when the cost of removing a plant unit is 
greater than the price for which it will sell as scrap. This is 
illustrated in the case of a small pipe, the cost of excavating which 
may exceed its scrap value. In paved streets, even fairly large 
pipes may at times have little or no recovery value, because the 
cost of taking up and relaying the pavement alone exceeds the 
salvage value. Of course where a trench for a new pipe is to be 
dug at the time of the abandonment of the old pipe, the same 
trench may serve to re.scue the old pipe and then its recovery value 
and salvage value may be almost identical. This is particularly 
true where trenches are in rock, for it then is usually wise to re-use 
the old trench for the new pipe. 

Wearing value is sometimes defined as the difference between 
the original cost of a plant unit and its scrap value or its salvage 
value, thus giving wearing value two meanings, depending on which 
subtrahend is used. 

To the majority of plant units it is often useless to assign any 
scrap value in calculating accrued depreciation, for the scrap 
value is usually so insignilicant a part of the cost new that to 
use it all gives an appearance of great accuracy to the depreciation 
calculations where no great accuracy exists. 

Per Cent. Condition. Depreciated value of plant units is often 
denoted by their " per cent, condition." Thus, if the depreciated 
value of a generator that originally cost $10,000 is $8,000, its "con- 
dition " is 80%. Instead of using the original cost as the base, it 
is common also to use the cdst of reproduction new as the base 
for estimating per cent, condition. The percent of annual depre- 
ciation used for a depreciation annuity is usually a percentage of 
the original cost new ; but occasionally it is a percentage of the 



94 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

wearing value. Still less frequently it is a percentage of the cost 
of reproduction new. 

Straight Line Depreciation Formula. Expressed verbally this 
formula is as follows : The depreciated value of a plant unit is 
found by multiplying its wearing value by its age in years and 
dividing by its total life in years, and adding this quotient to its 
scrap value. In other words the percent of annual depreciation of 
the wearing value is found by dividing the total life of the plant 
unit into 1. Thus if the life of a pole is 20 years, it depreciates 
annually 5% of its wearing value. If such a pole has no salvage 
value, then its annual depreciation is 5% of its original cost. 

The straight line formula is simple, and for very short lived 
plant units it may serve sufficiently well for many purposes. But 
it has no other merit than its simplicity to commend it. and for 
long lived plant units it yields results that are grossly erroneous. 
Curiously enough there are still some engineers who regard the 
straight line formula as being quite as defensible logically as any 
other. Most engineers, however, concede that it is purely empirical, 
and that its only justification is that it gives results, in some spe- 
cial cases, that approximate the truth. We may perhaps be par- 
doned for suggesting here that if all engineers were to give as 
much study to logic as they give to mathematics, there would be 
none left to defend the rationality of the straight line depreciation 
formula. 

The Declining Balance Depreciation Formula. (Often called the 
Progressive Diminution Formula.) The rule for this formula is: 
The annual depreciation of a plant unit during a given year is a 
fixed per cent, of its depreciated value at the end of the preceding 
year ; hence the annual depreciation progressively diminishes, and 
the depreciated value is found by subtracting the sum of these 
diminishing depreciation annuities from the original cost of the 
plant unit. 

This formula produces a curve of depreciated value that rapidly 
flattens out and extends to infinity. It has never had vogue among 
engineers but has been extensively used by accountants. The sup- 
posed merit of this formula is that in the early years when plant 
repairs are small, the formula yields a higher depreciation annuity 
than in the later years when the repairs are large ; and thus a 
relatively constant annual sum of repairs and depreciation is at- 
tained. At best this is a very crude way of attaining a proper 
annual upkeep charge ; yet granting that the formula may occa- 
sionally serve well enough for such a purpose, there is no defense 
for it on rational grounds. For plant units that require no renewal 
of parts before their life expires, this formula is clearly erroneous ; 
and since there is no fixed mathematical relation, for any kind 
of i^lant, between current repair, expense and depreciation annuity, 
the formula has no rational defense. 

Sinking Fund Depreciation Formula. According to the sinking 
fund method of calculating depreciation, it is assumed that the 
accrued depreciation of a plant unit is the amount already accumu- 
lated in a sinking fund that was begun when the plant unit was 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 95 

fii'st put into service, and whose annuities are such that at com- 
pound interest the amount at the end of the life of the plant unit 
will equal the first cost of the plant unit. 

The argument upon which the sinking fund depreciation formula 
was originally advocated is this: The i)urchaser of a depreciated 
plant should be willing to take the plant at its first cost, providing 
he also were to receive an accumulated sinking fund that would 
eventually (at the end of the life of the plant) equal the first cost 
of the plant. Hence if the purchaser takes only the depreciated 
plant, he should take it at its cost new less the accumulated sinking 
fund. 

This argument is sound, provided the plant unit is of a kind 
whose operating expenses, current repairs, and service performed, 
remain constant throughout the life of the plant unit. But the 
argument is unsound when operating expense and repairs increase 
or when the service or output of the plant unit decrea.ses as it 
grows older. In brief, the sinking fund depreciation formula is a 
special case formula — although one of wide applicability. The 
sinking fund depreciation formula is a special case of the unit cost 
depreciation formula, as proved on page 101. 

See Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data," p. 35 et seq. for tables, 
to be used in applying the sinking fund formula, and p. 798 for 
depreciation curves. 

Defects of Straight Line and Sinking Fund Depreciation Formula. 
"We may be sure that the straight line formula and the sinking 
fund formula cannot both be theoretically correct. One must be 
merely an approximation if the other is correct. Which, if either, 
is correct? 

Accrued natural depreciation increases as time increases, if the 
forces of nature have a progressive effect. In the case of rot, rust, 
wear, etc., the resulting accrued depreciation can often be deter- 
mined from consideration of the age of the plant units, provided 
the amount of previous repairs is known. But in the case of func- 
tional depreciation, age of plant has no direct relation to its ac- 
crued depreciation. Invention may render a new plant almost 
valueless, even before it has seen service or but shortly after its 
initial use. Growth of business, which causes inadequacy, may be 
rapid or slow, largely dependent on the vigor of the management 
of the proi^erty, partly on a rise in general prosperity (itself largely 
a result of invention), and for other reasons not directly related 
to the lapse of time. Clearly, then, it is not logical to insert a 
functional life in either the "straight line" or the "sinking fund" 
formulas for accrued depreciation. Natural life is to be inserted 
in these foi-mulas if they are to be applied at all. Yet how rarely 
has this vital distinction been drawn. Tables of " average life " 
of plant units commonly used by appraisers contain lives that are 
for the most part functional lives, in some part composite lives, and 
only in small part natural lives. The data in these tables were 
originally compiled, for the most part, as a basis for calculating 
depreciation annuities, with which to establish depreciation funds 
— a thing entirely distinct from accrued depreciation. Thus a fire 



96 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



insurance fund might be establis^hed exactly as a functional depre- 
ciation fund is established. A building nut yet burned has certainly 
not lost value because a fire insurance fund exists to insure it. 
In perfectly analogous manner, a plant has not lost value because of 
a functional depreciation fund that exists to insure it against ob- 
solescence and inadequacy. 

We see, therefore, that the two common depreciation formulas 
have been misused, usually with resulting depreciated values far 
below the real depreciated values. Let us next examine the 
formulas themselves to see whether they are defensible at all. 

If the straight line depreciation formula be applied to a 10-year- 
old cedar pole having- a total natural life of 20 years, its depreciated 
value is 50 per cent, of its cost new. Assuming the pole to cost 
$10 new and to have no salvage value, it would be worth $5 at the 
end of ten years, according to that formula. If this deduction is 
correct, it should be impracticable for a purchaser to use the pole 
during its remaining life at a less annual cost than would be in- 
curred if he bought a new pole. Let us, therefore, compare the 
annual costs. 

Old pole 

Interest, 5%. of $5 $0.25 

Depreciation, 10% of $5 0.50 

Total annual cost for old pole (10 years remaining) $0.75 

New pole 

Interest. 5% of $10 $0.50 

Depreciation, 57o of $10 0.50 

Total anual cost for new pole $1.00 

Hence, the old pole, purchased on a straight line depreciation 
formula, can be used at a less cost per annum than a new pole. 
This absurd result indicates that the straight line formula gives 
too low a value. The proof of absurdity is complete if we show 
that a sinking fund ^nnuitj'- applied to each price ($5 and $10) 
yields likewise different annual costs. 

Old pole 

Interest. 5% of $5 $0.25 

Depreciation annuity, 7.05% of $5 . . , 0.39 

Total anhual cost for old pole $0.64 

New pole 

Interest, 5% of $10 $0.50 

Depreciation annuity, 3.02% of $10 0.30 

Total annual cost for nev/ pole $0.80 

Hence a sinking fund cannot be used to secure equal annual costs 
where depreciated value is derived by the straight line formula, 
and in no case is it possible to use a new pole at less annual cost 
than an old pole, if the old pole is purchased at depreciated value 
calculated by the straight line formula. Therefore, a rational seller 
would never part with a pole at a depreciated value thus calculated, 
unless under some sort of compulsion. 

Let us now apply the same sort of reasoning to the sinking' fund 
depreciation formula, assuming- the same conditions as to age and 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 97 

cost new of pole. A 5 per cent, sinking: fund established to redeem a 
$10 pole in 20 yeaz^s would amount to $3.80 in 10 years. Hence the 
sinking fund depi'eciation formula gives $10.00 — $3.80 = $6.20 as 
the depreciated value of the pole. Then for the old pole, we estab- 
lish a sinking fund to redeem the $6.20 in the remaining 10 years, 
which requires an annuity of 7.95 per cent. 

Old pole 

Interest, 5% of $6.20 $0.31 

Depreciation annuity, 7.95% of $6.20 - 0.49 

Total annual cost for old pole $0.80 

New pole 

Interest, 5% of $10 $0.50 

Depreciation annuity, 3.027^ of $10 0.30 

Total annual cost for new pole $0.80 

Whatever be the age of the old pole, a similar calculation shows 
a' constant annual cost of $0.80. It follows, therefore, that a ra- 
tional seller would part with the pole at a depreciated value estab- 
lished by the sinking fund formula, provided he were put to no 
loss from causes incident to the sale. 

Note carefully that in the above examples nothing but natural 
depreciation Is involved and that no repairs or renewals of parts 
occur. If repairs to a composite plant unit are involved in the 
problem, neither of these two formulas Is correctly applicable.. 
And, as shown above, neither is correctly applicable if functional 
depreciation is involved. 

The sinking fund depreciation formula takes no cognizance of 
maintenance expense, which constitutes a serious defect in the 
formula when applied to classes of plant units that have a rising 
curve of repairs. Curiously enough this defect in the formula has 
been spoken of as if it were a merit. It has been said, for example, 
that a sinking fund depreciation curve follows closely the curve of 
actual loss of value, dropping slowly in the early years but dropping 
very rapidly toward the close of life of the plant. In brief, the 
argument has been that actual loss of value coincides closely with 
a sinking fund depreciation curve. Granting that it did, the result 
would be entirely fortuitous. In fact, however, repair " curves " 
are not regular curves but jagged lines. One of the prime objects 
of a depreciation reserve is to secure equality of annual charges 
for upkeep by providing a reservoir that prevents violent fluctua- 
tions in annual maintenance charges. Normally the repair costs 
on a machine rise as the machine grows older, but, instead of pro- 
viding for this rise, the sinking fund depreciation formula, as 
commonly used, entirely ignores it. Thus, the sinking fund formula 
gives as high a percentage of depreciated value for an automobile 
as for a horse, if each is assumed to have same life and if both 
are the same age. Yet the automobile has a rapidly rising curve 
of repair.s, while the horse has no repairs. 

If a sinking fund were calculated for every renewable part of a 
composite plant unit, of course the sinking fund depreciation 
formula could be correctly applied in the case of natural depre- 



98 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

elation. But this is obviously not the common method of applying 
the formula. It will be shown that the sinking fund depreciation 
formula is a special form of a much more general and perfectly 
correct depreciation formula. Under certain limitations, therefore, 
it has a field of usefulness. 

Rational or Unit Cost Depreciation Formula. It has been main- 
tained that depreciated value is " purely a matter of judgment " 
and that it can be arrived at either with or without the aid of 
formulas. That judgment plays an important part in estimating 
any value, depreciated or undepreciated, is true, but that judgment 
unaided by formulas can determine value is not true where the 
operating expense is a factor in the value. 

Given the choice between an old and a new plant unit, each 
capable of yielding the same service or output, the new plant unit 
would be selected unless the old plant unit were procurable at a 
price such that "fixed charges" on that price plus the annual 
operating expenses were equal to or less than the corresponding 
annual cost with the new plant unit. Any business man will grant 
the truth of this criterion the moment he understands it. Expressed 
as a formula it is : 

Rv + e — RG + E (1) 

In which R is the '.'fixed charge" rate (interest, etc.) ; v is the 
depreciated value of the old plant unit whose average annual oper- 
ating expenses are e; O is the first cost of an equivalent new plant 
unit and E its average annual operating expenses. From this equa- 
tion the following is derived : 

e—E 

v = C (2) 

R 

This is the simplest form of what may be termed the Rational 
Depreciation Formula, a more general form of which is the Unit 
Cost Depreciation Formula which we are about to deduce. This 
formula was first deduced in Gillette's " Handbook of Cost Data." 

Although all the data for the accurate application of the unit 
cost depreciation formula may not always be available, it is im- 
portant to appreciate that it is the only rational depreciation formula 
of perfect generality ; and that any other depreciation formula that 
may be used can be justified only on the ground that it gives results 
approximating those derivable from the use of the unit cost de- 
preciation formula. The authors make no qualification whatsoever 
in the foregoing statement, and they emphasize it because there 
still remain many engineers who think that some such age-life 
formula as the "straight line formula" is quite as logical and 
fully as general in its application as any other. Yet no advocate 
of an age-life formula has yet been able to refute the following: 

If it cannot he shown that the substitution of a new plant unit 
(or group of plant units) will decrease average operating expenses, 
then the value of the old plant unit is as great as the value of a 
new plant unit. 

Recently we had occasion to apply this generalization in the case 



DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 99 

of a water works reservoir that was 30 years old. It had suffered 
no natural depreciation except a small leak which could be repaired 
for about $100. The reservoir was of permanent construction, and 
it was adequate in capacity not only for present but for future 
needs. No larger reservoir would be built if a new one were built 
to-day. A stand pipe could not be economically substituted for it, 
and no other suitable reservoir site existed nearer to the city or 
more desirable because of greater pressure. We held that its 
age of 30 years had not the slightest bearing upon its depreciated 
value. Our judgment as to its value would be unaffected were it 
300 years old or 3 years old. Our criterion of its value was entirely 
independent of its age. The criterion was the total annual cost 
of the most economical substitute for it, and by this test the 30- 
year-old reservoir, instead of being worth less than a new alterna- 
tive reservoir, was worth more. This added value we regarded as 
the value of the reservoir site. 

In the following discussion of the unit cost depreciation formula 
the term " old plant " will be used to designate the exi.^ting plant 
unit or group of units whose depreciated value is to be determined, 
and the term " new plant " will designate the most economic new 
plant unit having the same annual output as the old plant unit. 
Wherever the word " annual " occurs, it is intended to mean 
" equated annual " or true average annual. Where the word " an- 
nual " occurs in reference to the old plant, it relates to the average 
for the remaining years of its life, but where the word " annual " 
occurs in reference to the new plant, it relates to the average for 
its total economic life. Small letters relate to the old plant, and 
capital letters relate to the new plant. 

Let — 

a — Age of old plant in years. 
C = First cost of the new plant. 

c = First cost of the old plant. « 

D = Depreciati(m annuity rate for the total natural life. 
d = Ditto for remaining natural life. 

E = Equated annual operating expenses (including taxes) dur- 
ing entire life of the new plant, inclusive of repairs and 
cost of natural depreciation, but exclusive of functional 
depreciation annuity. 
e = Ditto for old plant during its remaining life. 
F — Functional depreciation annuity rate for new plant. 
/ = Functional depreciation annuity rate for old plant. 
K = Total equated annual cost during entire life of the new 

plant, 
fc = Total equated annual cost during remaining life of the old 

plant. 
N — Total life of new plant in years. 
n = Remaining life of old plant in years. 
R = Interest rate plus functional depreciation rate. 
r— Interest rate, including risk insurance and proprietary su- 
pervision not included in F, f, E. e. 
S = Salvage value of new plant, 
s — Salvage value of old plant. 
XJ — Unit cost of product of new plant. 
u = Unit cost of product of old plant. 
V = Depreciated value of old plant. 
y = Number of units annual product with new plant. 
y = Ditto with old plant. 



100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Then we have : 

K E + (C-S) F + rC 

^ = T = ? "> ' 

k e + (c-s) / + r v 

u = — = (4) 

y y 

The old plant must have a depreciated value, Vj such that the 
unit cost, u, of its product must equal the unit cost, U, of the 
product of the ncic plant. Were u more than TJ, it would he more 
profitable to buy the new plant. Were u less than U, it would be 
more profitable to buy the old plant. But a condition of equity 
exists only when it is as profitable to buy the old plant at the value, 
V, as to buy the new plant at the cost C. This condition of equity 
is satisfied when w = U. 

Then — 



E -{- (C — S)F + rr f + C — s)f + rv 



y 



y r E + {C ~S) F -\- rC c — fs l 
r + fl T y J 



(5) 



(6) 



Equation (.6) is the most general expression of the economic de- 
preciation formula, but it may be reduced to much simpler terms 
for ordinary use. Usually Y = y, and S =s, or if these are not 
exactly equal the quality is so close that v is not appreciably 
affected by assuming perfect equality. Also it often happens that 
F and / ai-e equal or nearly so. Assuming these equalities, we 
have : 

E — e c — E 

v = c + = r (7) 

r + f E 

Equation (7) is the economic depreciation formula in a simplified 
but still very general form. Expressed verbally. Equation (7) is: 

Assuming equal gross income, equal annual output, equal salvage 
value and equal prospective functional life for new and old plant 
units, the depreciated value of an old plant unit is equal to the 
cost of a new plant unit of most econoniic design minus the capi- 
talized difference in their equated annual operating crpenses duy^ing 
the prospective economic life. 

It will be noted that the rate of capitalization (R) is the sum of 
the interest rate (r) and the functional depreciation rate (f) when 
the operating expenses (e and E ) do not include functional depre- 
ciation annuities. This is an important point, and one that is 
frequently overlooked in capitalizing incomes and expenses. 

Formula for Accrued Xatural Depreciation: When functional 
depreciation is non-existent, we have f — o, and then the depre- 
ciation formula, equation (7). becomes: 

e — E 
v = C-^ (8) 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 101 

In this case C is the cost new of a plant unit of the same size 
and class as the old unit whose depreciated value is v. E is the 
equated annual operating- expense, including- the depreciation an- 
nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the full wearing value 
(C — S), during N years total natural life of the unit ; and e is the 
equated annual operating expense, including the depreciation an- 
nuity required for a sinking fund to redeem the remaining wearing 
value (v — s) during the retnaining natural life of n years. 

If annual operating expenses other than depreciation are M, 
and are the same for a new as for an old plant unit, we have : 

E -D (C — S) -\- M (9) 

e-d(v — s) + M (10) 



Substituting in equation (8), and remembering that s = 8j we 
have : 



rC 



d (V — aS') +D (C — S) 



(11) 



D + r 

V = S -] (C — S). 

d + r 



(12) 



Equation (12) gives identically the same results as the ordinary 
sinking fund formula for depreciation, which is: 



[(l+r)a — 1 1 
1 
(1 + r)H _i J 



(C — S) 



(13) 



That Equations (12) and (13) give identical results may be 
shown by the use of sinking fund tables in the solution of specific 
numerical examples. In view of the importance of the subject, a 
strict mathematical proof may be demanded by some engineers. 
Accordingly it is given herewith. 

Proof of Identity of Equations (12) and (13 J: 



N- 



(/ + r)« —1 
r 



(7 -(- r)!* — 1 (/ + r) N-a — t 

Substitute these values of D and d in Equation (12). 
r 



(14) 
(15) 

(16) 



v-B^- 



(1+^)" — 1 



(1 + r)»-a— 1 



(C — >Sf). 



102 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

C- (1 + r)« [(1 +r)''-» — 1] ^ 

-S+J -V iC — S) ..(17) 

I (1 +r)''-*l (1 +r)« —11 J 

Multiplying- both numerator and denominator by (1 + r>"~* we 
have : 

[d +r)s— (1 -f r)a"| 
I iC~S) 
(l + r)« — 1) J 

[(l + r)a — 1 1 
1 —I iC — S) (18) 
(1 + r)H — 1 J 

Since Equation (18) is the same as Equation (13), it follows that 
Equation (12) g-ives the same value for v as does Equation (13), 
which was to be proved. Hence the special case, Equation (12), 
of the rational depreciation formula, Equation (8), is seen to be 
another form of the sinking- fund formula for depreciation. Hence 
the sinking fund formula is correctly applicable only where natu7-al 
depreciation is involved and only where current repairs are uni- 
form or absent. 

Inspections and Tests. In order to apply the '* rational depre- 
ciation formula," it is usually necessary to inspect the plant units 
and it is often necessary to test some classes of them. These steps 
are taken in order to estimate the prospective operating- expenses. 

Studies of the accounting- records may be of considerable aid in 
determining- what the prospective costs of repairs Mill be by show- 
ing- the amount, character, expense and dates of past repairs. Thus, 
a boiler whose flues have been recently renewed will obviously cause 
less prospective operating expense than one whose flues are old ; 
therefore it will have a higher depreciated value. 

Tests of the efficiency of a pump will indicate its fuel consump- 
tion as contrasted with a new pump. Inspection of the pump will 
disclose what parts are woi'n, and what the probable date of their 
renewal Avill be. With these factors known, and with a knowledge 
of efficiency and maintenance costs of modern pumps, the " rational 
depreciation formula " can be applied with considerable accuracy. 
Whereas merely to guess at the depreciated value after an inspec- 
tion is likely to yield results far from the truth. To apply an 
" age-life formula " is likely to result in even greater error. This 
is notably so in the case of buildings, reservoirs and other struc- 
tures that are practically everlasting if properly maintained. 

Criterion for Retiring Obsolete or Inadequate Plant. The general 
formula for depreciated value. Equation (5), may be used as a 
criterion for determining whether a plant unit has ceased to be 
economic and should be retired. The condition for such retirement 
is that the depreciated value, %\ shall be equal to or less than the 
salvage value, s; for if the depreciated value, v, has reached so low 
an amount that the plant has no greater value as an economic 
producing instrument than its salvage value, then it is worth more 
to its owner as merchandise than as a productive instrument. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 103 

Hence if we let v ~ s and y — Y, equation ( 5 ) becomes : 
S + (C — /S) F + rC = e + rs (19) 

When the equality of (19) is destroyed because the left hand 
member of (19) is less than the right hand member, the old plant 
should be retired in favor of the new plant. 

Depreciated Plant Value Only a Part of Total Value. Plant 
value is a function of the net earnings derivable from the operation 
of the plant. By assuming the gross earnings to be constant (that 
is, not affected by changing the plant), we have deduced a rational 
formula for ascertaining the depreciated value of a given plant unit. 
Observe, then, the absurdity of reducing rates of charge so as to 
yield only normal interest on depreciated value. A company de- 
vises a new plant unit of a given class for the purpose of reducing 
operating expenses. It thereby destroys most of the value of its 
old plant units of that class. But it does so because of the 
enhanced value given to its entire property by virtue of increased 
nej: earnings. Then comes a rate regulating commission and cuts 
rates so as to confiscate these increased profits, upon the theory that 
the commission is concerned with present conditions and present 
values of plant only! 

It is asserted that to capitalize profits involves circular reasoning 
in fixing a rate making value. B\it it is entirely overlooked that 
depreciation due to invention and inadequacy is itself a function of 
profits. If there were to be no increased profits as a result of in- 
vention and better engineering design of plant, then economic prog- 
ress would halt and functional depreciation would cease. 

Functional depreciation caused by a company itself is irrevocably 
tied to appreciation of its prospective profits. Those who contend 
that profits cannot affect rate making value do not understand the 
full significance of the term value. That this ignorance exists may 
be shown in many ways. Thus, commissions have used " depre- 
ciated values " as a base for rates, although most of the deprecia- 
tion is functional and caused by the company's own efforts ; and 
functional depreciation is dependent on profits. 

Most appraisers assert that they do not re-engineer the plant they 
are appraising. They estimate the cost of reproducing the " identi- 
cal plant " and therefrom deduct accrued depreciation. But when 
they deduct depreciation, most of it is functional depreciation, and 
they seemingly fail to realize that they are thus re-engineering 
the plant. 

From the foregoing discussion it should be evident that only 
natural depreciation should be deducted if the " identical plant " 
theory of appraisal is adopted. If functional depreciation is de- 
ducted, then assuredly functional appreciation should be given due 
consideration. If, for example, a railway has built a cut-off line 
and abandoned an old line, it has done so because the functional 
appreciation due to the cut-off is greater than the functional depre- 
ciation due to abandoning the old line. Hence, if the cost of the 
old line is to be deducted from the total property value, an even 
greater sum should be added to cover the appreciation in value 



104 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

consequent upon the building: of a cut-off line that reduces operating 
expenses. In short, commercial values cannot be disregarded in an 
appraisal if there is to be a rational result. 

Identical Plant Theory. Most engineers seem to think that "cost 
of reproduction " implies the reproduction of an identical plant, 
but then Avhen they come to consideration of depreciated value they 
" cross their wires," for they deduct therefrom estimated accrued 
depreciation due to " inadequacy," *' obsolescence resulting from 
invention," etc. When they do that they fail to see that no longer 
are they sticking to their " identical plant " theory, but are actually 
setting up as a criterion another plant — the most economic sub- 
stitute plant. There is no method of rationally estimated accrued 
depreciation of all kinds save by comparison with the most eco- 
nomic substitute. But in appraising an entire property this method 
carries us logically into a consideration of the cost of building up 
the attached business in the face of competition with the existing 
plant, and not upon the hypothesis that the existing plant does 
not exist. 

Life Tables of Plant Units. For years many engineers and others 
have been accustomed to use age-life formulas ("straight line" 
and "sinking fvmd") for calculating accrued depreciation, and 
have published plant life tables, sometimes called mortality tables. 
These life tables are commonly said to give " average lives." but 
the authors have yet to see accompanying explanations of how 
" averages " were determined. Usually such tables do not even 
indicate whether the life is natural or functional or composite, to 
say nothing of whether the functional life is brought to a close 
because of economic inadequacy of size of plant unit or because 
of the invention of a more efficient type of plant unit. Hence it is 
not putting the matter too strongly to say that practically all 
published data as to " average lives " of plant units are no bet- 
ter than rough approximations which are often exceedingly decep- 
tive. 

In Table I, we have prepared from original and published data a 
table of estimated lives, in years, of plant units, giving the different 
units alphabetically arranged, the estimated life in years and the 
authority quoted. As noted above, most of these lives are func- 
tional or composite and therefore cannot be used in figuring depre- 
ciated values by the straight line or sinking fund methods. As a 
basis for calculating depreciation aimuities, however, this table will 
bfe found veiT valuable. 

KEY TO AUTHORITIES IN TABLE I 

A — Wisconsin R. R. Commission. 

B — St. Louis Public Service Commission, Union Electric Light «& 
Power Co. 

C — Traction Valuation Commission, Chicago Consolidated Trac- 
tion Co. 

D — B. J. Arnold — Appraisal of the" Coney Island «& Brooklyn Rail- 
road, Feb. 1, 1909; 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 105 

E — Leonard Metcalf, Transactions American Society Civil En- 
gineers, 1909, p. 24 Vol. LXIV. 

F — Henry L. Gi*ay. 

G — Arbitrators, Street Lighting Controversy, Atlanta, Ga., 1899. 

H — Nathan Hayward, The Bell Telephone Co. of Pennsylvania, 
Aug. 31, 1912. 

I — H. P. Gillette, Everett Railway & Water Co., Jan. 29, 1912. 

J — H. P. Gillette, Washington Ry. Appraisal. 

K — Henry Floy, 3rd Ave. Case N. Y. City. 

L — Prof. M. E. Cooley, Milwaukee 3c case. 

M — Beegs, Milwaukee 3c case. 

N — M. G. Starret, Milwaukee 3c case. 

O — W. D. Pence, Milwaukee 3c case. 

P — Union Traction Co., Case Chicago and Union Traction Co., 
Stone & Webster. 

Q — B. J. Arnold, Chicago Appraisals 4 cases. 

R — Marwick, Mitchell & Co., Appraisal of a large street railway 
system, Foster, p. 199. 

S — Chicago Traction Commission. 

T — Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co. 

U — George W. Cravens, Industrial Power Plants. 

V — Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data. 

TABLE I. ESTIMATED LIVES IN YEARS OF PLANT UNITS 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority 

Aerial lines 20 B 

Arc lamps 6.7 G 

12.5 B 

15 A 

Batteries, storage 10 T 

10-20 U 

15 A 

15-20 P 

20 B 

20 K 

33.3 R 

Belting 20 A 

Benches (gas plant) 25 A 

Bins, storage 10-33.3 Q 

Boilers 10 D 

10-28.6 S 

11.75-15 O 

12-16 E 

13.3 T 

15-20 P 

22.2 R 

25-28.6 C 

28.6 Q 

30-40 U 

Boilers, fire tube 10 G 

Boilers, fire tube 15 B 

Boilers, fire tube, elect, light plants. , 15-30 A 

Boilers, fire tube, waterworks 20-25 A 

Boilers, water tube 20 K 

Boilers, water tube, elect, light plant 20 A 

Boilers, water tube, waterworks 20-25 A 

Brakes, air 20 A 

Bridges 40 R 



106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Estimated life 

Kind of plant years Authority 

Bridges, Howe truss 16.7 J 

Breecliings, steel 10 Q 

Breeching- & connections 10-28.6 C 

Blowers, centrifugal (gas plant) .... 15 A 

Buildings 33.3 T 

40 R 

50-100 U 

Buildings, brick 25-50 A 

Buildings, brick 66.6 C 

Buildings, carhouses 33.3 1 

Buildings, car barns 50 A 

Buildings, coal sheds & stables, frame 20-25 A 

Buildings, dwellings, frame 35 A 

Buildings, frame 20-50 E 

Buildings, frame 50 G 

Buildings, gas retort houses, brick. , . 30 A 

Buildings, grain elevators 33.3 J 

Buildings, masonry 40-50 E 

Buildings, misc 33.3 I, J 

Buildings, office 1st class stone and 

brick 75 A 

Buildings, power plant 33.3 I 

Buildings, power stations 50 A 

Buildings, railroad transportation 

dept 33.3 J 

Buildings, roundhouses 33.3 J 

Buildings, shops 33.3 I, J 

Buildings, shops, 2nd class 50 A 

Buildings, snow sheds 25 J 

Buildings, stations, fuel and water. . . 33.3 J 

Buildings, stations and waiting rooms 33.3 I 

Buildings, sub-station 33.3 I 

Buildings, telephone 24 H 

Bulkheading 10 J 

Cables 15-25 U 

Cables 20 T 

Cables 50 S 

Cable, aerial exchange 12 H 

Cable, aerial exchange loading coils. 20 H 

Cable, aerial exchange terminal .... 10 H 

Cable, aerial lead covered 12 A 

Cable, aerial lead covered 15 A 

Cable, aerial toll 12 H 

Cable, feeders 25 O 

Cable, feeders 66.6 Q 

Cables, feeders overhead 33.3 R 

Cables, feeder, underground 25 R 

Cable, house 13 H 

Cable, house terminals 10 H 

Cable, submarine 9 H 

Cable, underground (u. g.) 16.6 I 

Cable, u. g. exchange main 20 H 

Cable, u. g. exchange, subsidiary .... 13 H 

Cable, u. g. exchange loading coils. . . 20 H 

Cable, u. g. exchange terminals 10 H 

Cables, u. g. high tension 20 K 

Cable, u. g., lead covered 20 A 

Cables, u. g., lead covered 20 B 

Cables, u. g., lead covered 25 A 

Cable, u. g. toll 25 H 

Cable, u. g. toll loading coils 20 H 

Cable, u. g. terminals 10 H 

Cars, see Rolling Stock. 

Chimney 33.3 C 

Chimney, steel 10 D 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 107 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority 

Chimney, steel 14.3 Q 

Chimney, brick 33.3 Q 

Coal & ash handling machinery, see 
Machinery. 

Compressors, air 20-25 C 

Concentrators ammonia (gas plant) .15 A 

Condensers 10 G 

15 B 

20 A, D, K 

25 C 

Condensers (gas plant) 30 A 

Conduits 50 A, B 

Conduits 100 K 

Conduits (includes manholes) 50 R 

Conduit, u. g 16.6 I 

Conduit, u. g., exchange, main 50 H 

Conduit, u. g. exchange, subsidiary.. 15 H 

Conduit, u. g. toll 50 H 

Conveyors 22.2 B, 

Cranes 50 Q 

Cribbing 10 J 

Cross-Arms 8-12 A 

Crossings, R. R 12.5 I 

Culverts, log or timber 16.7 J 

Dams 33.3 & 50 I 

Distribution system, elec. ry 11.75 M 

" " 12.5 L. 

" " 14.25 N 

" " 33.3 I 

Docks 33.3 J 

Drains, box 16.7 J 

Economizers ] 0-20 Q 

Engines 22.2 R 

Engines, gas 15 A 

Engines, steam 10-33.3 S 

13.3-20 D 

15-20 O, P 

15-25 E 

20 K, T 

20-33.3 B, Q 

20-40 U 

Engines, steam, high speed 15 A, B 

Engines, steam, high speed 20 G 

Engines, steam, slow speed 20 A 

Equipment 8 I 

Equipment, electrical 11.75 M 

Equipment, shop 10 I 

10-25 U 

10-32.3 S 

13.3 T 

Equipment, power plant 20 I 

Exhausters (gas plant) 25 A 

Extractors, tar, P. & A. (gas plant) . . 40 A 
Feeders, see Cable. 

Fences 14.3 J 

Fences 20 R 

Fences, snow 10 R 

Foundations, machinery, same as life 

of apparatus supported C, K 

Foundations, machinery 16.6 Q 

Furniture 7 A 

Furniture and fixtures v '. . . . 12.5 L 

Furniture and fixtures 20 I,N. R 

Gas connections, c.i. (within the plant) 50 A 

Gas (water) machines complete .... 30 A 



108 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority 

Gas mains, cast iron 3 ins. and 4 ins. 50 A 

Gas mains, c.i., 6 ins. and larger. ... 75 A 
Gas mains, wrought iron and steel 

under 3 ins 20 A 

Gas mains, w.i. and steel over 3 ins. 30 A 

Gas services 20 A 

Generators 12.5-33.3 C 

15-20 P 

20 D. K. O, Q 

Generator, belted 10-20 S 

13.3 T 

15 U 

Generators, direct connected 13.3 - T 

20 S 

25 U 

Generators, modern type 20 A 

Generators, obsolete type 15 A 

Generators, steam-turbo 15 B 

" " 20 A 

10 G 

Governors, gas (consumer's) 25 A 

Governors (gas plant) 5 A 

Heaters 16.7-25 C 

Heaters 22.2 R 

Heaters 33.3 Q 

Heaters, feed water, closed 30 A 

Heaters, feed water, open -.30 A 

Holders (gas plant) 50 A 

Horses and wagons, see teams and 
vehicles. 

Hydrants 40-50 E 

Hydrants, connections 6.6 I 

Locomotives 28-31 V 

Machinery, coal & ash handling. ... 5 O 

" " " " 10 A 

" " " " .... 14.3 Q, C 

" " " " 15-20 ■■ P 

" " " " 20 K 

Machinery, electrical 20-30 E 

Machinery, fuel oil handling 25 C 

Machinery, shop 10 J 

" 10-30 O 

" 12.5 L. 

" 14.25 N 

" 20 R 

" 20-50 P 

Meters, electric service 12.5 B 

Meters, electric service 15 I, A 

Meters, electric switchboard 20 A 

Meters, gas (consumers) 25 A 

Meter cases, station (gas plant) 50 A 

Meter drums, station (gas plant) ... 20 A 

Meters, water 20 I 

Meters, water . 20-30 E 

Motors 10-20 S 

15-25 , U 

20 T 

Motors, railway 10 G 

20 A, K 

30 C 

" " See rolling stock, elect, 

equip. 

Overhead equip, (elect, ry.) 5 Q 

Overhead spans, complete 20 R 

Overhead, special work 12.5 R 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 109 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority- 
Overhead, systems 10-20 U 

Overhead, systems 13.3 T 

Paving- 2 K 

10 L, 

10-25 P 

11.7 M 

12.5 N 

20 I 

Paving 20 K 

Paving, block 40 R 

Paving, brick 22.2 R 

Paving, tracks in car houses 28.6 R 

Pipe, black iron 10 I 

Pipe, cast iron small diam 20-40 E 

Pipe, c. i. large diam 50-75 E 

Pipe, galv. iron « 10 I 

Pipe, Matheson 30 I 

Pipe, screw flange 20 I 

Pipe-steel 25-50 E 

Pipe, wood stave 20-30 E 

Pipe, wood 25 I 

Pipe, also see gas mains. 

Pipe, fittings 20 I 

Piping and covering 5 K 

15 B 

15-20 P 

16.6 D 

20 A, O 

22.2-25 C 

28.6 Q 

Piping, steam 13.3 T 

28.6 . S 

30-40 U 

Poles, iron 20 P 

40 A, O, Q 

50 R 

Poles, steel 50 K 

Poles, telephone 12-15 A 

Poles, wood 12-15 O 

14.3 R 

Poles, wood in concrete 20 A 

Poles, wood in earth 12-18.2 A 

Poles, wooden 10 G 

Pole lines, exchange (telephone) . . . 10.5 H 

Pole lines, tool (telephone) 16 H 

Power plant 12.5 L 

- " " 20 N 

50 Q 

Power plant and wire telephone .... 8 A 

Pumps 20 C, D, K, Q 

20-25 I 

Pumps, small steam -. 15 A, B 

" 20 G 

Pumps and auxiliary machinery. . . . 20-30 E 

Pumps and auxiliaries 22.2 R 

Purifiers, modern (gas plant) 50 A 

Rental equipment, elec 15 I 

Reservoirs 33.3-50 I 

Reservoirs (except where subject to 

heavy deposit of silt) 50-100 E 

Rolling stock, cars electric 13.3-16.7 T 

Rolling stock, cars (including all 

equipment) 20 R 

Rolling stock, bodies closed cars. ... 20 C 

Rolling stock, cars, bodies open cars. .25 C 



no MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority- 
Rolling- stock, bodies open trailer..,. 25 C 
Rolling stock, cars, bodies, trucks. . . 12.5 L 
" =" " .. '. "... 15 M 
"... 15-20 O 
"... 16.7 N 
"... 20 P 
Rollng stock, car bodies and equip.. .15 A 

Rolling- stock, elect, equip 3.3-4-8.5 Q 

Rolling- stock, equip, electrical 11.75-15 P 

Rolling: stock, trucks 20 K 

Rolling stock, trucks 30 C 

Rolling stock, utility equipment , , , , 20 R 

Rolling stock, cars, wooden freight. , 27.5 V 

Rotary converters 20 • T 

Rotary converters 20-25 U 

Rotaries 22.2 R 

Service connection, elect 28.5 I 

Service connections, water 20 I 

Scrubbers (gas plant) 30 A 

Signal apparatus 10 R 

Signal apparatus, interlocking 20 I 

Stacks, see chimneys, 

Standpipe 10 I 

Standpipes 25-40 E 

Stokers 4 Q 

Stokers, moving parts 5 C 

Stokers, fixed parts 20 C 

Switchboards 15-20 P 

20 T 

20-50 U 

22.2 R 

50 O, Q, S 

Switchboard and wiring 33.3 C 

16.7 D 

20 K 

Switchboard and Aviring, modern type 20 A 

Switchboard and wiring, obsolete type 15 A 
Tanks storage ammonia, wrought 

iron or steel 15 A 

Teams and vehicles 5-8 I 

10 L, R 

20 N 

Telegraph (signal) 10 R 

Telephone equipment, central office, , 8.25 H 
Telephone equipment, sub-station 
(except installations but includ- 
ing sub-station, central office 
equip., public brand exchanges 
booths and special fittings, sub- 
license station apparatus) 9 H 

Telephone central office eqUii)ment 

including distributing frame,,.. 10 A 

Telephone and telegraph lines . 20 I 

Telephone, subscribers sets 10 - A 

Tools 5 I 

7 A 

Tools, roadway 5 I 

Tools, shop 10 J, R 

12.5 L 

14.25 N 

10-30 O 

20-50 P 

Track-ballast ^ 33,3 I 

Track, bonds 20 A, C 

Track, fastenings and joints ." 33.3 I 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS m 

Estimated life 
Kind of plant years Authority- 
Track fastenings -40 J 

Track, main 11.7 • M 

12.5 L, N 

12.9-13.9 P 

13.3 T 

Track, straight 18.2 A 

Track-rails 33.3 I 

Track-rails 40 J 

Track-rails in city streets 22.2 R 

Track-rails in country roads 28.6 R 

Track-rails in private r. of w 28.6 R 

Track, rail joints 20 C 

Track, special work 8.5 T 

" 8-14-25 O 

" ..10 Q 

" 11.1 R 

" 11.75 A 

" 12.9-13-9 P 

" 25 I 

Track, substructure : 

City streets 22.2 R 

Country roads 14.3 R 

Private right of way 10 R 

Track, ties 8 J 

Track, ties 13.3 I 

Track, ties 20 C 

Transformers 20 T 

20-33.3 U 

22.2 R 

Transformers, station service 15 B 

15-20 A 

20 I 

Transmission line material 33.3 I 

50 R 

Turbo-generators 16.7 R 

Turbines, steam 20 A 

15 B 

20 T 

20-40 U 

Turbines, water 30 A 

Valves 16.6 I 

Valves, gate (water) 40-50 E 

Washers, cast iron (gas plant) .... 40 A 

Water supply lines 25-33.3 I 

Wells, tar and ammonia (gas plant) 50 A 

Wharves 33.3 J 

Wires 15-25 U 

20 T 

50 S 

Wiring 7.1-10 P 

Wire, copper 20 A 

Wire, guard 10 R 

Wire, guard 8-15 A 

Wire, telephone aerial exchange bare 

copper 14 H 

Wire, telephone aerial exchange bare 

iron 8.5 H 

Wire, telephone aerial exchange in- 
sulated (including drop wires) . . 6.5 H 
Wire, telephone aerial toll, copper. . . 30 H 

Wire, telephone aerial toll, iron 15 H 

Wires, telephone interior block ...... 8 H 

Wire, trolley #0 — 1 min. headway 2 A 

Wire, trolley #00 — 1 min. headway 2.5 A 

Wire, trolley #000 — 1 min. headway 3 A 



112 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Estimated life 

Kind of plant years Authority 

Wire, trolley 20 R 

Wire, weatherproof 13.3 G 

Wire, weatherproof 16 A 

Wire, weatherproof iron 15 A 

There are many published tables of the average prospective lives 
of different kinds of plant units. Engineers have almost universally 
misused these tables, for they have considered that an average 
'prospective life could be used in calculating the individual accrued 
loss of value of a given plant unit. Under but one condition, or 
rather set of conditions, is it correct to use life tables in estimating 
accrued depreciation, namely: (1) The life of the particular plant 
unit under investigation must correspond to the life of the average 
life given in the table. This is never true, save by chance, where 
functional depreciation is involved. (2) There must be no appre- 
ciable difference in the lives of the parts that go to make up the 
whole of each plant unit. This is seldom true save where there are 
no parts that are renewed before the renewal of the whole plant 
unit. 

To put these statements in concrete form, it may be approxi- 
mately correct to say that a given wooden pole, or a railway tie, 
or a horse will have a life the same as that given in a table of 
average lives of such things. But it may be, and usually is, wholly 
erroneous to assume that a given pump or a given water main 
will have a life the same as that given in an average prospective 
life table. The natural life of a wooden i)ole, or cross-tie, or horse, 
ordinarily does not differ very materially even in different parts 
of the country ; whereas the functional life of an individual pump 
or a given water pipe may, and usually does, depart greatly from 
the averages given in life tables. 

In this connection attention should be called to the fact that the 
lives of water works units, as given in published life tables, are 
nearly all functional lives. Thus, reservoirs are assigned a life 
of 50 to 100 years. What does this mean? That a reservoir will 
be rusted, decayed or abraded to such an extent at the end of 50 
to 100 years that it will be no longer serviceable? Not at all. It 
means that some engineer has come to the conclusion that the 
average reservoir has been outgrown and abandoned at the end of 
50 to 100 years, and that he infers that the average existing reser- 
voirs will, in the future, be replaced in 50 to 100 years. Now he 
may be entirely right, and, if so, the owner of every resei'voir may 
wisely provide enough out of earnings to amortize the investment 
in his reservoir within 50 to 100 years. But this is not tantamount 
to saying that a given 25-year-old reservoir has lost one-half to 
one-quarter its life, as many engineers have erroneously inferred. 

In logic one of the fundamental principles is this : Conclusions 
of fact respecting averages of many individual cases are cori'ectly 
applicable only where many cases of the same sort are involved. 

Thus, it may be a fact that the average child has an expectancy 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 113 

of 35 years' life at birth. It may also be a fact that the average 
man 35 years old has an expectancy of 25 years' remaining life. 
But neither of these facts may be at all applicable in a given 
individual case, unless that individual is to be treated as one of a 
large group of similar individuals, as is done by insurance 
companies. 

There are reservoirs hundreds of years old and in service. The 
same is true of aqueducts, pipes, buildings, etc. The natural life 
of such things is often so great as to be beyond determination. 
Even machinery of the heavier sorts often has a natural life much 
greater than is given in life tables relating to machinery. Thus, 
pumps are commonly assigned a life of 20 to 30 years, but that this 
is assumed to be an average functional life and not a natural life 
is evidenced by such facts as the existence of pumps 50 years old 
and still in active service. Stevenson's second locomotive is still in 
use in an English colliery after a century of service. 

In the recent case of the Denver Union Water Co. versus City of 
Denver, an eminent engineer testified that the pumps in use by 
the company have an average age of 27 years, and he assigned a 
total probable life of 41 years to the pumps in spite of the fact 
that no published life table gives more than 30 years' life for 
pumps. In the same case he assigned a probable life of 41 to 47 
years to the wooden pipe in Denver, although the actual age of 
some of the pipe was nearly as old as the 30 years' extreme life 
given in published life tables. To this we may add our own obser- 
vation in two water works appraisal cases where much of the 
wooden stave pipe was nearly a quarter of a century old. Prac- 
tically all of it was still in perfect condition as to the wood and 
the bands were but slightly rusted. 

In the Denver case a life of 23 years was assigned to boilers by 
an engineer representing the company, and it was stated that many 
of the boilers were more than 16 years old, doing good service and 
approved by boiler insurance companies. 

The same engineer in the Denver case assigned to cast iron pipe 
the following lives : 

16-in. and larger 94 years 

10 to 15-in 72 years 

6 to 8-in 56 years 

3 to 4-in 41 years 

In this connection it is of interest to cite the fact that 6-in. 
cast iron pipe laid on Locust from 7th to 8th streets, Philadelphia, 
was i-ecently removed after having been in service 88 years. The 
pipe had been cast on its side, for it varied from .5 to .3125 in, 
thick. Its interior was tuberculated, but the iron showed no de- 
terioration. The pipe might have remained in use indefinitely had 
it not been necessary to make way for a sewer. This and other 
examples show that the natural life of cast iron pipe is so great as 
never to have been recorded. 

Since most plant lives depend largely upon the rate of growth 
of the towns or cities, it follows that an average life for England 



114 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

would not be an average life for America. An average for Maine 
would not be an average for California. An average for villages 
would not be an average for cities. And so on indefinitely. A halt 
should be called on the indiscriminate use of " average lives," 
gathered nobody says how and often by whom nobody says, nor 
where nor M-hen. Such data have been passed from author to 
author, until frequently their age seems to entitle them to the 
veneration that naturally associates itself with antiquity. But, 
when we question most of these ancient data on their reason for 
existence, their only answer is : " We are." 

Nearly all property that has been appraised for public utility 
commissions has been assigned a depreciated value far below its 
true depreciated value. As an illustration, let us take bare copper 
wire, which is commonly assigned a "life" of 15 to 20 years in 
telephone or electric transmission service. The fact Is that the 
natural life of such wire is so great that no man has ever recorded 
it. The "life" of 15 to 20 years, therefore, is purely a functional 
life, dependent upon economic inadequacy and the like. If, there- 
fore, a given lot of old copper wire is serving a purpose as economi- 
cally as if it were new, it cannot be said to have depreciated func- 
tionally. And as the natural life of copper wire may be hundreds of 
years, the old wire has not depreciated to any measurable degree 
naturally. In brief, under these conditions, it has not depreciated 
at all unless the price of copper has dropped. Yet, it is a common 
thing to see an estimate of depreciated value of copper wire put at 
65 to 75 per cent its cost new simply because it is a few years 
old. The same error is to be seen in the case of depreciated values 
assigned to buildings, to rolling stock, to machinery, and, indeed, 
to nearly every class of plant units. An average functional life is 
not only treated precisely as if it were a natural life, tut is applied 
to particular cases where no average is applicable at all. 

The life of water works pumps is said to average 20 years. 
Many engineers and nearly all laymen think that this means that 
the average pump xoears out in 20 years, but even where they know 
better they make the mistake of substituting the 20-year functional 
life in a sinking-fund formula that is not applicable except where 
natural life is involved. 

Where an average life given in a life table is clearly a natural 
life, .such, for example, as a 10-year life of a railway tie, no error 
should arise from its u.se in any correct formula, provided the con- 
ditions in the case in hand correspond to those stated or Implied 
in the life table. Where the given average life is functional, great 
care must be exercised in its use ; a functional life can not be 
u.sed at all in a straight line or sinking fund formula for estimated 
accrued depreciation, for reasons above given ; but a functional life 
can be used in estimating a depreciation annuity to provide a 
depreciation fund, provided the best evidence points toward a 
probably equal life for the given plant unit. 

Looking into the future, we must obviously be guided by data 
gathered in the past. If, for example, the history of telephone de- 
velopment has shown that during the past 30 years, the average 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 115 

functional life of a switch board has been 10 years, and if there 
are no signs of decreased activity in both the growth of telephone 
business and of improvements in switch board design, then we are 
justified in using the 10 year life in providing a depreciation annuity 
for switch boards. We may therefore properly use this 10-year 
life in the unit cost depreciation formula, in calculating the de- 
preciated value of a particular switchboard in a city where the 
telephone business is growing at the general average rate. But 
it would be illogical to use this 10-year life in a " straight line 
depreciation formula," for the fact that a given switchboard is 6 
years old does not necessarily signify that 60 per cent, of its 
economic life has departed. What part of its economic life has 
departed is ascertainable only by the application of the unit cost 
depreciation formula, using perhaps its simplest form (page 100). 

In the life tables, Table 1, most of these lives are very unsatis- 
factory because the data upon which they rest were not published. 
For the most part it is evident that the lives are functional lives, 
and are presumed to be " averages " for American localities ; but 
we seriously question whether, in many cases, they are ordinarily 
applicable outside the locality to which they refer. Indeed we go 
further and question the applicability of some of these data even 
in the locality in w^hich they refer. 

General experience, up to the present, indicates that few heavy 
machines of any kind have remained in use longer than 20 to 30 
years. American locomotives, for example, have had an average 
life of about 25 years, but that this short life is due wholly to 
functional depreciation is proved by such facts as that the second 
locomotive built by Stevenson is still in use in England, although 
it is about 100 years old. The functional depreciation of American 
locomotives has been mainly due to inadequacy. Growth of traffic 
has made heavier locomotives more economic. But with the grow- 
ing weight of locomotives, and rolling stock generally, has come 
the necessity of using heavier rails and heavier steel bridges, so 
that rails and steel bridges have depreciated functionally at about 
the same rate as the functional depreciation of locomotives. It is 
always necessary, therefore, to consider the effect of functional de- 
preciation of one class of plant units upon other classes of plant 
units. If rails of a street railway depreciate functionally because 
heavier cars have become economically necessary, pavement between 
the rails will also have depreciated functionally. 

In this way there is often a long chain of functional depreciation 
of different plant units that are inter-dependent. 

Composite Life. We have already discussed the calculation of 
the " weighted average age " of plant units of a given class. The 
" weighted average " or composite life of all classes of plant units 
in a given plant may be calculated as in Table II from a paper by 
Halford Erickson, late chairman of the Wisconsin Railroad Com- 
mission. 

This table gives an average composite life of 17.15 years for the 
plant units of an electric plant, but without knowing what were 
defined as plant units this average life lacks definiteness. It is to 



116 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE 11. COMPOSITE LIFE OP ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND 
POWER PLANT 

Anmifll Annual 

Class Life gss'sS petSentof ^^focXr'"^ 

less fecrap HorirooiQtir,r, ^ to cover 



depreciation 



depreciation 



A '. 5 $ 210 20.00 $ 42 

B 8 7,110 12.50 889 

C 10 17,208 10.00 1,721 

D 12 26,272 8.33 2,188 

E 15 131,550 6.67 8,774 

F 16 32,258 6.25 2,016 

G 20 104,097 5.00 5,205 

H ... .. 25 36,116 4.00 1,445 

I 50 14,337 2.00 287 

J 60 1,165 1.67 19 

K 75 21,920 1.33 292 



$392,243 $22,878 

392,243 
Average life = =: 17.15 years. 

22,878 

be presumed that each pole, each wire, each transformer, each 
building, each generator, each boiler, each steam pipe, etc., was 
regarded as a plant unit ; and that each part of a transformer, 
building, generator, boiler, etc., was not regarded as a plant unit. 
This average life of 17.15 years would give an average renewal 
of nearly 6 per cent, year, according to the straight line formulas, 
which would not include repairs to parts of plant units. 

It should be noted that a composite life of this kind can not be 
accurately used in a sinking fund formula. 

The authors have found that in a large number of electric light 
and power plants, the upkeep cost (repairs and depreciation) has 
averaged about 8% per annum over long periods of years, using 
the straight line formula with the plant investment as the base. 
Of this 8%, about one-quarter was classified as renewals of parts 
of plant units or repairs, the rest being renewals of entire plant 
units (poles, wires, etc.). 

Where a large part of the distribution system is underground, the 
composite life is longer than otherwise. Similarly steel towers 
lengthen the life of the transmission system. For telephone plants 
the average annual repairs and renewals have been about 11 per 
cent, of the investment, according to the records analyzed by the 
authors; and of this 11% nearly one-half was classified as annual 
repairs and the remainder as annual depreciation. But it is obvi- 
ous that without a detailed statement of what were regarded as 
plant units, this statement of the segregation between repairs (or 
renewals of parts) and depreciation (or renewals of entire plant 
units) has little significance. 

Useful Life of Reciprocating Engines, Generators and Turbo-Gen- 
erators. Tables III and IV submitted as evidence in a recent 
" rate case," indicate clearly the great weight of functional depre- 
ciation in determining the length of useful life. In a majority of 
cases the " useful life " given is the result of obsolescence or in- 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 117 



adequacy rather than the result of mechanical wear or 
depreciation. 



natural 



TABLE III. USEFUL LIFE OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES 
AND GENERATORS 





t 


■ — Type of equipment 


^ 


; Time of service ^ 




Reciprocating engines 


Generators 






Useful 


Com- 




Size in 




Size in 






life 


pany 


No. 


h.p. 


No. 


kw. 


Started 


Closed 


years 


1. 


1 


Corliss 






1906 


1911 


41/2 


2. 


1 


150 


2 


45 


1891 


1907 


16 




2 


200 


4 


65 


1891 


1907 


16 




1 


150 


2 


50 


1893 


1909 


16 




3 


225 


6 


75 


1893 


1909 


16 




1 


1250 


2 


400 


1894 


1915 


21 




4 


600 


8 


200 


1894 


1915 


21 




5 


1200 


10 


400 


1895 


1915 


20 




1 


3500 


1 


2500 


1901 


1915 


14 




1 


Corliss 


2 


1000 


1902 


1915 


13 




1 


5000 


1 


3500 


1902 


1915 


13 




1 


2500 


1 


1800 


1903 


1915 


12 




4 


200 


8 


80 


1888 


1894 


6 


3. 


High speed 


Edison d. c. 


1887 


1893 


6 




Compound 


a. c. 


single 














phase 


1893 


1905 


12 


4. 






a. c. 




1890 


1907 


16 



5 Allis Chalmers 
5. Cross Comp. 

Average life, 34 reciprocating engines, 
Average life, 50 generators, 16 years. 



1904 1915 11 

1891 1905 14 

14 years. 



TABLE IV. USEFUL LIFE OP TURBO-GENERATORS 





Capacity of equip- 


'' 


-i iiiic yjL OCX vii 


Useful life 


Company 


ment in kws. 


Started 


Closed 


years 


6. 


1-4,000 


1904 


1912 


8 




1-4,000 


1904 


1912 


8 




1-4,000 


1905 


1911 


6 




1-4,000 


1905 


1911 


6 




1-4,000 


1906 


1912 


6 


7. 


2-5,000 


1903 


1909 


6 




1-5,000 


1904 


1909 


5 




1-7,500 


1904 


1909 


5 


8. 


1-1,500 


1905 


1914 


9 


9. 


2-2,000 


1905 


1910 


5 




4-5,000 


1906 


1911 


4 



Average life, 16 turbines, 6 years. 

Following is the key to names of companies given in tables III 
and IV, also the reasons for retiring the various units. 

Company 
No. Name. Remarks 

1. Nevada California Power Co Equipment replaced by 

turbine plant, larger 
unit. 

2. Commonwealth Edison Co Entire plants abandoned. 

27th Street, North Clark Street, 

Harrison St., Adams St. stations. 

3. Consumers Power Co Replaced by a. c. single 

Jackson station phase Curtis turbine. 



118 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Company- 
No. Name. Remarks. 

4. Union Electric Light & Power Co. . . Entire plants abandoned, 
10th, 19th and 20th St. stations. obsolete. 

5. Indianapolis Light & Heat Co Obsolete, but used for 

Kentucky Ave. station. steam heating. 

6. Detroit Edison Co., Delroy station.. Entire plant abandoned. 

7. Commonwealth Edison Co Replaced by large unit of 

Fish Street station. same type. 

8. Consumers Power Co Replaced by 7,500 kw. 

Jackson station. turbine. 

9. Union Electric Light & Power Co. . . . Replaced by larger units, 
Ashley Street station. 

An Example of the Determination of Repair and Depreciation 
Costs of an Electric Company. The following is an abstract of a 
report by Halbert P. Gillette to the Southern California Edison Co., 
which report was one of the exhibits in a condemnation case insti- 
tuted by Los Angeles, and heard by the California Railroad Com- 
mission in 1915-16. 

Before entering upon the discussion and analysis of what the 
up-keep expenditures of this property (electric dept., So. Cal. Edison 
Co.) have been during the 19 years' history of the Company, it 
may be well to state that any thorough study of the reasonableness 
of a given depreciation annuity necessarily involves a study of the 
current maintenance expenses. So far as I know, there is in 
existence no accounting system in which thoroughly exact defini- 
tions have been given as to the meaning of the terms " repairs," 
" renewals " and " depreciation." Hence it follows that account- 
ants using their own judgment as to these terms may at one time 
charge to current repairs items that at another time they might 
charge to depreciation. 

Repairs, or current maintenance, may be said to provide for 
renewals of parts of a "plant unit," • whereas the depreciation 
annuity provides for the renewals of entire plant units. The dis- 
tinction rests upon the definition of what constitutes a plant unit. 
To illustrate : One person may regard a bare pole as being a plant 
unit ; another person may regard a pole with its crossarms and all 
other attachments as being a plant unit ; still another person may 
regard the entire pole line, including wires, as being a plant unit. 
Obviously what one of these persons would call repairs, another 
might call a charge to depreciation reserve. 

Since it is impracticable to ascertain now exactly what was in 
the minds of the accountants who made the distinction between 
rei:)airs and renewals in the past years, we are forced to combine 
all up-keep expenditures for each year in the past, and we may 
call this combination of repairs and renewals " up-keep expendi- 
ture." We may then ascertain what this total up-keep expenditure 
has averaged annually and what percentage that average has been 
of the average investment in depreciable plant. 

To this should be added, of course, the accrued depreciation in 
the plant for which money has not yet been paid out, although it 
may be in a depreciation fund. 



DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 119 

In a very thorough study of up-keep expenditures of the past, 
it is desirable to investigate charges to capital account that should 
have been made to maintenance. Also it is desirable to examine 
the surplus, and the profit and loss accounts to ascertain whether 
any depreciation charges have been made through these accounts. 
Likewise, any property sold by the Company at a loss should be 
regarded as depreciation. Any property abandoned and not charged 
off the capital account, together with any special fire or storm losses 
not similarly charged off, should be ascertained, for they are 
strictly speaking depreciation charges and may not appear either 
in the operating expenses or in the depreciation reserve accounts. 
Similarly suspense accounts and all special accounts in which 
" up-keep " may be found, should be investigated. 

Column C of Table V shows what has been charged to main- 
tenance and repairs annually for each year since the Company 
began operation. Column D shows what has been paid out for 
renewals inclusive of moneys paid from the depreciation reserve 
fund. Column E shows the total of these two columns by years. 
The grand total for the 19 years is $3,295,087, or an average of 
$173,425 per year for the 19 years. This is the actual 'expenditure 



TABLE V 

Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals and Depreciation by Years, and 
Average for Straight Line Formula, Local and General Prop- 
erty, Electrical Department of Southern California Edison 
Company. 

ABC "^ • 

Year Average Maintenance D nanSe'^enafe 

ending depreciable and Renewals "n?i rin^wl,!-. 

Dec. 31 property repairs C plus D 

1896 $ 31,733 

1897 ■ 98,228 $ 128 128 

1898 244,037 1,562 1,562 

1899 671.785 2,209 2,209 

1900 1,310,681 10,830 10,830 

1901 1,463,940 12,698 $ 29,707 42,405 

1902 1,849,552 30,672 30,672 

1903 2,719,740 78,883 78,883 

1904 4,273,220 70,489 70,489 

1905 5,544,388 76,586 231,131 307,717 

1906 6.702,214 78,325 145,589 223,914 

1907 9,697,771 73,573 89,694 163,267 

1908 12.166.861 77,984 7,197 85,181 

1909 12,507,528 90,449 191,272 281,721 

1910 13,120,211 235,105 38,778 278,883 

1911 14,273,440 204,259 112,972 317.231 

1912 16.339,749 293,950 121,508 415,458 

1913 18.548,775 281,737 147,526 429,263 

1914 21.182,310 280,112 280,152 560,264 

Total $142,776,163 $1,899,551 $1,395,526 $3,295,067 
$7,514,535 — Average for 19 years $173,425 

Average percentage of repairs and renewals to plant 

is $173,425 -H $7,514,535 ^ 2.307% 



120 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Adding- accrued depreciation $3,843,000* (=17.244% of 
$22,286,000 as of Dec. 31, 1914) which divided by 
19 years = 202,263 



Total average annual repairs, renewals and accrued de- 
preciation $375,688 

Average percentage of maintenance, repairs, renewals, 
and accrued depreciation is $375,688 -.- $7,514,535 = 
5.00% per year, by straight lirie formula. 

* 3,843,000 = 17,244% based on 20% of $10,001,265 local property 
and 15% of $12,284,993, general property. 

lor up-keep, exclusive of any unexpended amounts remaining in 
the depreciation reserve fund. The average investment in the 
depreciable plant during these 19 years was $7,514,535, as deduced 
from Table V. Hence the average expenditure for up-keep has been 
2,307% per annum. But in addition the plant has suffered accrued 
depreciation, which is estimated to have been $3,843,000,1 as of 
June 30th, 1915, or an average of $202,263 for 19 years, which, 
divided by the average investment in that period of $7,514,535 is 
2.7% per annum. Adding this 2.7% to the 2.3% expended for up- 
keep, we have a total of 5% per annum as the average for these 19 
years for the entire plant (Local and General combined) based 
upon the so-called " straight line formula." This, it should be 
noted, is based upon the history of this company and the only 
possibility of material error would lie in the estimated accrued 
depreciation of the plant, which depreciation is 17.24% of the de- 
preciable property as of June 30th, 1914, an amount that seems 
to be as close to the truth as can be arrived at. 

Tables VI and VII give corresponding calculations of the actual 
up-keep expenditures and accrued depreciation for the Local Prop- 
erty and for the General Property respectively. By the term 
" General Property " I mean the generating and transmission sys- 
tem, the " Local Property " being the distribution and service sys- 
tems. It will be noted that in Table VI we find that the average 
annual cost of up-keep and accrued depreciation has been 6.213% 
upon the depreciable "Local Property" throughout the 19 years, 
based upon the straight line formula. It will be noted that in 
Table VI the corresponding percentage for the " General Property " 
is 3.746%. 

In none of these Tales V, VI and VII is it assumed that a sink- 
ing fund was established to care for depreciation. If, however, a 
4% compoimd interest sinking fund had been established in 1896, 
and if that fund had been built up until June 30, 1915, so that at 
that time it had equalled the then accrued depreciation of $3,843,- 
000, it would have required a depreciation annuity of 2.258%, of the 
depreciable plant. This fact is deduced in Table VIII which re- 
lates to the total plant or Local and General property combined. 
The method of deduction in that Table is as follows: 

1 The unexpended balance in the deijfeciation reserve account was 
$3,675,792, as of June 30th, 1915. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 121 



TABLE VI 

Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals, and Depreciation by Years, and 
Average for Straight Line Formula, Local Property. Electrical 
Department of Southern California Edison Company. 

^A B C D E 

Year Average Maintenance „ ^ , 

ending depreciable and Renewals n J.?^^ 

Dec. 31 property repairs ^ P^^^ ^ 

1896 $ 31,733 ... 

1897 98,228 $ 128 ....'.'. $ " *i28 

1898 244,036 1,562 * 1,562 

1899 474,221 1,263 1263 

1900 718,235 4,630 4 630 

1901 829,310 7,341 $ 29,707 87,048 

1902 1,084,337 14 965 .....I 14 965 

1903 1,604,985 48,011 - 48 011 

1904 2,484,120 50,709 50 709 

1905 3,035,768 48,6^8 186,450 235,138 

1906 3,719,531 55,838 122,484 178,322 

1907 4,444,197 48,712 74,300 123,012 

1908 4.825,894 38.388 221 38,609 

1909 4,970,742 45,485 47,088 92,573 

1910 5.372,463 136,666 9,464 146.130 

1911 5,988.599 13^,992 56,609 190,601 

1912 6,764,983 185.139 84,150 269,289 

1913 8.020,859 162,623 90,149 252,772 

1914 9,308.714 166,839 124,765 291,604 

Total $64,020,955 $1,150,979 $825,387 $1,976,366 

$3,369,524 — Average for 19 years $104,019 

Average, percent of property $104,019 -^ $3,369,524 = . . . 3.087% 

Adding accrued depreciation on basis of 20% of $10,001,- 
265, depreciating property as of December 31, 1914, 
divided by 10 to obtain average, we have 105.296 

Average annual repairs, renewals and depreciation $209,315 

Average percentage of property is $209,315 -^ $3,369,524 
= 6.213% by straight line formula. 

Column B shows the average depreciable property by years. 
Assuming that 1% depreciation annuity should be set aside an- 
nually, we would have the annual amounts shown in Column C. 
Then compounding these annual amounts at 4%, using the com- 
pound interest factor in Column D, we would have the depreciation 
fund accumulation as shown in Column E, total $1,701,816. But, 
since the accrued depreciation is $3,843,000, we must divide that by 
$1,701,816, which gives 2.258% as the proper depreciation annuity. 
Column F shows the application of this depreciation annuity and 
Column G shows the final depreciation that would exist in the fund 
using that annuity and since that calculation totals $3,.842,707 we 
have an almost exact check upon our calculation. 

Since it has been shown in Table V that the actual up-keep ex- 
penditure has averaged 2.307%, and since we have now shown that 
a sinking fund annuity of 2.258% would be needed to build a fund 
equal to the accrued depreciation, the sum of these two, or $4,565%, 
is the average annual percentage for maintenance, repairs, renewals 



122 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and accrued depreciation of the total depreciable electrical property 
of this Company during the past 19 years. 

A similar calculation for the Local Property alone results in 
5.668% as the averag-e annual percentage for all up-keep expendi- 
tures and accrued depreciation. The corresponding percentage for 
the General Property alone is 3.399%. 

First, let us consider the Local and General Property combined. 
As ^shown in Tabl^ VIII, the investment in depreciable property 
averaged $21,182,310 for the year 1914, so if we take 4.565% thereof, 
we have $971,072 as the sum that up-keep and accrued depreciation 
would amount to in 1914 based on the experience of the 19 years 
of this Company's life. Table "V shows that, as a matter of fact, 
the Company spent in 1914, for maintenance and repairs a sum of 
$280,.112 and $280,152 for renewals, or a total expenditure of 
$560,264, but in that year the Company set aside a depreciation 
annuity of $700,000, of which $43,000 was for the gas department. 
Out of this $653,000 was spent the $280,152 for renewals as shown 
in Table V, leaving a balance of $373,848 that went into the 
depreciation fund for that year. Hence, if we add together $280,- 



TABLE VII 

Maintenance, Repairs, Renewals, and Depreciation by Years, and 
Average for Straight Line Formula. General Property Electrical 
Department of Southern California Edison Company. 

A - B C D E 

Year .Average Maintenance Total 

ending depreciable and Renewals p, i,V„^ V^ 

Dec. 31 property repairs ^-.piubu 

1899 $ 197,563 $ 946 $ 946 

1900 622,446 6,200 6,200 

1901 631.629 5,357 5,357 

1902 765,215 15,707 15,707 

1903 1,114,754 30,872 ...... 30,872 

1904 1,789,100 19,781 19,781 

1905 2,508,619 27,898 $ 44,681 72,579 
.1906 2,982,682 22,487 9,248 31.735 

1907 5,253.573 24.861 922 25,783 

1908 7,340,967 39,596 39,596 

1909 7,536.785 44,964 97,110 142,074 

1910 7,747,747 98,439 17.517 115,956 

1911 8,284,841 70,267 602 70,869 

1912 9,574,765 108,811 26,887 135.698 

1913 10,527,915 119,114 23,521 142.635 

1914 11,873,596 113,273 154,923 268,196 

'Total $78,755,197 $748,573 $375,411 $1,123,984 

$4,922,200 — Average for 16 years $ 70,249 

Average percentage of property $70,249 H- $4,922,200 -. . 1.42% 

Adding accrued depreciation on basis of 15% of $12,284.- 
993, depreciating property as of December 31st, 1914, 
equals $1,842,749, which divided by 16 to obtain 
average gives 115,184 

Average annual repairs, renewals and depreciation... $185,433 
Average percentage of property is $185.433 -^ $4,922, - 
200 = 3.746% by the straight line formula. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 123 

TABLE VIII 

Depreciation Fund Annuity for Local and General Property, Com- 
bined Electrical Department of the Southern California Edison 
Company. 



bfi 


0) 


o 




c 
o 

1£Q 




1.^^ 

•-^« 
%^h 


S 




9i u 


PI 


2 5- 




m 

111 


1896 


$ 31,733 


$ 317 


2.03 


$ 644 


$ 717 


$ 1,456 


1897 


98,228 


982 


1.95 


1,915 


2,218 


4,325 


1898 


244.037 


2,440 


1.87 


4,563 


5,510 


10,304 


1899 


671,785 


6,718 


1.80 


12,092 


15,169 


27,304 


1900 


1.340.681 


13,407 


1.73 


23,194 


30,273 


52,372 


1901 


1.463,940 


14.639 


1.67 


24,447 


33,056 


55,204 


1902 


1,849,552 


18,49 6 


1.60 


29,594 


41,763 


66,821 


1903 


2,719,740 


27,197 


1.54 


41,883 


61,412 


94,574 


1904 


4,273,220 


42,732 


1.48 


63,243 


96,489 


142,804 


1905 


5,544,388 


55,444 


1.42 


78,730 


125,192 


177,773 


1906 


6,702,214 


67,022 


1.37 


• 91,820 


151,336 


207,330 


1907 


9,697,771 


96,978 


1.32 


128,011 


218,976 


289,048 


1908 


12,166,861 


121,669 


1.27 


154,520 


274,728 


348,905 


1909 


12.507,528 


125,075 


1.22 


152,592 


282.420 


344,552 


1910 


13,120,211 


131,202 


1.17 


153,506 


296,254 


346,617 


1911 


14.273,440 


142,734 


1.12 


159,862 


322,294 


360,969 


1912 


16.339.749 


163,397 


1.08 


176,469 


368,952 


398,468 


1913 


18,548,775 


185.488 


1.04 


192,908 


418,831 


435,584 


1914 


21,182,310 
$142,776,163 


211,823 


1.00 


211,823 
$1,701,816 


478,297 


.478,297 




$3,223,887 


$3,842,707 



Accrued depreciation of $22,286,258 as of December 31. 1914, is 
$3,843,000 (or 17.244% based on 20% of Local and 15% of General 
Plant), which, divided by $1,701,816, equals 2.258% which is the 
depreciation annuity percentage required to build up a fund on a 
4% sinking fund basis, equal to the estimated accrued depreciation 
of the property. The final column in this Table shows the correct- 
ness of this calculation. 

Table V shows that maintenance, repairs and renewals have 
averaged 2.307%, which added to 2.258% (above deduced) is 4.565% 
(by sinking fund formula) for maintenance,, repairs, renewals and 
accrued depreciation. 

lisf for maintenance and repairs, $280,152 for renewals and $373V- 
848 for accrued depreciation, we have a total of $933,112 as this 
amount that the Company actually spent and set aside for the 
year 1914. 

We have already shown that, based on its history of 19 years, it 
would have been justified in spending and setting aside $971,072, 
or about $38,000 more than it did spend and set aside for up-keep 
and accrued depreciation in 1914. 

The European war, which began the first of August, 1914, caused 
a falling off in growth of net income and it caused the Company 
to curtail its maintenance expenses somewhat below the normal. 



124 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

A glance at the third column in Table V -will indicate this fact. 
It follows, therefore, that the Company's practice as to expenditures 
for repairs and amouiits set aside for depreciation reserve is sub- 
stantially justified by its experience during its entire life of 
19 years. 

Let us now consider the Local and General property separately, 
for we have thus, far considered them as combined. Table VI 
shows that the average percentage of expenditures for repairs and. 
renewals has been 3.087% for the Local Property, and calculation 
shQws that a depi-eciation annuity of 2.581% would have provided 
for the accrued depreciation upon a sinking fund basis, the sum of 
the t'wo percentages being 5.6G8%. Table VI, column C, shows 
that, as charged on the Company's books, $1,150,979 has been 
spent during the 19 years for what has been termed inaintenance 
and repairs. This is almost exactly 1.8% of the total in Column B, 
or in other words, the so-called " maintenance and repairs " has 
averaged 1.8% throughout this period. If Ave deduct this from the 
5.668% we have 3.8G8% as the proper amount for annual depre- 
ciation chai-ge of the Local property. As a matter of fact, the 
Qompany has been setting aside 3.3G% for this item, from which 
it would appear that they have not been setting aside quite enough. 
However, as stated in the earlier part of this report, the only 
correct way to look upon the problem before us is to combine all 
charges for maintenance, repairs, renewals, and depreciation fund, 
since distinctions between maintenance, repaii-s, etc., have not been 
very carefully drawn in the past. 

Table VII shows that for the General Property the total up-keep 
and depreciation has averaged 3.74G% per annum. Table VII, 
third column, shows that the maintenance and repairs expendi- 
tures, as charged on the books of the Company, have totaled 
$748,573 in the 19 years. This is almost exactly 0.95% of the total 
depreciable property given in the second column. Hence, if we 
deduct this 0.95% from the total of 3.746% w© have left 2.796% 
as the proper amount for depreciation reserve charge. As a matter 
of fact the Company has been setting aside in its depreciation re- 
serve for General Property 2.42% from which it appears that it 
has not been setting aside quite enough, if Ave assume that its 
charges to maintenance and repairs have been precisely in accord- 
ance with modern definitions of these expenditui'es. But, as pre- 
viously stated, the proper way is to look at the grand total up-keep 
and depreciation chai-ges, and, as has been shown in the earlier part 
of this report, this grand total has been almost precisely in accord- 
ance with actual experience of the Company during the past 19 
years. From this it may be inferred .that the Company may have 
legitimately charged under maintenance and repairs slightly more 
than has appeared there in the past, but this would I'esult in de- 
creasing correspondingly the charges to renewals. 

It cannot be too often repeated, perhaps, that the sum total of 
all up-keep charges, maintenance, repairs, renewals and deprecia- 
tion constitutes the only i^liable criterion by which to judge the 
equitableness of any up-keep charges made by a company of this 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 125 

character. I think that the foregoing study establishes beyond 
doubt that the Company's allowances for depreciation reserve have 
been below rather than above what it might reasonably claim as 
sufficient. 

Repair and Depreciation Costs of Electric Connpany. In another 
of our appraisals of an electric lighting property in a city of some 
22,000 population w^e found by the foregoing method that, for a 
period of 24 years, the average cost of repairs and renewals was 
5.03% of the average plant value and that, including depreciation, 
(on the straight line basis) the total for repairs, renewals and 
depreciation was 8.6% of the average plant value. 

Repair and Depreciation Costs of Telephone Confipany. Using a 
method similar to the foregoing, in the Hearing of the Bell Tele- 
phone Company of Pennsylvania, Gillette showed that the average 
current maintenance and depreciation was 9.46% of the average 
book valuation of the physical property for a period of 29 years. 

Cost of Repairs and Life of U. S. River Improvement Plant. 
C. W. Durham (Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 24, 1912) states 
that one of the tow boats used by the U. S. Engineer Corps on 
river improvement work on the Mississippi is 148 ft. long over all 
and 129 ft. on deck; width of hull 25 ft. 4 ins.; over guards 28 ft. 
2 ins. ; 5 ft. deep in the dead flat, and draws light 2 ft. 6 ins. Her 
wheel is 14 ft. wide, 18 ft. 3 ins. in diameter, and has 24-in. buckets. 
She has two propelling engines, 15.5 ins. diameter by 5 ft. stroke, 
and 3 boilers, 24 ft. long by 36 ins. diameter, with six 13-in. return 
flues in each. 

Complete detailed costs of keeping wooden hull towboats in re- 
pair, for 3 boats of nearly the same size and power, built or pur- 
chased in 1881 show that while the repairs in 30 years amount to 
about three times the original cost of each boat, yet the cost per 
annum for a serviceable towboat is only about $1,400, and the sal- 
vage on each today would be about $5,000. These boats have all 
had new boilers and have been practically rebuilt as to their hulls 
two or three times. Repairs to cabins and machinery have been 
nominal. 

TABLE IX. COST AND REPAIRS OF SMALL TOWBOATS 

"Lucia," "Louise," "Elsie,'' "Emily," "Ada," 
built 1885. built 1884. buil't 1889. built 1889. built 1889, 
Oak hull Oak hull Steel hull Oak hull Oak hull 
Original cost... $ 4.000 $3,538 $5,114) $4,034 $4,000 

Repair.s to Dec. 

31,1910 12,575 11,495 7,450 10,442 8,251 



Total $16,575 $15,033 $12,560 $14,476 $12,251 

The "Lucia" had new hulls in 1895 and 1910. 

The "Louise" had new hulls in 1894 and 1905, the latter steel. 

The " Elsie " has required no additional hull. 

The "Emily" had new hulls in 1902 and 1910. 

The "Ada" had a new hull in 1904. 

A sample of the small auxiliary towboats attached to the U. S. 
plants is the " Grace," which is 9 2 ft. 6 ins. long over all and 78 ft. 
on deck ; width of hull 17 ft. and depth 3 ft. 11 ins. She has a 



126 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

wheel 10 ft, long and 12 ft. In diameter with 18-in. buckets; 2 cyl- 
inders 7.5 X 49 Ins., and 2 boilers 10 ft. long and 30 ins. in diameter 
with 44 3-in. flues. The cost of this boat, which was built by the 
United States in 189 4, at Keokuk, was $8,616. 

The costs of other small auxiliary towboats are shown in Table 
IX. 

These boats have cost the government about $500 a year each, 
and the salvage on each would be about $3,000. 

A typical office-boat and quarter-boat used with the government 
plants is 50 ft. by 18 ft. in hull dimensions, and has a single-story 
cabin, nicely fitted with staterooms, bunks and office furniture. It 
was built in 1893, at a cost of about $1,800, including outfit. The 
repairs to .1907, during which year the hull was rebuilt, were small. 
Repairs to Dec. 31, 1910, were about $2,500, including maintenance 
of outfit. On Dec. 31, 1911, this boat was in fine condition. 

Life of Scow Barges. Table X gives the life of scow barges on 
Mississippi River improvement work. 

Life of Vessels on the Great Lakes and Tidewater. W. J. Wil- 
gus in an appraisal of the Lehigh Valley railroad published in part 



5o/vaqe 




yj 20 P5 
Life inYeors 



50 5a J J 40 



Fig. 1. Depreciation of marine equipment. 
A — Steel steam vessels on Great Lakes. 
♦B — Steel steam vessels on tidewater. 
C — Steel barges, floats, etc., on tidewater. 
D — Wood tugs, barges, etc., on tidewater. 

in Engineering Record, May 30, 1914, states that floating equipment 
of roads connecting the Great Lakes and tidewater may be divided 
into the following types: (a) Steel steam vessels on the Great 
Lakes, (b) steel steam vessels for tidewater service, (c) steel 
barges, car floats, etc., for tidewater service and (d) wood tugs, 
barges and miscellaneous, for tidewater service. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 127 



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128 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Prog^ressive percentages of depreciation are proper, as shown in 
Fig. 1, all on the basis of regular cmnual expenditures for proper 
upkeep, but not. embrvicing' extraordinary expenditures for new 
boilei-s, new houses or new equipment like electric-light plants or 
steam steering gear. 

Methods of Handling Battery Maintenance Charges for a Large 
System. We have abstracted the following from Electrical 
World, Dec. 16, 1916. In outlining the handling of storage-battery 
maintenance funds on the Boston IGdison Company's system at a 
recent hearing before the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
Connnission, L. L. Elden stated that the company oi)erates about 
fifteen storage batteries representing an investment in the vicinity 
of $800,000, and that dui-ing the last year maintenance requirements 
amoiuited to about $30,000. In the purchase of a battery it is 
customary for the manufacturer to give the company a seven-year 
guarantee, during which the manufacturer keeps the battery in 
proper physical condition and maintains its stated capacity. Dur- 
ing the guarantee period the manufacturer replaces any defective 
plates or boxes that are cleai^ly due to manufacturing defects. If 
the coillpany damages a cell in handling, the expense of repairs is 
assumed by it. At the end of the guarantee period an amount of 
money is set aside for each battery, depending upon its age and upon 
what has already been expended upon it. 

The Edison company estimates what the probable life of the 
battery plate is expected to be, with the cost of renewing the plates, 
and according to such figures a sum of money representing the 
estimated future repair charge is pi'o-rated into a monthly charge 
credited to the use of the battery. Unlike many other pieces of 
apparatus, a battery may in some unusual occurrence go to pieces 
in a day. and the amount of depreciation or wear and tear upon 
the plates fe not readily ascertainable at any particular period ; 
hence it is deemed best by the company to pro-rate the renewal 
charge on these plates over a fixed period rather than to have an 
abnormal and unequal distribution of expenses due to the com- 
pany's having to spend say $2,500 on one battery in one month for 
a complete renewal. The batteri^es are of various? ages and the 
prospective repair account cannot be taken care of at any one 
time until the condition of a battery permits it. Mr. Elden said 
that the number of kilowatt-houis delivered by a battery in a year 
affords no criterion of the severitj'- of use made of it, since excessive 
discharges due to accidents, short-circuits or operating conditions 
may depreciate the plates far more than liberal use within the 
proper range of discharge. In a single year there may be twenty 
occasions when battery discharge* will be utilized temporarily to 
overcome adverse operating conditions and maintain the normal 
standard of service. 

Cost of Repairs of Buildings. Data, April, 1912, has the fol- 
lowing cost of labor and material for estimating repairs to buildings, 
from the Chicago Building-- and Construction Co. 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 129 

Carpenti-y : 

Carpenter labor costs 60 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 
Eisht hours coustitute one clay. 

13/16 by 5 14 -in. Common Yellow Pine flooring costs $25.00 per 
M. 13/16 by 314— $23.00 per M. & * ic 

1 by 4 or 1 by 6-in. White Norway C. Pine flooring costs $40.00 
per M. 

Labor for laying S'/i-in. Pine flooring $2.00 per square; 3iA-in, 
$2.50 per square. 

13/16 by 2 14, -in. face clear Maple flooring costs $42.00 per M. 

Labor for laying 2i/4-in. face Maple flooring, smooth for oil finish. 
$3.50 to $4.50 per square. 

13/16 by 2 14 -in. faced plain White Oak flooring costs $56.00 per 

13/16 by 2^4 -in. faced quarter sawed White Oak flooring costs 
$88.00 per M. 

Labor for laying and scraping oak floor 2^4 -in. face, for wax or 
varnish, $5.00 to $6.00 per square. 

Smoothing and scraping oak floors alone costs $2.50 to $3.50 
per square. 

Base, Pine, 2 member moulded, put down, 8 cts. per running foot. 

4 and 6-in. clear Northern Pine beveled siding costs $32.00 per M. 

4 and 6-in. clear Washington Red Wood bevel siding costs $33.00 
per M. 

4 and 6-in. clear Washington Spruce bevel siding costs $26.00 
per M. 

Labor for putting on siding $2.75 per square, for 4 to 6-in. sid- 
ing; for narrow mitered siding $3.75 per square. 

Labor for putting on shingles, $2.50 to $3.00 per thousand shingles. 

Best grade of clear Red Cedar .shingles cost $4.50 per thousand. 

Common No. 2 Pine doors, complete with frames, placed in po- 
sition, with hardware, not painted, co.st $8.00 to $12.00 each. 

Fancy Oak front doons, complete, placed in position, with hard- 
ware, cost $15.00 to $25.00 each, according to style. 

Oak veneered door.s, 1%-in. Pine core, complete with frame, 
placed in position, with hardware, $12.00 to $15.00 each. 

Mantels — Hardwood, artistic design, complete with mirror and 
grate, set $45.00 to $65.00 each. 

Grilles. Fancy Oak, $1.25 to $1.75 per lineal foot set. 

Windows, with sash, frame, casing, cords, weights complete, put 
in, $9.00 to $12.00 each. If hardwood frame and trim, with sash, 
$12.00 to $14.00. 

Stairs. Common Oak, without rail, $2.50 per riser, labor included. 

Stair rail. Oak, moulded design, 30 cts. to 35 cts. per running 
foot, labor included. 

Stair rail. Pine, moulded design, 15 cts. to 25 cts. per running 
foot, labor included. 

Balusters. Pine, fancy turned, 12 cts. to 15 cts. each; Oak 15 cts. 
to ."^O cts. each, labor included 

Newels. I-in. quarter sawed Oak, moulded cap, $6.00 to $9.00 ; 
Plain Oak, $5.00 to $7.00 ; Pine, $4.00 to $6.00 each, labor included. 

Porches. Front, frame, ordinary construction, 6 to 7 feet wide, 
.shingle roof, ceiled, square or turned columns, frieze and cornice, 
balusters at floor, complete, $8.00 to $10.00 i)er front foot measure; 
12 by 12-in, stone pillars under porche.s, $1.00 per lineal foot. 

Painting and Glazing : 

Painting, two-coat work, costs 20 cts. per square yard. 

Painting, three-coat work, costs 25 cts. ])er square yard. 

Painters' labor costs 55 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 

Calcimining costs .$3.00 to $5.00 per room for small rooms, and 
60 cts. per square for large rooms. 

Note. — To ascertain the number of square yards of painted sur- 
face, multiply the length by the width, in feet, and divided by 9, and 
the result will be the number of yards. 

Lattice work and stair balusters are counted double. 

For reglazing old work, add 20 to 50% to cost of glass, according 
to quantity set. 



130 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Wall Paper: 

Cost of hanging, 15 cts. to 30 cts. per single roll for ordinary work, 
according to quality of paper. 

Three and one-half rolls will cover one square. 

Plastering : 

Two coats of plastering repair work cost 40 cts. per sq. yd. 

Three-coat work costs 50 cts. per sq. yd. 

For cement plaster add 10 cts. per sq. yd. extra. 

Plaster labor costs 68^4 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 

Plasters' helper costs 40 cts. per hour. 

Lathers' labor, $5.00 per day of eight hours. 

Note. — To ascertain the number of yards of plaster, multiply the 
length of the ceiling by the width. Do the same with each side 
wall and add all together, divide by 9 and the result will be the 
number of yards. Make no deductions for openings unless very 
large. 

Plumbing : 

30 gal. iron boiler, connected $15.00 each 

Enameled sinks, 18 by 24 ins., connected 10.00 each 

5-foot enameled bath tub, connected 35.00 each 

Porcelain washout-closet with tank, connected 25.00 each 

Hopper closet, connected 20.00 each 

Laundry tubs, 2 divisions, cement, connected 20.00 each 

Wash bowls, plain marble slabs, connected 25.00 each 

Brass faucets, put on 2.00 each 

Plated faucets, put on 2.25 each 

6-inch iron soil pipe, put in, $1.00 per running foot. 

4-inch iron soil pipe, put in, 60 cts. per running foot. 

Plumbing labor costs $5.50 per day of eight hours, plus con- 
tractor's profit. 

Sewers : 

6-in. sewer, ordinary digging, laid with proper drain, well ce- 
mented, 50 cts. per lineal foot. 

Traps, $1.50 each. 

Elbows, $1.25 each. 

Catch basins, 5 by 6, stone cover, $15.00. 

Electric Wiring : 

To estimate the cost of electric wiring in ordinary buildings, as- 
certain the number of lights and multiply same by $3.00. 

Gas Piping : 

To estimate cost of gas piping in ordinary buildings, ascertain 
the number of lights and multiply by $2.50. 

Gas Pipe put in, connected, 20 cts. per running foot. 

Gas Fitters' labor costs $5.50 per day of eight hours. 

Roofing : 

Gravel Roof, 3-ply, $3.50 per square. 

Gravel Roof, 4-ply, $4.00 per square. 

Gravel Roof, 5-ply, $4.i;5 per square. 

Slate roof, ordinary black slate, $10 to $12 per square. 

Slate roof, fancy green and red, $15 to $30 per square. 

Best galvanized iron roofing, standing seams, $9.00 to $12.00 per 
square, painted. 

Best tin roofing, standing seams, $8.00 to $11.00 per square, 
painted. 

Tile roofing, $12.00 to $15.00 per square, according to design. 

Metal Ceilings : 

Fancy metal ceilings with cornice cost $8.00 to $12.00 per square. 
Corrugated Iron Ceiling, $6.00 to $7.00 per square. 



DEPRECIATION. REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 131 

stone Work : 

Common rubble stone, 100 cu. ft. to the cord, costs, laid in wall, 
$20 to $25 per cord, according to location and necessary hauling. 

Rock face, 4-in. Bedford stone for facing, furnished and set in 
wall, costs $1.75 to $2.25 ])er square foot face measui'ement. 

Mason labor costs &IV2 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 

Mason helper costs 37 V2 cts. per hour, plus contractor's profit. 

Brick Work: 

Common brick, furnished and laid in 12-in. wall, costs $15.00 
per M, wall count. 

Pressed brick, for facing, laid in wall, colored mortar, rodded 
joints, add to cost or brick $10.00 to $20.00 per thousand for lay- 
ing, according to character and design of front. 

Cement Work : 

12-in. block walls cost about the same as 12-in. common brick 
wall, laid, less 25% of the cost of brick for a similar wall. 

Concrete basement walls cost 28 cts. per cubic foot, wall measure- 
ment. 

Cement sidewalk costs 12 cts. to 15 cts. per square foot. 

Cement basement floors cost 10 cts. per square foot. 

Chimneys : 

Ordinary single flue chimneys cost $1.00 per lineal foot. For dou- 
ble flue $1.75 per lineal foot. 

Interior Marble Work : 

(For Wainscoting and Floors in Apartment houses and Office 
Buildings.) 

Wainscoting, Italian, White, $1.00 per sq. ft. set. 

Wainscoting, Engli.sh Vein Italian, White, $1.05 per sq. foot, set. 

Wain.scoting, Tennessee Marble, 80 cts. per sq. ft., set. 

Wainscoting, Vermont White Marble, 95 cts. per sq. ft., set. 

Wainscoting, Vermont Green Marble, $1.60 per sq. ft., set. 

Floors. Marble and Mosaic. Marble Tile, 80 cts. per sq. foot, 
laid; Mosaic, 75 cts. per square foot, laid. 

To Estimate Cost of Radiation per Cubic Foot : 
(Direct Radiation.) 

Steam Heat — Allow 1 foot radiation for each 50 cu. ft. of space. 
Figure radiation at 72 cts. per radiation foot. 

Hot Water Heat — 'Allow 1 foot radiation for each 30 cu. ft. of 
space. 

Figure radiation at 75 cts. per radiation foot. 

The above is for average rooms. If rooms have extraordinarily 
large window exposure, increase radiation. If smaller window space 
than average, decrease radiation. 

Be careful in the distribution of radiation, as the success of a 
heating plant depends largely upon arrangement and location of 
radiators. 

The Cost of Freight Car Repairs. The following is taken from 
the Railway Age Gazette, June 14, 1907: One Western Road has 
compiled figures for the fiscal year 1906 which distribute the repairs 
to freight cars somewhat roughly under a few heads as follows: 

Items Material % Labor % Total % 

Wheels and axles 15.0 1.6 16.6 

Remainder of trucks 9.2 3.3 12.5 

Draft gear 12.2 7.2 19.4 

Sills and under-framing .... 6.1 3.4 9.5 

Super-structure 15.9 9.8 25.7 

8.1 2.5 10.6 



132 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Items Material % Labor % Total % 

Doors, side and end 1.6 1.0 2.6 

Doors, grained 0.6 0.6 1.2 

Roof 1.2 0.7 1.9 

Total 69.9% 30.1% 100.00% 

The average number of times each car was repaired was 5.5. 

Comparative Costs of Repairing Steel and Wooden Cars on a 
Harriman Line. The following is from the Railway Age Gazette, 
June 14, 1907: A record of comparative costs of repairs to steel 
and wooden cars on the Harriman line to February, 1907. was 
given through the courtesy of Mr. Kruttschnitt, and represents a 
period of 2.5 yrs. A statement gives the average number of cars 
of each plant for the period, total cost of repairs for same, and the 
average cost per car per month. 

Average Average cost 

number Total cost of repairs per 

Kind of car of cars of repairs car per month 

Steel cars, ballast 460 $71,291.81 $5.17 

Box 2,304 108,323.29 1.57 

Coal 1,594 165,959.57 3.47 

Dump 300 39,322.92 4.37 

Flat 2,289 72,024.30 1.05 

Furniture 297 32,198.04 3.61 

Gondola or ore 1,419 134,019.10 3.16 

Oil 871 261,613.43 10.01 

Stock 1,693 55,908.34 1.10 

Total 11,227 $940,660.90 $2.79 

Wooden cars, ballast 457 $65,560.89 $4.78 

Box 6,247 735,405.53 3.92 

Coal 127 14,329.81 3.76 

Flat 514 15,699.75 1.02 

Furniture 278 61,999.51 7.44 

Oil 247 96,910.90 13.05 

Stock 2,700 291,940.19 3.61 

Total '. 10,568 $1,281,846.58 $4.04 

The unusually high cost of repairs to the oil cars was due to the 
fact that these cars were new equipment, upon which it was deemed 
advisable to make a number of alterations wjhich were charged in 
the repairs accounts. Current repairs on these cars are not ex- 
pected to average any higher than on other equipment. 

The gradual increase in the figures for average cost of repairs 
per car per month in comparison with the past year's record is to 
be noted. The average cost of repairs per car per month for the 
steel cars has increased from $2.42 to $2.79, and for the wooden 
cars, from $3.74 to $4.04, the percentages being respectively 15 
and 8%. 

Life and Maintenance of All-Steel Cars. The following article 
by M. K. Barnum, Supt. of Motive Power, B. & O. R. R., is from 
the Railway Age Gazette, March 3, 1916 : When the first steel cars 
were built, the advocates of this form of construction claimed that 
these cars would be practically indestructible, and their life so 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 133 

much greater than that of wooden cars that it was very difRcult to 
esthiiate it. A few years later, when steel cars came into general 
use on the larger railroads, the estimates of their life were placed 
at from 25 to 35 years, and in calculating the rate of depreciation, 
many roads adopted three per cent, per year, whereas for wooden 
cars, it had for a long time been calculated at six per cent. It is 
now nearly 30 years since the first steel cars were built, and there 
has been a considerable difference in their durability. This has 
been found to vary according to the manner in which they have 
been maintained, the part of the country in which they have been 
mostly used, and somewhat with the character of the lading. 
However, on the whole, the life of steel freight cars is found to be 
much less than that originally expected. 

So far as the writer has been able to learn, the oldest steel freight 
car now in service belongs to the Bessemer & Lake Erie. It was 
built in 189 6, twenty years ago. The frame of this car was made 
of structural steel shapes, and it weighed nearly 42,000 lbs., about 
4,000 or 5,000 lbs. more than many cars of the same capacity which 
were built later. A photograph taken in 1915, shows that the design 
of this car compares very favorably with the latest methods of 
construction, and also indicates that it has been very well main- 
tained. The record of repairs shows that it has been kept well 
painted, this being the usual practice of the Bessemer & Lake Erie. 
Some of the doors and hoppers required new sheets after about 
nine years and at 14 or 15 years of age the floor sheets required 
extensive renewals and the side sheets and stakes had some repairs. 
At 18 yars it received a new floor, two new corner side sheets, eight 
new hopper sheets and other repairs, and its appearance Indicates 
that it may be good for at least 10 years more. 

This car is apparently an exceptional case, for we find many 
thousands of steel gondola and hopper cars only U and 16 years 
old which have the sheets and underframes so weakened by cor- 
rosion and service that they do not justify the application of new 
material for general repairs, and many of these cars are now 
being destroyed on account of the bodies having reached their limit 
of life. This is about one-half the life which was originally ex- 
pected from steel cars, and it is disappointing. It naturally follows 
that those roads which have calculated the depreciation of steel 
freight cars at three per cent., and now find many of them worn 
out at the age of 14 to 16 years, must charge quite a large amount 
to operating expenses when they have to be scrapped. If we assume 
the average life of a steel gondola car which cost $1,000, as 16 
years, and the scrap value of the car to be $200, five per cent, per 
year would be about the proper rate to be used in figuring de- 
preciation. 

Life of Wooden Coal Cars. The records of a number of roads 
owning large numbers of wooden coal cars show that their life 
has varied between 16 and 20 years, and the average life has been 
about 17 years. This class of equipment has usually been con- 
demned and dismantled on account of the underframes and draft 
attachments becoming worn out and too weak for the heavy modern 



134 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

trains of coal cars. But for this reason, the life of these cars 
undoubtedly would have been about 20 years, which is the average 
life of a box car. However, in comparing: the life of wooden coal 
cars with that of steel, we should bear in mind the fact that most 
of the wooden cars are of 20 and 30 tons' capacity and few, if any, 
are over 40 tons, whereas few steel coal cars have been built of 
less than 40 tons' capacity and the majority of them carry 50 tons, 
while some are now being: built to carry 75 and 90 tons. 

Life of Iron and Steel Bi'idges. The writer has obtained the 
views of a number of bridge engineers and engineers of maintenance 
of way, and most of them say that the life of iron and steel bridges 
varies indefinitely, so far as actual durability is concerned, provided 
they are kept well painted, as they usually are, and the ordinary 
repairs are maintained. In some cases iron bridges 30 and 40 
years old have been perfectly good so far as deterioration is con- 
cerned and have only been removed on account of the locomotives 
and cars becoming too heavy for their construction. Bridges which 
are exposed to salt air and water corrode rapidly and their life is 
comparatively short, and salt water drippings from refrigerator 
cars used for shipping fresh meat tend to corrode the girders quite 
rapidly where the amount of this class of business is large. In 
comparing the life of iron and steel bridges with that of steel 
freight cars, we find the principal differences to be that the bridges 
are kept well painted and their life is not shortened as much by 
corrosion as is that of freight cars which are not kept painted on 
the inside. Manj- cars are not kept painted on the outside, and 
they are subject to more severe and frequent shocks in service. 

Life of Locomotive Tenders. The locomotive tender more closely 
approaches the steel coal car in the service to which it is subjected 
and will afford a fairer comparison on this account. Locomotive 
tenders are usually kept well painted on the outside, and whenever 
the locomotive receives general repairs, ordinarily once in about 
two years, it is thoroughly cleaned and painted outside, and often 
a coat of paint is applied to the coal space and to the top an(f 
bottom sheets. Many locomotives, tliirty or more j'ears old, still 
have the original tender in fairly good condition. On some of these 
the inside sheets have been renewed, but in many the original out- 
side sheets are still in a fair state of preservation. 

Principal Causes of Short Life of Steel Cars. There are many 
causes which tend to shorten the life of steel cars and the most 
active of these- is corrosion. New steel cars are painted inside and 
out, but very few, if any, railroads attempt to keep the inside 
painted after the cars have gone into service, as it is thought that 
the effect of loading and unloading coal, ore, etc., is to wear the 
point off so quickly that it would not last long enough to pay for 
the cost of the application. Therefore, the corrosion of the inside 
of such cars generally starts within a few months after they go 
into service. The paint on the outside varies in durability accord- 
ing to quality, the number of coats applied, and the manner of 
application, but it is nothing unusual to see cars only two or three 
years old the sides of which have begun to rust quite badly and 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 135 

cars only five years old with but little paint left on them. It is 
pretty certain that if these cars had been repainted when two or 
three years old, before the rust had become so general, the corro- 
sion on the outside would have been stopped and the life of the side 
sheets prolonged. 

Some of the earlier steel cars were built so light, that they have 
become weakened by corrosion sooner than those of heavier con- 
struction, and such cars occasionally buckle up in trains. In design- 
ing steel cars, it has been a nice problem to determine just how far 
to go in putting in metal to increase the strength, and at the same 
time to cut out metal where it is not essential so as to keep the 
dead weight down to a minimum consistent with good service. In 
this respect, the practice of different roads varies so that we still 
see steel gondola cars of 100,000 lbs. capacity weighing only about 
.38,000 Ib.s., while others of the same capacity weigh 7,000 or 8,000 
lbs. more. This matter of keeping down the dead weight has 
always been a hobby of such prominent railroad builders as E. H. 
Harriman and J. J. Hill, and little argument is needed to prove the 
desirability of keeping the dead weight as low as may be consistent 
with satisfactory service. The tendency during the past four or 
five years has been to increase, somewhat, the weight of cars, 
but this has generally been done, not by using thicker sheets for 
the sides and bottoms, but by strengthening the sills and reinforc- 
ing the top edges of the sides and ends, and also by adding more 
substantial draft gear. These Improvements should increase some- 
what the life of these cars over tho.se of earlier design, but in view 
of the heavier trains in which they are used it remains to be seen 
how far this will prove true. These problems of keeping down 
the dead weight of cars and eliminating those of weak design are 
not new, for. in the proceedings of one of the earliest meetings of 
the Master Car Builders' Association, held nearly 40 years ago, we 
find a lengthy discussion about these same questions and at that- 
time it was the con.sensus of opinion that in the 15-ton car the 
maximum capacity had finally been reached. 

Other causes of the short life of steel cars are the strains to which 
they are subjected in unloading machines and aLso the use of sledges 
and bars in pounding the sides and hoppers when the coal freezes 
or clogs and requires loosening. Some of the later designs of 
cars are provided with holes framed into the sides and hoppers, 
through which bars can be introduced to loosen the coal when it 
lodges. Another cause of shortening their life is the heavier trains 
in which they are u.sed, resulting in greater shocks than those for 
which they were originally designed. The effect of climate has 
quite an imijortant bearing on the life of steel cars as there is a 
noticeable difference in the rapidity of corrosion of cars used mostly 
in proximity to salt water and to rivers where fogs are prevalent, 
and those which are kept principally in service in the dry climate 
west of the Missouri river. The writer's observations lead him to 
believe that corrosion is probably 25 per cent, more rapid in the 
vicinity of the salt water than in the drier climate of the interior. 
The nature of the loading also affects the deterioration. One road 



136 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

which uses steel hopper cars almost entirely in iron ore service 
reports that, " as yet none of them show any effects of deterioration 
due to rust," although they are about 16 years old. Coal having 
much sulphur and other impurities is more injurious to steel sheets 
than the better grades of coal, and wet ashes from cinder pits are 
especially active in hastening corrosion. 

Difficult Problems. For the first five or six years of the life of a 
steel car the repairs are light and it is easy to decide just what 
work should be done, but after eight or ten years the floor and 
hopper sheets of many cars have become so corroded that they must 
be renewed, and in some cases the sides also rust through at the 
ends and bottom while the rest of the sheets are worth preserving. 
After a few years more many cars become so generally corroded 
that it is doubtful whether the side sheets are strong enough to 
make it advisable to rivet new bottom and hoppers to them. Then 
the problem is whether to apply new side sheets, if the car has 
already had a new bottom and hoppers ; or, in cases where these 
have again become weakened, to give the car general repairs using 
such of the original parts as may yet be serviceable ; or to build 
an entire new body using the same trucks ; or to dismantle the car 
entirely and eliminate it from the equipment list. Under these con- 
ditions the program will be more or less affected by the capacity of 
the car and the desirability of improvements in the design and 
the operating mechanism. 

When steel cars become damaged in wrecks, the question of re- 
pairs is quite a different one from that of repairing wooden cars, as 
in the latter case the damaged parts are removed and replaced with 
new sills, siding, flooring, etc., at a considerable expense for ma- 
terial. On the other hand, unless a steel car is damaged almost 
beyond recognition, the various parts can generally be straightened 
out and replaced on the car, if they were previously in good con- 
dition. One road, owning over 100,000 steel coal cars, has lost 
only about 20 of them on account of being damaged beyond repair, 
but if these had been wooden cars, probably many hundreds of 
them would have been destroyed within the same period. 

On another road which has over 50,000 hopper and gondola cars, 
only about two per cent, of the all-steel cars were damaged beyond 
repair during the flrst 12 or 13 years of their life, but of the com- 
posite cars having steel frames and wood sides and bottoms, about 
11 per cent, were destroyed. This large difference was probably 
affected to some extent by the fact that the composite cars were 
not originally as well designed as the steel cars, but after making 
due allowance for this, the all-steel cars seem to have the advantage 
over the composite cars in the matter of durability. 

Rebuilding Steel Cars. On a road which owns a large number 
of steel gondola and hopper cars, the latter have been found to 
reach the limit of the profitable life of the body in about 13 or 14 
years. When the cars were from eight to ten years old, it became 
necessary to renew the floor and hoppers, and in about four or 
five years more, the sides and other parts had become practically 
worn out, so that it was very doubtful whether the bodies were 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 137 

worth the application of more new material for repairs. A study 
of the subject indicated that an entire new body w^ould cost only 
about $25 more than general repairs to the old body, retaining- such 
parts as might be fit for further service. The trucks were in good 
general condition so that with the renewal of some \vorn parts, they 
could be made practically equal to new. The body after receiving 
general repairs was estimated as worth only about 65 per cent, of 
the value, new, of a gondola and 75 per cent, of a new hopper car, 
whereas the general repairs would probably not extend the life 
of the car more than six or eight years. The repaired car, if 
destroyed on a foreign line, would have its depreciation calculated 
from the date of its original construction, whereas the new body 
would have its depreciation calculated from the time when the 
body was built, which made a good argument in favor of a new 
body. 

Other points in favor of the new body were that with the experi- 
ence obtained from the maintenance of the old bodies, some im- 
provements in the design Avere possible which would make the 
new body more satisfactory in service and better able to with- 
stand the effects of heavy trains, dumping machines, etc. It would 
also have the further advantage of not being on the repair tracks 
as often as the repaired car. It was, therefore, decided to buy 
new bodies to replace the old hopper bodies of 100,000 lbs. capacity 
and use the air brakes, couplers, draft gear and trucks of the old 
cars under the new bodies. In the case of the 80,000 lb. gondolas it 
was not thought profitable to perpetuate a steel car of this capacity, 
and therefore it was decided to use the trucks and other serviceable 
parts under new box and stock car bodies of 80,000 lbs. capacity. 
In cars which had reached the limit of their life on account of the 
sheets being so generally weakened by corrosion there was not 
enough good material left in the bodies to justify general repairs. 
The bodies of these old steel cars were cut down by using a heavy 
broad-axe to cut the thinner sheets. The oxy-acetylene blow-pipe 
process is used to cut the angles, sills and heavier sheets. By 
these methods, the total cost of cutting down a condemned steel 
hopper car body to sizes suitable for sale, w^as less than $6, including 
both labor and oxy-acetylene gas. Some of the end sills, gussets, 
side stakes and other parts of the condemned cars were considered 
worth saving for repairs to other cars which are to be maintained 
for a time. 

Painting Steel Freight Cars. There has been a good deal of dis- 
cussion as to whether or not it pays to keep steel coal and ore cars 
well painted and the majority of superintendents of motive power 
believe that it would pay to do so, but many of the higher officers 
who are responsible for the entire cost of operation seem to have 
concluded that it does not pay to paint them except when they 
receive new sheets or the letters and numbers need to be brightened 
up so that their ownership and identity can be distinguished. A 
committee of the Master Car Builders' Association investigated this 
subject several years ago and their conclusions as presented at the 
1908 convention were as follows; 



138 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

" We cannot be too emphatic as to the necessity of taking the 
proper care of the exterior, and regret that we are not able to 
give the interior the same care. 

" The painting of the inside of steel cars has been thought by- 
some to be beneficial, but your committee can see no lasting results 
in this, and do not recommend it, but is of the opinion that coating 
the interior of the cars about once every six months with black oil 
would act as a preservative." 

During the following year a number of cars were painted with 
different mixtures for test purposes and special attention was given 
to painting the insides of the cars. At the 1909 convention the 
committee reported upon the painting of the inside of cars as fol- 
lows : 

'* One car bearing mixture No. 4 was examined after being in 
service 4 months and 17 days and shows the inside well preserved, 
but considerable of the paint gone from the bottom, yet there seemed 
to be retardation of the rusting and no accumulation of scale. This 
mixture shows better results than mixtures Nos. 1, 2, and 3." 
(Mixture No. 4 consisted of 30 lbs. of tar, 40 lbs. of aniline oil and 
170 lbs. of corn oil.) 

However, the committee's conclusions were, " It will be a very 
hard matter to find a preservative that will take care of the in- 
terior. The best preservative is to keep the cars in active service. 
Some steel cars that have been in active service for 10 years have 
the plates in excellent condition and from appearances, they are 
good for 10 years more. It is a pretty well known fact that where 
cars stand idle for a couple of months, the deterioration of plates 
on the inside is equal to two or three years' service." 

Similar opinions were expressed by several of the members of the 
Association who took part in the discussion. So far as the exterior 
of the car was concerned, practically all those discussing the report 
gave it as their opinion that they should be kept well painted. 
Nevertheless, this practice has not been generally followed. 

As to the frequency with which steel cars should be painted, 
there is quite a difference in opinion. Some roads paint them once 
in every three years, others once in four or five years and others 
only when they receive new sheets in the course of repairs. Esti- 
mates of the cost of painting also vary widely, and as might be ex- 
pected, those roads which paint their cars most infrequently are 
the ones on which the cost of painting is high, varying from $5 to 
$10 for each painting, while those roads which keep their cars well 
painted report the cost as varying from $6 to $1 for each painting. 
There would naturally be a considerable variation in the cost per 
painting according to the kind of material, the class of labor used 
and the condition of the car when painted, but a comparison of 
the figures indicates that it cost but little more during the life 
of the car to keep it well painted than it does to paint it only when 
the car becomes badly corroded and requires more thorough 
treatment. 

The difference in the average age and condition of such cars 
as have been kept well painted and those which have not been so 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 139 

well maintained, makes it seem fair to conclude that thorough 
painting- will probably prolong the life of steel freight cars between 
25 and 50 per cent. Assuming that the average life of a car is 16, 
years, and that the cost per painting would be $5, it seems very 
probable that an expenditure of $25 or $30 additional for painting 
would prolong its life one third, or about five years. This is a con- 
servative estimate and it would certainly be a good investment 
when applied to cars costing $1,000 apiece. Some other arguments 
in favor of keeping steel cars well painted are, that it will help to 
prevent their becoming weakened by corrosion so that they are 
liable to buckle up in hea\'y trains, also that the appearance of 
cars will be much better and although this may have no commer- 
cial value, yet it tends to create a favorable impression about the 
owning road. The arguments which are often advanced against 
keeping steel coal and coke cars thoroughly painted, seem fre- 
quently to be applied to steel underframes and other parts of cars 
which do not come in contact with the lading, and these are often 
found to be so corroded that their life is much shortened. 

Steel Passenger Cars. The estimated life of steel passenger cars 
has been placed by various authorities at from 30 to 50 years, 
but as none of them are yet half that age there are no data at 
hand on which to base any definite conclusions. The elements 
affecting the deterioration of steel passenger cars are different from 
those which apply to freight cars, but several years' experience with 
such cars shows conclusively that they must be kept well painted 
or they will deteriorate more rapidly than wooden cars. Cases have 
been noticed where the doors and window frames which were made 
of pressed steel .shapes, have begun to rust badly within two or 
three years and for this reason the Pullman Company and some 
railroads have returned to the use of wooden window sash in their 
more recent equipment. Also some of the railroads that used 
metal doors on their first steel passenger train cars found so many 
objections to them that they have been discarded and wooden doors 
used in the later cars. The parts of steel passenger cars which 
start first to rust are the roofs and the moldings or joints between 
the sheets at the clerestories and eaves, and there can be no doubt 
about the importance of keeping these parts well painted. 

Conchisions. 1. The average life of steel gondola and hopper cars 
will probably be about 16 years, judging by the records of those cars 
which have already reached their limit of life. 

2. The depreciation of steel gondola and hopper cars should be 
calculated at about five per cent. 

3. It will pay to keep steel cars well painted on account of pre- 
serving their strength and improving their appearance and extend- 
ing their life. 

Since the notes used for this article were made, there was pre- 
sented at the December meeting of the Pittsburg Railway Club a 
paper on " The Life of a Steel Freight Car," by S. Lynn, master car 
builder of the Pitt.sburg & Lake Erie, and it is interesting to note 
that the points mentioned in his paper as well as those brought 
out in the discussion, agree in most of the essential facts with the 



140 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

observations and conclusions contained in this article. Two state- 
ments made in the discussion are especially worth quoting, namely : 

*' If the steel car was given reasonable treatment and repairs 
made when needed, and repainted when the steel became exposed 
to the weather, the renewing of some of the parts would not become 
necessary for a longer period than is now the case." 

" One of the most important things determining the life of a steel 
car is the question of maintenance. If you spend the right amount 
of money at the right time, you can get prolonged life and service." 

Cost of Locomotive Repairs. Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 
7, 1910, has the following: The costs of maintaining locomotives 
as submitted to the Interstate Commerce Commission for the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1909, are interesting. In the following table 
of costs. Table XI, for which we are indebted to the American En- 
gineer, the unit employed corresponds closely to the one recom- 
mended by the committee. This is the " work unit," which is equal 
to traction effort in pounds multiplied by locomotive miles and 
divided by 1,000,000, the latter figure being an arbitrary one used 
for reducing results to a convenient size for comparison. The wide 
variation in costs is due to differences in operating conditions — 
mainly, differences in grades and curvature — prevailing on the dif- 
ferent roads. No division is made between running and shop 
repairs. 

TABLE XI. COSTS OF MAINTAINING LOCOMOTIVES PER 
WORK UNIT 

New England : 

New York, New Haven & Hartford $3.30 

Boston & Maine 2.75 

Average 3.03 

Eastern District ; 

Pennsylvania R. R 3.50 

Pennsylvania Co 2.80 

New York Central 2.25 

Baltimore «& Ohio 2.35 

Erie 4.80 

Lake Shore &. Michigan Southern 1.95 

Philadelphia &, Reading 3.65 

Lehigh Valley 3.65 

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 2.45 

Average 3.04 

Central and Southern District : 

P., C, C. & St. L 2.90 

Southern Ry 2.45 

Louisville & Nashville 3.00 

Illinois Central 3.80 

Average 3.04 

Middle Western District : 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 3.20 

Chicago & Northwestern 2.70 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 3.30 

Missouri Pacific 3. JO 

Union Pacific ^4^ 

St. Louis «& San Francisco ^'^ 

Average 3.30 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 141 

Southwestern District: 

Southern Pacific 4.35 

Atchison, Topeka «& Santa Fe 3.30 

Average 3.83 

Northwestern District : 

Northern Pacific 2.40 

Chicago, Milwauliee & St, Paul 2.70 

Great Northern 2.15 

Canadian Pacific 3.90 

Average 2.42 

Cost of Repairs for Polyphase Motors. The following, Table XII, 
is part of a table, from the Journal of Electricity, May 1, 1917, 
showing the approximate cost of repairs for polyphase motors used 
originally in connection with an article which appeared in the 
January 1, 1916, issue of the Electrican Review and Western Elec- 
trician. This table has been revised to take into account the 
increased cost of the materials entering into such repairs and 
therefore bring the estimates more in line with the present cost of 
this work. The subject matter of the original article is given in 
the following paragraphs in a condensed and slightly changed form. 

The table is suitable for 60-cycle two or three-phase squirrel- 
cage motors wound for any of the standard voltages from 110 to 
550 inclusive. 

For most of the sizes listed the costs were arrived at by taking 
the average cost of repairs for a given frame and then applying this 
cost to the various ratings built in that frame. This will be ap- 
parent by comparing the costs for the different ratings. Take for 
example, frame G. The cost of rewinding the stator is $34.75, 
This figure has been applied to the following ratings all of which 
are built in that frame: 1 horsepower, 900 revolutions per minute; 
1.5 horsepower, 1200 revolutions per minute, and 3 horsepower, 1800 
revolutions per minute. The frame sizes specified do not apply 
to any particular line of motors, but were arbitrarily chosen for the 
purpose of this article. However, the relative output of a given 
frame at the different speeds will be found to agree quite closely 
with several lines of induction motors on the market. 

These estimates may also be used equally well for motors of 
other frequencies by taking the figures applying to a 60-cycle rating 
built in the same frame. This comparison can be easily made by 
referring to the manufacturer's rating and dimension sheets for that 
particular line of motors. The tables may be further applied to 
slip-ring or phase-wound motors, since the cost of rewinding the 
rotor of such a machine will not differ materially from the cost of 
rewinding its stator. On this basis the cost of completely rewinding 
a 10 horsepower, 1800 revolutions per minute slip-ring motor built 
in frame J will be $119, or $59.50 for the rotor or stator separately. 

The estimates for rewinding the stator or resoldering the rotor 
do not include any preliminary work required to put the stator 
structure in fit condition to receive the new winding or work re- 
quired on the rotor before the actual resoldering can be started. 
Jn other words, the ^gures cover only the actual rewinding or 



142 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XII. COST OF REPAIRS FOR 60-CYCLE POLYPHASE 

MOTORS 





f=5 

MfL," 








n 






b. 


^11 




'3 


faJD 








1 
i 




.2 

t 


1 

m 


'C 

if 


-^ o 

byn-i-) 
CD 


bo 
C 

C 


bo 

C 

t 


.5 


1200 


c 


26.25 


2.50 


1.35 


1.00 


1.00 


.5 


1800 


A 


24.25 


2.25 


1.35 


1.00 


1.00 


.75 


1200 


E 


28.00 


3.00 


1.85 


1.00 


1.00 


.75 


1800 


B 


24.25 


2.25 


1.35 


1.00 


1.00 


1 


900 


G 


34.75 


4.00 


3.10 


1.50 


1.50 


1 


1200 


F 


28.50 


3.00 


1.85 


1.25 


1.00 


1 


1800 


C 


26.25 


2.50 


1.35 


1.00 


1.00 


1.5 


1200 


G 


34.75 


4.00 


3.10 


1.50 


1.50 


1.5 


1800 


E 


28.00 


3.00 


1.85 


1.00 


1.00 


2 


1200 


G 


34.75 


4.00 


3.10 


1.50 


1.50 


2 


1800 


F 


28.50 


3.00 


1.85 


1.25 


1.00 


3 


900 


I 


53.50 


6.50 


5.25 


1.50 


1.50 


3 


1200 


H 


48.50 


4.75 


3.55 


1.50 


1.50 


3 


1800 


G 


34.75 


4.00 


3.10 


1.50 


1.50 


5 


900 


K 


73.75 


8.75 


8.05 


1.75 


2.00 


5 


1200 


I 


53.50 


6.50 


5.25 


1.50 


1.50 


5 


1800 


H 


48.50 


4.75 


3.55 


1.50 


1.50 


7.5 


900 


L 


70.75 


12.00 


7.85 


2.00 


2.50 


7.5 


1200 


J 


5f).50 


7.00 


6.60 


1.75 


2.00 


7.5 


1800 


I 


53 50 


6.50 


5.25 


1.50 


1.50 


10 


. 900 


M 


75.00 


13.25 


7.85 


2.00 


2.50 


10 


1200 


L 


70.75 


12.00 


7.85 


2.00 


2.50 


10 


1800 


J 


59.50 


7.00 


6.60 


1.75 


2.00 


15 


720 


P 


93.75 


15.50 


10.25 


3.00 


4.00 


15 


900 


N 


71.25 


14.25 


10.25 


3.00 


4.00 


15 


1200 


M 


75.00 


13.25 


7.85 


2.00 


2.50 


15 


1800 


K 


73.75 


8.75 


8.05 


1.75 


2.00 


20 


600 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 


20 


900 


P 


93.75 


15.50 


10.25 


3.00 


4.00 


20 


1200 


N 


71.25 


14.25 


10.25 


3.00 


4.00 


20 


1800 


M 


75.00 


13.25 


7.85 


2.00 


2.50 


25 


600 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 


25 


720 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 


25 


900 


R 


143.75 


17.75 


12.00 


3.25 


6.00 


25 


1200 


P 


93.75 


15.50 


10.25 


3.00 


4.00 


35 


600 


T 


187.50 


20.50 


19.05 


3.50 


6.25 


35 


720 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 


•35 


900 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 


35 


1200 


R 


143 75 


17.75 


12.00 


3.25 


6.00 


50 


600 


V 


218.75 


21.75 


30.85 


3.50 


6.25 


50 


720 


V 


218.75 


21.75 


30.85 


3.50 


6.25 


50 


900 


T 


187 50 


20.50 


19.95 


3.50 


6.25 


50 


1200 


S 


156.25 


19.00 


12.10 


3.25 


6.00 



resoldering', as the case may be. However, this preliminary work 
is frequently necessary and must always be considered in making 
up estimates. It. is due to a number of causes. 

For example, the motor bearing linings may have worn down 
sufficiently to allow the rotor to rub against the stator. If the 
motor has operated very long in this condition the laminations of 
either or both stator and rotor will, probably be damaged, which 
may require considerable work to put them into their original 



DEPRECIATION, REPAIRS AND RENEWALS 143 

condition. Again, a defective or broken bearing- may injure the 
shaft. Sometimes this damage will be serious enough to require 
a new shaft. New bearing linings will probably be required in 
either case. Burned-out windings may also be accompanied by 
fusing of parts of the stator laminations. These fused portions 
must necessarily be removed before actual replacement of the coils 
can be commenced. 

In a rotor which has been badly overheated, allowing the melted 
solder to be thrown out, arcing is frequently set up between the 
rotor bars and end rings, causing serious burning. When this 
occurs, new end rings are often needed, either for one or both 
ends of the rotor, or perhaps part of the bars will need to be re- 
placed. With bolted end-ring construction there is also liability 
of trouble. The expansion of the end rings, caused by the excessive 
heat, tends to snap the bolts between the rotor bars and rings, 
producing the most favorable conditions for arcing. Burnouts of 
this kind, for either soldered or bolted construction, are quite 
common in connection with motors which have been started from 
time to time under loads requiring heavy starting torque with long 
periods of acceleration. Two or three-phase motors allowed to 
operate single-phase for any considerable length of time may also 
develop troubles of this nature. Very often the rotor will be badly 
damaged, while the stator has been only slightly overheated. Con- 
versely, in some instances, the stator will be burned out, while the 
rotor is uninjured. 

From these points it will be clear that estimates should not be 
made until after the motor has been given a careful inspection, 
otherwise there is likely to be a large discrepancy between the esti- 
mated and actual cost of the work. If an inquiry of this kind must 
be handled by letter it is not possible to make an inspection, but 
the dealer can at least detail clearly just what his estimate covers 
and point out the possibility of additional work that may be needed. 
Our readers will appreciate that estimates of this kind can be only 
approximately correct at the best. However, the table has been 
carefully compiled from data based upon a large number of actual 
repair jobs and it is believed these estimates will be found quite 
conservative. 

Life of Wooden Stave Pipe. Data, August, 191.5, says: The 
tabulation gives general data on the life of fir and redwood pipe 
under continuous water pressure. These data are summarized from 
statistics on 79 wooden pipe lines compiled by D. C. Henny, Con- 
sulting Engineer, United States Reclamation Service. Continuous 
stave and machine banded pipe are both considered. 

Wood Condition Life, years 

Fir Uncoated, buried in tight soil 20 

Fir Uncoated, buried in loose soil 4-7 

Fir Uncoated, in air 12-20 

Redwood Uncoated, buried in tight soil, loam or sand, 

and gravel Over 25 

Fir Well coated, buried in tight soil 25 

Fir Well coated, buried in loose soil 15-20 



144 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 

The data in the accompanying table XIII taken from Elec- 
trical World, Dec. 16, 1916, show what it has cost a Middle 
West central station exclusive of labor charges to maintain four 
10-ft. by 10-ft. chain-grate stokers and their furnaces during tlie 
six years they have been in service. It will be noted that the total 
expense for material has been $2,735.75 or an average of $114.99 
per stoker per year. Of this amount $2,354.87 has been spent for 
tile and fireclay, while $400.88 has been spent for stoker parts, 

TABLE XIII. COST OF STOKER AND FURNACE REPAIRS 
FOR SIX YEARS 

, Cost of repairs > 

For stoker parts 
and iron parts . For tile 

or arch and and 

feed gate fireclay Total 

1910 $60.00 $60.00 

1911 14.00 $142.25 156.25 

1912 61.12 823.17 884.29 

1913 40.50 67.50 101.00 

1914 3.00 217.00 220.00 

1915 33.25 190.25 223.50 

1916 189.01 894.70 1,083.71 

$400.88 $2,334.87 $2,735.75 

Total per stoker per year $16.70 $97.29 $114.99 

and steel and iron parts of arches and feed gates. The cost per 
stoker per year for tile and fireclay was $97.29, and the cost per 
stoker per year for all castings and steel parts was $16.70. In 
other words, the cost of the tile and fireclay represented 85 per cent, 
of the total material maintenance cost. 

A more detailed analysis of the cost of maintaining metal parts 
shows that the cost of replacing operating parts of the four stokers 
was but $8.77 per stoker per year, which is a very small percentage 
of -$1,800, the present cost of such a unit without firebrick. Further 
study of data concerning the cost of the tile also shows that in 
1912, when the maintenance cost was high, one complete 9. 5 -ft. by 
6.5-ft. arch, and fifty large 4-in. by 12-in. by 24-in. bridge wall tile 
were purchased at a total cost of $498.22, which, helped appreciably 
to increase the total for the year. 

W. M. Duncan, vice-president of the Illinois Stoker Company, 
which supplied these units, in commenting on the data said that 
since the maintenance cost on the stokers has been so low — $8.77 
per stoker per year — operating companies should not consider it a 
hardship if the concerns manufacturing such apparatus required 
the purchaser to keep rep.air parts in stock. 

Cross References and References. Depreciation and repair data 
appear throughout this book, and can be found by u.se of the in- 
dex under the name of each clas.s of plant unit. Gillette's " Hand- 
book of Cost Data," al.so his " Rock Excavation " and his " Earth 
Excavation," contain dej^reciation and repair data relating to con- 
struction machinery. Consult also Dana's " Handbook of Con- 
struction Plant." 



CHAPTER III 
BUILDINGS 

The cost of a building is most easily estimated by the cubic foot 
of contents and the square foot of area, and such unit costs are 
frequently used and are of great value for preliminary estimates. 
For this reason the cost data in this chapter are for the most part 
based on these units, although the various functional costs such as 
bricklaying, concrete forms, carpentry, etc., are also discussed. 
The comparative costs and economy of various types of buildings 
are treated as well as complete costs of typical buildings. For fur- 
ther data on this subject the reader is referred to the following 
books: Cost Data, Earth. Excavation and Rock Excavation by Hal- 
bert P. Gillette, Concrete Construction, Methods and Costs by 
Gillette and Hill and Construction Plant by R. T. Dana. 

Economic Principles of Building Construction. The three princi- 
pal elements that are essential to an economic investigation of a 
building problem are : 

(1) The total cost of the structure, including the cost of the land 
that is necessary for it, or gross investment. 

(2; The amount that can be borrowed on reasonable terms upon 
the completed structure, or the lien. 

(3) The net periodic receipts that can reasonably be counted on. 
In any discussion of this kind, abnormal and accidental considera- 
tions must be eliminated from the problem. The owner is sup- 
posed to protect himself from loss by fire through fire insurance, 
and he must assume the risk from such accidents as he cannot pro- 
tect himself against, such as earthquake, riots, wars, etc. The 
return that he receives upon his investment should be greater than 
the return that he can receive by investing his money in other 
ways free from those risks by an amount sufficiently greater to 
compensate him for the risk which he runs. If he can invest his 
money at 5% without risk it would be unwise for him to invest 
it at 59c in a building subject to uncompensated dangers. The so- 
called unearned increment upon his land, its conservative prospec- 
tive increase in value from year to year, or from decade to decade, 
may be considered as offsetting to some degree various risks of 
loss. The depreciation in the value of the structure by age is some- 
thing which can be computed and should be provided for in the 
computations by an estimated addition to the operating expense, 
this addition to be set aside in the form of an annuity toward a 
depreciation reserve. 

The above mentioned three economic elements may each be sub- 

145 



146 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

divided into various factors, each of which is susceptible of indi- 
vidual investig-ation, and the combination for any particular case 
may be expressed for precision and convenience in an algebraic 
formula or by a combination of diagrams in such a manner that 
the bearing and influence of each factor or variations in any 
factor or combination of factors may be observed almost at a 
glance, to the end that we can solve a multitude of problems that 
are ordinarily complicated and complex, with surprising rapidity 
and without many of the uncertainties that invariably attend the 
study of such a problem when it is not divided into .its principal 
factors. 

In grouping the various elements of a problem of this kind so 
as to make them most amenable to study there are two principal 
methods, the first being to collect the several factors in groups of 
algebraic equations and the other by expressing them in diagrams. 
While it is often very helpful to say that one factor in a design 
is more important than another, the most desirable solution of such 
a problem requires one to be able to say how much more important 
it is. The solution, if possible, must be quantitative instead of 
qualitative; and this is the excuse, if one be needed, for intro- 
ducing a considerable amount of algebra into the present subject. 
We have first to make a general solution containing what appear 
to be nearly all the principal factors involved and then by sub- 
stituting in the equations the factors that belong to a large class 
of structures in a city such as New, York to secure certain sub- 
general formulas in convenient form for use. Where an architect 
has a problem which meets the conditions and in which the fac- 
tors have the values which have been assumed for these sub- 
general equations, he can use them directly; otherwise, he can 
substitute the factors that he finds common to his practice, and 
prepare sub-general equations and diagrams for himself. • 

* * Let L — The area of the lot occupied by the building in square 

feet. 
4. * S r= , " area of the building, in squai'e feet. 

* I = " ratio of building area to lot area. 

* b = " ratio of rentable building area to total building 

area. 
« 22=:" tax rate on full value. 

* m—" ratio of the amount borrowed on mortgage to the 

total value. 

* If =: " rate of interest on the mortgage. 

* -y = " ratio of rented space to total rentable space. 

* g =: " ratio of overhead charges, commissions, etc., to 

gross receipts. 

* f :=z " ratio of annual charges, superintendence, repairs, 

painting, general labor, insurance, fuel, lights, 
depreciation, etc., to total cost of the building. 

* X = " ratio of net receipts to equity. 

° C — " cost of the land per square foot in dollars. 

° B = " cost of the building per square foot of floor area, 

in dollars. 
° A = " annual gross rental per square foot of rented floor 

area, average in dollars. 
" Y — " annual net receipts, in dollars. 

71 = " number of rentable stories in the building. 
° F z= " cost of the building per cubic foot. 



BUILDINGS 147 

h = " average height of one story. 
S- LI 
B — Fh 

Units marked * * are areas. 

Units marked * are ratios. 

Units marked " are in dollars. 

Now, the capital investment will be CL for land, and 

SnB for the building. 
The total investment in dollars — CL -f kinB 
The amount placed on mortgage — ( CL -\- 871B ) m 
The " Equity " or cost less the amount of the mortgage = (CL + 
IS71B) (1 — m) 

Per year in 
dollars 

The gross receipts will be AnSbv 

The operating expenses will be AnSbvg 

+ SnBf 

The interest on the mortgage will be Mm (CL + »S'wB) 

The taxes will be (CL + HnB ) R 

Therefore, assuming that the total number of rentable stories 
equals the total number of stories, 

(1) Yz=:Bn lAbv (1 — g) — Bf] — (CL -^ SnB) {R -j-Mm) 

Y 

(2) and :? = 

(CL + SnB) (1 — m) 

8 
Now, LI — S, and L = — 
I 

Y 1 Y 

. X — = — ■ 

(C \-SnB) (1 — m) S( \-nB) (1 — m) 

I I 

Y may be written = 

C ' 
Sn lAbv (1 — fif)— B/]— S ( [-uB) (^R + Mm) 

i 

c 

n lAhv il — g)—Bn— (, [-uB) {R + Mm) 

. X -■ 

C 
( [-nB) (1 — m) 

_ n S.Ahv {l — g)—Bn {Mm + R) 

_ __ 

( \-nB) (1 — m) (1 — m) 

Finally, 

Ahv (1 — g) — Bf {Mm-\-R) 

(3) ^ = -^^ 

( ^ B) (l — w). (1 — w) 

nl 

All but four of the factors in this last equation represent ratios, 
and these four represent: 



148 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

A — The rental per square foot of rented space, which depends 
upon the kind of building- and the locality where it is erected. 

B — The cost of the building per square foot of floor area, which 
depends upon the kind of building. 

C — The cost of the land per square foot, which depends upon 
the locality. 

n — The number of stories in the building. 

The first three are functions of the locality and kind of build- 
ing. 

y is a function of the times being 100 ^r in periods of great pros- 
perity and averaging in normal times 90%, more or less, depending 
upon the skill of the renting agent, the genei'al desirability of the 
building, etc. 

t\, b and I are functions of the architect's design, together with B. 

M and «i are practically fixed functions, and g and / depend 
upon the kind of building and the purposes for which it is used. 
. Classification of Factors. — We may then say that the kind of 
building controls factors A, B, g, f. 

The architect's design controls factors n, 1), I, together with B. 

The locality controls factor C. 

And there are independent factors : v, vi, M, R. 

R in New York City is supposed to be about 1.8%. The city au- 
thorities try to assess property a little under its true value, but 
of late 3'ears the assessments in many sections have been over 
rather than under, the true amount. On a rising real estate market 
the assessments are generally too low. while on a falling one, the 
assessments are generallj' too high. For average conditions a fair 
value for R would be 1.75% 

m — The percentage of the true value that can be borrowed on 
mortgage at 5% is generally nearly 6673%, so that tn may be taken 
for average conditions at. two-thirds, when M equals 5%. 

I — The percentage of the total land area occupied by the building 
varies with the size of the building, the general plan of the archi- 
tect's design, and the local conditions as to neighboring buildings, 
etc. The ruling conditions are light, air and architectural sym- 
metry, and buildings on street corners are at a considerable advan- 
tage in this regard. Tall structures, with low adjoining buildings 
of a permanent nature are likewise at an advantage if it is reason- 
ably certain that the adjoining property will not be built up. A 
20-story building alongside of a 10-story one which is substantially 
built but with footings and columns designed for only ten stories is 
likely to enjoy an outlook over the roof of the ten-story one so long 
as the latter pays a fair return on its cost. At the best, however, 
there is a decided risk in counting upon such conditions for as many 
years as will represent the life of the modern steel or concrete 
building. 

V — The percentage of efficiency in renting will very naturally 
vary with the times and conditions. It will never remain 100% 
for any great length of time, because when a section is fully rented 
at fair rates new construction and consequent competition is stimu- 
lated. Most real estate men consider that 10% for vacancies is a 



BUILDINGS 149 

fair value for a term of years. Therefore, we may take v as equal 
to 90%, or 0.9. 

& — The percentage of the whole building space that brings a 
gross return, depends upon the space necessary for halls, stairways 
and elevatgrs. 

A — The rate per sq. ft. for ground floor rentals and that for 
upper floors varies in different sections of the city and also with the 
purposes for which the floors are used. Avenues generally rent 
higher than side streets, and retail buildings at higher rates than 
wholesale ones. In Kew York, and probably the same is true for 
most other large cities, the unit rentals on space for the most ex- 
pensive luxuries are the highest, as, for example, jewelry and art 
showrooms, bric-a-brac shops of the most " exclusive " kind, mil- 
linery stores and haberdasheries. Space for banking and trust 
company buildings also comes high, and the rates for this purpose 
are very stable in comparison with those for mercantile purposes. 

g — The percentage of gross rentals charged by agents for han- 
dling the property, negotiating leases, etc., ranges from 3% to 5%, 
with a general average of 4%. 

h — • The height of the average story in the commercial buildings 
that are built today varies a little, but will average from ten to 
twelve feet. 

F — The cost of the building per cu. ft. will vary a ^ood deal, 
depending upon the quality of the workmanship, the kind of con- 
struction, whether fireproof or not, the skill of the architect, the 
nature of the terms on which the building is erected and the credit 
of the builder. It depends also very largely on the skill of the 
engineer who supervises the layout of columns, etc., and upon the 
character of the ground underlying the foundations. A building in 
which the columns are uniformly spaced in one or both directions is 
very considerably less expensive than with irregular column spacing, 
owing to the lower cost of fabricating steel on a standardized design 
than on one of dissimilar sections. Moreover, with uniformity in 
the design the actual amount of steel in the frame is likely to be 
decidedly less than when irregular panels are employed. The same 
is largely true of reinforced concrete and composite structures. The 
building's height likewise affects the unit cost, because the taller it 
is the greater the column and footing loads, so that the cost of 
columns and footings is about proportional to the square of the 
number of .stories to be carried, other conditions being equal. 
Since, however, the cost for beams, girders, floors, walls, ceiling, 
windows and door openings, etc., will be proportional to the cubic 
contents of the building, and these items in the aggregate are far 
in excess of the columns, footings and cellar excavation, it may be 
assumed for preliminary calculations that the cost of the building 
is nearly proportional to its volume. The location of the building 
mu.st be carefully considered in' the preliminary calculations, how- 
ever. The " political " conditions, municipal regulations and street 
traffic all have much to do with the cost of erection. 

/ — The percentage of the original cost of the building consumed 
in annual charges will depend on the character of the service ren- 



150 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

dered to tenants. This is high in office buildings and low in com- 
mercial ones and warehouses. The element of annual depreciation 
is one that depends on the life of the building and the rate at which 
a sinking fund can conveniently be invested. 

Buildings-Factor Costs. Harold Green (Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Feb. 3, 1915) states that there is no fixed set of elements 
making up a land-and-buildings factor. In the majority of cases, 
however, the elements discussed below will include all the costs 
making up a complete factor for the purpose of a square foot 
distribution to departments or production centers as the cost- 
accounting practice may require. Thus the elements which have 
been selected are almost universal, while those particular to special 
industries are not considered. A classification of these elements 
together with an explanation of how the cost of each was deter- 
mined follows : 

(1) Fixed charges on land. 

(2) Fixed charges on buildings. 

(3) Fixed charges on building fixtures. 

(4) Power and light. 

(5) Heat. 

(6) Building expense. 

Costs of Elements. Fixed charges consist of interest, taxes, insur- 
ance, depreciation, and repairs, and these are calculated as a per- 
centage of the appraisal value of the land, buildings, and fixtures. 
The interest rate was taken at 5 per cent, in all cases. Tax and 
insurance rates were determined for each particular case. These 
rates were quite uniform, however, and 1 per cent, for taxes and 0.5 
per cent, for insurance would be fair averages. On buildings the 
rates for depreciation and repairs averaged 2 per cent, and 3 per 
cent, respectively, while for buildings fixtures, which consist of 
steam and water piping, electric light wiring, elevators, sprinkler 
systems, etc., rates of 5 per cent, for depreciation and 5 per cent, 
for repairs were used. 

For convenience these rates are summarized in the following 
table : 

Ijand, Buildings, Fixtures, 
per cent. per cent. per cent. 

Interest 5 5 5 

Taxes 1 1 1 

Insurance 0.5 0.5 

Depreciation 2 5 

Repairs 3 5 

Total ~6 IlF 16.5 

It is evident that correct interest, tax, and insurance rates can 
be determined. Correct reserves for depreciation and repairs are 
open to considerable discussion, however, and the correct reserves 
will vary with the type of buildings under consideration. As a 
basis about 25 mill-construction buildings used for paper, textile, 
and machine-building industries, and costing from $1.25 to $1.50 
per square foot, have been selected. The rates given above for 



BUILDINGS 151 

depreciation and repairs were used in these mills, and appear to be 
correct, judging from accumulated cost-accounting records. 

The cost of the first three elements — fixed charges on land, build- 
ings, and fixtures — was determined ; then, by calculating proper 
annual interest, tax, insurance, depreciation, and repair charges as 
a percentage of the appraisal value of the land, buildings, and fix- 
tures, the costs of these subdivisions were obtained. 

The next two elements — power and light, and heat — include the 
cost of power used for lighting buildings and operating elevators, 
and the cost of steam used for heating. These costs are, of course, 
based on a determination of how much power and heat is used for 
these purposes, and how much it costs to make the power and steam 
in the particular plant. 

The amount of steam used for heating was estimated theoretically 
by the same methods which would be used in designing a heating 
system for a mill building, and these theoretical results were 
checked with the known difference in coal consumption between 
winter and summer months due to heating. Power used for lighting 
was frequently developed by a separate generator, which enabled a 
log of switchboard readings to be used in making this determination. 
In a few cases power for lighting was purchased. Power used by 
elevators is, in most cases, a relatively small item and depends on 
the size of the elevators and the frequency with which they are used. 
In determining the cost of the steam and power used, fixed 
charges on land, buildings, fixtures, and equipment, as well as 
operating charges for fuel, labor, supplies, etc., are included. In 
the several plants under discussion the average cost of steam was 
30 cts. per 1,000 pounds, and of power 2 cts. per kilowatt hour. The 
cost of power, heat, and light was determined then by estimating the 
power, heat, and light used, and by calculating the cost, taking into 
consideration the cost of power at the plant in question. 

The last element, buildings expense, is made up of expense items 
attendant upon the operation of practically all factory buildings. 
Under this head there has been included labor, such as watchmen, 
elevator operators, janitors, etc., and the cost of supplies used for 
cleaning buildings, the cost of water for general factory use, and 
other similar items. 

Division of Costs. An attempt has been made in the preceding 
paragraphs to describe definitely how the total land-and-buildings 
factor has been determined. If this has been done, the data fol- 
lowing should have a practical value for comparative purposes, and 
this discussion should serve as a basis for a study of buildings- 
factor costs with the object in view of approaching a maximum 
efficiency. 

The average cost per square foot of floor space, in the buildings 
described above, and determined as explained in the previous para- 
graphs of this article, was 22 cts. As an illustration of the meaning 
of this cost, take the case of a boring mill in a machine shop which 
may occupy a space 20 ft. by 20 ft. when allowance is made for the 
machine, the operator, and the necessary movement of work at the 
machine, A square foot factor or buildings factor of, say 25 cts. 



152 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

would mean that it costs 20X20X25 cents, or $100 a year to house 
this machine. Assuming a working time of 2,500 hrs. a year, it 
would mean that this cost accumulates at a rate of 4 cts. an hr. 
This buildings-factor charge is an appreciable percentage of the 
wages paid the machine operator, and is but one of several equally 
important factors making up the total burden of the industry. 

Relatively, the buildings-factor charge was found to be divided 
between the elements as follows : 

Costs, cts. 

Item. Per cent. per sq. ft. 

Fixed charges on land 10 2.2 

Fixed charges on buildings 56 12.3 

Fixed charges on buildings fixtures. 9 2.0 

Power and light 4 .9 

Heat 14 3.1 

Buildings expense 7 1.5 

Total 100 22.0 

Cost of Items of Buildings by Percentages. In any locality, if we 
select buildings of any given class and estimate the percentage of 
the total cost chargeable to each item, we find a remarkably small 



si ;.| li ^S ^1 l| 

•° !h Wee ^ ^^ 

Excavation, brick and 

cut stone 16% 36% 38% 48% 50% 15% 

Plaster 8 6 6 1,^ 6 

Skylights and glass ". 10 

Blillwork and glass.... 21 20 17 lOV' 7 6 

Lumber 19 12 lli^^ liy> 18i^ 6% 

Carpenter labor 18 10 10 10 9 V' 4 

Hardware 3 V^ 3 2^-, 2^2 • • • " 

Tin, galv. iron and slate 2V> 4I/2 5 31/. .... 1V> 

Gravel roofing 1 % . . .'. 2 1 Va 

Structural steel 51/2 45^^ 

Steel lintels and hard- 
ware 81^ 6 

Plumbing and gas fitt'g 7 3 4 4 2 

Piping for steam, water 

and power 2 

Paint 5 5 V2 4 % 4 2 U 2 

Total 100% 100%, 100% 100% 100% 100% 

Note. — Heating is not included. 

variation. For example, the hardware item in brick residences 
averages about 3% of the total cost of the building whether the 
building costs $10,000 or $50,000. For a $10,000 building the 
hardware costs $10,000 X 3%, or $300. For a $50,000 building, the 
hardware costs $50,000 X 3%, or $1,500. In making preliminary 
estimates of cost it is often sufficiently close to estimate one or 
two of the large items and calculate the rest by percentages. Every 
builder and architect, therefore, should analyze the actual cost ot 



BUILDINGS 153 

each item of a number of typical buildings, and reduce the analysis 
to percentages. Where foundation work is difficult and variable, it 
is well to exclude the foundations in forming a table of percentages, 
such as the one on this page. It is also well to carry the sub- 
divisions of cost still farther ; but for the purpose of example, the 
foregoing table serves to illustrate. 

Cost of Miscellaneous Buildings. In the following tables by Leon- 
ard C. Wason of the Aberthaw Construction Co. given in Engineer- 
ing Record, Feb. 27, 1909, in each case the total cost includes 
masonry and carpentry work without interior finish or decorating, 
plumbing and heating. The effort has been made to put the build- 
ings upon a comparative basis as regards the amount of work done 
on each. 

The first table consists of the total cost of actual contracts exe- 
cuted. The second table consists of bona fide bids on complete 

TABLE I. COST OP FIREPROOF COMPLETED BUILDINGS 

Kind of Volume 

building. in cu. ft. 

Offices and stores 1,365.830 

Offices and stores 496,780 

Factory 112,440 

Factory 746,674 

Factory 312,000 

Garage 156,198 

Filter 149,250 

Fire station 44,265 

Observatory 9,734 

Filter 59,991 

Highest .... 

Lowest .... 

Average .... 

buildings on which Mr. "Wason's company were not the lowest bid- 
ders but where the difference was not as a rule very great. The 
third and fourth tables are bona fide bids on work by another 
contractor whose experience was similar to that of Mr. Wason's. 
As a rule, cubic foot measurements are given in cents only, seldom 
being carried to any closer sub-division. In the table on second 
class buildings, it will be noted that for the largest building a 
variation of 1 cent per cubic foot amounts to over $28,000, while the 
smallest one in the list amounts to only a little over $5,400. Again, 
on the last three items, the cubic foot price is practically identical, 
while the square foot measurements corresponding vary by more 
than 100 per cent, with no easily apparent reason in the design. 

In the table on fireproof buildings another discrepancy is noticed. 
In the fir.st and last items, the highest and the lowest per cubic 
foot as well as per square foot are on office buildings of similar 
type which were within one mile of each other where there is no 
apparent reason for such discrepancy in the design or difficulty of 
access in the erection of the building. It is recommended by Mr. 
Wason that very little reliance be placed upon this class of esti- 
mates. 



Floor 


^Unit 


cost^ 


area in 


Per 


Per 


sq. ft. 


cu. ft. 


sq. ft. 


90,474 


$0,133 


$2.00 


39,840 


.124 


1.545 


7,519 


.114 


1.70 


49,546 


.060 


.902 


24,960 


.127 


1.60 


10,806 


.085 


1.23 


19,208 


.134 


1.04 


2,982 


.153 


2.26 


657 


.373 


5.45 


5,243 


.333 


3.82 




.333 


3.82 




.06 


.90 




.138 


1.72 



154 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE II. COST OF FIREPROOF COMPLETE BUILDINGS 



Kind of Volume 

building. in cu. ft. 

Storehouse 1,714.448 

Hospital 703,692 

Office building- 496,780 

Cold storage 1,535,000 

Factory 212,400 

Factory 1,327,868 

Storehouse 1,140,000 

Mfg. building 1,380,500 

Office 693,840 

Factory 105,600 

Factory 1,211,364 

Factory 180,000 

Highest .... 

Lowest .... 

Averag-e .... 



Kind of Volume 

building. in cu. ft. 

Office building 441,000 

Cold storage 1,016,400 

Hospital 348,320 

Hospital 414,732 

Bank 533,750 

Masonic 1,479,456 

Warehouse 259,700 

Garage 497,420 

Warehouse 2,597,000 

Hotel 2,116,106 

Hospital 485,789 

Office 264,687 

Cold storage . 909,240 

Club 513,808 

Office 501,575 

Highest .... 

Lowest .... 

Average .... 

Variation, high and 

low .... 



Floor 


r-Unit 


cost-^ 


area m 


Per 


Per 


sq. ft. 


cu. ft. 


sq. ft. 


168,696 


$0.0827 


$0.84 


57,654 


.0865 


1.05 


39,840 


.124 


1.545 


154,000 


.13 


1.30 


15,000 


.091 


1.28 


106,022 


.107 


1.335 


146,000 


.0685 


.575 


90,240 


.067 


1.01 


56,552 


.197 


2.42 


8,800 


.124 


1.485 


74,604 


.0625 


1.01 


16,394 


.129 


1.42 


.... 


.197 


2.42 




.0625 


.575 





.1088 


1.27 


]PROOF 


BUILDINGS 




Floor 


r-Unit 


C0St--^ 


area in 


Per 


Per 


sq. ft. 


cu. ft. 


sq. ft. 


35,854 


$0,159 


$1.97 


101,640 


.13 


1.30 


34,832 


.127 


1.27 


29,838 


.124 
.123 
.122 


1.73 


.... 


.... 


24,500 


.120 
.118 


1.28 


212,000 


.106 


1.30 




.104 




38,247 


.100 
.095 


1.30 


66,745 


.091 
.085 


1.24 


67,400 


.084 


1.12 




.159 


1.97 


.... 


.084 


1.12 


.... 


.113 


1.39 



53.8% 



57.0% 



TABLE IV. 



COST OF MILL CONSTRUCTION OR SECOND- 
CLASS BUILDING 



Kind of Volu 

building. in cu. 

Mill 544, 

Warehouse 2,808, 

Mill 1,271, 

Storehouse 1,714, 

Mill 1,622, 

Mill 1,331, 

Mill 1,752, 

Mill 2,641, 

Mill 2,036, 

Mill 2,867, 

Highest 

Lowest 

Average 





Floor 


^Unit 


cost--, 


;me 


area in 


Per 


Per 


.ft. 


sq. ft. 


cu. ft. 


sq. ft. 


,788 


44,172 


$0,122 


$1.51 


,850 




.12 




,300 


129,920 


.0891 


.875 


,448 


168,696 


.059 


.60 


,128 


152,200 


.056 


.60 


,200 


83,200 


.054 


.865 


,609 


81.500 


.048 


1.05 


,000 


98,059 


.046 


1.25 


,731 


174,000 


.046 


.542 


,535 


157,730 


.045 


.82 




.... 


.122 


1.51 






.045 


.542 






.069 


.90 



BUILDINGS 155 

Table V was condensed from data given by F. E. Kidder in 
Building Construction. 

TABLE V. COST PER CUBIC FOOT FOR VARIOUS HEIGHTS 

Type of bldg. and No. ,• — No. of stories — ^ , Cost per cu. ft. ^ 

construction. Incl. Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg. 
Office buildings : 

Fireproof 21 20 2 9.35 63c 25c 41.5c 

* Non-fireproof . 3 12 3 7.66 36.4 19 27.13 

"Warehouses : 

Fireproof 2 7 5 6 25.17 17.12 21.14 

Non-fireproof .1 7 7 7 9.08 9.08 9.08 

Stores : 

Fireproof 2 6 4 5 31 29 30 

Non-fireproof .1 8 8 8 19.75 19.75 19.75 

Hotels and apart- 
ment houses : 

Fireproof 4 14 7 9.5 44 30 38.8 

Non-fireproof .1,5 5 5 18.5 18.5 18.5 

F. J. T. Stewart states that in 1906 the average cost of three 
fireproof oflSce buildings in Chicago was 33 cts. per cu. ft., while 
that of four fireproof oflace buildings in Boston was 40 cts. per 
cu. ft. 

Cost of Office Buildings. Building Management gives the follow- 
ing table of approximate average cost, in cents, per cubic foot of 
content of buildings, for the principal items of a first-class office 
building, as compiled from costs of numerous buildings. 

Cost, per cu. ft., 
Item. in cts. 

Foundation 1.75 

Steel framing 2.50 

Granite and all masonry 11.17 

Cornice, roof and skylights 0.67 

Fireproof floors 0.67 

Partition.s, tile 0.40 

All plastering and stucco 1.25 

Ornamental metal work 2.00 

Marble work 3.17 

Hardware 0.13 

Joiner work 1.17 

Glass 0.42 

Painting and varnish 0.23 

Electric wiring 0.66 

Heating 1.12 

Plumbing 0.50 

Elevators 1.00 

Stairs, scenic structural framing, lamp fixtures, 
etc., " contingencies," including lesser items 

not mentioned above 4.19 

Architect's fee 2.60 

Total cost per cu. ft 34.42 

Comparative Cost of Wood- and Steel Frame Factory Buildings. 
H. G. Tyrrell gives the following, based on prices existing in Ohio 
in the forepart of 1905. 

Slow Burning Wood Construction. The building is 60 x 100 ft., 
six stories high, containing 6 floors, a roof and a cellar. The floors 



156 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

are designed for a load of 100 lbs. per sq. ft. The building has 
windows on all four sides. The walls (brick) carry the ends 
of the floor beams. The basement walls are 24 ins, thick. "Walls 
of first four stories are 17 ins. thick; top two stories, 13 ins. 
thick. Eight tiers of columns, spaced 20 ft. apart in both direc- 
tions, carry the floors and roof. The columns of the upper four 
stories are yellow pine, the size being 14 x 14 ins. for the lowest of 
these four stories. Below this, round cast iron columns are u^ed, 
11 X 1^/i ins. in the first story, and 12 x li/^ ins. in the basement. All 
columns have cast iron bases 3 ft. square and 16 ins. high. Length- 
wise through the building in the floors, run two lines of 12 x 20-in. 
yellow pine header beams resting on the brackets of the cast iron 
column caps. The cross floor beams are 8 x 16-in. yellow pine, 
spaced 5 ft. apart. At the columns they rest on column caps, and 
at intermediate points they hang from the header beams by wrought 
iron stirrups. In the walls the cross beams rest on cast iron wall 
plates, 9 X 20 X % in. The floor is of %-in. matched maple, laid on 
1%-in. yellow pine. The roof is similar in construction and has a 
tar and graA^el covering. 

The following estimates are for the structural part of the building 
only, including walls, columns, floors, roof, excavation, foundation, 
doors and windows, but not including partitions, stairs, elevators, 
plumbing, heating, lighting or wiring. 

1. Excavation (cu. yds.) 1,800 

2. Cellar cement floor (sq. ft.) 6,000 

3. Foundation concrete (cu. yds.) . 150 

4. Brick (cu. ft.) 39.000 

5. Windows, 4x7 ft 238 

6. Roofing ( sq. ft. ) 6,000 

7. Yellow pine timber (M.) 116 

8. Yellow pine flooring (M.) 73 

9. Matched flooring (M.) 46 

10. Iron work (tons) 46 

The estimated cost of this design is $35,000, which is equivalent 
to 6.1 cts. per cu. ft., or 83 cts. per sq. ft. of entire floor area. 

The interior framing of floors and columns (including wall plates, 
columns, caps and bases and stirrup irons), is 27 cts. per sq. ft. of 
floor area. 

Fireproof Steel Constricction. This is similar in design to the 
above, as regards arrangemerft of beams and columns. Riveted 
steel columns are used, and the floors are framed with steel beams. 
The flooring between the beams is reinforced concrete. 

The quantities are as before for items (1) to (6) inclusive. 

The remaining items are : 

7. Steel columns (tons) ' 105 

8. Steel beams and wall plate (tons) 252 

9. Concrete floor and roof (sq. ft.) 42,000 

The estimated cost is $57,000, which is equivalent to 10.2 cts. per 
cu. ft., or $1.36 per sq. ft. of total flbor area. Floors and columns 
cost 75 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, as compared with 27 cts. for 
the slow burning mill construction. 



BUILDINGS 



157 



Cubic Foot Costs of Reinforced Concrete Buildings.* — The follow- 
ing costs are for buildings actually erected and they are given by 
Emlle G. Perrot, M. Am. Soc. C. E. : 

Cents per cu. ft. 

Warehouses and manufactures 8 to 10 

Stores and loft buildings 11 to 17 

Miscellaneous, such as schools and hospitals. . 15 to 20 

These costs include the building complete, omitting power, heat, 
light, elevators and decorations or furnishings. 




Length in Feet 
1 

























i 




















\ 




















\ 




















\ 






















\ 


















i 




'^ 




1 












\ 
















— 




IN 




















S\ 


V 


^^ 
















\^ 


s 






— 















S 


^ 
^ 




— 


= 













— 




- 


^^ 


= 


-!— 




— 



Length in Feet 



Fig. 
Fig. 



1. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
for one story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 

2. Diagram .showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
for two-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 



Cost of iVlili Buildings. (Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 27, 
1909.) Charles F. Main is authority for the following data, based 
upon eastern prices in 1910. 

It is not an uncommon thing to hear the cost of mill buildings 
placed from 70 cts. to $1 per sq. ft. of floor space, regardless of the 
size or number of .^stories. There i.s, however, a wide range of cost 
per square foot of floor space, depending upon the width, length, 
height of .stories and number of stories. 

Some time ago, I placed a valuation upon a portion of the prop- 
erty of a corporation, including some 400 or 500 buildings. In order 
to have a standard of cost from which to start in each case. I pre- 
pared a series of diagrams showing the approximate costs of build- 
ings varying in length and width and from one story to six stories 
in height. The height of stories also was varied for different 
widths, being assumed 13 ft. high if 25 ft. wide, 14 ft. if 50 ft. wide, 
15 ft. for 75 ft., 16 ft. for 100 ft. and over. 



* Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 27, 1909, 



158 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The costs used in making up the diagrams are based largely 
upon the actual cost of work done under average conditions of cost 
of materials and labor and with average soil for foundations. The 
costs given include plumbing, but no heating, sprinklers, or lighting. 
These three latter items would add roughly 10 cts. per sq. ft. of 
floor area. 

Estimates. The accompanying diagrams, Figs. 1 to 6, can be 
used to determine the probable approximate cost of proposed brick 
buildings, of the type known as " slow-burning " to be used for 
manufacturing purposes, with a total floor load of about 75 lbs. 
per sq. ft. and these can be taken from the diagrams readily. The 
curves were derived primarily to show the estimated cost per square 
foot of gross floor area of brick buildings for textile mills, and to 
include ordinary foundations and plumbing. For example, if it is 




Length in Feet 





~ 








































\ 




















\ 




















\ 






















\ 






















X 


s^ 














y 










"~" 


' — 


■— 


— 




SN 




















w 


\ 


















vs 


\ 


^ 


^ 














V 


^ 






- 



















-^ 




— 




— 












■^ 




— 




— 


^S 


\ \ 


3 C 


n 


\ § 


.1 


\ % 


? i 


1 % 


^§ 



Length in Feet 



Fig. 3. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. foot of floor area 

for three-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 

Fig. 4. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 

for four-story brick buildings for textile inanufacturing. 



desired to know the probable cost of a mill 400 ft. long by 100 ft. 
wide, three stories high, refer to the curves showing the cost of 
three-story buildings. On the curve for buildings 100 ft. wide, find 
the point where the vertical line of 400 ft. in length cuts the curve, 
then move horizontally along this line to the left-hand vertical line, 
on which will be found the cost of 81 cts. 

The cost given is for brick manufacturing buildings under average 
conditions and can be modified if necessary for the following con- 
ditions : 

(a) If the soil is poor or the conditions of the site are such as to 
require more than the ordinary amount of foundations, the cost will 
be increased. 



BUILDINGS 



159 



(h) If the end or a side of the building is formed by another 
building, the cost of one or the other will be reduced slightly. 

(c) If the building is to be used for ordinary storage purposes 
with low stories and no top floors, the cost will be decreased from 
about 10% for large low buildings, to 25% for small high ones, 
about 20% usually being a fair allowance. 

(d) If the buildings are to be used for manufacturing purposes 
and are to be substantially built of wood, the cost will be decreased 
from about 6% for large one-story buildings, to 33% for high small 
buildings; 15% would usually be a fair allowance. 

(e) If the buildings are to be used for storage with low stories 
and built substantially of wood, the cost will be decreased from 13% 



2.10 
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Fig. 
Fig. 



5. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq, ft. of floor area 
for five-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 

6. Diagram showing estimated cost per sq. ft. of floor area 
for six-story brick buildings for textile manufacturing. 



for large one-story buildings, to 50% for small high buildings ; 30% 
would usually be a fair allowance. 

(f) If the total floor loads are more than 75 lbs. per sq. ft. the 
cost is increased. 

(g) For oflSce buildings, the cost must be increased to cover 
architectural features on the outside and interior finish. 

The cost of very light wooden structures is much less than the 
above figures would give. Table VI shows the approximate ratio 
of the costs of different kinds of buildings to the cost of those shown 
by the curves. 

Evaluations. The diagrams can be used as a basis of valuation 
of different buildings. 

A building, no matter how built nor how expensive it was to 
build, cannot be of any more yalue for the purpose to which it is 



160 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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BUILDINGS 161 

put than a modern building properly designed for that particular 
purpose. The cost of such a modern building is then the limit of 
value of existing buildings. Existing buildings are usually of less 
value than new modern buildings for the reason that there has been 
some depreciation due to age and that the buildings are not as well 
suited to the business as a modern building would be. 

Starting with the diagrams as a base, the value can be approxi- 
mately determined by making the proper deductions. 

The diagrams can be used as a basis for insurance valuations 
after deducting about 5% for large buildings to 15% for small ones, 
for the cost of foundations, as it is not customary to include the 
foundations in the insurable value. 

Use of Tables. Table VII shows the costs which form the basis 
of the estimates and these unit prices can be used to compute the 
cost of any building not covered by the diagrams. The cost of 
brick walls is based on 22 bricks per cubic foot, costing $18 per 

TABLE VII. DATA FOR ESTIMATING COST OP BUILDINGS 

Foundations Brick walls. Columns 

including exc. Cost per sq. ft. including 

Cost per lin. ft. of surface. piers and 

for outside inside outside for inside castings. 

walls. walls walls. walls. Cost 

of one. 

One-story building $2.00 $1.75 $ .40 $ .40 $15.00 

Two-story building 2.90 2.25 .44 .40 15.00 

Three-story building 3.80 2.80 .47 .40 15.00 

Four-story building 4.70 3.40 .50 .43 15.00 

Five-story building 5.60 3.90 .53 .45 15.00 

Six-story building 6.50 4.50 .57 .47 15.00 

thousand laid. Openings are estimated at 40 cts. per sq. ft., includ- 
ing windows, doors and sills. 

Ordinary mill floors, including timbers, planking and top floor 
with Southern pine timber at $40 per M. ft. B. M. and spruce 
planking at $30 per M., costs about 32 cts. per sq. ft., which has 
been used as a unit price. Ordinary mill roofs covered with tar and 
gravel, with lumber at the above prices, cost about 25 cts. per sq. ft. 
and this has been used in the estimates. Add for stairways, ele- 
vator wells, plumbing, partitions and special work. 

Deductions from Diagrams. (1) An examination of the diagrams 
shows immediately the decrease in cost as the width is increased. 
This is due to the fact that the cost of the walls and outside founda- 
tions, which is an important item of cost, relative to the total cost, 
is decreased as the width increases. 

For example, supposing a three-story building is desired with 
30,000 sq. ft. on each floor: 

If the building were 600 ft. x 50 ft., its co-st would be about 99 
cts. per sq. ft. 

If the building were 400 ft. x 75 ft., its cost would be about 87 
cts. per sq. ft. 

If the building were 300 ft. x 100 ft., its cost would be about 83 
cts. per sq. ft. 



162 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

If the building were 240 ft. x 125 ft., its cost would be about 80 
cts. per sq. ft. 

(2) The diagram shows that the minimum cost per square foot 
is reached with a four-story building. A three-story building costs 
a trifle more than a four-story. A one-story building is the most 
expensive. This is due to a combination of several features : 

(a) The cost of ordinary foundations does not increase in pro- 
portion to the number of stories, and therefore their cost is less pur 
square foot as the number of stories is increased, at least up to the 
limit of the diagram. 

(b) The roof is the same for a one-story building as for one of 
any other number of stories, and therefore its cost relative to the 
total cost grows less as the nuinber of stories increases. 

(c) The cost of columns, including the supporting piers and 
castings, does not vary much per story as the stories are added. 

^ (d) As the number of stories increases, the cost of the walls, 
owing to increased thickness, increases in a greater ratio than the 
number of stories, and this item is the one which in the four-story 
building offsets the saving in foundations and roof. 

(3) The saving by the use of frame construction for Avails instead 
of brick is not as great as many persons think. The only saving 
is in somewhat lighter foundations and in the outside surfaces of 
the building. The floor, columns, and roof must be the same 
strength and construction in any case. 

TABLE VIII. DATA FOR APPROXIMATING COST OF MILL 
BUILDINGS OF KNOWN SIZE BUT WITHOUT DEFINITE 
PLANS MADE 



Foundations, 


Brick walls 


including 


exc. 


Including 


Cost per lin. ft. 


doors and 


windows. 


for outside 


inside 


Cost per 


■ sq. ft. 


walls. 


walls. 


of surface. 






outside 


for inside 






walls. 


walls. 


Height of building. 








One story $2.00 


$1.75 


$ .40 


% .40 


Two stories. ... 2.90 


2.25 


.44 


.40 


Three stories... 3.80 


2.80 


.47 


.40 


Four stories. . . . 4.70 


3.40 


.50 


.43 


Five stories 5.60 


3.90 


.53 


.45 


Six stories 6.50 


4.50 


.57 


.47 



Assumed Height of Stories. From ground to first floor, 3 ft. 
Buildings 25 ft. wide, stories 13 ft. high. Buildings 50 ft. wide, 
stories 14 ft. high. Buildings 75 ft. wide, stories 15 ft. high.. 
Buildings 100 ft. wide, stories 16 ft. high. Buildings 125 ft. wide, 
stories 16 ft. high. 

Unit Prices. Floors, 32 cts. per sq. ft. of gross floor space not 
including columns. If columns are inclined, 38 cts. 

Roof, 25 cts. per sq. ft., not including columns. If columns are 
included, 30 cts. Roof to project 18 ins. all around buildings. 

Stairways, including partitions, $100 each flight. Allow two 
stairways, and one elevator tower for buildings up to 150 ft. long. 
Allow two stairways and twQ elevator towers for buildings up to 



BUILDINGS 



163 



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164. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

300 ft. long-. In buildings over two stories, allow three stairways 
and three elevator towers for buildings over 300 ft. long. 

In buildings over two stories, plumbing $75 for each fixture in- 
cluding piping and partitions. Allow two fixtures on each fioor up 
to 5.000 sq. ft. of floor space and add one fixture for each additional 
5,000 sq. ft. of floor or fraction thereof. 

(Note. From the above data the approximate cost of any size 
and shape of building can be estimated in a few minutes. After 
the cost of the items given is determined about 10% should be added 
for incidentals.) 

Reinforced Concrete Buildings. From such estimates and pro- 
posals as I have been able to get and from work done it appears 
that the cost of reinforced concrete buildings designed to carry floor 
loads of 100 lbs. per sq. ft. or less would be about 25% more than 
the slow-burning type of mill construction. 

Alternate Method of Estimating Cost. Floors. 38 cts. per sq. 
ft. of gross floor space. This price will include column piers, column 
castings and wrought iron. 

Roof. 30 cts. per sq. ft., including projections, say 18 ins., in- 
cluding columns, etc. 

Stairways and Elevator Towers. Allow two stairways and one 
elevator tower in buildings over two stories high up to 150 ft. long. 
Allow two stairways and two elevator towers up to 300 ft. long. 
Allow three stairways and three elevator towers over 300 ft. long. 

Brick Walls. Enclosing stairs and elevators, estimated as inside 
walls. 

Stairs. $100 per flight, per story. 

Plumbing. Allow two fixtures on each floor up to 5,000 sq. ft. 
of floor space, and add one fixture for each additional 5,000 sq ft. 
or fraction thereof. Allow $75 per fixture. 

Incidentals. Add about 10% for incidentals. 

Cost of Buildings of Wood, Concrete, and Steel Framing. H. G. 
Tj^rrell (Engineering Magazine, June, 1912), gives the following 
data, Table IX, presented at the convention of the National Asso- 
ciation of Cement Users in 1912: 

From this table it appears that the average cost of single-story 
buildings with saw-tooth roof is $1.77 per sq. ft. of fioor and 8^/^ cts. 
per cu. ft. of contents, while the average cost of buildings with more 
than one story is $1.12 per sq. ft. of fioor and 8.7 cts. per cu. ft. of 
contents. These figures are on the complete building with plumbing, 
but they do not include heating, lighting, sprinkler system, elevators, 
or power equipment. The square-foot prices were obtained by divid- 
ing the total cost of the building by the aggregate floor area 
including the basement, but not including the roof. 

Another report on the cost of reinforced-concrete buildings read 
in 1909 before the National Association of Cement Users gives the 
specific costs of 21 buildings, showing an average cost of $1.72 per 
sq. ft. of floor area and 13.8 cts. per cu. ft. of contents, as given in 
Table X. 

It appears therefore that the average cost of forms per square 
foot is for columns 13 cts., beam floors 11.6 cts., slab floors 11.1 cts., 



BUILDINGS 165 

TABLE X. COST OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS 

Volume Floor area, Costs. 

Type. incu. ft. sq.ft. cu. ft. sq.ft. 

Store 1,714,400 168,696 $.0827 $.84 

l^ospital 703,692 57,654 .0865 1 05 

Office 496,780 39,840 .124 1545 

Cold storage 1,535,000 154,000 13 130 

Factory 212,400 15,000 091 l'?8 

Factory 1,329,868 106,000 .107 1335 

Storehouse 1,140,000 146,000 .0685 '575 

Factory 1,380,500 90,240 .067 l"oi 

Office 693,840 56,552 .197 2'42 

Factory 105,600 8,800 .124 l'485 

Factory 1,211,364 75,604 .0625 I'oi 

Factory 180,000 16,394 .129 142 

Office 1,365,800 90,474 .133 2*00 

Factory 112,440 7,519 .114 170 

Factory 746,674 49,546 .060 .902 

Factory 312,000 24,960 .127 160 

Garage 156,198 10,806 .085 1.23 

Filter 149,250 19,208 .134 1.04 

Fire station 44,265 2,982 .153 2 26 

Observatory .... 9,734 657 .373 5 45 

Filter 59,991 5,243 .333 3!82 

Average ... $ .138 $1.72 

slabs only between steel beams 9.5 cts., walls above ground 12.8 cts., 
foundations 10.3 cts. and footings 9.3 cts. 

A subdivision giving the percentage cost of concrete, steel, labor 
and forms is as follows : 

Per cent, of total. 

Concrete 19 

Steel 17 

Labor 31 

Forms 33 

Total 100% 



This analysis assumes that materials can be delivered at the site 
on cars, and that form lumber can be used twice. As two-thirds of 
the total cost is for labor and forms, and one-third for the forms 
alone, it is economical, where time will permit, to use forms more 
than twice, or as often as the lumber will last. Repetition and 
duplication of forms are in fact the greatest factors in cost reduc- 
tion, and the design should be so made that this is possible. 
The average cost of forms obtained from a different set of records 
from those given above, is, for floors with beams, girders and slabs, 
10 cts. per square foot, and for slab floor without beams 7 cts. per 
square foot. The corresponding cost of column forms is 13 cts. per 
square foot. The cost of bending and placing reinforcing steel, in- 
cluding wire mesh in slabs, varies from $5 to $17 per ton, the 
average being about $10 per ton. 

A reinforced-concrete building -designed by the writer, 55 ft. wide 
and 88 ft. long, with seven stories and basement and 500,000 cu. ft. 
of contents, cost $1.15 per square foot of floor, or 9.1 cts. per cu. ft. 
of contents. The floors were proportioned for a total load of 200 
lbs. per sq. ft. and the prices given above include excavation, foun- 



166 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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BUILDINGS 167 

dations, walls, columns, floors, framing, roofing, windows, doors and 
stairs, but do not include plumbing, elevators, heating, lighting or 
partitions. 

Concrete factory buildings from one to five stories in height and 
about 50 ft. wide will have minimum costs about as follows: 

Cost per sq. Costs in cents 

ft. of floor per cu. ft. of 

area. contents. 

3, 4 and 5 stories $1.00 to $1.10 7.5 to 8.5 

2 stories : . 1.05 to 1.15 8.0 to 9.0 

1 story 1.10 to 1.20 8.5 to 10.0 

These prices do not include partitions, plumbing, heating, lighting 
or elevators. In the Southern States or in country districts where 
labor is cheaper, the unit costs may occasionally be 10 to 15 per 
cent. less. But when buildings are erected by contractors who are 
only occasionally employed on such work, the cost is likely to exceed 
the minimum prices given above, and amount to $1.30 per sq. ft. for 
buildings of three stories or more, to $1.60 per sq. ft. for those with 
only single stories. Concrete framing, including slabs, beams and 
columns only, without walls, costs from 45 to 65 cts. per sq. ft. of 
floor area. 

The cost of reinforced-concrete buildings from numerous designs 
varies from 6 to 12 cts. per cu. ft. for factories and warehouses, and 
from 10 to 16 cts. per cu. ft. for stores and loft buildings. These 
are based upon the use of complete concrete frames and exterior 
curtain walls, without power, heat, light, elevators or interior finish. 
Buildings with concrete slabs and 2-inch cement finish, costing $1.25 
per square foot, would with cement finish on 2 -in. cinder concrete 
cost about $1.30 per square foot with %-in. maple on 2-in. cinder 
concrete, with a concrete floor slab in each case. 

A two-story reinforced-concrete factory building 100 ft. square, at 
Walkerville, Ontario, with 6-in. curtain walls, and columns 16-ft. 
apart in both directions, cost complete, including concrete, rods, and 
forms, $19.88 per cubic yard of concrete in place. 

Some contractors used the following method of estimating the cost 
per cubic yard of all the material in place. First find the cost 
delivered at the site, of the cement, sand and stone required for a 
cubic yard of concrete, and to this add $5 per yard for the reinforc- 
ing metal. The sum of these two costs is assumed to represent one- 
half of the total cost per cubic yard of the materials in place. The 
labor of mixing and placing the concrete and of placing the steel 
will add one-third to the above sum, and the material and labor on 
forms will be two-thirds more. The resulting cost does not include 
contractors' profit or plant depreciation. General expense and 
cleaning up after completion may be $1 to $2 per cu. yd. addi- 
tional. 

A considerable saving in the cost of reinforced-concrete buildings 
can be effected by omitting the floor slabs, and using a frame of 
columns and girders only, with a double course of boards sup- 
ported on reinforced-concrete beams. For specific example, a four- 



168 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

story office building of this kind at Fore River, Mass., a large part 
of the curtain walls being glass, cost with the foundations, walls, 
roof, and floors, only 63 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, or 4l^ cts. per 
cu. ft. of contents. Including lighting, heating, toilets, and par- 
titions, the cost was $1.30 per sq. ft. of floor, or 9.2 cts. per cu. ft. 
Another similar five-story building in the same state, 50 by 300, cost 
only 7.6 cts. per cu. ft. 

Economy often results, also, from the use of separately moulded 
floor members, a good example being the cold-storage warehouse at 
Syracuse, recently constructed. The building was six stories high 
and 78 ft. square, and concrete floors of the Watson system were 
supported by a frame of steel beams and columns. The floors alone 
cost 20.5 cts. per sq. ft., and the steel frame and fireprooflng 21.5 
cts. additional, or a total of 42 cts. per sq. ft. of floor area, or 4 cts. 
per cu. ft. of volume for both floor and frame. Including the gravel 
roof, curtain walls, and stairs, the cost was 61 cts. per sq. ft, or 5.7 
cts. per cu. ft., the granolithic floor finish, and wall plastering not 
being included. In determining these unit prices, the area of six 
floors and basement was taken inside of the exterior walls. 

Much of the published information in reference to the cost of con- 
crete work is based upon the records of well organized building 
companies who are equipped to do such work in the most economical 
manner. Other buildei's with less facilities should therefore be 
liberal in their estimates. Some contractors when estimating use a 
cost unit for reinforced concrete of $1 per cu. ft., or $27 per cu. yd., 
for all material in place, which is no doubt large enough for even 
inexperienced builders. 

"Where wooden buildings are referred to in the following com- 
parisons, only mill construction of the slow-burning type is con- 
sidered, for nearly all modern industrial enterprises are housed in 
buildings that are to some extent fireproof. The question may 
reasonably be asked here, what constitutes a fireproof building? 
Nothing is more fireproof than a furnace, and yet the decomposition 
of its contents by fire is its chief use. These buildings must there- 
fore not only be made of non-inflammable material but they must 
be so arranged that fire when started can be confined to one room 
or to the smallest possible space. With this object in view, they 
should be equipped with self-closing metal doors, and windows with 
wire glass or metal shutters. They should have automatic fire 
alarms, and above all an adequate sprinkler system. Steel framing 
must be enclosed and protected with some material such as brick, 
tile, terra cotta or concrete. Under these conditions, with insur- 
ance on the contents, a manufacturing enterprise is reasonably safe. 

Building types arranged in order of their relative first cost are as 
follows : 

A. Complete steel frame, fireproofed, with curtain walls and plank 
floor. 

B. Interior steel frame, fireproofed, with solid brick walls and 
plank floor. 

C. Complete steel frame fireproofed, with curtain walls and re- 
Inforced-concrete fioors. 



BUILDINGS 



169 



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170 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

D. Interior steel frame fire-proofed, with solid brick walls and re- 
inforced-concrete floors, 

E. Entire reinforced-concrete building. 

F. Part interior steel frame not fireproofed, with solid brick walls 
and wood mill floors. 

G. Entire wood mill construction. 

The first cost, however, is not always the governing considera- 
tion, for in these times of large enterprises, any reasonable invest- 
ment is permissible which will result in ultimate economy, when the 
expense of maintenance, depreciation, interest and insurance is 
considered. The selection of a building type is, indeed, a choice of 
the most profitable investment. 

In comparing the first cost of buildings in wood mill construction 
and in reinforced concrete, it will be found that their relative cost 
varies with the location, size of building, and the floor loads to be 
sustained. In the Southern States, or other regions where timber is 
abundant and cheap, wood construction will often cost 25 to 30% 
less than reinforced concrete, while in districts where wood is scarce, 
the two types may be nearly equal. 

The comparison depends also on the size of the building, for large 
ones have often been found to cost about the same In either material, 
and small ones are sometimes more expensive by 30 to 40 or 50% 
in reinforced concrete than in wood. The required floor capacity 
also affects the comparison. Light loads with long spans are 
cheaper in wood mill construction than in reinforced concrete, the 
cost of the two types being nearly equal In large buildings with 200 
lbs. imposed loads per square ft., and column spacing of 18 to 20 ft. 
With loads of 300 to 500 lbs. per sq. ft., concrete becomes the 
cheaper, and the saving increases rapidly with greater loads of 1,000 
to 1,200 lbs. per sq. ft. 

A concrete building designed by the writer and containing about 
500,000 cu. ft. was found to cost 11% more than one in wood mill 
construction, and about the same as a building with complete 
interior fireproofed steel frame, solid walls, and wood floors. It 
was in Ohio. 

As a general rule, therefore, it will be found that reinforced con- 
crete in the Northern States costs about the same as wood for large 
buildings with heavy loads, worth $250,000 or more. Those worth 
$25,000 to $100,000 will usually cost 10 to 20% more in concrete 
than in wood, and small structures, especially for light loads, may 
be cheaper in wood by 30 to 40 or even 50%. 

Table Xll gives a miscellaneous lot of bids and estimates on 
manufacturing buildings, with comparative costs in Avood mill 
construction and in reinforced concrete. It will be seen that the 
costs in most cases are from 1 to 27% higher in concrete than in 
wood. 

Comparing now the ultiviate cost of the two types. For con- 
venience, a wooden building will be assumed at $100,000, and a con- 
crete building 10 per cent, more, or $110,000, and the contents in 
each case will be assumed of equal value to the building. The 
yearly maintenance costs will be : 



BUILDINGS 171 

Wood. Reinforced 

concrete. 

Depreciation at 11/2% $1,500 at 1/2% $ 500 

Insurance on building at 80 cts. 800 at 20 cts. 220 

Insurance on contents at 110 cts. 1,100 at 80 cts. 880 

Interest and taxes at 7% 7,000 7,700 

Oscillation, vibration at 1% 1,000 0000 

Total $11,400 $9,300 

The reinforced-concrete building costing $110 000 will then have 
a maintenance cost of $2,100 per year, or 2.1 per cent, less than the 
wooden one at $100,000, and this difference of $2,100 at &%, is 
interest on $35,000. It will therefore be permissible to invest an 
additional $35,000 on a concrete building, to make the two types of 
equal ultimate cost. A concrete building costing $145,000, or 45 per 
cent, more, has therefore no greater ultimate cost than a wooden 
one at $100,000. 

In comparing the cost of fireproofed-steel construction with rein- 
forced-concrete, complete framing and exterior curtain walls being 
considered in both cases, it will be found that for imposed floor 
loads of 150 lbs. per sq. ft. or more, concrete will be cheaper than 
steel by 5 to 20%, depending on conditions. For light loads, the 
cost of the two types will be nearly equal, and in some cases with 
very light load and long spans, steel framing will be slightly 
cheaper. One-story buildings over large areas are best when framed 
in steel. 

A comparison on a building costing about $50,000 for total floor 
loads of 200 lbs. per square foot, showed that one with fireproofed- 
steel framing and heavy wooden floor cost 12% more than one of 
reinforced concrete with granolithic floor surface. It appears, there- 
fore, that factory buildings of reinforced concrete have the lowest 
cost of all fireproof construction yet available. 

Table XIII gives the comparative cost of a variety of buildings 
of different kinds, in both reinforced concrete and in steel. It shows 
that the former type is cheaper than the latter by 3 to 13%. 

From comparative estimates for a building of 500,000 cu. ft., to 
determine the comparative cost of fireproofed-steel construction and 
wood mill framing, it appears that one with complete fireproofed- 
steel frame, side curtain walls and wood floors, costs 30% more 
than wood mill con.struction, while the same building with only 
interior flreproofed-steel frame and solid bearing walls costs 19% 
more than wood. If the first building mentioned above had a rein- 
forced-concrete floor, its cost would be 37% more than wood mill 
construction, while the corresponding cost of the second one with 
reinforced concrete floor would be 26% more. 

Cost of Reproducing Buildings and Yearly Cost Variation. The 
table in Fig. 7 shows the per cent, of increased cost to be applied to 
cost of buildings as of year built to obtain cost of reproduction 
in a recent appraisal by the authors. 

Comparative Cost of Slow Burning and Concrete Buildings in Chi- 
cago. F. E. Davidson and T. L. Condron (Engineering News, Nov. 
9, 1916), give the following comparison of work in Chicago: 



172 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 









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BUILDINGS 



173 



The Olson building is 55 ft. 11/2 ins. by 124 ft. 7i^ ins. in area, 
with six stories and basement, and contains 598,477 cu. ft. The 
story heights are in general 13 ft. 6 ins. floor to floor. The typical 
bays of the building are 18 ft. by 17 ft. 10 ins. The structure was 
designed for a live -load of 150 lbs. per sq. ft, in accordance with the 
requirements of the Chicago building code, which limits the stresses 
in long-leaf Southern pine to 1.300 lbs. per sq. in. in bending and 
1,100 lbs. per sq. in. in direct compression with the grain. 

The floor girders are composed of two 10 x 18-in. timbers bolted 
together, and the floor joists or beams are 8x16 in., located 4 ft. 6 
ins. c. to c. The girders are carried on steel post caps of the writer's 
own design. The floor construction is a 3-in. tongued and grooved 
flooring finished with a %-in. maple wearing surface. 

This building is an addition to an existing factory, and it was 
necessary to use cantilever foundations for the entire structure. 
This, of course, is true for either design. 










Fig. 7. Diagram showing per cent, of increased cost to be ap- 
plied to cost of building as of year built to obtain reproduction cost 
in 1915. 



The timber specified in the contract was to be of the select 
structural grade as per the new grading rules of the Southern Pine 
Association. The cost to the contractor in this particular building 
at the site was as follows: Approximately $34.50 per M. for the 
18-in. stock and $33 per M. for the 16-in. stock. 

The Imperial Brass Co. building is 85x125 ft. in area, six stories 
and basement, and has 74,000 sq. ft. of floor surface. Tlie cubical 
contents measured in the same manner as adopted for the Olson 
building are 972,000 cu. ft. for the standard mill construction and 
99 3,400 cu. ft. for the reinforced-concrete construction, the difference 
in cubical contents being due to the greater depth of foundations 
for the concrete construction. The typical bays of the standard mill 
construction are 18 ft. by 16 ft. 6 ins. and for the reinforced-concrete 
construction 18 ft. by 21 ft. 6 ins. The structures were designed 
for a live -load of 175 lbs. per sq. ft. in accordance with the require- 
ments of the Chicago building code. 

In the standard mill construction the floor girders are compo-sed 
of two 8 X 18-in. timbers, bolted together, and the floor joists or 
beams are 8x16 ins. spaced 4 ft. 6 ins. c. to c. The girders are 



174 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

carried on steel post caps built up of plates and angles. The floor 
construction is 3 in. tongued and grooved yellow-pine flooring with 
%-in. maple wearing surface. The timber specified was select 
structural-grade Southern pine, according to the specifications for 
dense Southern pine given in the Southern Pine Association Density- 
Rule Book of March 15, 1916 No. 1 Douglas fir was permitted as 
an alternate for the above yellow pine. 

The reinforced-concrete design called for an 8-in. reinforced- 
concrete slab supported by flaring column heads, and reinforced- 
concrete round columns. 

The foundations for the mill-construction building are the usual 
spread type, except that cantilever foundations are required on the 
side adjacent to the old building. 

TABLE XIV. COMPARISON OF COSTS OF MILL AND CON- 
CRETE CONSTRUCTION 

Comparison of bids for a factory 

building of standard mill and 

reinforced concrete. 

Olson bldg. Imperial bldg. 

Type of construction Mill. Concrete. Mill. Concrete 

Masonry (brick, stone and con- 
crete) $20,256 $56,766 $31,097] 

Ornamental and miscellaneous \ $80,000 

iron, etc 11,989 4,839 13,250j 

Carpentry 14,374 23,500 

Steel sash, glazing, painting, 

roofing, etc. . . .a? 3,804 4,479 6,069 6,883 

Plumbing (drainage) 615 725 1,536 1,669 

Wiring* 1,100 1,250 1,830 2,060 

Total bids received $52,138 $68,059 $77,282 $90,479 

Per sq. ft. of floor areas $1.17 $1.51 $1.04 $1.22 

Relative costs per sq. ft.. ..... 100% 129% 89% 104% 

Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 117% 

Adding 28 cts. per sq. ft. of floor 
area to cover cost of sprinkler, 
heating and elevator equipment 

and plumbing fixtures $1.45 $1.79 $1.32 $1.50 

Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 124% 91% 103% 

Relative costs per sq. ft 100% 114% 

Per cu. ft. of building 8y2C. lli/4c. 8c. 9i/sc. 

Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 132% 94% 107% 

Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 114% 

Adding 2 cts. per cu. ft. of build- 
ing to cover cost of sprinkler, 
heating and elevator equipment 

and plumbing fixtures 10%c. 13%c. 10c. ll%c. 

Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 126% 95% 106% 

Relative costs per cu. ft 100% 1121/^% 

The column spacing was modified in making up the mill design, 
changing the spans from 21 ft. in. (concrete design) to 17 ft. 10 in. 
(mill design). 

Brick per Square Foot of Floor and Approximate Costs of Mill 
Buildings. C. F. Dingman (Engineering and Contracting. Sept. 8, 
1915), states that the size and shape of buildings should be taken 
into account when estimating costs on a square foot basis. For 

* Estimates of wiring only. 



BUILDINGS 175 

example, a 25 by 25-ft. building will require more brick per square 
foot of floor area than a building 100 by 100 ft. The former would 
require 100 lin. ft. of wall to enclose an area of 625 sq. ft., or 1 lin. 
ft. of wall for each 6^4 sq. ft., of floor area; while the latter would 
require only 400 lin. ft. of wall to enclose an area of 10,000 sq. ft., or 
1 lin. ft. of wall for each 25 sq. ft. of floor. The same condition 
applies to footings, copings, wall flashings, etc. Such items as floor 
construction and roofing are almost directly proportional to the 
floor area, but the items included in the wall construction affect the 
total cost to such an extent as to make it unwise to attempt to give 
an approximate estimate of the cost per square foot without care- 
fully considering the effect of size and shape. 

To show the effect of changes in size and shape on the number of 
bricks required per square foot of structure, the data following are 
taken from estimates on actual buildings. 

NUMBER OF BRICKS PER SQ. FT. OF FLOOR 

Number of 

Height, Size of brick.s per 

stories. building, ft. sq. ft. of floor. 

1 32x 85 35 

1 35 X 89 25.4 

1 36 X 100 23.2 

1 50 X 106 17.7 

1 67 X 97 15.4 

1 69 X 92 8.3 

1 53 X 181 8.8 

1 75x120 16.5 

1 80 X 100 8.7 

1 82x253 6.6 

1 60 X 218 12 

1 140x180 6.3 

2 : 42 x 82 14.1 

2 94 X 126 6.7 

3 40 X 146 10.6 

3 50 X 96 13.4 

4 50x100 16.2 

4 Ill X 201 9.4 

5 72x102 10.9 

5 72x157 17.5 

The buildings are of the ordinary standard mill building type, 
that class being selected because it is in mill construction that we 
find the greatest uniformity and standardization of design ; the 
values can therefore be considered fairly representative. 

It is evident from the above that if a sufficient number of observa- 
tions was made a series of curves could be prepared which would 
show approximately the number of bricks which would be required 
to construct a standard mill building of any size. It is evident, also, 
that these curves would show a diminishing quantity per square 
foot as the size of the building increased so long as its shape or 
plan remained square, but that it requires a greater quantity of 
material to enclose the same area in an oblong building than In a 
square building, and that this quantity increases as the ratio be- 
tween the length and width increases. 

The costs in Table XV may be taken as a guide by an engineer 



176 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

or architect who desires to determine the approximate cost of a 
projected mill building having brick walls and located in the vicinity 
of — but not within — New York City. The costs are based on 
buildings in which the story heights are not over 12 ft. In New 
York City the costs may run from 5 to 10 per cent, higher, on 
account of the high cost of transporting materials, etc. 



TABLE XV. 


COST OP 


ORDINARY BRICK MILL 


BUILDINGS 


Size, ft. 


1-story. 


2 -story. 


3 -story. 


4-story. 


25 X 25 


$ 1,250 


$ 2,500 


$ 3,750 


$ 5,000 


50 


2,400 


4,800 


7,200 


9,600 


75 


3,440 


6,700 


9,600 


13,100 


100 


4,200 


8,100 


11,850 


16,200 


50 X 50 


3,800 


7,500 


11,200 


13,800 


75 


5,100 


9,750 


14,100 


18,750 


100 


6,450 


12,100 


17,400 


23,600 


125 


7,750 


14,500 


20,600 


27,000 


150 


9,175 


16,950 


24,100 


31,800 


75 X 75 


7,050 


11,900 


19,500 


25,600 


100 


8,925 


16,200 


23,900 


31,800 


125 


10,680 


20,250 


28,125 


37,500 


150 


12,500 


23,000 


32,700 


43,600 


100x100 


11,400 


21,600 


28,200 


37,200 


125 


13,500 


24,500 


33,200 


44,000 


150 


15,900 


28,500 


38,700 


51,000 



Unit Costs of Reinforced Concrete for Industrial Buildings. C. S. 

Allen of Lockwood, Greene and Company, mill architects, in Engi- 
neering Record, April 6, 1912, says that concrete is especially 
adapted to heavy construction, and for heavy loads of 200 lbs. per 
sq. ft. and over, where the spans are 18 to 20 ft. Table XVI gives 
ithe unit costs, on both the square-foot and the cubic-foot basis, 
together with a general description of a number of reinforced con- 
crete industrial buildings of different types. The average cost per 
sq. ft. of these buildings, excluding the one-story structures, was 
$1.12, while the average cost per cu. ft. was 8.7 cts. The one-story 
structures had reinforced concrete saw-tooth roofs and the average 
cost per sq. ft. was $1.77, while 8.5 cts. was the average cost per 
cu. ft. These costs are for the finished buildings, including plumb- 
ing, but do not include heating, lighting, elevators, sprinklers and 
power equipment. The cost per sq. ft. of floor area was obtained by 
dividing the cost of the building by the total number of sq. ft. of 
floor area exclusive of roof area, but including basement floors, and 
the cost per cubic foot by dividing the cubical contents into the cost 
of the structure. 

While no coal pockets are included in the table, it has been the ex- 
perience of this company that above 3,000 tons' capacity, reinforced 
concrete elevator coal pockets cost from $5.50 to $7.50 per ton of 
capacity. Standpipes, exclusive of the foundations, average from 
2^2 to 3 cts. per gal. of capacity. 

The average unit cost of the 1:2:4 concrete in the floors, including 
the beams, girders and slabs, was $6.10 per cu. yd. and for the 
columns $6.70 per cu. yd. Where k 1:1% :3 mixture was used for 
the columns, the average cost was $7.60 per cu. yd. This cost was 
made up of the items of cement, sand, stone or gravel, labor and 



BUILDINGS 



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178 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

plant. The cement, of course, varied greatly with the demand, but 
the average net cost was $1.35 per barrel, including 3 cts. for tests. 
The sand averaged 80 cts. per cubic yard and the crushed stone 
$1.25 per cu, yd. The cost of labor of unloading the materials and 
mixing and placing the concrete varied from 65 cts. to $2.90 per 
cu. yd. The cost of plant, consisting of freight, depreciation or 
rental of mixing and hoisting towers, their erection, power and 
coal, and losses and waste on the small tools, ranged from 50 cts. 
to $1.50 per cubic yard of concrete placed. 

On the average job the cost of the forms amounts to about one- 
.third the cost of the entire structure. On the buildings under con- 
sideration, the average cost of the forms for the floors, including 
beams, girders and slabs, was 10 cts. per sq. ft. and for the columns 
13 cts. per sq. ft. The lowest cost was in a building of flat slab 
type construction where, by the intelligent use of corrugated iron for 
the slab forms, the cost of the floor forms, including wall beams, 
was 7 cts. per sq. ft., and the highest cost was for an artistic but 
not elaborate overhanging on a 12-story building, which was 
32 cts. per sq. ft. 

The cost of the labor of making, erecting and stripping the forms 
varied, according to the price of lumber, design of the structure, 
method of forming, character of the supervision and the skill of the 
workmen, from 4% to 12 cts. per sq. ft. The cost of lumber, nails 
and oil divided by the square foot of forms averaged from 2% to 
4,^2 cts. per sq. ft. 

The cost of bending and placing the reinforcing steel, including 
the necessary wire, averaged $10 per ton, the range being from $5.75 
per ton to $17.20 per ton. 

Granolithic floor finish 1^^ in. thick, when laid before the concrete 
below it had set, so as to form one homogeneous slab, cost on the 
average 4^/^ cts. per sq. ft. When put on after the rough concrete 
slab the cost averaged 7 cts. per sq. ft. 

The most common type of curtain wall under windows has been 
either an 8 or 12 -in. brick wall resting on the concrete wall beam. 
The average cost of these walls has been 45 cents per square foot. 
There is practically no difference in cost between the 8 -in. and the 
12-in. brick curtain wall, as the saving in material is offset by 
the great amount of extra labor in culling and laying the thinner 
wall. 

An excellent and inexpensive spandrel wall, according to Mr. 
Allen, is constructed by using 8 x 12 x 18-in. vitrified tile. This is a 
non-absorbent wall and when properly laid in cement mortar makes 
a tight weatherproof curtain wall. The cost averages about 25 cts. 
per sq. ft. If the tile is plastered both sides the cost is about 38 cts, 
per sq. ft. 

Where 8 -in. concrete curtain walls were cast in place after the 
skeleton frame was completed, the average cost was 40 cts. per 
sq. ft., and when poured simultaneously with the columns 48 cts. 
per sq. ft. Four-inch cast concrete slabs cost about 35 cts. per sq. ft. 

While concrete blocks make a very cheap and light curtain wall, 
the price being about the same as for the 8 -in. tile, Mr. Allen's ex- 



BUILDINGS 179 

perience with them has been rather unfortunate on account of their 
extreme porosity. 

Where the location of the buildings has demanded special treat- 
ment of the exposed surfaces, this company has generally specified 
rubbing with a block of carborundum. The average cost of this 
work has been 4 cts. per sq. ft. In two instances portions of the 
structure have been bush-hammered, with a resulting average cost 
of 7 cts. per sq. ft. 

Concrete piles were used on the foundation of several of the 
buildngs and the average cost of the piles was $1.15 per lin. ft. 

Where, for waterproofing purposes, hydrated lime has been added 
in the proportion of 1^% of the weight of the cement, the added cost 
per cubic yard of 1 :2 :4 concrete has been 50 cts. Patented com- 
pounds have cost from 25 to 35 cts. per square foot of surface 
covered. On horizontal or inclined surfaces the company has some- 
times used a granolithic surface of rich mortar of Portland cement 
and sand, or Portland cement and screenings in the proportions of 
1 :1 laid at the same time as the base and troweled as in side walls 
construction. The cost of this work has been about 5 cts. per sq. ft. 

Taken as a whole, the lowest possible cost on a reinforced concrete 
building can be obtained, according to Mr. Allen, only by a careful 
study of each particular case to determine the cheapest type of con- 
struction and most economical spacing of columns. As a general 
proposition, for light loads with ordinary beam and girder construc- 
tion the most economical spacing of columns has been 18 ft. each 
way and for flat slab construction 20 ft. each way. For heavy 
loads, such as 300 lbs. per sq. ft. and over, the cheapest column 
spacing for beam and girder construction is 15x15 ft. and for flat 
slab construction 17 x 17 ft. 

Cost Chart fop a Reinforced-Concrete Factory Building. An anal- 
ysis of the distribution of the various elements of cost in a modern 
four-story reinforced-concrete machine shop at Lowell, Mass., ap- 
pears in the accompanying diagram. It was prepared by the 
Aberthaw Construction Company, of Boston, and is said to represent 
a fairly typical case, both as regards distribution and as regards the 
character of the building itself. 

The building is 150x50 ft., with brick curtain walls. The general 
type of interior construction is beam and girder, the height between 
finished floors being 12 ft. 4 ins. The two lower floors were designed 
for live loads of 250 lbs. per sq. ft. and the upper floors for 150-lb. 
loads. Floorbeams are carried on a single row of columns 10 ft. on 
centers, running the length of the building midway between side 
walls. Steel sash was used throughout. 

Cost of Two Story Reinforced Concrete Factory. D. L. C. Ray- 
mond (Engineering and Contracting. Apr. 29, 19 08), gives the fol- 
lowing relative to a building erected in 19 07 at Walkerville, Ontario. 
It is a two story factory, 100 x 100 ft., with 18 ft. clearance on the 
first floor and 12 ft. on the second. It is skeleton type of construc- 
tion, 16x16 ft. floor panels, and 6-in. curtain walls. Steel rods 
were used for reinforcement with wire mesh in the slabs. A 1 :2 :4 
mixture was used, the mortar finish on the floors being 1:2. 



180 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ' 

The columns and beam forms were 2 -in. dressed pine, supported 
by 4 X 4 stuff. The floor forms were 1 in. laid on 2 x 4 pieces spaced 
18 ins. 




Fig, 



Cost chart for concrete building. 



The men were all green at the work. There were 847 cu. yds. of 
concrete, the cost of which was as folloAvs : 



Materials : Total. 

Cement at $2.05 per bbl $ 3,314 

Sand and gravel at $1.25 per cu. yd 1,054 

Reinforcement at $55 per ton 2,314 

Lumber for forms at $27 per M 4,944 

Nails ' 107 

Total materials $11,733 

Labor : 

Building runs, niixing and hoisting concrete.? 872 

Placing and tamping concrete 5G2 

Placing reinforcement 221 

Stripping and cleaning forms, etc 380 

Carpenters building and setting forms 2,010 

Superintendence 714 

Tools and depreciation of plant 338 

Total labor $ 5,007 

Grand total 16,830 



Per cu. yd. 
$ 3.91 
1.25 
2.73 
5.84 
0.13 



$13.86 



1.03 
0.66 
0.26 
0.45 
2.38 
0.84 
0.40 



.02 



It will be noted that no salvage is allowed for the lumber, and 
that 216 ft, B, M. were used per cu. yd. of concrete. The carpenter 



BUILDINGS 181 

work on the lumber cost $11 per M. The cost of stripping lumber 
and cleaning up amounted to a little more than $2 per M. 

There were 100 lbs. of reinforcement per cu. yd., and the labor 
of placing it was only a trifle more than 14 ct. per lb. 

This building contained about- 320,000 cu. ft. of space. Hence the 
cost of the concrete alone was 5^/4 cts. per cu. ft., which is a low 
cost. The cost per square foot of floor area (2 stories) was 84 cts., 
not including windows, etc. 

Unit Costs of Forms and Concrete in Building Construction. 
L. C. Wason of the Aberthaw Construction Co. in Engineering 
Record, Jan. 16, 1909, gives the following costs of corvcrete buildings 
taken from data collected by his company. 

By reference to the general averages on form work. Table XVII, 
in the tables of forms per square foot of surface contact, namely, 
columns, $0.13 ; floors with reinforced concrete beams, $0,116 ; flat 
floors without beams, $0,111; short span slabs between steel beams, 
including the flreproofing on the sides of the beams, $0,095 ; walls 
exposed to view above ground, $0.128 ; foundation walls, $0,103 ; 
mass foundations, $0,093, these figures will be found to be all higher 
than usually believed to be a fair cost by the majority of builders. 
It is upon the success of handling forms that good results financially 
depend. 

In regard to concrete, labor is the variable item which must be 
carefully considered. Any one of intelligence can make a careful 
estimate of the materials to be used, but note the average prices per 
cubic foot of labor, namely, for columns, $0,123 ; beam fioors, $0.131 ; 
flat floors, $0,106; floors between steel beams, $0,121; walLs, $0,106; 
foundations, $0,091, and mass work in connection with building, 

TABLE XVII. UNIT COSTS OF CONCRETE BUILDINGS 

^Formspersq. ft.-^ , Concrete per cubic foot ^ 



Highest 133 .082 .002 .181 .166 .056 .109 .084 .041 .034 .340 

Lowe.st 057 .013 .001 075 .064 .003 .062 .027 .008 .013 .271 

Average of 9. .082 .036 .001 .130 .096 .027 .085 .049 .021 .023 .301 

Beam Floors of Reinforced Concrete. 

Highe.st 165 .107 .004 .275 .186 .035 .194 .101 .052 .055 .470 

Lowest 037 .027 .001 .067 .047 .004 .071 .037 .007 .010 .202 

Average of 18. .070 .045 .002 .116 .111 .020 .106 .063 .025 .024 .354 

Flat Slab Floors. 

Highest 078 .039 .003 .118 .146 .017 .109 .084 .026 .039 .374 

Lowest 067 .037 .001 .106 .043 .004 .087 .053 .012 .010 .252 

Average 071 .038 .002 .111 .097 .009 .096 .070 .019 .024 .315 

Concrete Slabs between Steel Beams. 

Highest 110 .071 .003 .184 .144 .048 .208 .080 .064 .046 .428 

Lowest 028 .012 .001 .049 .073 .005 .076 .026 .004 .010 .272 

Average 061 .032 .002 .095 .102 .019 .128 .068 .024 .017 .359 



182 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Concrete per cubic foot- 



U 




.1..^, 


'I' . 


"S^' 




X2 

3 




13 
o 


o 


0)^ 


01 
0) 


yA 


^ 


H 


O 





U 



(B 



§■3 



d 



s ^ 1^ 3 i? o o^ <o^ <D be <u s^ ;;; o 

Highest 136 .073 .005 .176 .146 .052 .105 .187 .077 .055 .446 

Lowest 046 .016 .001 .079 .042 .004 .034 .043 .007 .005 .174 

Average of 17. .085 .036 .002 .128 .090 .016 .073 .076 .025 .019 .301 

Foundation Walls. 

Highest 134 .048 .004 .193 .213 .037 .203 .116 .057 .040 .599 

Lowest 032 .009 .001 .056 .040 .002 .038 .027 .003 .010 .148 

Average 068 .033 .002 .103 .076 .015 .080 .062 .019 .017 .269 

Footing and Mass Foundations. 

Highest .119 .077 .003 .198 .081 .020 .098 .099 .013 .049 .^75 

Lowest 016 .006 .001 .018 .025 .001 .047 .043 .003 .010 .181 

Average of 10. .057 .034 .002 .093 .045 .007 .071 .077 .007 .021 .229 

Steel. Cost per ton. 

Highest $16.47 

Lowest 2.54 

Average of 21 8.52 

$0,052 ; not until the last item is reached is a price obtained in 
experience which the majority expect to obtain in building work in 
general. 

The table of steel omits entirely the first cost of the material. 
After it is received at the site of the work in the shape sold by the 
manufacturer, these prices cover the cost of fabricating into units 
for columns or beams, bending the stirrups, placing and all inci- 
dentals whatsoever prior to the actual embedding in concrete. 

Unit Cost of Concrete in Buildings. The unit costs of concrete in 
the buildings of a light and power plant in California, including the 
cost of delivering material with a wagon haul not exceeding one 
mile, were as follows : 

Foundations, not reinforced, using 1:3:6 concrete. 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Material $5.79 

Labor . 2.25 



Total cost of foundations $8.04 

Floors, not reinforced, using 1 :2i/^ :5 concrete. 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Material $6.30 

Labor 2.75 



Cost of plain floors $9.05 

Reinforced floors, using 1:2:4 concrete, 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Material $6.30 

Labor 3.25 



Cost of reinforced floors $9.55 



BUILDINGS 183 

Walls and Roofs, reinforced, using 1 :2 :4 concrete, 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Material $7.06 

Labor 4.00 

Cost of walls and roofs $11.06 

Forms, for Roofs, Walls and Floors, 

Cost per sq. ft. 

Material $0.04 

Labor 07 

Cost of roof, walls and floor forms. . . .$0.11 

Forms for Foundations, 

Cost per sq. ft. 

Material $0.05 

Labor 02 

Cost of foundation forms $0.07 

Surfacing Floors, li/^ in. thick, using l:li/^ mortar, 

Cost per sq. ft. 

Material $0.05 

Labor 02 

Cost of surfacing floors $0.07 

Plastering Concrete Walls, mortar 14 in. thick, 

Cost per sq. ft. 

Material $0,015 

Labor 020 

Cost of plastering concrete walls $0,035 

Cost of a Concrete Storage Warehouse Using Precast Members. 

W. H. Mason (Engineering News, Feb. 20, 1908), gives the cost of 
a cement storage warehouse 14 4 by 360 ft. in plan and 30 ft. high, 
having a capacity of 350,000 bbls. of cement. The side walls are 
2 ft. thick at the top and 7 ft. thick at the ground, being designed as 
retaining walls. The building is one story high, the roof being 12 
by 6 ft. by 4 in. precast slabs carried on girders resting on 32 ft. 
columns. 

The roof slabs, girders and columns were cast in a shop about 
% mile from the warehouse and were completed in 2 months. Some 
preliminary work had been done previously, such as setting up 
concrete mixer, laying railroad track, and making a few casting 
floors to start on. The average number of men employed during this 
time was 23. Eleven of these were classed as carpenters and fore- 
men, whose average rate was 24 cts. per hour; twelve were classed 
as laborers, whose average rate was 15 cts. per hour. 

The lumber used for making the 1,048 pieces was 7,000 bd. ft., 
which at $27 per M. makes a total of $189. 

The total amount of steel used was 201,400 lbs., the average price 
of which delivered at our mill was .0203 cts., or a total cost of 
$4,088. 



184 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The mixture used was 1 to 6, using the run of crusher stone 
without sand. The stone would all pass a %-in. screen. 

In the following- costs the stone is figured at 60 cts. per cu. yd., 
while the cement is figured at $1.00 per bbl. 

Cost of each column complete on casting floor was as follows: 

Cost of steel $ 7.57 

Cost of material for concrete 5.48 

Carpenter labor 4.27 

Labor, making and placing concrete and rein- 
forcing 1.95 

Total per column $19.27 

The columns are 18x18 ins. sq. and 32 ft. long with offsets at the 
base which bring their contents up to 2.8 cu. yds. 

Cost of each girder complete on casting floor was as follows : 

Steel $ 5.53 

Concrete material 3.51 

Carpenter labor 2.26 

Labor, mixing and placing, etc 1.34 

Total per girder $12.64 

The girders are 12 x 26 ins. x 24 ft. with a contents of 1.9 cu. yds. 
Cost of each roof slab complete on casting floor was as follows : 

Steel $1.69 

Concrete material 1.85 

Carpenter labor 423 

Labor, jnixing and placing concrete, whitewash- 
ing, smoothing tops, etc 405 

Total per slab $4.37 

There are 72 sq. ft. in each slab, therefore the cost per sq. ft. is 
O.0607 cts., or $6.07 per 100 sq. ft. 

The estimated cost of erecting 518 squares in the building was 
as follows : 

Cost of erection per square is $1.86 

Cost of slabs per square 6.07 

Total cost in place $7.93 

One of the roof slabs tested to destruction failed at 7,700 lbs. 
center load, with 12-ft. span. This gives an ample factor of safety 
for a roof. 

Cost of a Brick and Steel Factory in Pennsylvania. A. E. Duck- 
ham (Engineering and Contracting, Apr. 15, 1908) gives the cost of 
a building for a wireglass plant in South Greensburg, Pa., 60 by 170 
ft., that was started on May 20, 1907, and was finished on Aug. 1. 
This includes the lehr (furnace) foundations. 

The foundations up to the level of the ground are of concrete, 
made of 1 part cement (Portland), 3 parts sand, and 7 parts gravel. 
They were carried down to clay, which on an average was 3 ft, 
below the surface of the ground — which was level. The ground 
being marsh-like, the trenches were dug and immediately filled up 



BUILDINGS 185 

with concrete, mixed on the board and deposited by wheelbarrow 
from a plank runway into the bottom ; no water was required in the 
mixing-board for the bottom layers of concrete owing- to the trenches 
being partly filled with surface water. 

Above the level of the ground the building is of brick. The roof- 
trusses are of steel, including the purlins. They rest on the pilasters 
of the wall, and are attached to them by anchor bolts. The latter 
were set loose in the walls ; and, after the erection of the steel, were 
grouted with cement mortar. This was to facilitate the erection of 
the steel-work. 

The roof was covered as follows : Nailing strips of 2x4 in. 
hemlock were bolted (every 3 ft.) to the steel purlins, and upon them 
was nailed 1 % in. matched yellow-pine sheathing ; upon this was 
laid and fastened magnesia flexible cement roofing. 

The building was well situated for receiving materials, as it was 
located 118 ft. from the railroad and 75 ft. from a street. The 
cement, sand, gravel and brick were obtained from local dealers 
within a mile of the place ; the first three were hauled by wagon 
(with the exception of one carload of sand), and the last one was 
shipped in by car on a siding opposite the building, and slipped in by 
a chute — the railroad track being about 8 ft. above our ground. 

The walls between the pilasters are only 9 ins., but the pilasters 
project 9 ins., thus making an 18-in. pillar or column under each 
truss to carry the load ; the 9 -in. wall between acting as a curtain 
wall. The brick wall was laid complete in cement mortar, no lime 
being used. 

Four ordinary circular ventilators were used along the ridge. As 
there were many large windows along the sides of the building, 
as well as the ends, these were considered enough for the purpose. 
The windows had boxes for pulleys and weights. There were two 
sash to each window. The bottom sash weighed 39 lbs. including 
the glass : this was weighed to determine the size of counter-weights. 

The 122 squares of roof-covering took one week to lay, nail, 
cement, and paint. There were five men for three days and two men 
for six days. Two men (experts) came up on the job, and three 
ordinary local mechanics were hired. The extra men cost $20. 

In unloading the brick from the cars on the railroad track, in one 
case it took five hours to unload one box car of 12,000 brick with 
four men (two inside and two outside), with chute; and in another 
it took 3% hours for five men to unload the same car. 

The detailed cost of the building as built was as follows : 

Steel-work $2,730.00 

Lumber, doors and windows, sheathing, etc... 1,283.64 

Roof covering (cement roofing felt) 412.50 

Cement, sand and gravel 938.04 

Brick 738.45 

Labor (including common labor, bricklayers 

and carpenters) . . . .' 2,175.58 

Bolts to fasten nailing-strips to purlins 28.88 

Hardware 79.54 

Ventilators (circular) 18.00 

Total $8,404.63 



186 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The cost of the building per cu. ft. of space from the ground level 
to the roof was 314 cts. The cost per sq. ft. of floor space was 
82.4 cts. The above does not include the architect's fee of 5% or 
the contractor's fee (of approximately 8%) : this would bring the 
cost per cubic foot up to 3.6 cts., and the cost per square foot up to 
93.1 cts. 

The lehr walls (foundation) were built by the writer under a 
separate contract with the furnace contractors. This work he did 
for $6.50 a cu. yd. for the concrete walls (3 ft. under ground and 4 
ft. above ground) and 50 cts. a cu. yd. extra for excavating the 
trenches. At this figure, he made 18% profit. 

Cost of Buildings for Small Pumping Station. W. S. Johnson 
(Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 30, 1914) gives the cost of sev- 
eral small stations for municipally owned water works in Massachu- 
setts as shown in Table XVI EI. 

TABLE XVIII. COST OP SMALL PUMPING STATIONS 

Material. Size. 

Cobbles 22x30 

Brick 19 X 36 

Cobbles '. . . 9x12 

Wood and steel shingles 

over entire surface 

Brick 24x 26 

Brick 24 X 30 

Brick 20x35* 

Brick 30 X 40 

Brick 24x34 

Brick 

Brick 33 X 23 

Brick 24x24 

Brick 28 X 28 

Brick 25x36 

Brick 25 X 36 

Brick 16x 16 

Brick 25x36 

* Two stories. 

t Includes some grading. 

i Without pumping machinery foundations. 

Construction Camp Building Costs. C. A. Bryan (Engineering 
and Contracting, July 2, 1913), gives the first cost of a camp, includ- 
ing a well for water supply and other accessories as $10 per man 
accommodated. The dining and store building cost just under 30 
cts. and the bunk house just over 30 cts. per sq. ft. of area. 

Cost of Mill Erection. H. T. Curran (Engineering and Contract- 
ing, Oct. 6, 1915), states that erection costs are variable and can 
only be obtained by experience or by comparison with other jobs. 
However, if the following rules are applied for summer work in the 
United States, the estimate will come approximately close to actual 
cost. Labor wage is based on the average paid in western mining 
camps. 

Superintendence can be figured when conditions are known, and 
will average, including cost of plans, from 3 to 5% of the total. 





Cost per 


Cost. 


sq. ft. 


$1,935 


$2.93 


1,857 


2.71 


350 


3.24 


1,730 




1,948 


3.12 


1,628 


2.26 


2,500 


3.57 


2,368 


1.97 


3,100t 


3.80t 


2,000 


2.64 


2,000 


3.46 


2,852 


2.68 


2,700 


3.00 


2,133t 


2.37t 


500t 


1.95$ 
1.83:: 


1,647$ 



BUILDINGS 187 

Excavation by picking, shoveling, and hauling average earth in 
wheelbarrows, moving 100 ft., will cost about 45 cts. per cu. yd. ; add 
one-third of hourly wage of laborer for every additional 100 ft. 
Where mine cars can be used to advantage this may be cut to 35 cts. 
per cu. yd., moving 100 ft. ; add one-fifth of hourly wage for every 
additional 100 ft., which covers placing the track. Breaking rock by 
hand, like hauling conditions, will cost from $1.25 to $1.75 per cu. 
yd., with 100 ft. haul. It will cost a few cents more per cubic yard 
than in earth work for every additional 100 ft. There are so many 
unknown quantities entering into excavating that these figures are 
only roughly approximate. 

Rubble masonry will average $5 per cu. yd., using cement mortar. 
A mix of 1 part of Portland cement to 5 parts of sharp, clean sand 
will give good results. Such walls will average about 15-in. courses 
and will require from 14 to \'z cu. yd. of mortar per cubic yard of 
wall. 

Concrete work can be figured to a nicety when conditions are 
known. "With a mechanical mixer, $1 per cu. yd. will cover the cost 
of mixing and placing in the average mill. On a large job it is well 
to determine just what mix is required with the material used. The 
duty of the sand is to fill the voids in the broken rock and, when the 
two are mixed, the resultant voids should be filled with cement. It 
is well to allow 10% excess in each case, but there is nothing gained 
by using a richer mix for retaining walls and foundation. However, 
if a weaker mix is desired it can be obtained by puddling instead of 
cutting down the proportion of sand and cement. In forms of any 
size puddling is good practice and the strength of the concrete is 
by no means decreased. Clean, firm rock should be used and the 
edges should not touch. On the average mill job concrete will not 
cost more than $7 per cu. yd. for large forms, $8 for medium, and 
$10 for small and heavy-duty machine foundations, including the 
cost of the forms. By using old iron, reinforced concrete can be 
made for 50 cts. per cu. yd. more. Floors with a 5-in. base and 1-in. 
covering will average from $10 to $14 per cu. yd. 

Carpenter work with a well organized crew of millwrights will 
average about $21 per M for framing and erecting; $12 to $15 per M 
for siding and roofing; and $2.50 per M for shingles, or 75 cts. to $1 
per square for corrugated iron roofing and siding. With^a picked-up 
local crew, $28 to $31 per M for framing and erecting, $9 per M for 
siding and roofing and $2.50 per M for shingles or $1.25 per square 
for iron, will be the average figures. 

The nails required in this work per M ft. b. m. will be about as 
follows : 

Nails Required in Erection per M. ft. b.m. 

Size, d. Lbs. 

Siding and roofing 8 18 to 21 

Flooring (l-in. material) 8 28 to 32 

Flooring (2-in. material) 20 or 30 20 to 25 

Studding, etc 10 14 

Shingles (per 1,000) 4 6 



188 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Shop Drawings for Structural Steel. R. 11. Gage (En- 
gineering Mild Contracting, Aug. liS, 1907), gives the cost of pre- 
paring shop drawings in Chicago in liH)6. 

The structural shop in which the cost studies were made has a 
capacity of 800 tons per month. The drafting department employs 
on an average seven or eight engineers. All the work is standard- 
ized with regard to details to as great an extent as possible, in order 
to decrease the work in the draftir.g room, yet not to such an extent 
that it would be dilficult for the shop men to read the drawings. 
For example, all beam, steel and cast-iron column connections, with 
the exception of special cases, are not drawn and dimensioned com- 
pletely, but merely Indicated. The shop and drafting room have 
been provided with a set of the firm's standards, which have all these 
connections drawn out completely with dimensions and which give 
lists of the material. 

The data here jiresented were taken from a great variety of work, 
such as public and private school buildings, churches, breweries, 
malt houses and elevators, grain bins, warehouses, libraries, hos- 
pitals, apartment buildings, factories and manufacturing plants, 
train sheds, mill buildings, office buildings, electric lighting plants 
and pumping stations. 

The following table shows the character of the buildings and 
also the average cost of preparing the drawings. The cost of draft- 
ing material and blue jjrints is not included. Where the material 
for the work is to be ordered from the mill and not taken from stock, 
the cutting bills or mill orders are taken as being part of the details. 

Cost of Shop Drawings. Avg. 

cost 
per 

Character of building. ton. 
Entire skeleton construction, i.e., loads all carried to the foun- 
dation by means of steel columns ^1.45 

Interior portion supported on steel columns ; exterior walls 

carry floor loads and their own weight 1.22 

Interior portion carried on cast iron columns ; exterior walls 

support floor loads as well as their own weight 70 

No columns and floor beams resting on masonry walls thiough- 

out 85 

Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on columns. 2.47 
Structure consisting mostly of roof trusses resting on masonry 

walls . 1.25 

Mill buildings 2.56 

Flat one-story shop or manufacturing buildings 74 

Tipples, mining structures or other complicated structures 4.88 

Malt or grain bins and hoppers 2.47 

Remodeling and additions where measurements are necessary 

before details can be made 1.87 

Estimating Structural Steel. G. A. Merrill tEngineering and Con- 
tracting, Nov. 5, 1913), says the cost of the work is generally made 
up as follows: (1) The cost of the fabricated material F. O. B. 
cars point of delivery. (2) The cost of unloading and teaming to 
the building. (3) The cost of erection and field painting. 

In taking off quantities from the plans, each beam, or each group 
of beams which are alike, is noted with the number of beams, size. 



BUILDINGS 189 

weight per foot, the kind of shop work to be performed, the number 
of end connections, recording by distinct abbreviations, whether such 
connections are to another beam or girder, or to a column, bearing 
plates and anchors if any. The usual classification for beams is as 
follows : 

Plain. Cut the length with a variation of not over % in. from 
ordered length. 

Hinyle Punched. Punched one s?ze hole in ei,ther web or flange. 

Double Punched. Punched one size hole in both weVj and flange. 

Framed. Having connection angles at one or both ends riveted or 
bolted to connect with some other member, and with one or both 
ends, if required by the framing, coped to engage the flange of a 
supporting beam or beams. 

Boiled and Heparated. Two or more beams made into a single 
member by the use of bolts and separators. 

Riveted. Having plates, or angles, of shorter lengths, or running 
the entire length of the beam, riveted to the flange or flanges, or to 
the web of the beam. 

Fittings. Connection angles, bolts and separators. In dealing 
with riveted beams, the estimator has the option of treating the 
beam together with the plates or angles riveted to it as a riveted 
beam, or to regard the beam alone as single punched, double punched 
or framed, and classify the plates, or angles, as fittings, choosing 
whichever method gives the cheaper cost. 

Tie rods, bearing plates and anchors, are generally figured by 
themselves and not classified as fittings. 

The length of beam is taken center to center of girders, or face to 
face of columns, and the steel estimator's sheet appears somewhat 
like this: 

(1) 2, 15x42 D P 2C 16-8 

(2) 4, 12x315 F'lC 14-1 

(3) 1, 12x40 S P la lb Ic 14-1 

(4) 2, 8x18 B & S 2b , , 12-0 

(5) 1, 15 x CO 
' riv, 2C , ., 18-2 



1, 15 X CO 1 
1. 12x%pl/' 



Item (1) signifies two, 15-in. x 42-lb. beams, each 16-ft. 8-ins. long, 
double punched and connecting to columns at both ends. 

Item (2), four, 12-in. x 31 '/{j-lb. beams, each 14-ft. 1-in. long, each 
having standard connection angles at one end, and connecting to a 
column at the other end. 

Item (3), one, 12-in. x 40-lb. beam, 14-ft. 1-in. long, single punched, 
connecting to a column at one end, and with a bearing plate and 
anchor at the other. 

Item (4), two, 8-in. x 18-lb. beams, bolted together and with bear- 
ing plates at both ends. 

Item (5), a 15-in. x 60-lb. beam, 18-ft. 2-jns. long, with a 12-ft. x 
%-in. plate riveted upon one flange, connected to columns at each 
end. 

Connection angles are flgured separately from the beams, the 
weight of a pair of standard connection angles with the rivets re- 



190 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

quired being taken from the Carnegie or Cambria steel hand book. 

In computing the weight of connection angles, the beam sheets are 
run over and all connections of the same weight are grouped 
together. With riveted beams, the weight of beam with all plates, 
angles and rivets, except connection angles, is taken together. 

Often in a steel frame, the outside members consist of two chan- 
nels, or an I-beam and channel, with an angle riveted to the channel. 
Such a member is generally split up and the I-beam or one of the 
channels is considered bolted and separated, while the remaining 
channel with its angle is considered as riveted. 

The usual shop prices for beam work per 100 lbs. are as follows: 

Cts. 

Cutting to length -h %-in 00 

Single punched 15 

Double punched 25 

Framed 35 

Bolted and separated 35 

Riveted 50 

Beams over 15 ins. in depth cost 10 cts. per 100 lbs. extra. 

In summarizing the weight of beams for shopwork, this is most 
easily taken care of by including the deeper beams in a classifica- 
tion one step ahead; thus, a single punched 18-in. beam would be 
included with double punched beams 15 ins. and under. 

There is a further charge of, generally, 5 cts. per 100 lbs. for 
painting, and sometimes a charge of 5 cts. or 10 cts. per 100 lbs. 
for drawings. The steel contractor may be called upon by the speci- 
fications to pay a charge of 75 cts. to $1.25 per ton for inspection. 

Fittings are generally figured at $1.55 per 100 lbs. for .shopwork. 
Tie rods at the price of the rods and nuts plus freight, plus 50 cts. 
per 100 lbs. for shopwork. Bearing plates, allow about 15 cts. per 
100 lbs. for cutting from the long plate. Anchors, generally a small 
item, figure at 3 lbs. each, and 4 cts. per pound. 

Sometimes beams are framed into another beam on an angle or 
skew, at one or both ends. In this case, the beam is classified as 
framed, but the connections, which must be heated and bent, are 
classified as bent connections, and priced at a higher rate than 
ordinary fittings, say 6 cts. per pound for material and shopwork. 

To the base price of the beams at the mill should be added the 
cost of shopwork, and these different costs multiplied by the tonnage 
of each sort of work. 

The items of freight, paint, drawings and inspection are more 
easily figured from the total weights of steel. 

In building work riveted work generally includes the following : 
(1) Columns, (2) Beam Girders, (3) Plate Girders, (4) Trusses. 

Columns may be I-beams, Bethlehem H-sections, latticed channels, 
latticed angles, plates and angles, with or without fiange plates, and 
plates and channels. The Z-bar, column, once a favorite, is now 
rarely used. In figuring the weight of columns, the size, weight per 
foot, and length of the principal members are taken off, and the 
weight of the column shafts computed. To the weight of the column 
shafts must be added : 



BUILDINGS 191 

(1) Weight of hitch angles at bottom, and steel base plate if one 
is used. 

(2) Weight of splice plates. 

( 3 ) Weight of connections of beams to columns. The beam sheets 
are run over, and the number of connections noted and computed, 
keeping connections of the same weight together. The weights of 
such connections are given in some of the steel hand books. Often 
they may be computed from a typical column detail furnished with 
the framing plans. 

(4) Weight of rivets: In plates and angles, and plates and 
channel columns, rivets will run from 6% to 5% of the weight of 
shafts with fittings, beings less with heavy shafts. With I-beams 
or Bethlehem H-sections, the rivets must be estimated with each 
plate or angle attached, calling each rivet (say) y^ lb. 

In latticed angle columns allow 40% of the weight of main mem- 
bers. For lattice bars and rivets, and for latticed channels, 60 per 
cent. 

Beam Girders. Take the weight of beams with cover plates and 
allow 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. per foot for rivets. 

Plate Girders. If stiffeners and fillers are taken off, add 5% to 
6% for rivets, according to whether the girder is light or heavy. If 
only the main members of the girder are taken off, add 15%. 

Trusses. Take off the sizes and lengths, center to center, of joints 
and add 30% for light trusses made up of 2i/^ x 2-in. angles, and 25% 
for trusses having chords of 4 x 3 -in. angles, or more. 

For the small work included with the structural steel in building 
work, such as framing for pent houses, skylight curbs, bulkheads, 
cornice brackets, take the weight of the main members and add 25%. 
Price at 3 or 4 cts. per lb. for material and shop work. 

It is a general principle in estimating riveted work, that light 
work with considerable shop work must be priced high, and as the 
work grows heavier, to decrease the pound price. 

The prices for riveted work are not as definite as those for beam 
work. Fair average prices would be about as follows : 

Cents. 

Beam girders, per 100 lbs 60 

Plate girders (according as the work is 

heavy or light) 55 to 80 

Columns — , 

I beam columns 50 

Plate and angle 65 to 75 

Plate and channel 70 to 80 

Beth. H columns 55 to 65 

Latticed Ls 80 to $1.00 

Latticed channels 80 to $1.10 

Trusses — 

Very light $1.25 

Ordinary $1.00 

Heavy ' $0.85 

Cast Bases: Usually columns rest upon cast bases. Sometimes 
the bases are detailed upon the framing plans, and in such cases the 



192 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

weight can be readily computed, allowing 0.26 lb. per cubic inch. 
Often, however, merely the size of the bottom of the base is given, 
leaving the estimator to arrive at the weight as best he can. It is a 
good practice to record and preserve the weight of well proportioned 
cast bases, figured upon previous jobs, to use in cases such as these. 
The following are average weights for cast bases: 

Ins. Lbs. 

24x 24 525 

27x 27 675 

30x30 850 

33x 33 1,050 

36x 36 1,275 

39 X 39 1,500 

42x 42 1,750 

48x 48 2,300 

The cost of cast bases varies from 2 to 2i/4 cts. per pound. 

To the cost of the fabricated material delivered upon cars must 
be added a profit. Just what profit to add depends upon conditions. 
If all the mills and structural shops are busy they will put on a 
higher percentage than in dull times. 

The mills will generally quote on beam work at the prices pre- 
viously given, without adding any profit. 

The cost of teaming to the site can generally be figured close 
enough by estimating the weight of an average load, the number of 
trips per day a two-horse team will make, and the cost per day for 
such a team. If the pieces are heavy, the time of one or two helpers 
at the car must be added in. 

The erection cost will vary with the character of the work, 
whether straight or crooked, light beams or heavy, whether the 
rivets are bunched together at column connections, or well scattered 
over the work, whether bolted or riveted connections. 

A fair price is $10 per ton, although the figures may get down to 
$8 or up to $12. If unusually heavy girders or trusses occur in the 
work, it is best to figure the erection of these separately from the 
remainder of the steel. 

Cost of Carpenter Work. C. A. Chalk (American Carpenter and 
Builder, March, 1914), gives the following labor cost of framing 
wooden houses with labor at 30 cts. per hour: 

Floor space, including framing and setting joist, bridging and 
flooring of one thickness of 1 by 5 -inch matched spruce or pine. Per 
100 square feet, $3.00. 

Partitions, including cutting and setting studding, trimming for 
door openings, furnished with pine base and quarter round — 17 cts. 
per foot run, measuring on the floor. 

Outside walls, including strapping, finished Avith pine fease and 
quarter round — 10 cts. per foot run. 

Roofing, including rafters, sheathing cornice, shingling, riflgfi 
and wall — $6.50 per 100 square feet. 

Outside doors, including setting frame in place for bricklayers, fit 
hinges, lock and case inside — $2.10 per door. 

Inside doors, including nailing frame together and setting, casinj: 
two sides, fit hinges and lock — $2.40 per door. 



BUILDINGS , 193 

Cased openings, including nailing frame together and setting, and 
casing two sides — $1.40 per opening. 

WiJidows, box frame, sash weighted, including setting frame in 
place for bricklayers, fitting and weighting sash, cutting and nailing 
stops and casing — $2.40 per window. 

Ceilings of collar ties fastened to rafters — $1.00 per 100 squar© 
feet. 

Stairways, for straight stairs, strings worked on the job, set in 
place, wedged and glued, with starting newel and hand rail and 
landing newel, and, say, 12 feet of hand rail around well hole — the 
cost of labor will be about $1.00 per tread; where there are winders, 
add $1.50 for each window. 

The above will apply to houses that cost from $1,800 to $2,200, all 
trim for paint finish. 

E. W. Goode of Chicago, 111., gives the following costs based on 
labor at 30 cts. per hour: 

Making window frames, each $ 1.25 

Making door frames, each 1.00 

Fitting inside doors, each 75 

Fitting outside doors, each 1.50 

Putting up jambs, each 15 

Putting up casing, each 20 

Putting up lining, each 15 

Nailing base, per 100 lin. ft 2.40 

Joists, per 1,000 ft. b.m 7.00 

Studs, per 1,000 ft. b.m 10.00 

Bridging, per 1,000 ft. b.m : 6.00 

Rafters, per 1,000 ft. b.m 10.00 

Sheeting, per 1,000 ft. b.m 5.00 

Rough floors, per 1,000 ft. b.m 3.20 

Shiplap, per 1,000 ft. b.m 6.00 

Siding: 

Plain 6-inch work, per 100 sq. ft 1.00 

With long blank walls, per 100 sq. ft 60 

Mitered joints, per 100 sq. ft 1.70 

Grounds and Furring: 
1 by 1-inch grounds, per 1,000 ft. b.m '- 25.00 

1 by 2-inch grounds and furring, per 1,000 ft. b.m. 19.00 

2 by 2-inch grounds and furring, per 1,000 ft. b.m. 15.00 

Mortar Required and Cost of Brick Laying. Building Age gives 
the following data : 

Mortar Required to Lat 1,000 Brick. 

Thickness of joint in inches ^M % '^10 % V2 % % 

Mortar required per 1,000 brick, cu. ft. 8 10 12 15 18 22 26 

Cost of Mortar to Lay 1,000 Brick. 

Lime Mortar: 1 part lime to 5 Portland Cement Mortar: 1 part 
parts -sand, with % to V^-in. cement to 3i/^ parts sand, 

joints.* ' with % to ^/^-in. joints. t 

Total cost per Total cost per 

Quantity. Rates. i: 1,000 brick laid. Quantity. Rate.j: 1,000 brick laid. 

3bu. $0.30perbu. • $0.90 li4bbls. $2.00 per. bbl. $2.50 

iJs cu. yd. 1.50 per cu. yd. 1.00 ' % cu. yd. 1.50 per cu. yd. 1.00 

$1.90 $3.50 

* Slightly poorer than usually required, t Richer than usually re- 
quired. % Prices are only for comparative purposes. 



194 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Brickwork. The cost of brickwork as given by S. W. 
Emerson (Engineering and Contracting, April, 1906, p. 100), may be 
divided into two principal parts, cost of materials and cost of labor. 

For common brickwork the cost of materials is a fairly constant 
quantity, but the labor cost varies greatly, depending on the class of 
work and rates of wages. 

Units of Measurement. Brickwork in buildings is usually figured 
and paid for at so much per 1,000 wall measure. This is an arbi- 
trary quantity and is a very different thing from kiln count or the 
actual number of brick. The rule usually adopted by engineers, is 
to figure 14 brick per sq. ft. of 9 in. wall ; 21 brick per sq. ft, of 13i^ 
in. wall, etc., deducting all openings. In other words 7 brick are 
allowed per square foot for each half brick thickness of wall. Fig- 
ured this way a "thousand" brick represents 48 sq. ft, of 13 1/^ In. 
wall or practically two cu, yds. and will be used in this sense 
throughout the present article. Masons frequently figure 22i/^ brick 
per sq. ft, of 13 in. wall, include all openings and figure corners 
twice. 

Some arbitrary rule is necessary because of the variation in size 
of brick made by different manufacturers and in the thickness of 
the mortar joints. 

An average size brick is 8% ins. to 8% ins. long, 4 ins. wide and 
2% ins. to 2% ins. thick, although in some localities brick will be 
found measuring 9 ins. x 4% ins. x 2i^ ins. and in New York City 
many are used as small as 7 1^ ins. x 3 V2 ins. x 2 ins. Brick 8 1/^ 
ins. X 214 ins. with % in. to % in. joints will lay up about 900 
brick per M. 

Brick are bought by kiln count or the actual number and the price 
varies from $4.00 to $7.00 per M. at the yard. 

Five to $6 per M. at the yard is a fair price to which must be 
added the freight or hauling. 

The Amount of Mortar used depends on the thickness of the joints 
and the proportion of mortar in the wall will be about as follows : 

%-in. joints 0.25 

i/^-in. joints 0.33 

%-in. joints 0.40 

or as a " thousand " brick equals approximately two cu. yds., the 
cu. yds. of mortar required per M. will be : 

%-in. joints 0.50 

%-in. joints 0.67 

%-in. joints 0.80 

To make up a cu. yd. of 1 to 3 mortar requires about .85 cu. yd. 
of sand and 2 bbls. of lime or Portland cement. All cement mortar 
is seldom used except in engineering structures or underground 
work, while lime mortar is used only in the cheaper classes of work 
and should never be used in very heavy work or when exposed to 
dampness. 

The usual practice is to use both lime and cement in the mortar, 
the relative proportions varying greatly according to circumstances. 

One part lime and one part cement to six parts sand is a com- 



BUILDINGS 195 

mon specification but also one seldom lived up to. Figuring sand at 
$0.50 per cu. yd., lime a,t $0.50 per bbl. or $0.20 per bu. and cement 
at $1.75 per bbl. the materials for a cu. yd. of mortar would cost for 
1 to 3 lime mortar : 

.85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 

2 bbls. lime at $0.50 1.00 

Total $1.43 

.85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 

1.0 bbl. lime at $0.50 50 

1.0, bbl. cement at $1.75 1.75 

Total $2.68 

.85 cu. yd. sand at $0.50 $ .43 

2.0 bbls. cement at $1.75 3.50 

Total $3.93 

One thousand brick, 8^/4 ins. x 4 ins. x 2^4 i^^s., piled up solid 
"Without mortar, equals 1.65 cu. yds. If brick cost $6.50 per M. the 
cost per cu. yd. would be $3.96 or practically the same as cement 
mortar, but more than the mortar where part lime is used. 

Cement mortar does not " work " easily, being hard for the 
bricklayers to spread. It is partly on this account that cement is so 
seldom used without adding at least a small portion of lime. 

The cost of the sand may be practically nothing where it is dug 
out of the cellar and seldom runs as high as $1 per cu. yd. 

The labor cost may be divided into three classes, bricklayers, 
laborers and unloading materials. 

An average first-class bricklayer should lay about as follows, in 
9 hrs. : 

In 9-in. walls 1,100 to 1,400 

In 13-in. walls ^ 1,300 to 1,600 

In 18-22-in. walls 1,500 to 2,200 

Heavy foundations 3,000 to 

Rate of bricklaying. The number of openings, pilasters and cor- 
ners makes a big difference in the amount of brick laid. Working 
on narrow piers, projections, etc., a man might find it difficult to lay 
500 brick in 9 hrs. The writer knows of one job on which four 
bricklayers, two of whom were the contractors, were building a 3 ft. 
wall, the footing for a warehouse. They ran out of brick. Two cars 
were set one afternoon containing 20,000 brick and the next day the 
four bricklayers put them all in the wall, an average of 5,000 (kiln 
count) apiece. No mortar boards were used, the mortar being 
dumped on the wall and spread with shovels, trowels being used for 
the outside 4 in. only. In addition to the usual materials two 
" eighths " of beer were used. How much this increased the rate 
of laying I am not prepared to say. 

Bricklayers are paid all the way from 30 to 70 cts. per hour, but 
60 cts. is probably the rate most commonly met with. 

To tend each bricklayer, keeping him supplied with brick and 
mortar and building scaffolds, from one to two laborers are usually 



106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

required, receiving from 17% to 30 or even 40 cts. per hr. where hod 
carriers' unions have forced the price up. The usual rate is 20 to 
2214 cts. per hr. 

In buildings having several stories, such as stores, warehouses, 
etc., where the materials can be dumped on the ground floor, raised 
to the proper story on an elevator, and distributed in wheelbarrows 
to the wall, the labor may fall as low as $1 per M. On buildings of 
this class, only one scaffold need be erected for each story, the joist 
serving for the lower half of the wall. 

On one story factory buildings with high gables where the scaffolds 
have to be carried all the way up and everything handled in hods 
the labor will run $2 to $4 per M with laborers at 20 cts. 

The cost of getting materials on the ground varies greatly depend- 
ing on conditions. 

In cities where the brick yards are close at hand the brick are 
usually delivered in wagons by the manufacturers, who make a uni- 
form charge to cover the cost of delivery to any part of the city. 

Where the brick have to be shipped in on cars, then unloaded and 
hauled some distance, the freight and hauling may amount to several 
dollars per M. 

Over good paved streets a team can easily haul 1,500 brick, but 
over poor dirt roads 500 might make a big load. 

Cost of Brickwork in Five One Story Manufacturing Plants. — 
The following tables give the actual cost of laying something over a 
million brick in five one-story factory buildings forming part of a 
large manufacturing plant. Brick cost $5 and $5.25 at the yards, 
the average price being $5.08. 

Materials. 

Brick, 918 at $5.08 per M $4.67 

Brick freight 1.12 

Sand, 1/2 cu. yd. at $0.46 23 

Sand freight 13 

Cement, .44 bbl. at $2.00 88 

Lime, 2 bu. at $0.20 40 



Total materials $7.43 

Labor. 
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Avg. 

Bricklayers $5.56 $4.49 $4.57 $4.68 $3.68 $4.16 

Laborers 1.95 1.67 2.14 1.95 2.00 1.87 

Carpenters 70 .71 .88 1.15 .67 .77 

Unloading mat'l... 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.16 



Total labor. .... .$9.37 $8.03 $8.75 $8.94 $7.51 $7.96 

This makes the average total for materials and labor $15.39. 
The cost per cu. yd. would be just half this or 

Materials. 

459 brick at $5.08 . . $2.34 

Brick freight 56 

% cu. yd. sand 11 

% cu. yd. sand freight ^ 06 

..22 bbl. cement at $2.00 44 

1 bu. lime at $0.20 20 



Total materials $3.71 



BUILDINGS 19r 

Labor. 

Bricklayers $2.08 

Laborers 93 

Carpenters 39 

Unloading materials 58 



Total labor $3.9 8 

Total materials , $3.71 



Total material and labor $7.69 

On all the buildings except No. 1 bricklayers were paid 60 cts. per 
hour and foreman 65 cts. On No. 1 local bricklayers from the town 
near which the plant was built were used at 50 cts. per hour. They 
proved too expensive, however, and for the balance of the work 
bricklayers were imported from a large city at 60 cts. 

The hodcarriers and mortar men were developed from local labor- 
ers and paid 17% cents per hour. 

Buildings No. 1 and 2 were long and low, containing about equal . 
amounts of 9 in. and 13 in. walls. 

Buildings Nos. 3 and 4 were higher and contained a someM^hat 
larger proportion of 13 in. walls. Part of the brick work in No. 4 
started from steel lintles at some distance above the floor line, which 
explains the higher cost of scaffolding. 

Building No. 5 was higher than any of the others and contained 
more brick. It was composed of 13 in. walls, with some 18 ins. and 
22 ins., which accounts for the lower cost of laying, although better 
foremanship was responsible for part of this. 

The scaffolds were erected by carpenters at 20 and 221/^ cts. per 
hr., drawn from other parts of the work when needed. 

The cost of unloading the brick, sand, lime and cement was all 
charged under one head, $1.16 being the average for the job. Teams 
were paid 30 cts. per hour. The materials had to be hauled an 
average of \'z of a mile over country roads. 

Allowing $0.85 as the proper proportion to charge to unloading the 
brick, their cost delivered on the ground would be 

$5.08 plus $1.12 freight plus $0.85 hauling equals $7.22 per 1000. 

If this work were figured by the rules frequently used by masons, 
(221/4 brick per sq. ft. of 13 in. wall, openings included) the cost per 
M. would be about $12.75 instead of $15.39. 

Cost of Powerhouse Brickwork in Indiana. The following costs 
of the brickwork for an electrolytic lead refining plant at Grasselli, 
Ind., are taken from Engineering and Contractingj Mar. 12, 1913. 

The brick walls of the power house were about 34 ft. high and 
the walls were 13 ins. thick. There were about 240,000 brick laid 
and the work was done between June 11 and July 19. Ordinary 
scaffolding was built up and materials were hoisted with a light 
apparatus operated by a single horse. Wages were 75 cts. per 
hour. 

Briek laid 240,000 

Total labor cost $1,838.12 

Cost per M brick 7.66 



198 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The brickwork for the tank house consisted of walls about 30 ft. 
high and 13 ins. thick. There were 360,000 bricks in all and they 
were laid in about 26 days with the same scaffolding that was 
employed on the power house. 

Brick 360,000 

Total labor cost $2,054.20 

Labor cost per M 5.70 

Cost of Laying Common Brick and Fire Brick in a Foundry Build- 
ing. Victor Windet (Engineering and Contracting, June 28, 1911) 
gives costs for the Chicago Drop Forge & Foundry Co.'s hammer 
shop, which was built of 13 in. and 17 in. common brick walls some 
30 ft. high from floor to roof, and required 100,000 brick in its con- 
struction. The actual bricklaying cost $4.29 per 1,000 brick, or 6.36 
hours. The collateral operations of unloading brick, mortar, scaffold 
work, etc., cost $2.88, or 7.24 hours. A bricklayer's average 8-hr. 
•day's work was the laying of 1,257 brick. The cost of brick, mortar 
materials, coping and lumber for scaffolding was $8.90 per 1,000 
brick, making a total cost of $16.07 per 1,000 brick. If the scaffold- 
ing, horses, mortar boards, etc., had been available from some other 
work, this cost would have been reduced $1.40 per 1,000 brick. 

An old wall 13 ft. high was taken down, and the brick were 
cleaned and piled at a cost of $0.56 per thousand. 

A smooth red brick made at Hobart, Ind., not quite as fine as the 
pressed red brick available in the Chicago market, makes a very 
presentable wall. On account of its finish, more care is required in 
laying than is the case with the Chicago common brick. In building 
a power house 220 ft. long and 30 ft. high of side walls, using a 
13-in. wall with plain pilasters at the steel columns and corners, 
and three smaller buildings adjacent, 370,000 brick were laid at the 
following costs for labor : 

Per 1,000 brick. 

Hours. Cost. Hours. Cost. 

Bricklayer foreman 337 $ 269.60 0.91 $0.72 

Bricklayers 3,863 2,607.87 10.5 7.05 

Helpers 4,285 749.85 11.6 2.02 

Mortar mixers 717 154.15 1.94 0.40 

Labor foreman 175 61.25 0.5 0.16 

Labor (common) 2,078 363.65 5.68 0.97 

Hoist operator 120 42.00 0.33 0.10 

Carpenter foreman 85 42.50 0.03 0.11 

Carpenters 324 113.40 0.90 0.30 

Handy man 190 46.50 0.51 0.12 

Timekeeper 185 55.50 0.50 0.15 

Total 12,359 $4,506.27 33.4 $12.10 

Teaming of scaffold, etc., to and from Avork and unloading of brick 
and sand from cars not included. Cost of washing walls inside and 
outside with acid is included. One-half of the work was done with 
scaffolds hoisted by cables and winches as the rise of the brick work 
required. The rest of the scaffoMing was the ordinary wooden 
staging. 

Laying of Fire Brick. In the building of a blast furnace plant 



BUILDINGS 



199 



640,000 fire brick were used in the construction of gas flues from 
the hot blast stoves and boilers to the chimneys, and also for foun- 
dations of two blast furnaces. The flues were composed of 9-in. 
walls and arches and 4 Y^ -in. floors. As the flues were subsequently 
imbedded in massive concrete foundations, forms were built on the 
interior lines of the flues throughout. The fire brick laid in neat 
Portland cement grout were laid against the forms and then the 
concrete was built against the brick. The joints averaged i/ie in. to 
% in. thickness. Half of the cost of the forms was charged against 
the brickwork. Due to the presence of the forms, the masons laid 
brick much faster than if they had to build a wall by plumb and line, 
or against the concrete while working in the interior of the flues. 
The floors were paved with brick on edge laid on 2 ins. of sand and 
grouted. The blast furnace foundations were in courses 3 ft. high 
and 9 ft. to 12 ft. thick. 

TABLE XIX. FIRE-BRICK MASONRY LABOR 

Brick Cost per 
Brick Masons' Helpers' mason 1,000 
laid. hours. hours, per day. brick. 

Arches of flues 63,930 530 2,380 1,206 $14.45 

9-in. walls of flues 232,395 490 4,450 4,110 6.48 

Paving of flues 32,580 221 1,320 1,480 14.40 

Total * 328,905 1,241 8,150 2,652 $8.73 

Massive foundations .. 311,495 1,150 5,600 3,386 6.85 

Total or average 640,400 2,391 13,750 2,720 $ 7.81 

FIRE-BRICK SIZES 

%-in. 

Vol. Briak joints 

of brick per brick Brick 

Kind. cu. in. cu. ft. per cu. ft. laid. 

87i(j X 2 V, X 4Vi6 85.6 20.2 18.3 539,000 

9-in. Straight 8"/ig x 21/0 x 4i/i6 ... 79.7 21.7 19.7 60,000 

No. 1 Arch 8% X 4x21/10 and 214. 64.3 26.9 24.2 3,000 

No. 2 Arch 8% X 41/1,; x 11/. and 21/8 67.8 25.5 23.2 10,000 

No. 1. Key 81/. x2i/,x2% and 4. 72.6 23.8 21.7 2,700 

No. 2. Key 8 i^ x 2 i/> x 3 and 2,%. 69.4 24.9 22.7 25,000 

No. 3 Key 8 Vfx 21/rx 21/2 and 4 . . 63.8 27.1 24.5 1,700 
No. 4. Key 8 1/. x 2 i/j x 2 and 4 . . . 

Total 641,400 



Unloading brick from box cars and carefully piling took 5 hours at 
$1,121/; jjer 1,000 brick. The wages for an 8 hour day were as fol- 
lows: Masons, $7; helpers, $2.50, and foreman, $3.75. 

The exterior foundations of two blast furnaces was massive work. 
The form and dimensions of the work were such as to be exceed- 
ingly favorable to low costs. The brick were taken from cars on 
tracks immediately adjacent and- parallel to the work. The mortar 
was 1 :1 mixture of Portland cement and sand, and was mixed into 
a thin grout. This was poured over the brick from one quart dip- 
pers and the brick was laid with joints varying from nothing to % 
in. in thickness. About 5 per cent, of the brick laid in the gas flues 



200 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

were laid as headers to project 4 ins. irtto the concrete which was 
afterwards built up around it. 

Including unloading brick, mortar men, tenders, carpenters, or 
forms, and other laborers, there were ten men per bricklayer. 

The average 9-in. straight fire-brick is 9x4i/^x2^/^ containing 
101.25 cu. ins., with rubbed joints; this will take 17 brick per cu. ft, 
of masonry. 

Cost of a Pump-Pit. Mr. P. E. Harroun (Transactions of Ameri- 
can Society of Civil Engineers, January, 1905) gives the following 
data on excavating a circular pump-pit 26 ft. deep and 22 ft. in 
diameter. The work was done in Porterville, Cal., in 1904, by 
company labor which was not efficient, and was high priced. In 
sinking the pit, the upper 8 ft. were river silt, then came 5 ft. of 
coarse gravel carrying a large volume of water, and the remaining 
13 ft. were in clay. The clay was very hard to pick, and contained 
many seams carrying water. The sides of the pit were covered with 
spouting streams and the bottom of the pit was a series of small 
geysers. On account of the sloughing of the sides, it was necessary 
to timber the pit from top to bottom. The timbering consisted of 
4xl2-in. rangers or wales, and braces, sheeted with 2-in. plank 
driven vertically, as in sewer work. The earth was loaded with 
shovels into dump boxes, holding %-cu. yd. each, and raised with a 
derrick, the hoi.sting power being a pair of mules. One box was 
loaded while the other was being dumped into a wagon. The follow- 
ing costs do not include the hauling away in wagons or the cosl of 
dumping the pit: 

Per cu. yd. 

Laborers, at 20 cts. per hr $0.58 

Team of mules, at 20 cts. per hr 0.06 

Foreman of laborers (130 hrs.), at 30 cts 0.08 

Tools and blacksmithing 0.14 

Lumber (714 M, at $22) 0.36 

Miscellaneous material 0.04 

Carpenter (160 hrs.), at 35 cts 0.11 

Carpenter's helper (154 hrs.), at 20 cts 0.07 

Foreman of timbering (130 hrs.), at 30 cts 0.08 

Total per cu. yd., for 454 cu. yds $1.52 

It will be noted that the carpenter work, including helper, cost 
$11.50 per M of timber. There were 10 laborers, 1 team of mules, 
and 1 foreman, at work about 13 days (10-hr.), doing the exca- 
vating. 

A circular reservoir 4 ft. deep and 52 ft. in diameter was 
excavated in stif£ adobe (clay), and about 300 cu. yds. were loaded 
with pick and shovel into wagons and hauled away. The cost of 
this pick and shovel work alone was 59 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 
20 cts. per hour. 

Building Costs for Electric Light and Power Station. W. H. 
Weston (Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912) states that electric 
light and power stations usually average $2.75 to $3 per sq. ft. of 
floor area. For water-power plant buildings, not counting any ex- 
pense of foundations that may or may not be necessary, amount to 



BUILDINGS '201 

$2.75 per sq. ft. of floor area. Water-works pumping stations vary 
from $3 per sq. ft. for the plain buildings to $6 for the ornamental 
ones, and more than this with elaborate architectural features. 

Car barns with steel columns and roof cost from $0.08 to $0.10 per 
cu. ft., making the height from basement floor to average roof and 
all measurements to the outside of walls. Boiler shops with struc- 
tural steel columns and framing and steel roof trusses, galleries with 
heating and ventilating equipment cost from $2 to $2.25 per sq. ft. of 
the area of the flrst floor. 

Cost of Buildings for Compound-Condensing Steam Plants with- 
out Chimneys. W. H. Weston also gives the following table- 
Foundations for engines, 
H.p. Engine and boiler. condensers and pumps. 

400 $ 7,000 $ 1,400 

500 7,500 1,800 

600 7,800 2,200 

800 8,500 2,800 

1,000 9,500 3,400 

1,500 13,500 4,800 

• 2,000 17,000 6,000 

4,000 30,000 10,00.0 

Cost of Street Car Barns. H. T. Campion and William McClellan 
in a paper on " The Design of Railway Structures," read before the 
American Street and Interurban Railway Association, give the fol- 
lowing approximate costs of different types of car barns and shops : 

Cost per sq. ft. 

Timber barn, 2-track bays, sides covered with corru- 
gated iron $0.55 to $0.70 

Timber barn, 3-track bays, brick or stone walls 1.10 to 1.30 

Fireproof concrete barn, 3-track bays, concrete or brick 

walls 1.25 to 1.50 

Clear span steel roof, 8 to 10 tracks, brick walls 1.40 to 2.00 

Cost of Electric Railway Car Shops. W. L. Fulton (Engineering 
and Contracting, October 6, 19 15-) describes an addition to the shops 
of the Omaha & Council Bluffs Street Railway Co., Omaha, Neb., 
comprises a one-story section 134 ft. 8 ins. wide and 144 ft. 8 ins. 
long, and an adjoining two-story section 80 ft. wide and 112 ft. 8 ins. 
long. The building was built by the company to provide facilities 
for the construction of street cars, and it houses the wood-working 
department, or mill room, and the car-erecting and car-painting 
departments. The wall footings and the walls up to the first floor 
level are concrete ; above this level the walls are brick. The steel 
roof trusses are of the saw-tooth type ; they are supported on 
interior steel columns and on the brick walls. 

Loads and Allowable Stresses. In designing the structure the fol- 
lowing loads were used : 

On roof, On second 

lbs. ])er floor, lbs. 

Loading. sq. ft. per sq. in. 

Dead load 10 15 

Snow load 15 ... 

Live load 25 100 



202 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The allowable pressure on the clay and loam soil was 2,000 lbs. 
per sa- ft. 

General Design Features. It will be noted that the central por- 
tion of the two-story section, embracing an area 32 x 80 ft., is open 
from the first floor level to the roof ; the remaining area is provided 
w^ith a second floor consisting of a 2 x 6 -in. matched yellow pine 
flooring laid on 3 x 12-in. wooden joists, the joists resting on 18-in. 
5 5 -lb. I-beams. The roof sheathing is also 2 x 6 -in. matched yellow 
pine, and is spiked to 3 x 10-in. and 2 x 10-in. yellow pine purlins 
bolted to clip angles. The skylight windows in the vertical (north) 
sides 'of the saw-tooth roof provide excellent lighting facilities. To 
provide for ventilation some of these skylight windows are arranged 
to open by means of sash-operating devices manipulated from the 
floor level. 



Wopaen Purlins 



j^!' Sheathing 



Ski^lighT- 




Fig. 9. Cross-section of addition to Lake St. shops of O. & C. B. 
St. Ry. Co., Omaha, Neb. 

Excavation. The ground surface at the site sloped gently from 
northwest to southeast, the building facing the east. The site was 
excavated to a level 8 ins. below the first floor, with an elevating 
grader, the average cut being about 2 ft. 9 ins. The excavated ma- 
terial, consisting of clay and loam, was hauled away in dump 
wagons, the average length of haul being 1,140 ft. The total exca- 
vation was 2,852 cu. yds. 



TABLE XX. COST OF EXCAVATING BUILDING SITE 

Rate Cost per 

Item. per hour. cu. yd. 

Foreman $0,325 $0.0045 

Elevating grader : 

Driver 0.225 0.0032 

Operator 0.225 0.0032 

Driver 0.20 0.0028 

Teams 0.1 5 0.0147 

Wagons : 

Drivers 0.20 0.0228 

Teams 0.15 0.0171 

On the dump : 

Scraper team 0.15 0.0021 

Dumpman 0.225 0.0032 

Leveling site after excavation : 

Driver 0.225 0.0020 

Teams 0.15 0.0024 

Total cost $0.0780 



BUILDINGS 203 

The trenches for the wall footings were excavated by hand. 
These trenches varied from 2 to 4 ft. in width and from 4 to 7 ft. in 
depth. A total of 416 cu. yds. was excavaled, of which 312 cu. yds. 
were loaded into dump wagons and hauled to a dump 400 ft. distant. 
In loading the earth into the wagons it was thrown onto the bank by 
the digger and was shoveled into the wagon by a second man. The 
team and driver were idle while the wagon was being loaded. The 
cost of excavating 416 cu. yds., including the loading of 312 cu. yds. 
into wagons, is given in Table XXI. 

TABLE XXI. COST OF EXCAVATING FOR WALL. FOOTINGS 

Rate Cost per 

Item. per hour. cu. yd. 

Foreman $0.25 $0,032 

Labor 0.20 0.251 

Total $0,283 

The cost of hauling "312 cu. yds. to the dump, a distance of 400 
ft., was $34, or 10.9 cts. per cubic yard. This includes the cost of 
the teams and drivers, but does not include any charge for the fore- 
man. The rates of pay for teams and drivers were respectively 15 
cts. and 20 cts. per hour. 

Mixing and Placing Concrete. The concrete in the wall footings 
and in the walls below the first floor level was mixed in a i/4-cu. yd. 
mixer driyen by a gasoline engine and equipped with a charging 
hopper. The concrete was mixed in the proportions of 1 part 
cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 parts broken stone. The stone and 
sand were wheeled to the mixer from stock piles. The concrete 
was wheeled from the mixer to the forms in barrows of 3 cu. ft. 
capacity, the average distance wheeled being 105 ft. The cost of 
mixing and placing 315 cu. yds. of concrete is given in Table XXII. 

TABLE XXII. COST OF MIXING AND PLACING CONCRETE 
IN FOOTINGS AND IN WALLS BELOW GRADE 

Rate Cost per 

Item. per hour. cu. yd. 

Foremen $0.30 $0,033 

Wheelers : 

Stone 0.20 0.106 

Sand 0.20 0.065 

Cement 0.20 0.179 

Placing concrete 0.20 0.036 

Handling cement 0.20 0.034 

Charging mixer 0.20 0.036 

Discharging mixer 0.20 0.036 

Total cost $0,525 

Concrete Wall Fortns. The concrete walls below grade are 171^ 
ins. thick and have an average height of 3 ft. 8 ins. The total area 
of forms was 6,450 sq. ft. The forms were used twice and con- 
tained 8,500 ft. ; they were built of 2-in. plank, cleated together, 
and were handled in sections. The forms were built in place in 



204 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

their first location, and after a section of wall was completed they 
were removed by the men and immediately set up in their second 
location. The costs of building, setting and removing the forms 
therefore were not separated, the combined cost being as given in 
Table XXIII. 

TABLE XXIII. COST OF BUILDING. SETTING AND REMOV- 
ING WALL FORMS 

^■■^ 
ft — +-> 

Foreman $0.55 $1.02 $0,076 

Carpenters 0.45 6.25 0.468 

Helpers 0.295 2.44 0.183 

Total $9.71 $0,727 

Brick Laying. Common bricks only were used, and these were 
laid in 1 : 2 Portland ceinent mortar, with just enough lime added 
to make the mortar work easily. The mortar was hand mixed. 
The brick and mortar in the first-story walls were conveyed in 
wheel-barrows, inclined runways having been built from the ground 
to the scaffold level. Except in the two-story section the first-story 
walls have a uniform thickness of 17 ins. In that section the flrst- 
story walls are reinforced on the inside with pilasters 8 ins. thick 
and 17 ins. wide, these pilasters being spaced 16 ft. on centers. 
The second-story walls are 13 ins. thick and are reinforced at the 
trusses with 8 x 17-in. pilasters on the inside and 4 x 17-in. pilasters 
on the outside of the walls. The brick and mortar for the second- 



TABLE XXIV. 



UNIT AND TOTAL COSTS OF LAYING BRICK 
WALLS 



First-story 
walls. 



Second-story 
walls. 



•r' ■*-> C 

53 ^^ o ^^ 

ft ^o o ^o 

'-' rt "^ 

<u do o o 

S (^ U H U 

Foreman $0.80 $0,152 $ 60.80 $0,602 

Ma.sons 0.70 3.527 435.40 4.310 

Tenders 0.25 1.116 162.00 1.604 

Mixing mortar 0.25 0.488 35.00 0.347 

Building scaffolds... 0.295 0.434 47.85 0.474 

Operating elevator.. 0.30 .... 33.60 0.333 

Totals $5,717 $774.65 $7,670 



BUILDINGS 205 

story walls were loaded into wheelbarrows at the ground level, 
hoisted to the second-floor level, and then wheeled along runways 
to the scaffolds, as in the case of the first-story walls. The first- 
story walls contained 310,000 bricks and the second-story walls 
101,000. The itemized cost of laying these walls was as given in 
Table XXIV. 

Erecting Structural Steel. The steel frame consists of 6-in. 
latticed channel columns. 18 -in. I-beam floor girders, roof trusses 
and wind bracing for both columns and trusses. All trusses were 
delivered entirely riveted up, with the exception of those over the 
car-erecting and painting shop ; these trusses were delivered in two 
sections. These sections were bolted together on the ground, 
hoisted to place with a hand-operated breast derrick, and riveted. 
The second-floor girders were shipped with connection angles riv- 
eted to them. 3600 field rivets, were required, or 54 field rivets 
per ton of steelwork. These were driven with pneumatic ham- 
mers, compressed air being supplied by a portable air compressor, 
driven by an electric motor. The weights of the various portions 
of the steel frame were as follows : 

Item. Lbs. 

Columns 13,350 

Column bracing 2,700 

Girders at second floor 20,500 

Roof trusses over one-story section 57,400 

Roof trusses over two-story section 13,100 

Lateral bracing for one-story section 15,600 

Lateral bracing for two-story section 8,750 

Total .^ 131,400 

The total and unit costs of erecting and riveting the steelwork 
were as given in Table XXV. 

TABLE XXV. COST OF ERECTING AND RIVETING STEEL- 
WORK 

Rate Cost. 

Item. per hour. per ton. 

Foreman $0.60 $1.53 

Labor 0.45 4.89 

Total $6.42 

Second-Floor Constritction. The second-floc^ construction con- 
sists of 2 X 6-in. matched yellow pine flooring laid on 3 x 12-in. 
joists, and nailed with 20-d nails, tvv'o at each bearing. The joists 
are 16 ft. long and are spaced 2 ft. on centers. Solid bridging, 
2x12 ins., was cut to fit between the joists over the I-beams, and 
one row of 1 x 2-in. cross bridging was placed between the joists 
at the center of the span. All material was raised to place by 
hand. In constructing this floor 24,300 ft. b. m. of lumber were 
used, divided as follows: Joists, 9,700 ft. b. m. ; flooring, 14,000 ft. 
b. m. ; and bridging 600 ft. b. m. The total and unit costs of build- 
ing this floor were as shown in Table XXVI, 



206 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXVI. COST OF CONSTRUCTING SECOND FLOOR 

Rate Cost per 

Item. per hour. • m ft. b. m. 

Foreman $0.55 $0,724 

Carpenters 0.45 2.963 

Helpers 0.295 1.700 

Total $5,387 

Roof Construction. The roofs were constructed of 2 x 6-in. 
matched yellow pine flooring- spiked to 2xl0-in. and 3xl0-in. pur- 
lins, the latter being bolted to clip angles on the trusses. The 
spacing of the purlins varied from 4 ft. to 6 ft. All material was 
raised to place by hand. For the roof over the one-story section 
50,900 ft. b. m. were used, of which 10,600 ft. b. m. were in the 
purlins and 40,300 ft. b. m. in the sheathing. The roof over the 
two-story section required 27,500 ft. b. m. of lumber, of which 5,700 
ft. b. m. were in the purlins and 21,800 ft. b. m. in the sheathing. 
The total and unit costs of constructing these roofs were as given 
in Table XXVII. 

TABLE XXVIL TOTAL AND UNIT COSTS OF CONSTRUCT- 
ING ROOFS 

One-story sec- Two-story sec- 
tion, tion. 

A § . . ^ . 

S'O -u _^ "rf -t-> • 

Foreman $0.55 $ 1.156 $ 41.80 $ 1.520 

Carpenters 0.45 6.542 273.60 9.949 

Helpers 0.295 2.434 97.94 3.561 

Total $10,132 $413.34 $15,030 

The higher unit costs for the roof over the two-story section were 
due to several factors, among which are : the trusses have a shorter 
span ; they have a steeper slope ; and the material had to be ele- 
vated a greater distance. 

General Costs. The cost of this building equipped, per square 
foot of floor area, was $1.28, divided as follows: Building proper, 
86.3 cts. ; heating, 5.1 cts. ; lighting, 1.1 cts. ; sprinkler system, 27.6 
cts. ; tracks and trolleys, 8.3 cts. 

The cost given for heating covers that of an indirect system, 
including fan, heating coils, galvanized iron air distributing ducts, 
and supply and return mains (each 440 ft. long) ; it does not include 
the cost of the boilers. The cost given for the sprinkler system 
does not include that of the tank.s, but does include all other parts 
necessary to a dry pipe sprinkler system. The cost per sprinkler 
head was $6, each head covering an area of 21.7 sq. ft. The tracks 
consist of 70-lb. A. S. C. E. rails laid on 6 x 8-in. x 7 ft. cross-ties 
spaced 2 ft. on centers. 



BUILDINGS 



207 



Cost of Buildings and Equipment for a Smelter in Arizona. E. H. 

Jones (Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 

July, 1914) gives the following costs for the Arizona Copper Co. 
plant at Clifton, Ariz. 

TABLE XXVIII. COST OF SMELTER BUILDINGS PER 
SQUARE FOOT 

Floor Cost Cost per 

space, per sq. ft.. 

Name of building. sq. ft. sq. ft. equipped. 

Crushing plant 1,650 $3.62 $ 5.62 

Sampling plant 6,140 2.65 5.56 

Roasting plant 28,740 1.51 4.76 

Reverberatory plant 20,370 2.49 8.45 

Reverberatory boiler building. . . 14,310 2.58 11.16 

Converter building 26,084 3.34 8.28 

Boiler and blacksmith shop 4,424 2.56 4.85 

Machine and carpenter shop.... 5,144 2.90 5.32 

Warehouse 5,040 2.28 2.70 

Laboratory 1,492 2.92 4.12 

Sample room 600 1.65 4.71 

Power plant 32,096 2.'il 11.20 



TABLE XXIX. 



COST OF SMELTER BUILDING PER CUBIC 
FOOT 

Cost Cost per 

Volume, per cu. ft. 

Name of building. cu. ft. cu. ft. equipped. 

Crushing plant 27,040 $0.22 $0.34 

Sampling plant 80,547 0.20 0.42 

Roasting plant 410,140 0.11 0.33 

Reverberatory plant 474,350 0.11 0.36 

Reverberatory boiler building., 500,850 0.07 0.32 

Converter building 1,529,636 0.06 0.14 

Boiler and blacksmith shop 86,268 0.15 0.24 

Machine and carpenter shop 100,308 0.15 0.27 

Warehouse 83,160 0.14 0.16 

Laboratory 16,140 0.27 0.38 

Sample room 6,000 0.16 0.47 

Power house 784,000 0.10 0.46 



Miscellaneous Costs. The cost of the cooling tower per 1,000 gal. 
per min. (capacity 12,000 gals, per min.) was $2,189.42, its total 
cost being $26,273.01. 

The cost of the power plant, including boiler plant, per indicated 
h. p. (capacity 10,660 i. h. p.) was $55.32, its total cost being 
$589,717.16. The capacity, indicated h. p., of the three turbines was 
9,460 ; that of the two Nordberg blowers, 1,000 ; and that of the 
single air compressor, 200. 

The cost of the power plant, exclusive of boiler plant, per indi- 
cated h. p., was $37.40, its total cost being $398,631.17. 

The cost of the boiler plant per boiler h. p. (capacity 6.143 h. p.) 
was $31.11, its total cost being • $191,085.99. The total capacity is 
given by seven waste heat units at 713 h. p. each and three oil-fired 
units at 384 h. p. each. 

Labor Costs of an Underground Pumping Plant. H. B. Ferriss, 
in Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 13, 1916, gives the following 
segregated items of cost connected with the construction of an un- 



208 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXX. TOTAL COSTS OF LABOR AND MATERIALS, 
QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND UNIT COSTS OF 
POWER HOUSE AND EQUIPMENT 



O --3 

Account. u 'u-^ 

o <» S 

t r 

Building. 

Excavation . $7,727.56 % 69.09 

Building foundation piers 1,699.92 1,460.02 

Building foundation walls 3,735.78 3,628.81 

North tunnel 1,350.79 1,1^30.37 

Concrete drain 205.68 227.37 

Basement floor, concrete. 916.41 1,347.78 

Basement painting 81.45 48.81 

Preparation of concrete 

for painting 891.73 42.69 

Painting concrete 195.84 301.61 

Steel structure 

Tile walls 3,856.83 4,510.20 

Unloading tile 332.40 0.17 

Wall coping 372.69 107.05 

Doors, windows and 

frames 974.38 3,319.93 

Concrete sills 596.33 120.96 

Ventilators 125.60 439.76 

Main floor columns 236.93 626.44 

Main floor slab concrete. 1,267.91 3,341.61 
Painting underside of 

main floor 181.88 147.58 

Painting top of main 

floor 95.56 199.32 

Roof, Berger multiplex 

plate 420.83 3,063.18 

Roof concrete 1,723.10 958.51 

Roof tar 172.70 127.73 

Roof, downspouts and 

tile drain 286.17 240.44 

Roof painting, underside 692.84 324.55 

Roof, P. & B. roofing 577.68 1,317.08 

Painting sash 290.09 16.72 

Painting woodwork 29.50 4.06 

Equipment. 

Crane 131.89 1,723.27 

Well grading 1,558.07 517.68 

Shaft sinking 765.62 612.10 

Timbering 57.61 

Aldrich pump installation 74.56 16.62 
Nordberg blowers, foun- 
dation 774.06 .3,020.83 

Nordberg blowers, cost 

and installation 1,641.62 32,514.02 

Nordberg blowers, paint- 
ing 327.57 57.65 

Turbines, foundation . . . 959.08 1,432.70 
Turbines, cost and instal- 
lation 2,297.70 79,586.49 

Turbines, painting 286.15 41.02 

Turbines, air pipe mak- 
ing 547.68 200.75 

Turbines, air pipe erec- 
tion 232.57 64.24 

Transformer trucks and 

transfer table 121.63 538.08 



m 


§ . 


-)-> -M 




Crf 


|8 


^a 


a 


H 


7,313 cu. yds. 


% 1.07 


231.7 cu. yds. 


13.64 


508.5 cu. yds. 


14.48 


180.3 cu. yds. 


14.32 


34.6 cu. yds. 


12.52 


12,130 sq. ft. 


0.19 


830 sq. yds. 


0.16 


2,459 sq. yds. 


0.38 


2,459 sq. yds. 


0.20 


254.29 tons 


93.49 


14,343 cu. ft. 


0.58 


522.70 tons 


0.64 


732 lin. ft. 


0.66 


4,044 sq. ft. 




opening 


1.06 


964 lin. ft. 


0.74 


6 ventilators 


94.23 


68 columns 


12.70 


10,210 sq. ft. 


0.45 


2,679 sq. yds. 


0.12 


1,134 sq. yds. 


0.26 


214.83 squares 


16.22 


214.83 squares 


12.48 


214.83 squares 


1.40 


905 ft. 


0.58 


6,813 sq. yds. • 


0.15 


214.83 squares 


8.82 


299 sash 


1.04 


89 sq. yds. 


0.38 


1 crane 


1,855.16 


2,600 cu. yds. 


0.80 


45 ft. 


30.61 


45 ft. 


1.28 



686.3 cu. yds. 5.53 

2 Nordbergs 17,077.82 



2 Nordbergs 
19 6.5 cu. yds. 


192.61 
12.16 


3 turbines 
3 turbines 


27,294 73 
109.06 


103 ft. 


6.27 


103 ft. 


2.88 


15 trucks 


43.98 



BUILDINGS 



209 





m 




°ri 


-M 


Account. 


u 


rt 
'C-^ 




'S 

P3^ 




o 


O M 


c'S 


"::; ^ 




^ 




is 


d o 




^ 


§ 


a 


E-i 


Building. 










Auto transformers 


735.60 


12,044.91 


10 trans- 
formers 


1,278.05 


Condenser foundations. . 


291.08 


285.18 


50.3 cu. yds. 


11.45 


Condensers, cost and in- 






- 




stallation 


415.31 


19,563.55 


3 condensers 


6,659.62 
11.95 


Condensers, painting- . . . 


30.00 


5.86 


3 condensers 


Jet condenser hot well, 










excavation 


28.82 


0.90 


46 cu. yds. 


0.65 


Jet condenser hot well. 










foundation 


66.27 


69.99 


16.5 cu. yds. 


8.26 


Jet condenser hot well, 










supporting- structure 










and tank 







5.76 tons 


164.18 


Jet condenser hot well. 










cost and erection 


128.97 


494.68 


1 condenser 


1,078.65 


Jet condenser hot well. 










dry vacuum pumps . . . 


285.51 


2,860.01 


2 pumps 


1,572.76 


Jet condenser hot well. 










pumps, painting- 


30.00 


5.86 


2 pumps 


17.93 


Circulating- pumps, foun- 










dation 


560.04 


708.93 


210 cu. yds. 


6.04 


Circulating pumps, cost 










and erection 


366.90 


3,535.68 


2 pumps 


1,951.29 


Circulating pumps, paint- 










ing 


30.00 


5.86 


2 pumps 


17.93 


Air compressor founda- 










tion 


840.98 


1,246.54 


238.3 cu. yds. 


8.76 


Air compressor, erection 


642.90 
10.58 


148.67 
24.49 






Air compressor, painting 






Air compressor, all pip- 










ing except steam 


298.46 


160.65 








Air compressor, wrecking 










and transportation . . . 


457.77 


136.06 






Air compressor, installa- 










tion of air receivers . . 


49.47 


1.43 






2 exciters, 2 air pumps. 






2 circulating pumps. 










foundation 


1,439.67 


1,875.43 


373 cu. yds. 


8.89 


2 exciters, cost and in- 








stallation 


491.01 


6,118.26 


2 exciters 


3,304.64 


3 dry vacuum pumps, 








cost and installation.. 


147.26 


3,190.10 


3 pumps 


1,112.45 


3 cir. pumps and engines. 










cost and installation.. 


389.32 


8,729.37 


3 pumps 


3,309.56 


2 exciters, painting 


86.01 


14.65 


2 exciters 


50.33 


3 air pumps, painting . . . 


50.00 


8.79 


3 pumps 


19.59 


3 cir. pumps, painting. . 


81.69 


14.65 


3 pumps 


32.11 


2 motor gen., 1 air pump, 










1 cir. pump, foundation 


269.52 


658.91 


107 cu. yds. 


8.93 


2 motor generators, cost 










and installation 


319.06 


6,830.33 


2 generators 


3,574.69 


2 motor generators. 




« 






painting 


30.00 


5.86 


2 generators 


17.93 


Transfer table pit, con- 










crete 


24.13 


58.23 


12 cu. yds. 


6.86 


Switchboard, concrete 










compartments 


1,472.21 


510.48 


1,469 sq. ft. 


1.35 


Switchboard, cost and 










erection 


2,730.53 


15,520.57 






Steam piping north and 








south mains, excava- 










tion 


249.65 




279 cu. yds. 


0.89 



210 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



" ^"^ .t! 

Account. " -t*^ '-S-S !=>-• 

g So ^^ 73o 

1 |S |a |8 

Building-. 

Steam piping, foundation 578.24 945.97 194.5 cu. yds. 7.84 

Steam piping, steel sup- 
porting structure 86.81 tons 88.64 

Steam piping) hangers 

and anchors 1,030.68 337.26 153 rods 8.94 

Steam piping, cost and 

erection 2,286.3118,622.25 3,401ft. 6.15 

Steam piping, covering 

and erection 266.71 5,813.23 3,401ft. 1.79 

Exhaust pipe, cost and 

erection 1,745.71 8,715.66 1,541ft. 6.79 

Exhaust pipe, painting. . 85.05 51.19 1,541ft. . 0.09 

Exhaust pipe, covering 

and erection 318.25 830.56 746 ft. 1.54 

Air piping, cost and erec- 
tion 363.19 554.16 

Air piping, painting 31.56 18.66 

Exhaust pipe, foundation 63.09 102.81 18.3 cu. yds. 9.07 

Exhaust pipe, supporting 

structure 197.27 57.93 

Exhaust pipe, excavation 20.82 29 cu. yds, 0.72 

Water pipe, excavation 

and backfill 1,485.10 0.24 2,406 cu. yds: 0.62 

Water pipe, cost and 

erection 3,747.79 16,437.88 

Water pipe, painting 230.59 25.54 

derground pumping plant. In order to understand the records a 
brief description of the plant is perhaps necessary. 

The company owns a subdivision for which it purchases water in 
bulk. The normal pressure as supplied to the company is satis- 
factory up to elevation 140 only. A considerable portion of the 
subdivision lies above this elevation, and in order to give adequate 
pressure to the purchasers within this high level district the pump- 
ing plant was constructed. 

The engineer's original scheme consisted of the usual elevated 
tanks, etc., but was changed owing to the owner's set policy of 
placing all utilities underground. The plant, as finally approved by 
the directors, consists essentially of two electrically driven pumps 
connected to 2 large tanks ; 2 motors operating the pumps ; an auto- 
matic sump-pump and an air compressor with self-contained 
motors ; all housed within an underground concrete vault. Th( 
sump-pump is mounted on an iron bracket fastened to the walls ol 
the vault. The rest of the equipment is placed on raised concrete 
foundations, with the exception of the tanks, which rest on the fioor, 
part of which was strengthened for this purpose. The plant is 
connected to large municipal mains and is entirely automatic in its 
operation. 

The vault housing the machinery' and tanks is built of 1:2:4 
concrete with a percentage of hydrated lime. The work was done 
very carefully in order to make the vault as nearly watertight as 
possible. The roof is 5 in. thick of reinforced concrete, supported 
on " I " beams. The floors are 6 ins. thick, surfaced with 1 in. of 



BUILDINGS 



211 



1 : 2 mortar, except under the tanks, where the floor is 12 ins. thick. 
All openings for pipes, etc., were carefully caulked and the vault is 
considered practically watertight. 

The excavation for the vault was in stiff Avhite clay, and no tim- 
bering was required, nor was there any difficulty with water. The 



[7^ 



^p ' vv : 



»- iZ-4 Con ere fe 



Tank 
Capacify 
4126 Imp Oaf. 



r--; f'toai- 



Tank 

Capacify 

4156 Imp 6al 



t^S 



■Air Pipe 



|B» Discharge 

^ Moior - 

Gate 

^Check' 




cCompres 




Dischar 



ft^^ T-oundahon: 

valve I 
Check 
Valve 




Ini-ake 
Fig. 10. Underground pumping plant. 



dimensions of the excavation were 18x38 ft. x 11 ft. deep, or 281 
cu. yds., including the sump-hole. Of the total earth removed, 200 
cu. yds. were back-filled, 150 cU. yds. were hauled to a dump 1 mile 
away, and 111 cu. yds. to a dump half a mile away, both hauls 
over good pavements. Two large boulders were removed during 
the work. . The wagons were loaded as the earth was removed. 
Weather was good and the work very well handled. 



212 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The materials for concrete were delivered conveniently near the 
work, mixed on top at one end, and handled in wheelbarrows. 
After the forms and reinforcement were placed the walls were 
brought up in one continuous operation. The floor was laid first 
and special precautions taken to secure a good bond with the walls, 
which were built two or three days later. The workmanship was 
excellent. 

A good foreman and well organized crew were employed from 
the first and it is believed that the costs on excavation and concrete 
are close, considering the character of the work. 

The cost of installing the machinery, electrical equipment, etc., 
however, is regarded as high, as the men employed for this work 
were slow, although thoroughly competent and conscientious. Also 
there was considerable delay over the delivery of some special 
castings and other parts of the equipment. The company, however, 
was not affected, as the work was done under contract. It should, 
therefore, be mentioned that in the following costs the rates for 
this part of the work are a^umed. The hours are correct. 

LABOR COSTS OF CONSTRUCTING UNDERGROUND PUMPING PLANT. 

(Excavation (281 cu. yds.). Per 

cu. yd. 

Foreman, 80 hrs. at $0.50 $ 40.00 $0.14 

Labor, 570 hrs. at $0.25 ■' 142.50 .50 

Teams, 120 hrs. at $0.70 84.00 .30 

Black.'^mith, 20 hrs. at $0.30... 6.00 .02 

Backfill and clean-up, 55 hrs. at $0.25 13.75 .05 

Total $286.25 $1.01 

Note : Two extra dump wagons were included in the above rate 
of 70 cts. for teams, which were loaded while the teams were trav- 
eling. The unit cost for backfill only was about 40 cts. per cu. yd. 

Concreting, including foundations — 57 cu. yds. 

Forms and Reinforcement. Per cu. yd. 

concrete. 

Carpenter, 35 hrs. at $0.40 $ 14.00 $0.25 

Helpers, 100 hrs. at $0.35 35.00 .61 

Common labor, 44 hrs. at $0.25 11.00 .19 

Total $ 60.00 $1.05 

Foundations for Pumps and Motors — Concrete. 

43 hrs. at $0.30 $ 12.90 $0.23 

Walls, Floors, and Roofs. 

Foreman, 12 hrs. at $0.50 $ 6.00 $0.10 

Mixing, etc., 300 hrs. at $0.30 90.00 1.58 

Tamping, 53 hr.s. at $0.30 15.90 .28 

Miscellaneous labor, 20 hrs. at $0.30 6.00 .11 

Mix boards, etc., 10 hrs. at $0.35 3.50 .06 

Total $121.40 $2.13 

Installation of Equipment. 

Tanks (set in place by contract) $ 25.00 

Erecting all machinery, including water con- 
nections, etc. : 

Skilled labor, 200 hrs. at $0.50 $100.00 

Helpers, 240 hrs. at $0.40 96.00 196.00 



BUILDINGS 213 

Painting fittings and general clean up : 

Helpers, 22 hrs. at $0.40 8.80 8.80 

Erecting switchboard, wiring, etc., etc. : 

Skilled labor, 192 hrs. at $0.50 96.00 

Helpers, 36 hrs. at $0.30 10.80 106.80 

Testing equipment : 

Skilled labor, 22 hrs. at $0.50 11.00 

Helpers, 22 hrs. at $0.40 8.80 19.80 

Total $356.40 

General Miscellaneous Labor. 
Haul machinery and supplies (other than concrete mate- 
rials and tanks) $37.50 

Seeding ground over roof of plant 3.50 

Removal of tools, etc., and general clean up 11.50 

Water connections for mixing concrete 5.50 

Miscellaneous labor 15.60 

Total $73.60 

The foregoing are all net labor costs only. Overhead inspection, 
etc., etc., are not included. 

Construction and Cost of a Reservoir and Pumphouse. G. F. 
Alderson in Coal Age, Sept. 23, 1!)16, describes a reservoir and 
pumping equipment installed as a means of raising the pressure in 
a system which under normal conditions, was 20 lbs., to a pressure 
of 80 lbs. for fire protection purposes. 

By referring to Fig. 11 the scheme of the new system may be 
seen at a glance. The reservoir is filled from the source of supply 
through the inlet pipe A. The floor of the reservoir drains toward 
a sump B, in which is placed the foot valve and strainer on the 
suction end of the pump. Normally, the valves at C and E are 
closed and the valve at D is open. Thus the reservoir is shut off 
from its supply, except in case of fire, when the valve at D is 
closed and valves C and E are opened. These valves are controlled 
by a single handwheel within the pumphouse. Should a fire alarm 
be turned in, the pump is started by throwing the switch at the 
board F. The valves C and E are opened, and the valve at D is 
closed. In starting the motor, the pump is primed automatically 
by means of a priming tank placed above it in the pump house. 
Immediately the pump begins to draw the water from the reservoir 
and pump it to the discharge / into the main leading to the plant, 
which action at once increases the pressure in the main ui^ to that 
necessary for producing the desired result through the firehouse. 

When starting the operation, the valve at C is opened and the 
water at ordinary pressure flows into the reservoir, thus virtually 
increasing its capacity, for perhaps 30,000 gals, has flowed into the 
reservoir while the pump is drawing out 100,000 gals., and so the 
water is drawn out much faster than it enters. 

The dimensions of the reservoir are 40 x 60 ft. with an average 
depth of 61/2 ft. It was constructed of concrete reinforced with 
1/2 -in. square twisted steel rods. The floor of the reservoir is 6 ins. 
thick and the side walls are 12 ins. thick. Both the walls and the 



214 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

floor were poured in one continuous operation, thus securing a 
proper bond. The sump is 3 ft. square and 3 ft. deep. It gives 
ample room for the foot valve and strainer on the suction pipe and 
also provides space in the bottom for the collection of sediment. 
From the bottom of this sump a 4 -in. pipe drains into the sewer 
system. At one side of the reservoir an overflow box is provided 
from which an 8 -in. terra-cotta pipe connects with the nearest 
sewer. 



Overflovf to 
Nearest Sewer 




deanou-f al- Priming 
Bo-H-om of Tank 
Sump Hole ',^ Overhead 



Overflow , __ 



^a 



p— — rjrp 
rooiVafve---^', 
andStrainf^r i.B 

Sump Hole, 3 Deep'- 





PUMP HOUSE 

c/ireci- connecfecf 
Cenirifugaheleciric 
Fire Pump 



Fig. 11. Piping arrangement for reservoir. 

A fireproof pumphouse, 12x18 ft., was constructed at one end of 
the reservoir. This building has a cement floor, brick walls, con- 
crete slab roof supported by an 8 -in. I-beam, reinforced with Hy- 
Rib, and is to house an Allis-Chalmers high-duty, 1,000-gal. electric 
fire pump, together with all necessary fittings and appliances for its 
proper operation. The motor was connected to a 2,200-volt service 
line. The pump running at 1,750 r.p.m. operated under a head of 
260 ft. This tank was supported above the pump by brackets on 
the wall, to provide a means of priming the pump. An automatic 
ball float valve keeps the tank properly filled. 



COST OF ERECTING THE PUMPHOUSE. 

Labor, 68% $536.07 

Masonry (masons at $0.70 per hr., helpers at $0.24 per hr..$176.04 

Forms for roof (carpenters at $0.53 per hr. ) 40.78 

Carpenter work, setting window and door frames 31.80 

Installing pump (plumbers $0.45 per hr., helpers $0.35 per 

hr. ) 



129.75 



Installing motor (electrician $0.45 per hr., helper $0.35 per 

hr.) 130.00 

Lining tank (coppersmith $0.45 per hr.) 8.50 

Painting (painter $0,371/2 per hr.) 11.25 

Labor at $0.24 per hr , 7.95 



Material (32%) 252.16 

Brick (9,000 at $8.50 per M) 76.50 

Concrete work, foundation, roof, floor and mortar 53.80 



BUILDINGS 215 

22 bbls. cement $1.30 per bbl., 7 cu. yds. sand $1 per ton, 

14 cu. yds. gravel $1.30 per ton. 

Four window frames at $1.75 each 7.00 

Paneled door and door frame 3.50 

3-in. I-beam 11 ft. 6 in. long 4.00 

Lumber forms for roof $20 per M ft. b. m 20.00 

Hy-Rib (270 sq. ft., at $0.022) 6.00 

Paint (3 gals., at $1.75) 5.25 

Pipe and fittings for connecting pump 71.61 

Material for priming tank , . 4.50 

Total cost of pumphouse — Labor 536.07 

Material 252.1 6 

$788.23 

To prevent dust and scum from accumulating on the water and 
to make freezing in winter more difficult, an ordinary sloping roof 
was built over the reservoir. This roof is supported by nine 8x8 
in. timbers resting on the floor of the reservoir. For a roof cover- 
ing, a good quality of 2-ply prepared roofing was used. 

The concrete used was a 1 :2 :4 mixture of Portland cement, 
clean, sharp, bar sand and clear pit gravel. The concrete was 
hand-mixed, four boards working continuously until the floors and 
walls were flnished. 

COST OF BUILDING THE RESERVOIR. 

Labor, 60% $1,672.23 

Excavation, 804 cu. yds. (labor at $0.24 per hr.) $ 868.32 

Forms for concrete (carpenters at $0.53 per hr. ) 230.55 

Laying outside piping (plumber at $0.45 per hr., helper at 

$0.35 per hr.) 71.82 

Pouring concrete, 136 cu. yds. (labor at $0.24 per hr.)..., 422.04 

Roof (carpenters at $0.53 per hr.) 79.50 

Material, W/o $1,066.40 

Lumber (average $20 per M ft. b. m.) 248.64 

Nails (average $0,017 per lb.) 4.64 

Concrete, 1:2:4 mixture 437.22 

Cement, 181.25 bbls. at $1.30 per bbl. 

Sand, 56 yds. at $1 per ton. 

Gravel, 112 yds. at $1.30 per ton. 

Reinforcing rods, 9,000 ft. (108 ft. per 100 lbs. at $4 per lb.) 333.00 

Wire, No. 12 (200 lbs. at $0,112 per lb.) 22.50 

Roofing paper (34 squares at- $0.60) 20.40 

Total cost of reservoir — Labor 1,672.23 

Material 1,066.40 

$2,738.63 



CHAPTER IV 

CHIMNEYS 

Relative Economy of Various Types of Clnimneys. There are 
four types of chimneys in common use : the guyed steel chimney, 
the self-supporting- steel chimney, the radial brick chimney, and 
the reinf orced-concrete chimney. The. guyed steel chimney is very 
commonly used in boiler plants of comparatively^ small power. It 
is the cheapest of all types and it has also the most rapid de- 
preciation, as it is generally constructed of light material. Steel 
chimneys have a shorter life than the brick or reinforced-concrete 
chimneys, and in some localities, as along the sea coasts or vhere 
acid fumes are present in the atmosphere, the depreciation may be 
very rapid. A maintenance charge exists for steel that is not 
necessary for brick or concrete chimneys, as they require painting 
at least once a year if they are to be properly cared for. A brick 
chimney would naturally be more in harmony with a power house 
built of brick than any other, and a concrete-steel chimney for a 
building of reinforced concrete. 

As the temperature and friction losses are nearly the same for 
chimneys of the same height and diameter, irrespective of the 
material of which they are constructed, the ecionornj'^ of operation 
of such chimneys is the same, and a selection, on the basis of 
economy, depends upon their first cost, repair cost, and useful life. 
T. J. Maguire in an article in Engineering Magazine, March, 
1912, from which the following is condensed gives as an example 
the case of a power installation M'here it has been found that a 
chimney 175 ft. in height and 8 ft. in diameter will be required, 
and where a careful investigation leads to the conclusion that this 
chimney will be required for 35 years. A well -designed radial- 
brick chimney of the above height and diameter would cost about 
$7,600, and it would readily last the above estimated number of 
years. The repair item per year for this chimney would be neg- 
ligible, and the annual cost of the chimney would consist simply 
of an interest charge on the first cost and the annual sum set aside 
for depreciation. On the basis of an interest charge of 5 per 
cent, the annual cost of the radiai-brick chimney Avould be $464. 

A reinforced-concrete chimney 175 ft. in height and 8 ft. in 
diameter would cost about $5,700, if properly designed and in- 
stalled. Now assume that local conditions are such as to warrant 
a life of only 25 years, as compared to 35 years for the radial- 
brick chimney. Evidently the conorete chimney will have to be 
replaced at the end of 25 years, and as the chimney is required 
for a total of 35 years, the actual useful life of the second rein- 

216 



CHIMNEYS 217 

forced-concrete chimney will be only 10 years. Assuming again 
that the repair item per year for the two reinforced-concrete 
chimneys would be negligible, the annual cost for 25 years, for the 
first concrete chimney, would be equal to $405, and for the second 
concrete chimney $738, for 10 years. The average annual cost, 
for the entire 35 years, for the reinforced type of chimney, on the 
above assumption, would be $500, and the radial-brick chimney 
would be the more economical type to install even if its first cost 
exceeds by one-third the first cost of the reinforced-concrete type. 
Take, as a third type for this proposed plant, a self-supporting 
steel chimney, and assume that it will have a life of 20 years, 
thus necessitating rebuilding once in order to obtain the desired 
useful life of 35 years. It will be necessary to paint once a year 
at a cost of about $80 for a chimney 8 ft. in diameter and 175 
ft. in height. Assume that the annual cost of the steel chimneys 
on the aveiage for the entire 35 years is not to exceed the annual 
cost of the radial-brick chimney, or $464. On this basis, then, 
the first cost or cost of installing each steel chimney would be 
equal to $4,410. If the two steel chimneys could each be installed 
at a cost less than $4,410, then the self-supporting type would be 
more economical than the radial-brick 

A proper selection demands not only a careful comparison of 
first costs, but also of repair costs, actual useful life of chimneys, 
and the length of time for which the chimney is desired. 

Care should be taken in determining the diameter and height. 
A chimney larger than the requirements call for is evidently a 
waste of money, and too small a chimney is likely to prove a very 
costly investment on account of the deficient draft produced by it 
and the resulting incomplete combustion of the fuel. The height 
depends upon the available intensity of draft required of it, and 
this latter must equal the sum of the draft loss in the breeching 
connection from boilers to chimney, the draft loss in the boiler 
setting, and the intensity of draft required in the furnace to burn 
the fuel properly. The design of the furnace and the grade of fuel 
that is ever likely to be used during the life of the plant are 
features that must be carefully considered if the height is to be 
correctly determined. A well designed chimney of any type will 
consume 20% of the theoretical draft intensity produced by it, 
and on this basis the chimney diameter is determined by the 
maximum boiler horse power which the chimney will have to take 
care of and the evaporative ability of the fuel used. 

The production of draft by a chimney is due to the temperature 
of the gases in the chimney, and it is therefore evident that a 
chimney consumes a certain amount of the heat energy of the 
fuel. A temperature of 475 degs. F. at the breeching connection 
to the boilers represents good operating economy with the boilers 
developing their rated capacity, and at 50% overload on the boilers 
this temperature will rise to' 550 degs. F. or higher. In any boiler 
equipment, whatever may be the design of the boiler and furnace, 
it is not feasible to lower the breeching temperature to any appre- 
ciable extent below the temperatures noted above. It is possible, 



218 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

however, to abstract further heat from the gases leaving the 
boilers, by conveying them through an economizer before they 
reach the chimney. It Is not customary, however, to use natural 
draft in conjunction with an economizer on account of the low 
temperature of the gases available for chimney purposes. As an 
illustration take the case of a plant where 0.9 in. of draft at 
the point where the breeching connects to the stack Is required to 
burn the fuel properly, and assume that the average temperature 
of the gases entering the chimney is 450 degs. F. If the chimney 
is at sea level, its height would be 184 ft. in order to satisfy 
the above conditions. If, now, a suitable economizer were placed 
between chimney and boilers, with enough heating surface to 
reduce the temperature of the gases to 250 degs. P.. then the 
chimney would have to create a draft intensity of about 1.1 ins., 
as the additional draft lost in breeching connections to economizers 
and in economizer would probably amount to 0.2 in. A chimney 
380 ft. in height would be required to produce 1.1 ins. of draft 
with a gas temi)erature of only 250 degs. F. Chimneys that are 
not commercially practicable would be required for use with most 
economizer equipments, and hence it is customary to employ me- 
chanical draft rather than natural draft for plants using econo- 
mizers. 

Natural draft is very often undesirable for certain coals that 
are of low heating value, have a high flxed-carbon value, are high 
in ash, or have a tendency to form objectionable clinkers. For 
instance, take the case of a boiler plant of 2,000 h.-p. rating, where 

TABLE T. CHIMNEY DIMENSIONS FOR VARIOUS HEIGHTS 



Jl 


Height of 


Chimney. 




50 ft. 70 ft 


100 ft. 


150 ft. 200 ft. 




l! 


2 


0) 

•- & Commercial horse-power of boilers. 

a! 


3 


m 


c a 


< 


StJ 












73 




F 




K 












16 


X 16 . 


. 18 


1.77 


.97 


20 


30 








19 


X 19 . 


. 21 


2.41 


1.47 


35 


40 










22 


x22 . 


. 24 


3.14 


2.08 


50 


60 










24 


X 24 . 


. . 27 


3.98 


2.78 


65 


80 










27 


x27 . 


. . 30 


4.91 


3.58 


85 100 










30 


x 30 . 


. . 33 


5.94 


4.48 




25 










32 


X 32 . 


. . 36 


7.07 


5.47 


150 


180 








35 


X 35 . 


.. 39 


8.30 


6.57 


180 


220 








38 


X 38 . 


. . 42 


9.62 


7,76 


220 


260 








43 


x43 . 


. . 48 


12.57 


10.44 




. . 


350 








48 


X 48 . 


. . 54 


15.90 


13.51 




. 


4 50 


55( 




54 


x54 . 


.. 60 


19.64 


16.98 




. . 


565 


69 




59 


X 59 . 


. . 66 


23.76 


20.83 






700 


85 


3 980 


64 


X 64 . 


. . 72 


28.27 


25.08 




. . 


835 


1.02 


) 1.180 


70 


X 70 . 


. . 78 


33.18 


29.73 




. . 




1.21 


) 1.400 


75 


X 75 . 


. . 84 


38.48 


34.76 






. . . 


1.42( 


) 1,630 


80 


X 80 . 


.. 90 


44.18 


40.19 








1.64 


) 1.900 


86 


x86 . 


.. 96 


50.27 


46.01 








1 


,88( 


) 2,200 



CHIMNEYS 219 

draft conditions must be such as to enable the boilers to develop 
an overload of 33i/2%' Boilers are of the vertical-pass water- 
tube type, with grate areas equal to 1,32 of the heating surface. 
The coal that is to be used, to be what is known as anthracite 
buckwheat No. 3. This coal would have a calorific value of about 
11.000 B.t.u. per pound dry, and would run as high possibly as 
25% ash. To develop 33i/3% overload, the boiler output would be 
equal to 2,670 boiler horse power and about 13,500 lbs. of dry 
anthracite coal would be burned per hour. This would call for a 
consumption of 22 lbs. of dry coal per square foot of grate per 
hour, and such a rate of combustion would require a furnace draft 
of not less than 1.6 ins. With 0.4 in. lost in the boiler and (say) 
0.2 in. lost in the breeching, the available draft required would 
have to equal 2.2 ins. A chimney 96 ins. in diameter and 400 ft. 
in height would be required. Such a chimney is obviously not 
practicable on account of its excessive height. 

Sizes of Chimneys for Boilers. Table I condensed from one by 
J. H. Boughton gives the diameters, heights, and effective areas 
of chimneys, etc., for various commercial h. p. of boilers. 

Height and Diameter of Chimney for Plants of Moderate Size 
(500 h. p. or less) according to C. £>. Wesselhoeft (Data, 1914), 
should be as follows : 

Height, ft. 

Free burning bituminous coal 75 

Anthracite of medium and large size 100 

Slow-burning bituminous 120 

Anthracite pea 130 

Anthracite buckwheat 150 

Anthracite slack 175 

For plant of 700 or 800 h. p., the chimney should not be less 
than 150 ft. high regardless of the kind of coal used. 

Internal cross-sectional area of chimney " E " may be obtained 
from the following formula : 

3RP 

in which R = maximum rate of coal consumption in 



50\/H 



pounds per hr. per rated boiler h. p. ; P = total rated boiler h. p. ; 
H = height of chimney in ft. R is commonly taken as 5 lbs., 
which is high for modern plants. 

Cost of Chimneys. W. H. Weston in Engineering Magazine, 
Jan., 1912, gives the following table figured on a compound con- 
densing basis plus 30% for overload. 

H. p. Cost 

400 $2,700 

500 3,200 

600 3,700 

800 4,300 

1000 5,100 

1500 6,700 

2000 8,200 

4000 15,000 



220 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost per Horsepower of Various Chimneys. W. W. Christie 
(Railroad Gazette, Oct. 19, 1900) gives tlie following list, Table 
II, from actual costs. 

TABLE II. COST OF CHIMNEYS FOR VARIOUS HP. RATINGS 

Cost, dollars. 
H.-p. Per rated Remarks. 

Description. rating.* Total h.-p. 

Radial brick, ci^c 13.484 40,000 3.00 Foreign. 

Red brick, circ 4,040 16.000 4.00 

" 6,000 18,500 3.00 

rect 450 2,192 4.87 

hex 12,211 55.000 4.50 

circ 4,859 10,000 2.06 Single shell, firebrick 

lining half height. 

" 2,925 15,000 5.13 

" 5,772 40 000 6.93 

" 6,300 18.500 3.00 

" 6,000 25.000 4.25 

" 1,100 4.950 4.50 

rect 517 1.900 3.80 

Steel, self-supporting. 2,400 10.000 4.15 Lined throughout. 

2,350 8,000 3.40 Half-lined, price with- 
out foundation, 
240 700 2.91 Unlined. 

guyed 240 400 1.66 

* Chimney Design and Tlieory, by W. W. Christie. 



Based upon figures given in the table, chimneys of 2,000 h. p. 
each, if built of red brick, would cost about $8,500 each; of steel, 
self-supporting, full lined, about $8,300 each; of steel, self-support- 
ing, half lined, about $7,800 each; of steel, self-supporting, unlined, 
about $5,820 each, 12, $69,840; of steel, guyed, about $4,000 each. 

To substitute forced draft apparatus for the large chimney, or 
chimneys in multiple, there could be used forced or induced draft, 
or steam blowers. In this connection an 80-in. centrifugal blower, 
48 in. wheel, 4 x 3 in. double engine, blower and engine on beam 
platform, was erected in New England in 1899, connected with a 
48-in. diam. chimney of No. 12 steel, 22 ft. high, 10 ft. of it above 
the roof, 1 in. thick cast base plate. The total cost for apparatus, 
frame work, and mason work was $856. The boilers used in the 
plant, in connection with the blower, were horizontal tubular, one 
80 in. diam. by 171/2 ft. ; two 72 in. diam. by 17 1/2 ft. In the same 
year a self-supporting steel chimney, outlined, 3 1^ ft. diam. X 105 
ft. high, was erected, with foundations and flue connections, at a 
cost of $1,013. The chimney was made of •yio, Vi and %-in. steel. 
The blower outfit works satisfactorily in the part having two 
boilers with a total of 75 sq. ft. of grate. The chimney gives a 
very satisfactory draught for 93 sq. ft. of grate surface, and if 
it had been made 48 in. diam., as in the blower outfit mentioned, 
and been guyed with wire rope, with a light foundation, $800 would 
easily have met the expense. The cost of a double fan outfit, 
with a short chimney for 1,600 boiler h.p. is given as $3,500, or 
$2.19 per h.p. 

Cost of Mechanical Draft. W. W. Christie (Railroad Gazette, 



CHIMNEYS 221 

Oct. 19, 1900) gives the cost of mechanical draft in the table 
below. 

For a good steam plant it is fair to assume the following as 
average fixed charges for mechanical draft apparatus : 

Per cent. 

Interest 5 

Depreciation 4 % 

Insurance and taxes . 1 ^ 

11 
For a chimney : 

Interest 5 

Depreciation and repairs 1 1/^ 

Insurance and taxes 1 1/^ 



Then the operating expenses for a mechanical draft apparatus 
for the plant are, say, $12,000, to which must be added the fixed 
charges, 117c of cost of outfit, or $5,781, making a total of $17,781, 
which must be compared with 8% of chimney cost, or $9,600. 

Should a cheaper grade of fuel be used there may be an ad- 
vantage in using mechanical draft. A reduction of over $6,500 
per year has been made -in actual practice in the case of a boiler 
plant of 1,000 h.p.. by the introduction of mechanical draft, and 
the burning of buckwheat and yard screenings with a slight mix- 
ture of Cumberland coal. 

From published tests of steam blowers it is learned that they 
use from 7.4 to 8.78% of the steam made by the boilers. Eight 
per cent, of the value of coal used for 24,000 h.p., or $44,474, should 
be placed in comparison with the operating expenses, $12,000 for 
mechanical draft, and nothing for the brick chimney, to show the 
expensiveness of this method. 

Design and Quantities for a 220-Ft. Reinforced Concrete Chim- 
ney at Penarth, Wales. An unusual type of reinforced concrete 
chimney has .recently been built at Penarth, near Cardiff, "Wales, 
for the new rotary cement plant of the South Wales Portland 
Cement and Lime Co., Ltd. The following data, descriptive of 
this chimney, were taken from an article by John W. Rodger, in 
Concrete and Constructional Engineering in 1914, and is of value 
for design purposes. 

The chimney is 14-sided externally, and is 220 ft. high. It is 
formed in two parts, the outer shell consisting of concrete bloclvs, 
and the inner one being built of brick. The outer and inner 
shells are not connected at any point throughout the full height 
of the chimney. The outside and inside diameters of the top of 
the outer shell are 10 ft. 4 ins. and 9 ft. 6 ins., respectively; the 
corresponding diameters at the base of the chimney are 20 ft. 
6 ins. and 17 ft. 6 ins. Thus the outer shell has a thickness at 
the top of 5 ins. and at the bottom of 18 ins. The inner shell 
has an inside diameter at the top of 8 ft. 6 ins. and at the bottom 
of 9 ft. 2 ins. The thickness for the upper 24.5 ft. of this shell 
is 41/^ ins., and for the lower 183.5 ft. its thickness is 9 ins. The 



222 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

brick lining is strengthened laterally by brick buttresses which 
increase in width with the height of the chimney (see Figs. 1, a 
and 1, b). The minimum clearance between the brickwork of the 
lining and the concrete shell is 6 ins. This clearance is sufficient 
to provide for the swaying action of the chimney in a high wind. 
The estimated maximum deflection of the chimney in an 80-mile- 
per-hour gale is 3.2 ins. It was realized that the chimney would 
be subjected at times to exceptionally high temperature, which 
made it desirable to extend the brick lining to within 12 ft. of 
the top, and to provide a substantial air space between the con- 
crete and the brickwork as a special protection to the brickwork. 
Figure 1 (c) shows a detail of one of the reinforced concrete 
blocks used in the construction of the outer shell; Fig. 1 (d) 
shows a detail of the top part of the chimney; and (e) shows a 
detail at M, near the base. 

The concrete of which the blocks of the outer shell are made 
is composed of materials in the following proportions : 9 cu. ft. 
of crushed granite, of a fineness sufficient to pass a %-in. sieve, 
with all dust removed ; 5 cu. ft. of clean coarse sand ; and 3 cu. 
ft. of Portland cement. The concrete was mixed by hand, and 
was molded in cast-iron molds of varying shapes and sizes, care 
being taken to obtain a wet plastic mixture of such a consistency 
as could be efficiently worked into the forms to insure a dense 
concrete. Each block is reinforced Vv^ith steel rods of varying 
diameters embedded in the concrete during the process of mold- 
ing. 

The blocks are set in a 1 :2 cement mortar with a steel ring, 
or joint rod, embedded in each horizontal joint and extending 
around the entire circumference of the chimney. The vertical 
reinforcement consists of steel rods fixed in the end joints of the 
blocl<s, being further protected by concrete " necks " which are 
molded as a part of the blocks and which form vertical shafts 
on the finished chimney. Each vertical rod projects a dic'tance 
of 6 ft. into the concrete foundation, and is attached there to a 
horizontal steel ring which has a diameter equal to that of the 
chimney at its base. Special reinforcement is used around and 
over the flue opening and for the molded cornice and necks. 

The lining is built throughout of hard, red bricks, made to the 
correct radius and set in 1:2 cement mortar, up to the level of 
the bottom of the intake flue ; above that level to the top of the 
9-in. brickwork the mortar is composed of 14 part Portland cement, 
1 part slaked ground blue lias lime, and 2 1{. parts sand; while 
the 41^-in. bricliwork — the upper 24.5 ft. of the lining — is set in 
1 :2 cement mortar. 

The chimney rests on a reinforced concrete foundation, con- 
sisting of a slab 23.5 ft. square. The load on the bottom course 
of blocks is 8.5 tons per sq. ft. The total weight of the chimney 
and its concrete foundation is 1,400 "tons, which is equal to a 
uniform load of 2.54 tons per sq. ft. in the subsoil. 

Design, Construction and Cost of a Concrete Chimney at Cold- 
water, IVIich. The design, construction and cost of a concrete 



Concrete 




(.d) Detai( of Cormce 



10) Verfical Section 



Section at Base 
lb) Horizontal Sections 

Fig. 1. Sections and details of a 220-ft. chimney. 
223 



224 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

chimney at Coldwater, Mich., is described in Engineering and 
Contracting, April 11, 1915, as follows: 

Design. The chimney has a total height of 137 ft., an inside 
diameter at the top of 6 ft., an outside diameter at the top of 
6 ft. 10 ins., and an outside diameter at the bottom of 10 ft. 
The reinforced concrete lining extends to a height of 40 ft. 6 ins., 
the thickness of this lining being 4 ins., with an air space of 
4 ins. between it and the chimney proper. The reinforced con- 
crete foundation has a thickness at its center of 3 ft. 6 ins, and 
at its outer edge of 1 ft. 6 ins. 

The reinforcement in the foundation consists of two layers of 
bars. The lower layer is placed 4 ins. about the base of the 
footing, and the upper layer 10 ins. above the lower one. The 
% -in. square twisted bars in the lower layer are placed diagonally, 
the bars being spaced 12 ins. on centers. The bars in the upper 
layer are of the same size, these bars being placed parallel to a 
side on 24-in. centers. 

The vertical reinforcement of the chimney consists of %-in. 
square twisted bars, the first set of bars being bent to hook out- 
ward under the lower layer a distance of 12 ins. Different lengths 
of bars were used, and the joints were broken so that the splices 
did not all come in one form. Beginning at the base, the length 
of each section and the number of bars used in each are as fol- 
lows: 7 ft., 72 bars; 12 ft., 62 bars; 15 ft., 52 bars; 15 ft., 42 
bax's; 18 ft., 32 bars; 20 ft.. 22 bars; and 50 ft., 12 bars. The 
circular reinforcement consists of the American Steel & Wire 
Co.'s No. 23 triangular mesh, extending the entire height of the 
chimney. 

The shaft around the smoke opening, which is 5 ft. wide by 
7 ft. high, is reinforced above and below with three extra rings 
of V^-in. round bars and on each side with four extra %-in. square 
twisted bars. The head is reinforced with four additional rings 
of i/^-in. round bars. At the top of the lining a shoulder was 
cast on the outer shell, which projects inward over the top of the 
lining and 4 ins. above it. This was built to prevent soot from 
filling the air space, the shoulder being reinforced with tv.'o extra 
rings of i/^-in. round rods. The concrete lining is reinforced with 
twelve vertical i/^-in. round bars extending the entire height of 
the lining. 

Construction. The bottom of the footing is 7 ft. below grade, 
the excavation extending about 4 ins. into a bed of gravel, which 
was found to give sufficient bearing power. 

A 1:3:6 concrete was used in the foundation, and a 1:2:4 
concrete in the chimney proper. Pit-run gravel was used, as an 
excellent quality was obtainable. An inspector was constantly on 
the work, and care was taken to exclude all stones larger than 
a small ess, especially those of irregular shape. The inspector 
was furnished with tabular data giving the quantities of materials 
required for each form, and rigid infepection was insisted on. 

The outer surface of the chimney was made smooth by the 
constant use of a spading bar. At the start the men were re- 



CHIMNEYS 225 

quired to repair several rough places on the outside of the chim- 
ney, which resulted in a proper use of the spading bar there- 
after. 

The concrete for the chimney shaft was mixed by hand, while 
that for the foundation was machine mixed. In hoisting the con- 
crete a rope and bucket were used, a horse being used for power. 

All scaffolds were built inside of the chimney. They consisted 
of four upright posts, each made of two 2 x4-in. x 16-ft. timbers. 
The ends were butted together and were nailed with 16d spikes, 
the joints being broken. Around the outside of the four posts, 
level with the top of the form to be filled, 2x4-in. pieces were 
spiked, the working platform resting on these. Another set of 
2 X 4-in. pieces were placed at a sufficient height to support the 
sheaves, in order that the concrete could be placed by means of 
short chutes. 

The bucket in which the concrete was hoisted was filled by means 
of a chute through the clean-out door, the mixing platform being 
just outside and level with this door. 

The forms were constructed of 2-in. lumber, in sections 6 ft. 
high, the sections being raised to position with ropes. 

The chimney was completed in 32 days from the time the founda- 
tion was started. 

Cotil. The following data give the approximate cost of the 
chimney to the contractor, the wages of the foreman and the 
assistant foreman being estimated at $6 per day each. 

Foreman, 29 days at $6.00 $174.00 

Assistant foreman, 35 days at $6.00 210.00 

Common labor, 410 hrs. at 20 cts 82.00 

Material : Sand, gravel, cement and reinforcing ste?l 350.00 

Lumber 30.00 

Pouring of foundation 25.00 

Freight on tools 52.02 

Use of horse for hoisting concrete, 23 days at $1.00 23.00 

Total $946.02 

The above data do not include transportation for the men, in- 
surance, or depreciation on forms or tools, the total cost of which 
did not exceed $100. The contract price of the chimney was $1,725. 

A Reinforced Concrete Chimney described in Engineering News, 
Dec. 19, 1901, was built in 1901 by the Ransome Concrete Co. 
for the Central Lard Co., Jersey City. The stack is 108 ft. high 
above the foundations, its inner diameter being 8 ft., and its 
outer diameter 11 ft. 4 ins. The shell is double. The foundation 
is of concrete, 3 ft. thick, resting on 56 piles driven 55 ft. into 
marshy ground. The inner shell of the stack is 4 ins. thick. 
The outer shell is 7 ins. thick at base and 4 ins. at the top. The 
concrete was 1 part Atlas cement to 5 parts broken trap rock, 
crusher run, no stone larger than % in. An interior scaffold 
was built a little in advance of the chimney. The forms, which 
were in sections 12 ft. high, were suspended by threaded rods 
passing through band-wheels at their upper ends. A vertical joint 
in each form was provided with turn-buckles to open or close it. 



226 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The air-space between the two shells was made by collapsible 
boxes. 

The following were the quantities: 

Concrete in foundation, cu. ft 1,460 

" stack, cu. ft 3,514 

total, cu. ft. 4.974 

Twisted steel rods, lbs 8,020 

Piles, lin. ft 3,080 

The weight of the chimney, including its concrete base, is 362 
tons. The contract price was $3,500. 

Cost of Chimney for a Copper Smelter. E. H, JonecJ (Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Dec. 16, 1914) gives the cost of a chimney 
for the Arizona Copper Co., Clifton, Ariz. The chimney is 300 
ft. high. 26 ft. 8 ins. inside diameter at the base and 22 ft. at 
the top. The average thickness of the walls is 24''/^ ins. The 
chimney is corbeled out every 25 ft. to hold the lining of radial 
perforated fire brick laid in acid-proof mortar. The foundation 
of the chimney is constructed of concrete, the base of red brick, 
and the chimney proper of radial blocks. The upper 75 ft. of 
the chimney are pointed with acid-proof mortar. 

The excavation for the foundation was a deep hexagonal cut 
through clay and caliche, and penetrating a considerable distance 
into sand and gravel containing large boulders. The material was 
loosened with picks, slipped out with fresnos, dumped through a 
trap into' carts, and hauled 2,700 ft. 

The foundation consists of a concrete block, cast in a hexagonal 
shape, with a depth of 20 ft. and a least diameter of 50 ft. The 
bottom of the block is reinforced with three layers of 1-in. rods 
spaced 1 ft. on centers. The concrete was machine mixed and 
consists of 1 part cement to 8 parts sand and gravel, v/ith large 
stones embedded in it. Forms were built for about 40% of the 
vertical surface. The concrete was transported about 100 ft. 
in cars. 

The chimney proper was constructed by the Alphons Custodis 
Chimney Construction Co., the costs given including constant 
inspection by the Arizona Copper Co. There were used in the 
construction of the chimney proper 138,000 lbs. of lime, 290 lbs. 
cement, 1,638 tons of radial brick, 652 tons of wire-cut brick, 56 
tons of wedge brick, and 100 bbls. of acid-proof mortar. 

The cost was as given in Table III, 

TABLE III. COST OF CHIMNEY FOR A COPPER SMELTER 

Labor Material Total 

Item. cost. coi^t. unit cost. 

597 cu. yds. Excavation $337.44 $ 29.61 $0.61 

872.7 cu. yds. Foundation 654.42 4,199.65 556 

58,644 cu ft. <^himney proper .. 891.88 39,358.34 0.69 

Total cost of chimney $45,471.34 

Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Chimney in Philadelphia. C. E. 
Davis (Engineering News, Jan. 14, 1915) gives the cost of 



CHIMNEYS 227 

demolishing a reinforced concrete chimney 251 ft. high above 
ground, with a 91-ft. lower section of 12-ft. outside diameter and 
10-in. solid walls and a 160-ft. upper section of 10-ft. outi5ide di- 
ameter and 6-in. solid walls. The reinforcement consisted of heavy- 
vertical deformed rods tied by closely spaced circumferential rods 
of smaller section. The construction was carried on in 5-ft. 
lifts, which made clear planes of separation; it was here that 
failure became first evident. 

The razing was all done by hand by two and three men on the 
chimney top breaking down the concrete wall with sledges and 
bars and throwing the pieces over the side. The reinforcing rods 
were only lapped at the ends, and thus did not have to be cut 
or sawed. But very little of the concrete was hard enough to 
require blasting, but some sections made such difficult bar and 
sledge work that the wall was loosened up there by small shots. 

There was no ladder to the chimney top, so the workmen had 
to work their way up the inside of the stack by successive short, 
slanting boards footing into holes dug into the concrete as the 
lifts progressed. Once the top was reached a line was rigged up 
by which the men went up and down. 

The cost of the work is given in Table IV. 

TABLE IV. COST OF DEMOLISHING CONCRETE CHIMNEY, 
TORRESDALE PUMPING STATION 

Cost to demolish first 160 ft.: 

72 men days at $5.00 per day $360.00 

3 men days at 1.75 per day .' 5.25 

$365.25 
Average cc~* per foot $2.20 

Cost to demolish lower 91 ft. : 

35 men days at $5.00 per day $175.00 

96 men days at 3.50 per day 336.00 

36 men days at 1.75 per day 63.00 

$574.00 

Average cost per foot $6.31 

Maximum demolished for 1 day in top section 15 ft. 
Maximum demolished for 1 day in bottom section 8 ft. 

Approximate cost to demolish chimney : 

Foremen 59 men days at $5.00 $295.00 

Mechanics 48men,daysat 5.00 24 0.00 

Mechanics 96 men days at 3.50 336.00 

Laborers 39 men days at 1.75... 68.25 

Rope, tools, powder, etc 100.00 

Approximate total cost $1039.25 

Average cost per foot to demolish $4.15 

Time required to demolish 250 ft., 59 working days: 

Average progress per working day, ft 4.25 

Bid price to demolish was $2,260 

Cost of Demolishing a Concrete Stack from the Inside. O. C. 

Kern (Engineering Record, June 20, 1914) de.scribes the wrecking 
of a concrete stack working from inside the stack. 



228 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The dimensions of the stack were : Inside diameter at the 
base, 12 ft. 9 Ins., and at top, 7 ft. ; wall thickness at the bottom, 
12 ins. and at the top, 5 ins. For a height of 75 ft. a lining of 
radial tile blocks was provided, varying in thickness from 8 to 4 
ins. and leaving an air space between the lining and the shell of 
from 8 to 2 ins. The stack was reinforced vertically with %-in. 
twisted rods lapped 2>V2 ft. at all splices, the spacing varying 
from 3 ins. at the base to more than 3 ft. at the top. These rods 
were wrapped from top to bottom of the chimney with a single 
layer of American Steel & Wire Company's 23-mesh wire. 

The concrete was broken up with sledges and permitted to fall 
betvv'een the inside of the stack and the tower, the sides of the 
tower being provided with vertical 1 X 6-in. guard strips to pro- 
tect the braces, ladders and landings from injury. At all times 
the scaffold was inclosed with tarpaulin to prevent any injury to 
the men working balow. One man gave his entire time to cutting 
the wire mesh with a bolt cutter and to tying the ends of the 
26-ft. vertical reinforcing rods, so as to prevent their falling when 
loosened. The rods, which were all saved for use in other work, 
were lowered to the ground from the outside of the stack. The 
only accident on the job was occasioned by one of the long rods 
getting away and falling across the stack, inflicting a slight scalp 
wound on a workman on the scaffold. 

The rods were found to be bright and clean, entirely free from 
rust. The stack was built in sections about 8 ft. deep, and it 
was noticed in wrecking that all the joints between sections pre- 
sented a horizontal plane of cleavage across which the concrete 
separated with a clean, sharp break. The only cracks found In 
the entire structure were confined to the 8-ft. bell at the very 
top. The two largest of the six found showed an opening of 
nearly % in., disappearing entirely within the depth of the bell. 
All cracks were vertical. 

Every 48 ft. the outriggers were lowered and the upper portion 
of the tower torn down. This operation required about one day 
each time and necessitated suspending cutting for part of the day 
on the upper half, and on the lower half the number of men was 
reduced, but cutting was not stopped. 

Broken concrete and other debris, wheeled in barrows to the 
fill for a switch track 100 ft. away, was handled by two laborers 
nights and Sundays. The radial tiles of the lining were saved 
except for a small breakage and will be used in the lining of the 
new stack. On the lower 65 ft. of stack it was necessary to use 
bull points in addition to the sledges in breaking up the concrete, 
the method being to chisel off 4 to 5 ins. of concrete from the 
outside into the bars, then to batter off the ledge on the inside 
of the bars with sledges. 

Landings were placed every 48 ft., as it was thought that 
fatigue of the workmen in climbing to the top of the chimney 
would interfere with their efficiency. No trouble was experienced, 
however. The foreman went up in four minutes without stop- 
ping, but the laborers were ten minutes in making the ascent, 



CHIMNEYS 229 

taking- time for rests at the landings. The tarpaulin at the top 
was partly to prevent the workmen from seeing- out and partly 
for the protection of the men on the ground. Within a very few 
days these precautions were entirely unnecessary, as the men 
became accustomed to their dizzy working quarters. 

Cost. Laborers were paid 30 cts. an hour and carpenters 40 
cts. an hour. The total cost of wrecking 207 ft. of stack and 
75 ft. of lining was apportioned as shown in the table. 

Omitting the cost of cleaning- out the soot and crediting- the 
salvage, the total cost of wrecking the stack amounts to $5.20 
per foot of height. Per cubic yard of concrete and tile removed 
the cost amounts to $4.50. The salvage amounted to more than 
8 tons of reinforcing steel valued at $220, 3000 ft. of lumber, 
$30, and about 1200 cu. ft. of radial tile blocks, $60 — a total 
of $310. 

Liability insurance of $6.48 per hundred was carried in addition 
to the foregoing costs. 

The cost was as follows : 

Cleaning out soot below breaching $ 21.30 

Lumber for tower and scaffold. 8,700 ft. B.M 130.00 

Erecting tower 222 ft. high inside stack, building ladders, 

g-uard sheeting, platforms, outrigging and scaffold. . 211.27 

Rental on bricklayers scaffold hangers 100.00 

Cutting concrete and wire netting, saving reinforcing 

rods and radial tile lining 649.45 

Removing debris, 100 ft. haul, and stacking tile and rods 68.25 

Lowering outrigging and tearing down tower 202.26 

Total cost of wrecking stack $1,382.53 

The tower was completed in 9 working days and the work of 
demolishing completed 22 days later. 

Dimensions, Lining and Liglntning Protection of Radial Brick 
Chimneys. M. W. Kellog Co. of New York City gives in Engineer- 
ing Xews, July 8, 1915, the following data concerning perforated 
radial brick chimneys : 

Lining for Brick Chimneys. The height of the lining for chim- 
neys is found in the following manner : For ordinary conditions, 
where the temperature does not exceed 800 deg. F., the lining 
should be approximately one-fifth the height of the chimney ; 
above 800 degs. and below 1200 degs., one-half the total height; 
above 1200 degs. and below 2000 degs., full height. 

Protection against Lightning. For lightning protection two 
points are the minimum for any chimney of diameter up to 5 ft. 
Above this, one point should be added for every 2 ft. in diameter 
or fraction thereof. The points of the conductor should be of 
copper % in. in diameter by 8 ft. long, with a li/^-in. platinum- 
covered tip. They should be anchored at the top of the column 
and extend from the bottom of the corbeling upward. The lower 
ends of the points are connected by a copper cable which encircles 
the chimney. From this loop a 1%-in. 7-strand No. 10 Stubs' 
gage copper cable is carried down the side of the chimney and 
.connected to a copper ground plate of the three-winged type. On 



230 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



the way up, the cable is anchored every 7 ft. with brass anchors, 
which support the weight of the cable. The ground plate is buried 
by the foundation contractor at the time' the foundation is built. 




Tower Elevation 
Scaffold in Highest Fbsition at Ptatform 

Fig. 2. Outrigging and scaffold for wrecking old concrete stack. 



Dimensions. Wall thicknesses of chimneys are obtained from 
Fig, 3. Table V gives the maximum outside diameter of the 
chimney at the base, for various heights and inside diameters. 

Lengths ond Thicknesses of Walls of T?ocl!ciI Brick Column 

'A A aA Aa - A a a 7i — '-k — K 

Fig. 3. Dimensions of radial brick chimneys. 



TABLE V. DIAMETERS OF RADIAL-BRICK CHIMNEYS 



Height of 

chimney 

in ft. 

75 

80 

85 

- 90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 

130 

135 

140.... 



Internal diameter at top 
ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 
Diameters in feet at bottom of column 



7.96 

8.27 

8.58 

8.88 

9.19 

9.50 

9.85 

10.20 

10.55 

10.90 

11.25 

11.65 

12.05 

12.45 



8.96 

9.13 

9.31 

9.48 

9.66 

9.83 

10.21 

10.60 

10.98 

11.37 

11.75 

12.10 

12.45 

12.80 



9.96 
10.02 
10.08 
10.13 
10.19 
10.25 
10.55 
10.85 
11.15 
11.45 
11.75 
12.13 
12.51 
12.90 



11.2 

11.50 

11.75 

12.00 

12.25 

12.50 

12.80 

13.10 

13.40 



12.25 
12.40 
12.55 
12.70 
12.85 
13.00 
13.37 
13.73 
14.10 



9 ft. 10 ft. 



14.00 
14.22 
14.43 
14.65 



-15.00 
15.15 
15.30 
15.45 



CHIMNEYS 



231 



Height of 

chimney 
in ft. 
145. 
150. 
155. 
160. 
165. 
170. 
175. 
180. 
185. 
190. 
195. 
200. 
205. 
210. 
215. 
220. 
225. 



Internal diameter at top 
ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. & ft. 7 ft. 8 ft. 
Diameters in feet at bottom of column 



9 ft. 10 ft. 



12.85 
13.25 
13.58 
13.92 
14.25 
14.59 
14.92 



13.15 
13.50 
13.87 
14.23 
14.60 
14.96 
15.33 



13.26 
13.66 
14.06 
14.46 
14.86 
15.26 
15.66 



13.70 
14.00 
14.30 
14.60 
14.90 
15.20 
15.50 
15.80 
16.10 
16.40 
16.70 
17.00 



14.46 
14.83 
15.06 
15.30 
15.53 
15.77 
16.00 
16.30 
16.60 
16.90 
17.20 
17.50 



14.86 
15.08 
15.31 
15.55 
15.78 
16.02 
16.25 
16.50 
16.75 
17.00 
17.25 
17.50 
17.80 
18.10 
18.40 
18.70 
19.00 



15.60 
15.75 
15.91 
16.07 
16.22 
16.38 
16.54 
16.80 
17.06 
17.31 
17.57 
17.83 
18.16 
18.50 
18.83 
19.17 
19.50 



Cost of Brick Chimneys. J. H. Boughton gives the following 



table 



Approx. 
h.-p. 

85 

135 

200 

300 

450 

750 

1,000 

1,650 

2,500 



Diameter 
Height, flue, in 



ft. 

80 
90 
100 
110 
120 
130 
140 
150 
160 



Outside 
dimensions, 
side ins, square base 
Ft. Ins. 



25 
30 
35 
43 
51 
61 
75 
88 
110 



17 10 



, Outside 

No. of 
brick 

32,000 

40,000 

65,000 

75,000 

87,000 
131,000 
151,000 
200,000 
275,000 



Wall ^ 

Cost at 
$14 per M. 

$448 

560 

910 
1050 
1218 
1834 
2114 
2800 



3850 



Approx. 

85 

135 

200 

300 

450 

750 

1,000 

1,650 

2,500 



h.-p. 



Cost of fire brick Cost of concrete 



lining, 1/2 height 
$60 
82 
118 
190 
261 
334 
432 

482 ■ • 
720 



foundation 
$90 
144 
198 
252 
306 
360 
414 
468 
525 



Total cost 
of chimney 
$598 
786 
1,226 
1,492 
1,785 
2,528 
3,060 
3,750 
5,095 



A Brick Chimney described by I. W. Hubbard in the Proceedings 
of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, 1901, was built in 1909 
at Camden, N. J., for Mellar & Rittenhouse Co. The chimney is 
212 ft. high above the level of its concrete base, which is 7 ft. 
thick, making a total height of 219 ft. The bottom of the con- 
crete is 19 ft. below the ground level. The concrete base is 34 ft. 
square and weighs 526 tons. The lower 11 ft. of the chimney is 
of common brick, stepped up in* 2 ft. steps, being 28.5 ft. square 
at the bottom and 18.5 ft. square at the ground level. This 
brickwork below the ground level weighs 360 tons. Above the 
ground level, to a height of 22 ft., red brick were used. Above 
this the chimney takes its circular form and is made of perforated 



232 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

radial bricks manufactured by the Alphons Custodis Chimney 
Construction Co., of New York City. The inside diameter of the 
chimney is 11 ft. at the bottom and 8.5 ft. at the top. The thick- 
ness of the shell of perforated radial brick decreases from 26 ins. 
to 7 ins. 

The materials for construction were raised in buckets by a 
hoisting-engine. The work was done from the inside from plat- 
forms erected as the work progressed, the platform also support- 
ing the tripod holding the pulley-wheel through which the hoisting 
cable ran. 

The total weight of the stack is 1.640 tons (including the 360 
tons of concrete) on a ground area of 1,156 sq. ft., or 1.42 tons 
per sq. ft. 

The cost was $12,250 and the chimney was designed for 2,000 
h.i).. making a unit cost of $6.12 per horsepower. 

One of the Highest Chimneys in the world, described in Engi- 
neering News, Sept. 1, 1898, was built in 1892 for the Omaha 
and Grand Smelter, Denver, Colo., at a cost of $53,000. Its di- 
mensions are : 

Height above stone table at ground, ft 352.5 

Size at base, which is square, ft 33 by 33 

" " throat, diameter, ft 20 

Thickness of outer shell at base, ins 48.5 

" " " " " top, ins. 13 

" inner " " base, ins 26 

" " " " '* top, ins 9 

Diameter of flue, ft 16 

Foundation, square, ft 56 by 56 

The foundation is 16 ft. thick, the lower 8 ft. being concrete, 
and the upper 8 ft. being brick. 

The outer part of the chimney is rectangular up to 64 ft. in 
height, above which it is octagonal. The weight of the stack 
above the foundation is 12,376,500 lbs. The materials in the 
chimney are as follows : 

Brick 1,943,000 

Lime, bushels 8,480 

Cement in brickwork, bbls 707 

** concrete " 775 

" stone work " 26 

Sand. cu. yds 2,331 

Railroad iron in concrete base, lbs 48,960 

Steel beams under openings, lbs 2.574 

Wrought-iron bands and rollers, lbs 23,180 

Cast-iron cap. lbs 22.000 

Cast-iron plates, lbs 36,474 

The chimney was built in 120 days. 

In 1905 a chimney 350 ft. high above the ground was built by 
the same company for Heller & Merz Co., Newark, N. J. The 
chimney is designed to handle acid gases having a temperature 
of 1.500 degs. F., and is lined with fire and acid proof brick 4 ins. 
thick. The shell of the chimney is made of perforated radial 
bricks. The foundation consists of 324 piles supporting a con- 



CHIMNEYS 233 

Crete base 45 ft. square at the bottom. 30 ft. across at the top 
(the top being hexagonal) and 14 ft. thick. The brick sihaft of 
the chimney rises 340 ft. above the top of this concrete base. 
The concrete base contains 766 cu. yds., which required 800 cu. 
yds. of stone, 400 cu. yds. of sand and 1,000 bbls. of Atlas cement. 
The stack required 2,000 tons of brick, 500 bbls. cement, 800 bbls. 
lime, 600 cu. yds. sand. The inside diameter is 8 ft. at the top, 
and the shell is 11.13 ins. thick (including the 4-in. lining) at the 
top. The outside diameter is 27.5 ft. at the bottom, and the 
shell is 42 ins. thick (including the 4-in. lining) at the bottom. 
The acid proof lining is suj^ported on corbels projecting from the 
main shell, at 20-ft. intervals. 

The contract price for the stack and foundations was $32,000 
and the time required for the work was 7 months. 

Chimneys for Acid Gases. In 1901 a very high chimney described 
in Engineering News, Nov. 21. 1901, was built by the Alphons 
Custodis Chimney Construction Co., of New York, for the (^rford 
Copper Co., Bayonne, N. J. The chimney is designed to carry 
acid gases. The height of the stack is 365 ft. above the ground 
level. Below the ground level is a concrete foundation 15 ft. 
thick, 45 ft. square at the base and 34 ft. square at the top, con- 
taining 1.980 tons of concrete. This base rests on 360 piles, the 
ground being marshy. The weight of the brick stack is 2,528 
tons, making a total of 4,508 tons on the pile foundation. Ex- 
cepting the lower 30 ft. of the stack, which is common red brick, 
the .shell of the stack is of perforated radial brick. The stack has 
an inside diameter of 10 ft. at the top and 20 ft. at the bottom. 
The shell is 10.5 ins. thick at the top and 46 ins. at the bottom. 
The lower 64 ft. are lined with acid proof brick. This chimney 
and its foundation cost $50,000. 

Cost of Demolishing a Brick Chimney with Dynamite. W. J. 
Douglas (Engineering News, Dec. 4, 1902) gives the following 
cost of demolishing a brick chimney : 

The chimney was built of hard burnt red brick laid in natural 
cement mortar, in the proportion of about one cement to three 
sand, and was lined with fire brick also laid in natural cement 
mortar. An air space separated the chimney pioper from the 
lining. Portland cement mortar was used for a few feet above 
the foundation, and spasmodically throughout the stack, but was 
used too infrequently to be of value. The height of the chimney 
above the foundation was 150 ft. The diameter of the opening 
at the base was 7 ft., that at the top was also 7 ft. The bottom 
of the stack was 15 ft. square, up to a point 33 ft. above the 
foundation, where it changed to an octagon. The thickness of 
the outer wall at the base was 34 ins. ; the thickness of the outer 
wall at the top, 13 ins. ; and the thickness of the inner circular 
lining wall at the base, 13 ins. The inside lining stopped at a 
point 100 ft. above the foundation terminating in a 4.5-in. wall. 
Fifty feet of the chimney were removed by pick and bar before 
resorting to dynamite, thus reducing the height of the stack to 
100 ft. This was done on account of t3*e feeling prevalent among 



234 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the surrounding property-owners that their buildings would be 
endangered by throwing down the stack in its entirety. 

After the stack had been reduced to 100 ft. a test blast hole 
was drilled into the northwest corner of the stack about 3 ft. 
above the foundation, on a level, and on an angle of about 4 5 
degs. with the north face. This hole was loaded with one dyna- 
mite cartridge (all dynamite was 40% Star brand), and fired 
without even cracking the wall. A second hole similarly located, 
and just 1 ft. above the first one, was then drilled and loaded 
with five sticks or cartridges and fired, loosening about one-third 
of a cubic yard of brick, which was et^sily barred out. Then 
shots of two and three sticks were made until all of the north 
wall for a height of 3 ft. had been removed excepting about 5 ft. 
at the east end. In the east wall of the stack there was a furnace 
opening 6 ft. wide, so that by the excavation of the north wall 
just described there now remained only a pillar 5 ft. long and 
34 ins. thick carrying a large portion of the weight of the east 



Furnace] 
Opening 





50 >> 



Fig. 4. Diagrams showing arrangement of dynamite blasts for 
demolition of 150-ft. chimney. 



and north walls. Then about 5 ft. of the fire brick lining was 
barred out for a height of 1 ft. 

The chimney was now in shape to be blasted down. Two holes 
were drilled into the 5-ft. pillar from the back on a dip of 45 
degs., with the horizontal, and each hole was loaded with six sticks 
of dynamite. Then a hole was drilled into the west face at B, 
on a dip of 10 degs. and on an angle of 45 degs. with the west 
face and about 5 ft. from its end. Five sticks of dynamite were 
I)laced at X and five sticks at Y, in order to tear out the lining. 
This was not thought essential, but its use probably allowed the 
stack to fall further from the base, giving the contractor a better 
chance to handle the material in the demolished structure. These 
sticks at X and Y were laid between the outer and inner walls 
and covered with clay. Two exploders were placed in each hole 
in order to make sure of the blast and the 25 sticks located as 
described were fired at one time by a battery. Before blasting 
the chimney was carefully planked on the east, north and west 
faces; 2-in. and 3-in. by 12-in. by 16-ft. planks were used. Single 
planking was used on the west face, and double planking was 
used on the north and east sides. At the northeast corner and 



CHIMNEYS 



235 



for 5 ft. on either side 6-in. by 12-in. by 12-ft. timbers were 
used instead of one of the thicknesses of planking. Wlaen tlie 
charge was fired tlie planking was found sufficient to keep the 
debris, resulting directly from the blast, from flying over 100 ft. 
from the chimney. 

After the blast the stack imnrediately toppled over toward the 
north. The motion was slow and steady until a point about 
20 degs. from the vertical was reached, in which position it 
sheared into three sections and fell rapidly to the ground. About 
60.000 bricks were completely separated from each other by the 
jar; these bricks were almost free of mortar. The mortar was 
not much stronger than first-class lime mortar. The area which 



f 



U 



St. 





^1 




~~" 


<2(h 


241 V 

f0'fo2o'\^m ]■ /34'6"- 


yj 

^ 

,.-> 


m 




x-,^ 




^ 



\n 



<-35-' 



St. 



Fig. 5. Sketch plan showing areas covered by debris and scattered 

bricks. 



was covered by the stack after the fall is shown by the irregular 
heavy full-lines. The outside dotted irregular line shows the 
limit outside of which no bricks were thrown. The area between 
the full line and the dotted one, aforementioned, was partially 
covered with scattered brick. 

All brick excepting those incliaded within the cross-hatched 
area were loose and practically free of mortar. The bricks in 
this area were in masonry blocks varying in size between 2 by 
2 by 2 ft. and 3 by 6 by 12 ft., and averaging 3 by 3 by 6 ft. 
The bricks in these blocks were separated from each other by 
means of wedges and picks. The use of dynamite for this work 
was thought both dangerous and uneconomical on account of the 
damage to the individual bricks. The bricks were readily removed 



236 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

by means of wedgea. Old whole bricks are at present worth, 
exclusive of haul, about $4.50 per thousand, and bats are worth 
about 40 cts. i)er cu. yd. It is thought that the stack was de- 
molished with a profit to the contractor. The following is an 
approximate cost of the work : 

Removing first 50 ft. with pick and bar $150.00 

Dynamiting stack 60.00 

Cleaning new brick, 116,000 at 60 cts 69.60 

$279.60 
Incidentals, 25% 69.90 

Total $349.50 

On the credit side we have : 

118,000 whole brick removed, estimated to be worth when 

cleaned $531 

About 24 cu. yds, old brick sold, worth it is thought at about 

40 cts. per cu. yd. .■ 96 

Total $627 

The estimated number of bricks In the stack was 14 0,000 red 
brick and 14,000 fire brick. These are accounted for, as follows: 
116,000 whole red bricks removed; 2,000 whole fire brick removed; 
24,000 bats removed; 12.000 bricks not of any use; total, 154,000. 
Weight per Foot of Sheet Steel Chimneys. C, D. We.sselhoeff 
(Data. May. 1915) states that the cost of sheet steel chimneys 
varies from 3.5 to 6.5 cts. per lb., the higher value being for the 
shorter chimneys. 

TABLE VI. WEIGHTS OF SHEET STEEL CHIMNEYS 

Thick- Thick- Thick- 

Diam., ness, Lbs., Diam., ness. Lbs., Diam., ness. Lbs., 

in. w. g. per ft. in. w. g. per ft. in. w. g. per ft. 

10 No. 16 7.20 26 No. 16 17.50 20 No. 14 18.33 

12 No. 16 8.66 28 No. 16 18.75 22 No. 14 20.00 

14 No 16 9.58 30 No. 16 20.00 24 No. 14 21.66 

16 No. 16 11,68 10 No. 14 9.40 26 No. 14 23.33 

20 No. 16 13.75 12 No. 14 11.11 28 No. 14 25.00 

22 No. 16 15 00 14 No. 14 13.69 30 No. 14 26.66 

24 No. 16 16.25 16 No. 14 15.00 

Cost of Steel Chimneys. J. H. Boughton gives the cost of steel 
chimneys shown in Table VII. 

TABLE VII. COST OF STEEL CHIMNEYS 

Height, Diameter, No, of Price of chimney 

H.-p. ft. ins. , iron complete 

25 40 16 12 and 14 $60 

40 18 12 and 14 70 

50 18 12 and 14 85 

75 50 20 12 and 14 90 

50 26 12 and 14 105 

60 22 12 and 14 110 

100 60 24 12 and 14 125 

60 26 12 and 14 135 

60 28 12 and 14 150 



CHIMNEYS 237 

Height, Diameter, No. of Price of Lhimney 

H.-p. ft. ins. iron c-otniil* le 

125 fiO 28 10 and 12 jyo 

60 32 10 and 12 2U5 

150 60 34 12 and 14 165 

200 60 36 10 and 12 215 

225 60 38 10 and 12 230 

250 CO 42 10 and 12 260 

300 CO 46 10 and 12 290 

400 60 52 10 and 12 340 

Dimensions of Steel Chimney Foundations. Table VIII was com- 
piled by Kidder from data t^upplied by the Philadeli)hia Engineer- 
ing Works. 

TABLE VIII. SIZES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR SELF-SUSTAIN- 
ING STEEL CHIMNEYS, HA LP" LINED 

Clear dian}eter, 

in ft. 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 

Height in ft 100 100 150 150 150 175 225 

Least diameter 

of foundation 

in ft 15.75 15.25 20.33 21.83 22.58 25.75 29.92 

Least depth of 

foundation in 

ft 6.5 7 9 8 9.0 10 13.0 

Height in ft. ... .... 125 200 200 250 275 300 

Least diameter 

of foundation 

in ft 17.5 23.66 25.0 29 66 33.5 36.0 

Least depth of 

foundation in 

ft 7.5 10.0 10.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 

Cost of Steel Stack and Breeching. Following was the cost of a 
stack and breeching, 80 ft. high, 5 ft. diumetei- of N(j. 8 steel. 
The breeching was 14 ft. by 4 ins. by 5 ft. of No. 10 steel. 

Cost installed $74168 

Cost per foot height 9.27 

A Self-Supporting Steel Stack described in Engineering News, 
Jan. 28, 1897, was built in 1896 for the Ridgewood pumi)ing 
station of the Brooklyn Water Works, by the PhiladeHi hia Engi- 
neering Works, for $10,000. It is 217 ft. high above the founda- 
tion and 8 ft. inside diameter at the top. The thickness of the 
steel plates is as follows : 

Height, ft. Thickness, ins. 

to 4 1/2 

4 to 80 Vi6 

80 to 120 % 

120 to 1 CO ■ 5/jg 

160 to 217 1/4 

At a height of 40 ft. the outside diameter is 11 ft., and 15 ft. 
lower down the stack starts to flare out, its outside diameter 
being 24 ft. at the base. It is lined with red brick to a height 
of 95 ft., the thickness of the lining being 13 ins. for the If)wer 
25 ft. and 9 ins. above that. Below the ground level, the chimney 



238 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

is entirely of brick for a depth of 18.5 ft., resting on a concrete 
base 4.5 ft. thicli and 30 ft. in diameter, octagonal in shape. 

Cost and Size of Wedge Rope Sockets are particularly useful in 
connection with guy ropes of all types and safety cables where 
small adjustments in length are desirable. These sockets can be 
used either with U-bolts or eye-bolts, as illustrated in Fig. 6, and 
a considerable range of adjustment can be secured. 

Size of rope, ins % 1 1 ^4 1 Mj-1 % 2 

Rough dia. of holes. R. ins 1% 1% 2 21/2 3 

List price socket and wedge only $3.95 $6.10 $7.85 $14.30 $25.70 

Diameter A, ins 1 Vs 1 % 1 % 2 14 2% 

Distance threaded. C. ins 914 IIM. I414 171/2 21 

Length U-bolt. D. ins 15 181/2 221/2 27 35 

List price U-bolt and 2 nuts... $2. 30 $3.45 $5.85 $11.75 $21.50 

Length eye bolt. E. ins 211/2 26 1/2 32 39 V2 51 

Opening, G. ins 1 1/. 2 21/2 3 3i/a 

Size hole, J. ins 1% 21/3 2% 31/8 4% 

List price 1 eye bolt and nut.. $4. 30 $6.10 $7.85 $19.30 $27.90 





Fig. 6. Wedge rope sockets. 



Cost of Removing and Replacing Top of a Steel Stack. A steel 
smoke stack described by C. J. Carew (Engineering and Con- 
tracting, May 1, 1907), which was 100 ft. high, had become so 
corroded that it was necessary to replace the top 56 ft. with new 
steel. Owing to the location a new stack could not be built on 
the ground and up-ended in the usual manner. Moreover, the old 
stack had to be taken down piecemeal and the work had to be 
done, if possible, without shutting down the plant. A Sunday 
was selected for the work, which was conducted as follows, the 
plan being to cut away and lower the old stack in sections and 
to hoist and bolt up the new stack in similar sections : 

A timber tower was built enclosing the stack, as shown in the 
accompanying sketch. This tower had four legs or corner struts 
of triangular trough sections made up of two 2 by 8-in. planks, 
while the bracing was 1 by 6-in. boards. It was 11.5 by 23 ft. 
in plan at the bottom and 1.5 by 15 ft. at the top. The mode 
of guying is indicated in the drawing. As will be seen, the old 
stack occupied one-half the interior space of the tower, the other 
half being used for hoisting and lowering the steel sections. The 
hoisting apparatus consisted of a trolley running on an I-beam 



CHIMNEYS 239 

laid across the top of the tower. This trolley was operated by a 
rope passing down the stack and to a drum operated by a pneu- 
matic motor. 

To remove the old stack three holes were first punched through 
the shell near the top to receive the hooks on three short chains 
hung from a ring suspended from the hoisting tackle. Then a 
section about 14 ft. long was cut off with cold chisels and lowered. 
The cutting was quickly done, owing to the corroded condition 
of the steel. Once free a section could be lowered in about three 
minutes. Then a second section was removed in the same way, 
and so on until the portion of the old stack to be left standing 
was reached. The manufacturers of the new stack then riveted 
an angle iron ring to the top edge and the job was ready for the 
work of erecting the sections of new stack. 

The length of new stack added was 56 ft., in five sections, four 
12 ft. long each, and one 8 ft. long; the lower 30 ft. was %6-in. 
steel and the upper 26 ft. was %-in. steel. The heaviest sections 
weighed 1,880 lbs., and the total weight of new steel was 7,500 
lbs. This included the rings of 2 by 2-in. angle at the ends to 
form flanges for bolting the sections together. The sections were 
hoisted and bolted up one at a time. 

So much for the method. The time occupied and the labor costs 
were as follows : The whole work of erecting the tower, taking 
down the old stack, erecting the new stack and taking down the 
tower was done by four men, one of whom had taken the job 
on contract for $110. The usual wages of these men were: For 
the contractor, $2.75 per day; for one man, $2.50 per day, and 
for the other two men, $2 per day each. On this basis of wages 
we can figure the cost as follows : 

Erecting tower, adjusting tackle, putting up I-beams and trol- 
leys and connecting air motor to windlass : 

Contractor, 26 hours at 27.5 cts $ 7.15 

1 man 26 hours at 25 cts 6.50 

2 men 26 hours at 20 cts 10.40 

Total labor $24.05 

There were 3,000 ft. b. m. of timber, making the labor cost of 
erection practically $8 per M. ft. b. m. It was really somewhat 
less than this, as the total of $24.05 given above includes some 
other work, as indicated. 

Taking down old stack: 

Contractor, 3% hours at 27.5 cts $0,926 

1 man 3 i/^ hours at 25 cts 0.875 

2 men 31/2 hours at 20 cts 0.700 

Total labor ; $2,537 

The weight of steel removed is not obtainable, but assuming that 
it was half the weight of the nejv steel which took its place, we 
have 3,750 lbs.= 1.875 tons of steel removed at a co.st of $1.41 
per ton. 



240 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Laying out, punching and bolting first angle iron to old portion 
of stack: 

2 men 21,4 hours at 50 cts $2.50 

This work was done by the manufacturer of the new stack and 
its cost was included in his contract. The item is actual, but 
the rate of wages has been assumed. 

Erecting new stack : 

Contractor. 4 hours at 27.5 cts $1.10 

1 man 4 hours at 25 cts 1.00 

2 men 4 hours at 20 cts 1.60 

Total labor $3.70 

The weight of the new steel stack was 7,500 lbs. or 3.75 tons, 

so that the cost of erection was just short of $1 per ton of steel. 

Removing tower, adjusting guys, painting stack and cleaning up : 

Contractor, 19 hours at 27.5 cts $5.22 

1 man 19 hours at 25 cts 4.75 

2 men 19 hours at 20 cts 7.60 

Total labor $17.57 

Charging this whole amount to the work of removing the tower 
we have a cost of $5.86 per M. ft. b. m. 

We can now summarize the labor cost of the work as follows : 

Erecting tower and hoisting plant $24.05 

Taking down old stack 2.54 

Building angle to old stack 2.50 

Erecting new stack - 3.70 

Removing tower, etc 17.57 

Total cost $50.36 

The 3,000 ft. b. m. of lumber in the tower was made up as 
follows : 

1.400 ft. B. M. chestnut at $20 for legs $28.00 

1.600 ft. B. M. hemlock at $19 for bracing 30.40 

Total lumber $58.40 

Not more than 5 per cent, of the lumber was destroyed and the 
remaining 95 per cent, was finally used for other purpose.s for 
which it had been originally purchased. 

The Tallest Steel Chimney. Fig. 8 shows a steel chimney erected 
at the United Verde Copper Works in Arizona, described in En- 
gineering and Contracting. June 27, 1916. and named by A. G. 
McGregor in Transactions American Institute of Mining Engineers 
in Augu.st, 1916, the talle.st steel chimney ever built. Specifically 
this chimney is 30 ft. 9.5 ins. in diam. and 400 ft. 1 in. high. The 
drawings present all the essential structural features and may 
be read for details". 



CHIMNEYS 



241 



Cost of Erecting a 160- Ft. Steel Stack. An exceedingly inter- 
esting job of hoisting engineering is described in Engineering and 
Contracting, Nov. 10, 1909. The job consisted in erecting a steel 
stack 66 ins. by 160 ft. in size in one piece, after it had been 
assembled on the ground, with an erecting plant consisting of a 



J- Beam -.^ 



Trolley 




• "//w/fw///////;//////, 



//WW////>JJW/y//////////M'///W^A 



72-ft. mast and a 7 by 10-in. Lidgerwood hoisting engine with 
the necessary tackle. 

The stack was built of 1/4 -iri. steel for 85 ft. from the base and 
of i/s-in. steel for the top 75 ft.; s/g-in. rivets were used. The 
stack came to the ground in four 40 -ft. sections. These were 
laid in line, with the base of the bottom section as close as prac- 
ticable to the foundation, and riveted together on the ground. 



242 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



After being riveted and lined out the stack was braced or rein- 
forced inside to prevent buckling' and crushing of the plates at 
the slings. The bracing consisted of cross frames of 4 by 6-in. 
timbers placed inside the shell and spaced every 5 ft., beginning 




Fig. 



De+all of Lining ort Base 

Details of tallest steel chimney. 



through 



at a point 20 ft. from the top. These frames were wedged into 
the shell tight enough to hold firmly and yet not bulge the plates 
or seams. 

The next step was to place the hoisting plant. A 72-ft. mast 
was erected on top of the boiler house 20 ft. above ground, so 



CHIMNEYS 243 

that its total height was 92 ft. The mast guys consisted of five 
1%-in. galvanized wire ropes radiating from the spider casting 
at the top of the mast. In addition a sixth guy was attached 
to the ma.st 20 ft. below the top and carried back directly in line 
with the stack. This guy was designed to prevent the mast from 
buckling under the pull, which failure, if it occurred at all, was 
figured would occur at the point mentioned ; that is, about 20 ft. 
below the top. The mast was a 12 by 12 -in. timber. At the top 
of the mast there was fastened a triple block shackled to the top 
casting and also lashed by a wire cable passing four times around 
the mast and securely clamped. The hoisting engine, a 7 by 10-in. 
Lidgerwood, was set 25 ft. to one side of the stack and 125 ft. 
from the base. 

The line used was 1,400 ft. of %-in. crucible steel rope spliced 
at one point with an 18 -ft. splice. This line was rigidly inspected 
before it was run through the blocks. It was carried from the 
engine to and through the foot block casting sheave ; thence up 
the mast to the top sheave ; thence down to a single block lashed 
to the stack 30 ft. from its top ; thence up to the middle sheave 
in the triple block lashed to the mast head ; thence down to a 
second single block lashed to the stack 55 ft. from the top ; thence 
up to the right-hand outside sheave of the triple block ; thence 
down to a third single block lashed to the stack 80 ft. from the 
top ; thence up to the left-hand outside sheave of the triple block, 
and the free end, thence to another in the ground about 60 or 
65 ft. from the base of the stack. 

The single blocks were lashed to the stack by several turns of 
wire rope passing around the shell and 6 by 6-in. timbers laid 
along it on the under side. These timbers acted both as longi- 
tudinal stifEeners and as spacers to keep the lashings from sliding 
up or down the shell. To prevent possible cutting of the line the 
thimbles were all removed from the shell of the triple block and 
the lines were kept clear by running them through the middle 
sheave, then to the right and to the left as described above. 

With everything ready as described hoisting was begun at 1 :30 
p. m. and at 5 p. m. the stack was in place with all guys fastened. 
The first lift made was 75 ft. Then hoisting was stopped until 
the permanent guys, 24 in all, each a %-in. wire cable, were 
fastened to the stack attachments. Lifting was then resumed and 
continued until the stack stood only about 15 degs. out of plumb. 
Hoisting was then stopped and the guys secured to their ground 
anchors. The stack was then raised plumb, jacked over the stud 
bolts on the foundation and the guys permanently clamped. 

The cost of the work described was not kept in such a way that 
it can be itemized, but the total cost including riveting, erecting 
ma.st on the boiler house, raising, buying 4 pairs of cone clamps for 
the guys and 4 sets of %-in. blocks for hauling in guys, and bracing 
the stack in.side was $250. A gang of 8 men at .$1.30 per day 
and one top man at $2.25 per day were employed, with some 
extra men for about 2 hours. 

The erection as described was planned and carried out by 



244 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

George B. Nicholson, a hoisting engineer. Incidentally it may be 
stated that Mr. Nicholson undertook the job after it had been 
rejected as impossible by expert riggers. We consider this a 
rather remarkable job of hoisting engineering. Only one man, Mr. 
Nicholson, was a skilled man, all the others being ordinary la- 
borers with no experience in hoisting and rigging. In addition 
the method of rigging the tackle, using only one line to run 
through three sets of blocks on the stack and one block on the 
mast, is notable. We are indebted for the information from which 
this description has been pi'epared to F. W. Raymond. 



CHAPTER V 
MOVING AND INSTALLING 

To aid in estimating- the cost of hauling and installing- machinery 
many specific data have been collected and grouped in this chapter. 
Where costs of moving and installing were combined with other 
functional costs in such manner that they could not be separated 
without injuring the value of the data they have been included in 
other chapters. The index and list of chapters will aid the reader 
in locating other costs of moving and installing. 

Cost of Loading and Unloading Machinery. Table I is from a 
recent appraisal (prior to the war). 



TABLE I. COST OP LOADING AND UNLOADING MACHINERY 

Cost with Cost with Cost with 

Weight Cost with- crane at ry. crane at crane at 

of piece, out crane, station only, power station both ends, 

tons per ton per ton only, per ton per ton 

1 $11.50 $8.12 $3.45 $0.80 

2 7.50 5.03 2.25 .53 

3 6.33 4.50 1.90 .44 

4 5.70 4.12 1.77 .44 

5 5.90 4.15 1.75 .41 

6 6.01 4.32 1.85 .48 

7 6.45 4.50 1.93 / .45 

8 7.00 4.93 2.10 .49 

9 7.45 5.17 2.23 .52 

10 8.00 5.60 2.40 .56 

11 8.45 5.95 2.57 .58 

12 8.75 6.25 2.75 .6$ 

For large generators and motors assume total shipping weight, 
divided as follows: Revolving part, 51'/^ ; upper part, 24%; lower 
part, 25%. 

For motor generator sets assume total shipping weights divided 
equally between motor and generator, and apply same ratio for 
parts. 

Cost of Hauling One Piece Loads. The data in Table II are from 
a recent appraisal (prior to the war). 

Where the haul is over 20 miles on mountain roads, use average 
condition cost. 

For large generators and motors assume total shipping weights 
divided as follows: Revolving part, 51%; upper part, 24%; lower 
part, 25%. 

For motor generator sets assume total shipping weights divided 
equally between motor and generator, and apply same ratio for 
parts. 

246 



246 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE II. COST OF 


HAULING ONE 


Weight 

of pieces, 

in tons 


Flat country- 
good roads, 
cost per 
ton-mile 


Average con- 
ditions, roll- 
ing country, 
cost per 
ton-mile 


1. . , . . . 


$0.-10 


$0.45 
.37 
40 


2 

3 


35 

35 


4 

5 


36 

38 


.47 
.55 


6 


40 


62 


7 

. 8. . . 


42 

.44 


.68 
74 


9 

10 


46 

48 


.80 
.86 


11 

12 

13 

14 

15 


49 

50 

52 

54 

55 


.90 
.93 
.95 
.98 
1.00 


16 

17 

18 

19 


56 

58 

60 

61 


1.02 
1.04 
1.06 
1.07 


20 


64 


1.09 



PIECE LOADS 



Mountain 
roads, 
cost per 
ton-mile 
$0.50 
.40 
.46 
.57 
.70 

.62 

.93 
1.04 
1.13 
1.24 

1.31 
1.34 
1.38 
1.42 
1.54 

1.47 
1.50 
1.52 
1.53 
1.55 



Hauling small miscellaneous material, including loading and un- 
loading per ton-mile. Cost as follows : 

Per ton-mile 

Flat country good roads $0.60 

Rolling country average conditions 90 

Mountain roads 1.20 



Effect of Grades on Cost of Hauling. H. T. Curran (Engineering 
and Contracting. Oct. 6. 1915) states that unloading and hauling 
depend upon local conditions. There will be a fixed average charge 
of from 30 to 40 cts. per ton. Small pieces should be handled for 
less, but large, unyielding pieces, such as a tube mill, can easily 
cost up to $1 per ton. Probably 75 cts. per ton-mile would be a 
good average for hauling on any kind of a decent road and grade. 
By consulting local freighters these things can be definitely settled. 
The curve. Fig. 1. shows the variable cost of hauling on different 
grades. 

Truck- Drawn Pole Trailers. In comparing the expenses of using 
horse and auto trucks to transport poles Electrical World, May 
26, 1917, states that the Springfield district of the New England 
Telephone & Telegraph Company found that the truck-drawn 
trailer will do the same work as a horse-drawn trailer in about 
one-sixth of the time. During 115 hrs. of pole hauling in 12 days 
the truck traveled 441 miles at a cost of little more than 25 cts. 
per mile. Using horses for the same work would have required 71 
days at a rate of 97 cts. per mile. "An additional point in favor 
of such trucks is the fact that the hired teams are slow in de- 
livering poles, causing a great deal of lost time and often neces- ' 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



247 



sitating an additional light team to transport the men and tools. 
When using a truck and trailer, the men, poles and tools will 
arrive on the job at the same time, so the work can proceed with- 
out delay. 



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Length of Hci:<' in ^"Rl 

Fig. 1. Cost per ton comparison curves between train- and team- 
drawn dump wagons. 

Cost of Hauling Poles and Cross-Arms. The following are the 
costs of hauling material for a light and power plant. 

Poles Cross-arms 

Character of country per ton-mile per ton-mile 

Mountain roads $1.00 $1.20 

Rolling or swampy .7.5 .00 

Flat, good roads 50 .60 



Cost of Mule-Back Transportation of Machinery In Mexico. F. C. 

Roberts and W. C. Bradley (Engineering News, Aug. 12, 1912) 
give the following cost of transporting sectional ized machinery 
for a smelter in Mexico. The loads carried varied from 350 lbs. 
to 680 lbs. per mule. 

The freight rate for an ordinary carga of two pieces, weighing 
304 lbs., from Durango to Ventanas, a distance of 105 miles, fluc- 
tuates between $4.25 and $6 per carga, or between $29.25 or $42 
per metric ton, an approximate average cost of $32.80 per short 
ton ; while, for individual pieces weighing up to 425 lbs., that is, 
cuarteos, a special charge of from $10 to $100 is made. The 
railroad rate from any center in the United States to Durango is 



248 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

$1.60 per 100 lbs., or $32 per short ton. Add to this the local 
expenses for discharging, transferring, re-packing, etc. (another 
$2 per ton), and the total of $66 per ton is reached, besides the 
duties. 

About 2.500 tons of material (1.500 tons of machinery, and 
1,000 tons of supplies and stores) were transported during a 
period of 16 months. It made 17.500 mule-loads, or 262,500 mule- 
load days, taking 15 days for the round trip. 

Cost of Hauling Machinery for a Pumping Plant. W. L. De- 
Moulin (Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers. June, 
1915) gives the cost of hauling machinery over a rough mountain 
wagon road, more than 6 miles long, extending from Morenci to 
the pumping plant on the Eagle River. A great part of the road 
is blasted along the rocky hillsides. Out of Morenci. the road 
runs up a hill requiring a climb 3.400 ft. in length, with grades 
varying from 17 to more than SO';,. Near the plant, there is a 
continual down grade along very rocky hillsides, with grades of 
25 to 40%. On steep grades, snubbing posts were placed at 
regular intervals, during the construction period, for the purpose 
of letting the heavy loads down hill gradually. All material was 
hauled from Morenci to the plant on wagons. The average loads 
are about 3,000 lbs. A load of this size requires 10 horses to 
make the hill out of Morenci. During the construction period, the 
heavy pieces of machinery were taken out on a wagon built for 
heavy hauling, with 4-in. iron axles. Extra rear and front wheels 
were carried along to replace immediately any that broke down. 
Some of the pieces of machinery weighed from 15.000 to more 
than 24.000 lbs. each. Twenty horses could make the hill out of 
camp with a load of 4 tons, and 24 horses could manage a load 
of 5 or 6 tons. It was necessary to use a number of triple blocks, 
with from 6 to 8 horses pulling down hill, in order to work slowly 
a load heavier than 6 tons up the hill. At the plant, it was 
necessary to pack material and supplies around by Mexicans and 
burros, as in many cases the work was prosecuted at points inac- 
cessible by any other method of transferring material. The cost 
of transferring machinery from the flat cars at Morenci to the 
plant, placed ready for the erector, averaged about $52.45 per 
ton. which is about twice what the freight per ton amounted to 
from Milwaukee to Morenci. The 40-lb. and the 54.74-lb.. 10-in. 
pipes were transferred through a tunnel and distributed by wagon 
to stock piles. In this way, the haul over the steep hill out of 
town was avoided. From the stock pil^s, the pipe was " snaked " 
by horses to the place where it was being laid. The tunnel was 
too small to permit passing heavy material through it. The. cost 
of delivering the pipe from the cars to the location of the proposed 
line was $6. SO per ton. The average cost for each 10-in. pipe 
line laid comi)lete. was $2.20 per ft. The average labor charge, 
for laying the lines by contract, was 28 cts. per ft. for each 10-in. 
pipe line. 

Costs of Installing Electrical Apparatus and Methods of Com- 
puting Profits in Contracting. The following data are taken from 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 249 

an article by Mr. Louis W. Moxey, Jr., Electrical World, Oct. 16, 
1915: 

There are two ilems which combined compose the cost of con- 
ducting an electrical contracting business. The first item includes 
the cost of materials and labor actually used on jobs, such as en- 
gines, dynamos, panelboards, conduit, wire, etc., together with the 
salaries of the foreman, journeyman, helpers and apprentices. 
This item may be called, for convenience, shop or raw cost. 

The second item includes the cost of materials and labor ex- 
pended in securing a contract and in the execution of the job. It 
embraces the salaries of the officers, bookkeeper, stenographer, bill 
clerk, draftsman, superintendent, etc.. and the cost of rent, heat, 
light, taxes, insurance, stationery, postage, telephone and the like. 
This item is called manufacturer's expense or overhead charge. 

The writer has found it more conv-enient and logical to compute 
the manufacturer's or overhead expense as a percentage of the 
shop cost, instead of as a percentage of the selling price. An 
estimate of overhead expense should be made at least once or 
twice a year and the percentages thus obtained added to the shop 
cost in all estimates made in the succeeding period to obtain the 
real cost ; e. g. 

Shop Cost: 

Pay of foremen, journeymen, helpers and apprentices. . . .% 80,000 
Cost or material, engines, generators, conduit, wire, etc. 200.000 

Total shop cost $280,000 

Overhead Expense: 

Salaries of employers, co-partners or officers | 30,000 

Salaries of office employees — bookkeepers, clerks, etc.... 8,000 

Salaries of superintendent, draftsman and engineer 10,000 

Stationery, telephones, taxes, insurance, rent, etc 8,000 

Total manufacturer's expense % 56,000 

Manufacturer's or overhead expense as a percentage of shop 
co.st equals $56,000 -=- $280,000, or 20%. 

The real cost, therefore, of the year's business would be the 
shop cost, $280,000. plus the overhead expense of $56,000, or 
$336,000. Should the selling value of this work be $369,600. the 
contractor has made a profit of 10% on the investment made. 
Should the selling value, however, be only $334,992, he has lost 
3% on his investment. A true estimate should, therefore, be made 
for any job as follows : 

vShop cost $10 000 

Overhead expense at 20% 2 000 

Real cost $12 000 

Profit at 10 per cent 1.200 

Amount of proposal $13,200 

Some contractors figure their overhead expense as a percentage 
of the selling price. If a contractor's overhead expense is 20% 



250 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cf his selling' price <ind he desires to make a profit of 10% on 
the selling price, he would not make it if he used the following 
method : 

Shop cost % 1.500 

20% overhead expense plus 10% profit 450 

Amount of proposal $ 1,950 

To get the results desired — namely, 20% of selling price as 
overhead expense and 10% of selling price as net profit — the esti- 
mate should be made in the following manner: If the shop cost 
is $1,500, this amount must represent 70% of the selling price, 
for the overhead expense is taken as 20% of the selling price and 
the profit is taken as 10% of the selling price. Hence the selling 
price should be ($1,500 -=- 70)X 100. or $2,142. The overhead ex- 
pense is 207o of $2,142 or $428, and the profit is 10% of $2,142 or 
$214. Tlie sum of these two items, $642, subtracted from the 
selling price leaves the original shop cost of $1,500. Hence the 
previous method of estimating was in error by $2,142 — $1,950 
or $192. 

The entire principle of applying overhead expense and profit as 
percentages of the selling price is wrong. Profit on a job is ac- 
tually interest on an investment. The investment in the con- 
tractor's business is the sum of the shop cost and the overhead 
expense. Hence the -profit should be computed as a percentage 
of this sum. 

From a collection of data compiled by the National Electrical 
Contractors' Association on the costs of conducting an electrical 
contracting business, it appears that the overhead expense of an 
electrical contractor lies between about 15 and 25% of his shop 
cost and that the average profit is figured at from 5 to 15% of the 
gross cost, depending upon the terms of the contract and the nature 
of the work. 

It is not the intention of the writer to present methods for 
ascertaining approximately the shop cost of labor and materials. 
No accurate figures for use in estimating the cost of the materials 
used on a job can be given, owing to the constant changes in price 
of most of these materials, such as wire, conduit, etc. On the 
other hand, while the rates paid for labor change, the changes 
are not of frequent occurrence and tables of labor costs can be 
worked out on the present rates for labor and any increa.se or 
decrease of rates can be taken care of by employing a percentage 
correction factor. 

For engines, generators, motors, transformers, etc., it is always 
best to secure a bid on the apparatus direct from the manufac- 
turer, especially if a reasonable time be given the contractor to 
prepare his estimate. It is preferable to have these quotations 
include the cost of the apparatus delivered and erected in position, 
as well as the cost of foundation, templets, bolts, painting, etc. 

Should, however, the job be a large one and the time for pre- 
paring an estimate be short, the approximate cost of the ap- 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



251 



paratus could be determined if the contractor had prepared curves 
of cost for the various sizes of such apparatus in the past and 
had frequently checked them. Such checking is absolutely neces- 
sary, as apparatus may vary considerably in price within com- 
paratively short periods of time. Fig. 2 shows how these curves 
should be prepared. 

Separate curves or tables should be prepared for directly con- 
nected and belted single- and four-valve or Corliss engines, also 



u 










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10 


Curve s 
, hauling 


howinq va 
on d if fen 


riable cos 
nt grades 


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1 








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E.&C. 



0.50 



£50 



3.00 



1.00 1.50 LOO 

Cost pef Lood-Mile 

Fig. 2. Curve showing effect of grade on hauling costs in mill 
construction. 



for directly connected and belted direct-current and alternating 
current generators of various types, as well as for motors of low, 
medium and high speeds, etc. 

The same method could be followed for figuring the cost of 
certain other kinds of materials, although greater accuracy must 
be used in plotting some curves, for in some cases price differ- 
ences of a few cents may be desired. This method can be ap- 
plied advantageously to such material as panel boxes, panelboards, 
doors and trim, annunciators, watchmen's clocks, etc. 

Tables III to VI are for apparatus delivered ar>d erected ready 
for the wiring connections of the electrical contractor, and hence 



252 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE III. ENGINES AND FOUNDATIONS * -^ 

, Cost per horsepower ^ 

Horsepower Tandem- 

Rating Single compound Four-valve 

50 — 100 $16 

100 — 200 15 $26 $25 

300 and above 14 24 23 

* Installed ready for steam-pipe connections under ordinary con- 
ditions. The figures given are based on data from the Ames Iron 
Works, Oswego, N. Y. 

TABLE IV. DIRECTLY CONNECTED D.C. & A.C. •' 
GENERATORS * 

Rating, kw. d. c. Cost per kw. Rating, kva, a. c. Cost per kva. 

25 $25 50 $16 

35 23 75 14 

50 20 125 13 

75 , 16 135 12 

100 15 185 10 

125 14 250 9 

150 13 312 9 

200 12 350 8 

250 12 375 and above 8 

300 and above 12 

* These prices are based on engine-driven generators installed 
under ordinary conditions, the sub-bases for the erection of the 
generators being furnished by the engine contractor. The values 
are based on data from the G. E. Co. 

TABLE V. COST OF SWITCHBOARDS. INCLUDING DYNAMO 
AND FEEDER PANELS, 220 VOLTS OR LESS * 

Rating, kw. d. c. Cost per kw. Rating, kva. a. c. Cost per kva. 



25 — 50 


$5 — $10 


50 — 125 


$4 — $6 


50 — 100 


4— 8 


125 — 350 


3— 4 


100 and above 


3 — 6 


350 and above 


2— 3 



* The range of prices is due to variations in the grade of ma- 
terials and workmanship, the number of instruments, switches, etc. 
These figures include the switchboards erected complete and ready 
for the connection of generator cables, power and light feeders, 
etc. The prices are based on data obtained from the Walker 
Electric Company, Philadelphia. 

TABLE VI. COSTS PER HORSEPOWER OF MOTORS AND 
NECESSARY RHEOSTATS AND CONTROLLERS ERECTED * 



r Direct-current- 




,- Alternating-current-^ 


Horsepower 


Cost 


Horsepower Cost 


1 — 3 


$50 


1 — 11/2 $60 


5 — 71/2 


40 


1 1/2 — 2 50 


7 1/1, — 10 


30 


2—3 40 


10 -^ 15 


25 


3 — 71/2 30 


15 -^ 25 


20 


7i,^_10 25 


25 — 50 


18 


10 — 20 20 


50 ^100 


15 


20 —35 18 


100 — 250 


13 


35 —75 15 


250 and above 


12 


100 and above 13 



* Motors are assumed to be of standard speeds, voltage, etc.. and 
to l)e erected on floor, cost of foundations not being included. 
The costs include delivery and erection ready for wiring connec- 
tions and are based on data obtained from the General Electric 
Company, 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



253 



are practically the figures the electrical contractor would secure 
from his sub-contractors. 

Tables VII to XII are the complete costs of electrical construe- 



T 


ABLE VIL ( 


COST OF 


DYNAMO 


CONNECTIONS * • 




Direct-current 


• 




Llternating-ci 


J. 










Lead 


Rubber- 




Lead 


Rubber- 




sheathed 


covered 




sheathed 


covered 


Rating 


rubber 


cable in 


Rating 


rubber 


cable in 


kw. 


insulation 


conduit 


kva. 


insulation 


conduit 


25- 50 


$50-$150 


$25-$125 


50-125 


$100-$300 


$ 75-$27o 


50-100 


75- 250 


50- 225 


125-350 


200- 400 


175- 375 


100 and 


100- 350 


75- 325 


350 and 


300- 500 


275- 475 


above 






above 






*The 


average flat 


distance 


between dynamo and 


switchboard 



has been assumed as 25 ft. 



TABLE VITL COSTS OF WIRING AND CONNECTING MOTORS, 
INCLUDING ALL LABOR AND MATERIAL • 

Horsepovv^er Porcelain Molding Conduit 

1— 5 $7.50— 75 $10 — 100 $15 — 150 

5 — 10 30 —120 40 — 170 60 — 240 

15 — 25 75 — 250 90 — 300 150 — 300 

25 — 50 100 — 400 125 — 500 200 — 500 

50 and over 150 —500 200 — 600 300 — 600 

* The range of figures is due first to structural difficulties, second 
to the type of motor panel desired, third to the voltage, and fourth 
to the circuit distance. The lower figures represent the minimum 
structural difficulties, with fused switches in an iron box and with 
starting device mounted exposed on wall to side of motor, 220 volt 
service and 50-ft. to 100-ft. circuit distance. The higher figures 
represent the maximum structural difficulties, motor panels with 
circuit breakers, 110 volt service and 1 50-ft. to 300-ft. circuit dis- 
tance. The figures do not include the cost of motors, rheostats 
and regulators. 

TABLE IX. AVERAGE COST PER OUTLET FOR WIRING FOR 
LAMPS IN NEW BUILDINGS * 

Concealed Exposed Concealed 

Outlets porcelain Wood mldg. Metal mldg. conduit 

Light $4 — $8 $5 — 10 $8 — 16 $7 — 14 

Switch 5 — 10 6 — 12 9 — 18 8 — 16 

Wall receptacle 5 — 10 6 — 12 9 — 18 8 — 16 

Floor receptacle 7 — 14 8 — 16 11 — 22 10 — 20 

Fan 6 — 12 7 — 14 10 — 20 9 — 18 

Iron 9 — 18 10 — 20 13 — 26 12 — 24 

Electric Heater 7 — 14 8 — 16 11 — 22 10 — 20 

Vacuum Control 

Switcht 12 — 24 13 — 26 16 — 32 15 — 30 

* For use where the total cost of the work is about $2,000, 
For residences the lower figures should be used. For public build- 
ings, such as banks, office buildings, churches and the like, a figure 
midway between the range of figures given should be used. Where 
best grade of material and workmanship is required the higher 
figures should be used. Prices do not include costs of fixtures or 
appliances, but do include switches and receptacles. For wiring 
old buildings where porcelain work and conduit work is concealed 
the figures given should at least be doubled. If porcelain or con- 
duit work is to be installed exposed in either old or new buildings, 
the figures should be increased at least 25%, the difference of cost 
depending upon the purpose for which the building is or was de- 
signed. 

t Includes automatic starter at motor. 



254 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tion work, and include all labor and material, and also overhead 
and profit. A wage rate of 55 cts. per hr. for foremen, 45 cts. 
per hr. for wiremen, and 25 cts. per hr. for helpers is assumed. 

TABLE X. AVERAGE COSTS FOR SIGNAL SYSTEMS RUN 
CONCEALED IN NEW BUILDINGS * 

Costs per outlet (connected as one outlet) 
Bell wiring Porcelain Conduit 

Per push-button and bell $6 $12 

Per drop on annunciator 4 8 

* For work on old buildings the figures given above should be 
doubled. The cost of push-buttons, bells and annunciators is in- 
cluded. 

TABLE XL AVERAGE COSTS OP PRIVATE TELEPHONES 

Porcelain Conduit 

Per desk telephone $30 — $50 $40 — $60 

Per wall telephone 25 — 45 35 — 55 

The average cost per outlet of public telephones in new buildings 
(concealed work) ranges from $5 to $15 with conduit construction, 
C^ost of wire is not included since the electrical contractor very sel- 
dom does the wiring. The range of the figures is due to variations 
in the distances between outlets. Instruments are assumed to be 
furnished and installed by the telephone company, 

TABLE XIL COST OP MISCELLANEOUS WORK * 
Apparatus Porcelain Conduit 

Time Clocks $30 — $45 $35 — $50 per clock 

Time stamps 65 — 85 70 — 90 per stamp 

Fire alarms 20 • — 30 25 ■ — 35 per alarm 

Watchmen's stations 25 — 35 30 — 40 per station 

* The range of the figures given above is due to differences in 
the grades of workmanship and materials. For old buildings the 
figures given .should be increased from 25 to 50%. These figures 
include the cost of apparatus as well as the cost of all conductors, 
conduits and labor. 



TABLE XIIL COST OF INSTALLING ROTATING ELECTRICAL 
MACHINERY 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Cost per 
piece 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Cost per 
piece 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Cost per 
piece 


Ito 500 , 

550 . 
600 . 
650 , 
700 . 


. ..$1 to$5 

... 5.45 

5.95 

6.35 

6.85 


1,350 
1,400 
1,450 
1.500 
1,600 


$10.35 
10.40 
10.45 
10.50 
10.70 


2,900 
3.000 
3.500 
4.000 
4,500 


$12.45 
12.50 
12.60 
12.70 
12.80 


750 . 
800 . 
850 . 
900 . 
950 . 


7.20 
7.60 
8.00 
8.30 
8.65 


1,700 
1,800 
1,900 
2.000 
2,100 


10.90 
11.15 
11.40 
11.50 
11.55 


5,000 
6,000 
7.000 
8,000 
9.000 


12.90 
13.00 
14.00 
15.00 
16.00 


1,000 . 
1,050 . 
1,100 . 
1.150 . 
1,200 . 


9.00 
9.25 
9.45 
9.65 
9.85 


2,200 
2.300 
2,400 
2.500 
2,600 


11.65 
11.75 
12.00 
12.10 
12.20 


10,000 


16.25 


1.250 . 
1.300 . 


... 10.10 
,,. 10.30 


2.700 
2,800 


12.30 
12.35 


.... 


.... 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



255 



Cost of Installation of Rotating Electrical Machinery. Table 
XIII i« from a recent appraisal (prior to the war). 

All rotating^ machinery weighing over 10,000 lbs. is estimated 
at $0.1625 per 100 lbs. The cost includes the co.st of setting, grout- 
ing or securing, drying and connecting. Unloading costs included 
with hauling charges, allow for placing apparatus approximately 
In position. 

Costs of Installing Transformers, Rectifiers, etc., of Less Than 
75 kw. Capacity as taken from a recent appraisal were the same 
as for rotating electrical machinery given above and include setting, 
securing, drying and connecting. The cost of setting the apparatus 
approximately in position is included in hauling cost, a separate 
item. 

Cost of Installation and Factory Inspection of Power Trans- 
formers, — 75 k. w. and Over. The following installation cost from 
a recent appraisal includes assembling, drying, filling, connecting 
and starting. 

TABLE XTV. COST OF INSTALLATION AND INSPECTION OF 
TRANSFORMERS OF OVER 75 K. W. CAPACITY 

Labor Material 

11.000 volts Over 11,000 Factory 

K. w. or less volts inspection 

75 $13.85 $17.85 $10 

100 15.35 19.75 10 

150 16.60 21.50 10 

200 17.85 23.25 10 

250 19.10 25.05 10 

300 20.35 26.75 10 

333 21.60 28.45 10 

500 22.85 30.20 10 

666 24.10 31.90 10 

750 25.10 33.40 10 

1.000 26.35 35.10 12 50 

1,250 27.60 36.80 12.50 

1.500 28.85 38.40 15 

1.600 30.10 40.10 15 

2,000 31.35 41.75 

Cost of Installation of Power Transformers, 75 kw. and Over. 
The following is from a recent appraisal.' 

TABLE XV. COST OF INSTALLATION OF TRANSFORMERS 
OF OVER 75 K. W. CAPACITY 

, 11,000 volts or less , r-Over 11,000 volts-^ 

K. w. Cost A Cost B Total Add Cost C Total 

75 $ 9.00 $4.85 $13.85 $4.00 $17.85 

100 10.50 4.85 15.35 4.40 19.75 

150 11.75 4.85 16.60 4.90 21.50 

200 13.00 4.85 17.85 5.40 23.25 

250 14.25 4.85 19.10 5.95 25.05 

300 15.50 '4.85 20.35 6.40 26.75 

333 16.75 4.85 21.60 6.85 28.45 

500 18.00 4.85 22.85 7.35 30.20 

666 19.25 4.85 24.10 7.80 31.90 

750 20.25 4.85 25.10 8.30 33.40 



256 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

, 11,000 volts or less , ^Over 11,000 volts-^ 

K. w. Cost. A Cost B Total Add Cost C Total 

1,000 21.50 4.85 26.35 8.75 35.10 

1,250 22.75 4.85 27.60 9.20 36.80 

1,500 24.00 4.85 28.85 9.60 38.45 

1,600 25.25 4.85 30.10 10.00 40.10 

2,000 26.50 4.85 31.35 10.40 41.75 

Cost A: Includes inspection, cleaning, assembling and filling. 
2 men at $4-25, and 6 men at $3 for 1 day — $26.50 for 2,000 k. w. 
transformer. 1 man at $4.25, and 3 men at $3 for 1 day — $13.25 
for 100 k. w, transformer. 

Cost B: Includes testing and connecting high and low voltage 
terminals. 2 men at $4.25, and 2 men at $3 for 1 day on 3 trans- 
formers. 

Cost each transformer (Vs of $14.50) $4.85 all cHDacities. 

Cost C: Includes additional labor for assembling and for drying 
core and oil. Drying 3 — 2.000 k. w. transformers. 37,000 volts. 
1 man at $4.25, and 3 men at $3, 1 day, preparation. 1 man at 
$3 per day for 6 days, attending. 

Cost each transformer (Vs of $31.25) $10.42. 

Drying 3 — 100 k. w. transformers, 11,000 volts. 1 man at 
$4.25, and 1 man at $3 1 day, preparation. 1 man at $3 per day 
for 2 days, attending. 

Cost each transformer (% of $13.25) $4.42. 

Cost of Installation of Electrical Rotating Machinery Up to 10,000 
lbs., Transformers, Rectifiers and Regulators Less than 75 k. w. 
Table XVI gives costs for miscellaneous electrical machinery taken 
from appraisals by the authors. 

Cost of Labor Installing Line Transformers. The following data 
are from an appraisal by the authors : 

Size, k. w. Cost of labor 

0.6 $3.00 

1 3.10 

1.5 3.30 

2. 3.50 

2.5 3.70 

3 4.10 

4 4.70 

5 5.30 

7.5 6.50 

10 7.75 

15 9.70 

20 11.30 

25 12.80 

30 14.25 

40. 16.75 

50 19.00 

100 28.00 

150 33.50 

200 37.50 



The above costs Include inspection, cleaning, assembling and 
fill together with the cost of distributing, cross-arming, hanging 
and connecting the transformers. 

Cost of Setting and Moving Meters and Transformers. The fol- 
lowing distribution and service ex]:)enses are shown in a recent 
ajialysis by the Pacific Power & Light Company given in Elea- 









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258 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

trical World, Dec. 2, 1916. The average distribution cost per 
consumer for the year (1916) was $1.83. Lower costs ($1.53 up) 
existed in some districts, but expenses ran as high as $4.05 
in other districts. Setting and removing meters and trans- 
formers on the average cost $0.55 per consumer, the minimum ex- 
pense being $0.29 and the maximum $0.99, Meter maintenance 
averaged about 8.14 cts. per meter, although in some districts the 
expense went as high as 13 cts. and as low as 4.8 cts. Main- 
tenance of installations varied from 5 to 88 cts. and averaged 
about 19.9 cts. The commercial expense per consumer had a range 
of $2.60 to $6.40 and averaged $3.48. It should be pointed out 
that all items making up the total expense of serving consumers 
are not included. 

Cost of Installing Motor Generator Sets. The costs for generator 
sets, weighing over 10.000 lbs., given in Table XVII, were derived 
by the authors from appraisal on the^ Pacific coast in 1910. 

TABLE XVII. COST OP INSTALLING MOTOR GENERATOR 
SETS WEIGHING OVER 10,000 LBS. 

Per cent. Unit. Unit. Unit, 

Item of total cost 120 k. w. 500 k. w. 1,000 k. w. 

Voltage 2,400-150 4.300-550 11.000-550 

Weight, lbs 38,000 56.000 109,000 

(1) Assembly 38.5 $23.90 $35.00 $68.20 

(2) Leveling 3.5 2.20 3.50 6.20 

(3) Groutmg 7.5 4.65 7.00 13.30 

(4) Cleaning 4.0 2.50 3.50 7.10 

(5) Testing 8.0 4.95 7.00 14.20 

(6) Connecting 9.0 5.60 8.15 15.95 

(7) Drying 26.5 16.45 23.80 46.85 

(8) Starting 3.0 1.85 2.80 5.30 

Total 100% $62.00 $91.00 $177.00 

Cost per 100 lbs., all sizes $0.18 

Of these costs 53.5% are for assembling, leveling, grouting and 
cleaning — items (1) to (4) — and 46.5% are for testing, connect- 
ing, drying and cleaning — items (5) to (8). 

Cost of Installing a 500 k. w. Motor Generator Set according 
to the figures given in Table XVII may be further subdivided as 
shown in Table XVIII, 

TABLE XVTII. INSTALLATION OF 500 K. W. MOTOR 
GENERATOR SET 

Men at Men at Total 

Item $4.25 per day $3 per day hrs. Cost 

(1) Assembly 2 3 16 $35.00 

(2) Leveling 1 3 2 3.31 

(3) Grouting 1 3 4 6.62 

(4) Cleaning 1 2 3 3.84 

(5) Testing 2 2 4 7.25 

(6) Connecting 1 1 9 8.15 

(7) Drying 1 1 4) 

1 28| 24.13* 

(8) Starting 2 1 2 . 2.88 

Total labor cost of installation $91.18 

* Includes $10 for power. 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 259 

Cost of Installing 300 k. w. Motor Generator Set. The data in 
Table XIX are for an installation in the Southern States in 1913 
and are from a recent appraisal by the authors. The costs are 
taken from accounting records. 

TABLE XIX. INSTALLATION OF 300 K. W. MOTOR 
GENERATOR SET 

Material Labor Freight Drayage Total 
1-3030 k. w. 3 bearing 
motor generator set, 
consisting of one 2,200 
volt, 2-phase, synchron- 
ous motor directly con- 
nected to railv/ay gen- 
erator with direct-con- 
nected exciter ■ — f. o. b. 

factory $6,000 $180 $185 $27 $6,392 

Switchboard, synchronous 
motor panel for 300 k. 
w. generator swinging 
bracket, lighting ar- 
rester, 8 disconnecting 
switches, f. o. b. fac- 
tory 1,435 117 53 5 1,610 

Connections to present 

buses 69 ... ... . . 69 

Cable and v/ire 228 65 ... .. 293 

Conduit and fittings 69 75 ... .. 144 

Rebuilding old buses 96 217 ... .. 383 



Total $7,897 $724 $238 $32 $8,891 

Cost of Installing a 500 k. w. Motor Generator in Washington. 

The following is the cost of installing a 500 k. w. motor generator 
in a light and power plant in Washington in 1906. 
Material : 

500 k. w., 500 rev. per min. motor generator $ 9,200.00 

Switchboard and switching apparatus 1,725.00 

Freight on generator and switchboard 1,200.00 

Wire 64.61 

Miscellaneous material 160.75 

60 ft. 13,000 volt, 3 cond. cable 129.00 

490 lbs., 1,000,000 C, M. S. B. W. P. cable 151.90 



Cost of material $12,631.26 

Labor : 

Setting up machine $ 116.39 

Setting up switch, machine pipe supports, insulators 

and compensators 131.65 

All 13.000 volt wiring 176.06 

A. c. controller and instrument wiring, setting up 

a. c. panel and running motor field wire 94.00 

All d. c. wiring not included above 94.35 

Miscellaneous 4.20 



Cost of labor $ 616.65 



Total cost of installation $13,247 

Cost of Installing 1,000 k. w. Turbo-Generator and Auxiliaries. 
The data in Table XX are for an installation in the Southern 



260 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

states in 1913 and are from a recent appraisal by the authors 
and are actual costs taken from accounting records. 

TABLE XX. INSTALLATION OF 1.000 K. W. TURBO- 
GENERATOR AND AUXILIARIES 



m o 

Excavating, clearing, etc $ 147 

Basement floor, patching, 
turbine floor 62 

Contract, building: tur- 
bine and auxiliary 
foundations 

Piping $3,313 525 $155 

1-lOOOk.w.G.E. Co. tur- 
bo-generator, erected. 13,100 210 

* Auxiliaries, f. o. b. 

plant 7,300 105 . 

1 oil switch, 500 ampere, 
7,500 volts, 4 pole 
single throw complete 
— f. o. b. factory.... 387 163 25 











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5'^ 




bfi 


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>> 

c3 


m^ 


o3 


Q 


i^ 


O 




% 10 


$ 157 


? 3 


50 


115 
1,250 


32 


17 


4,042 



110 13,420 
201 



212 



7.606 



787 



Total $24,100 $1,212 $180 $35 $600 $27,377 

♦Auxiliaries consisted of one surface condenser of 2,9 00 sq. ft. 
cooling surface, one 7 by 14 by 14 in. rotary dry vacuum pump, 
one 2 in. centrifugal hotwell pump, and one 10 in. centrifugal 
pump. 

Cost of Installing 2,000 k. w. Turbo-Generator, Boiler, Super- 
heater and Other Auxiliaries. The data in Table XXI are for an 

installation in the Southern States in 1914-15 and are from a 
recent appraisal by the authors. The costs are taken from ac- 
counting records. 

Cost of Foundations for Two 500 k. w. Generators. The cost of 
foundations for two 500 k. w. direct connected, engine driven 
generator units built by contract for a power house in Washington 
in 1906 was $2,480. There were 320 cu. yds. of granite masonry 
placed at $7 per cu. yd. 

Cost of Foundations for a Turbo-Generator. The cost of founda- 
tions for a 750 k. w. turbo-generator built by contract in Wash- 
ington in 1906 was $313.05, divided as follows: 

Unit cost 

12.8 cu. yds. concrete, per cu. yd $10.00 

1,638 brick, per M in place 33.85 

,8—15 in. I beams 10 ft, long weighing 3,360 lbs., per lb. in 

place 045 



The foundation consisted of one concrete slab and four brick 
columns. 

Cost of Foundations for a Rotary Converter. The cost of foun- 
dations for a 250 k. w. altei-nating current rotary converter built 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 261 

by contract in 1906 in a power house in Washington was $113.76, 
divided as follows : 

340 lbs. cast iron, per lb. in place $.035 

2,268 lbs. steel, per lb. in place 045 

TABLE XXI. INSTALLATION OF 2,000 K. W. TURBO-GEN- 
ERATOR, BOILER, SUPER HEATER AND OTHER AUX- 
ILIARIES 

\ o <^ 



Item. -^ - S, 















"C 


j_ 


fi, 














<u 


o 
















«i 


X5 


?, 














§ 


a 


fc 


1- 


-600 


h.- 


■P- 


boiler 


erected 


$7,U95 


.... 




1- 


-600 


h 


•-p. 


. superheater, 









TO K " 



o 

Eh 
$8,650 



erected 1,555 

Boiler setting, fuel oil 
system, foundation 
footings, damper regu- 
lator, installed 2,503 $221 $2 $3 $2,729 

1-2,000 k. w. turbo-gen- 
erator, f.-ob. erected. 21,500 518 $252 22,270 

* Auxiliaries 8,578 159 3 31 8,771 

1-500 k. w. motor gen- 
erator set, f. o. b. fac- 
tory 6,100 83 476 34 28 8,546 

1-50 k. w. turbine driven 

exciter, f. o. b. plant. 1,825 

Switchboard, f. o. b. fac- 
tory 1.647 1,668 160 6 1,198 5,402 

Wiring 723 



Total $51,526 $2,649 $638 $46 $1,509 $56,368 

* Auxiliaries consisted of: One 4 in. 3-stage, double suction, tur- 
bine boiler feed pump, direct connected to and mounted on a spe- 
cial cast iron base with turbine, f. o. b. plant, cost $1,200. B. and 
W. No. 18 gauge condenser tubes, 17.700 lin. ft., f. o. b. plant, cost 
$1,878. One condenser equipment for a 2.000 k. w. turbo-gen- 
erator unit, the equipment to consist of one 4,400 sq. ft. surface 
condenser v.ithout the tubes, one 9 in. and 18 in. by 16 in. rotary 
vacuum pump and one 3 in. turbine driven, centrifugal hotwell 
pump, f. o. b. erected, cost $5,500. 

Cost of Erecting a 300 k. w. Motor Generator. Kent gives the 
following cost of a temporary installation of a 300 k. w. motor 
generator. 

Labor : Unit cost 

Moving and erecting machine $118.50 

25.000 volt wiring. Including hauling 20.80 

2.300 volt wiring, including oil switch 37.90 

600 volt wiring, including panel and pedestal 60.50 

Machine foundation and anchor bolts 21.80 

Time of shop men • 8.36 

Material : 

Wire 48.09 

Miscellaneous material 16.17 



Total cost of erecting g-enerator $332.20 



262 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Labor Cost of Installing 850 k. w. Generator and Exciter. The 

following is the labor cost of installing an 850 k. w, generator 
and exciter in a light and power plant in Washington in 1909. 

Cost 

Setting up exciter $ 68.50 

Exciter wiring 8.75 

Wiring for motor and motor panel 67.50 

Setting up generator 267.10 

Wiring for generator and panel 127.50 

Draftsman 117.37 

Machine foundation, floor, retaining walls, etc... 1,032.42 

Total labor cost of installation $1,688.74 

Cost of Installing and Testing iVieters. One meterman at $2.70 
per day can inspect and test 10 Thompson recording watt meters, 
or 20 Type G meters in a day. He can install 8 meters per day. 

Thompson Type G 

meters meter 

Testing: $0.27 $0.14 

Installing . 0.34 0.34 

Total cost per meter $0.61 $0.48 

Cost of Underground, Cypress Fuel Oil Tank. The cost of a 
cypress fuel oil tank built in the Southern States in 1912 as taken 
from a recent appraisal by the authors was as follows : 

Excavation $200 

Cypress tank, 6x1x40 ft. long 262 

Pipe fittings 48 

Cost complete $610 

The cypress tank had a foundation of cedar and was covered 
with a cedar top. The pipe fittings consisted of miscellaneous 
pipe, unions and Ts and 5 valves. 

Cost of Installing Tools and Equipment in a Smelter. See chap- 
ter on Buildings. 

Cost of Installing Miscellaneous Tools. See Miscellaneous chap- 
ter. 

Cost of Installing Milling Equipment. H. T. Curran (Engineer- 
ing and Contracting, Oct. 6, 1915) states that poorly stored 
machinery may easily add several dollars per tan to erection 
costs. An experienced engineer will size up the job and divide 
the material into different classes. It is then usually figured 
on a tonnage basis. Generally speaking, the heavier the piece the 
less the erection cost per ton. Steel tanks over % in. thick can 
be erected for $35 per ton; and % in. or less from $40 to $45 
per ton. To place engines, stamps, crushers, pumps, to line up 
shafting, set electric motors, including wiring, etc., the cost will 
be about $45 per ton of iron; to set up concentrating machinery, 
classifiers, filters, etc., from $50 to $65 per ton. These figures 
cover the necessary carpenter work, placing pulleys, belts, and ad- 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 263 

justments. When the carpenter work is figured separately these 
figures are high. Under these conditions it will cost from ?25 
to $30 per ton of iron to place engines, stamps, crushers, line up 
shafting, etc. To set up concentrating machinery, classifiers, 
filters, etc., costs from $30 to $45 per ton. This of course includes 
placing pulleys, belts and adjustments. The pipe work in the 
average mill will cost from $40 to $45 per ton. Erecting wooden 
tanks costs around $12 per M. Reduction works constructed 
wholly of steel are now becoming popular where the winters are 
not too severe. Framework of steel can be erected for $12 to $15 
per ton by contract. A good contractor with a crew of construc- 
tion men will make money at these figures. 

Cost of Preliminary Work in iVIili Construction. H. T. Curran 
(Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 6, 1915) states that after it 
has been determined just what kind of a plant is needed, and 
after the site has been selected and the drawings made, a thor- 
ough organization of plans should be established and every detail 
gone over in the mind's eye. 

The first step is to estimate the yardage to be excavated, the 
amount of masonry or concrete work required, and then a complete 
list of all material should be made. The tendency is to overlook 
a multitude of small things which have considerable value in the 
aggregate. To the machinery specifications should be added a 
complete list of lumber, doors, windows, all hardware down to 
nails, pulleys, belts, lime, sand, broken rock — in fact everything 
that goes into the construction. The cost and weight of this can 
readily be determined by consulting reliable dealers and adding 
the necessary freight charges. 

The next step should be the working out of a thorough develop- 
ment plan and an estimate of its cost. Everything should be made 
ready, so that when actual con.struction starts there will be neither 
confusion nor delay. The cost of this work is considerable and 
it is often neglected, with the consequent addition of excessive 
costs to some other part of the work. A great amount of future 
trouble and worry can be avoided by a careful planning for a few 
im])ortant features, which will be mentioned. 

Unloading facilities and material and tools to do it with should 
be provided. A good road to the plant should be built and con- 
venient deliveries arranged for. It is a noticeable fact that many 
a well constructed mill has such poor facilities for receiving sup- 
plies that the extra cost for a year w^ould probably build every- 
thing needed to make such work easy and cheap. Ample room 
ought to be set aside for timber yards and all lumber should be 
marked and piled so that a glance will determine just what part 
of the job it was bought for. 

A handy place should be marked off for a storage house and 
its cost estimated. It is surprising what a number of small things 
will be lost or mi.splaced without such storage. Roomy framing 
plots, as level as possible, should be marked off and handy places 
for machinery storage determined, keeping in mind pieces which 
will be first used and their situation. The supply of gravel, sand 



2G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and rock must be looked into and arrangements made for its cheap 
delivery at any point. All details for disposing of rock and earth 
excavated with the least possible amount of handling should be 
planned. 

The labor question must be studied and complete arrangements 
made for the comfort of the men. Their efficiency will vary di- 
rectly with the conditions of their surroundings. Recently, in the 
west, a so-called mining man who had never given human nature 
a moment's thought attempted to build a mill in an out-of-the-way 
place with no fit accommodations for anyone but himself. The 
results were disastrous for the company. Good men could not be 
kept and the mill was finished up at an excess in cost of more 
than $50,000. Some of the tanks collapsed on their foundations 
with the first filling. 

The cost of all this preliminary work can be estimated by the 
man on the ground; it averages from 5 to 10% of the total. If 
it is neglected, confusion and delays throughout the job are the 
inevitable result. Good organization is just as essential to the 
construction of a plant as to its operation. 

Cost of Miscellaneous Foundations. The following costs of the 
foundations for an electrolytic lead refining plant at Grasselli, 
Ind,, are taken from Engineering and Contracting, Mar, 12, 1913. 

Cost of Engine Foundations. These foundations consisted of 
heavy blocks of concrete built in pits excavated in sand to 4 ft, 
below the level of the ground. The blocks extended 6 ft. above 
ground level. Excavation and concreting are included in the costs 
given but not the forms. The work was begun June 7 and com- 
pleted July 6. The wages were 37,5 cts. per hour and the concrete 
was hand mixed. 

Concrete, cu. yds 399,2 

Total cost $946.20 

Labor cost per cu. yd 2.37 

Cost of Furnace Foundations. This concrete was placed in small 
excavations 4 ft. deep and no forms were employed. 

Concrete, cu, yds 399.2 

Total cost $106.80 

Labor cost per cu, yd 1.70 

Cost of Power House Foundations. The concrete foundations 
for the building consisted of a wall about 20 ins. wide and 4 ft. 
deep in sand under the four walls of the building. No forms were 
used. The boiler foundations were simply large square blocks of 
concrete 4 ft. deep. 

Concrete, cu. yds., in boiler foundations 53 

Concrete, cu. yds., in building foundations..,, 118 

Concrete, eu, yds., total 171 

Total labor cost $501.50 

Cost of labor per cu. yd 2.93 

Cost of Pump Foundations. These were foundations for boiler 
feed pumps, centrifugal pumps for the condensers, and foundations 



MOVING AND INSTALLING ' 265 

for the feed water heater. They were small blocks of concrete set 
in the sand and extending about a foot above the ground. Boxes 
were made with templates for the foundation bolts. 

Concrete, cu. yds 22.4 

Total labor $73.20 

Cost per cu. yd. labor 3.27 

Cost of Scale Foundations. These foundations were for a nar- 
row-gage track scale of the Howe type and they were built within 
one of the buildings and required 3 days' work : 

Concrete, cu. yds 23.4 

Total cost of labor $30.80 

Cost per cu. yd 1.30 

Cost of Tank House Foundations. These foundations were about 
20 ins. wide and 4 ft. deep and were built to support the walls 
around a building 72 X 360 f-t. in plan. There were also piers 
supporting the steel columns at 18-ft. intervals. The excavation 
amounted to 365 cu. yds. of sand and is also included. 

Concrete, cu. yds 287 

Total labor $611.60 

Cost per cu. yd 2.13 

Cost of Erecting Miscellaneous Machinery, E. H. Jones (Bulletin 
of American Institute of Mining Engineers, July, 1914) gives in 
Table XXII the erection costs of machinery of the Arizona Smelter 
Co., Clifton, Ariz. The costs of buildings for this plant are given 
in the chapter on Buildings. 

TABLE XVIII. COST AND ERECTION OF MACHINERY FOR 
A SMELTER 



7i— < 

Ofl . O 5^ 

'^^ -SS 

^- 3^ 

Group No. 1 

1. Two electrical feed 

pumps 43,345. $0.87 

2. Six No. 14 Wilgus 

oil systems . . . 8,475. 1.32 

3. Steam feed pumps 3,547. 1.05 

4. Two Nordberg 

blowers with air 

receivers 383,242. 0.43 

5. Three Curtis tur- 

bines and ten 
auto transform- 
ers 454,140. 0.51 

6. Two dry vacuum 

pumps for jet 

condenser 24,200. 1.18 

7. T w o circulating 

pumps 37,560. 0.98 



Oo 


m 

o 
o 

4-1 

o 


o 
o 

tH 


;0.87 


$6,187.56 


$14.28 


1.4 6 

1.07 


1,973.77 
499.24 


23.29 
14.07 


0.80 


34,155.64 


8.91 


0.98 


81,884.19 


18.03 


2.14 


3,145.52 


13.00 


1.15 


3,902.58 


10.39 



266 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



go Co § f 

8. Air compressor ... U7,8i0. 0.66 O.Sl .... 

9. Three dry vacuum 

pumps 14,000. 1.05 1.42 $3,337.36 $23.84 

10. Three pumps and 

engines 97.255. 0.40 0.58 9,118.69 9.38 

11. Two 5 by 8 vertical 

triplex pumps.. 11,354. 1.55 1,72 2,211.78- 19.48 

1,174,958. $0.55 $0.92 $146,416.33 $13.59 

Group No. 2 

12. Two 40-ton Morgan 

cranes 221,500. $0.65 $1.72 $23,027.65 $10.40 

13. Two elinkering ma- 

chines 169,213 1.01 1.44 15,697.17 9.28 

14. Two casting ma- 

chines 269,220. 1.21 1.37 27,477.55 10.21 

659,933. $0.97 $1.50 $66,202.37 $10.03 

Group No. 3 

15. Farrell crusher, 36 

by 18 50,000. $0.79 $0.80 $1,486.47 $2.96 

16. Two motor-driven 

fans at roaster 

building 6,140. 1.27 1.32 1,483.60 24.16 

17. Traveling hand 

crane. 5 ton... 3,000. 0.84 1.50 589.55 19.65 

20 ton... 25,200. 0.52 0.67 1,855.16 7.36 

18. Three surface con- 

densers 115,700. 0.36 0.47 19,978.86 17.27 

19. One barometric con- 

denser 8,132. 1.59 2.28 1,078.65 13.26 

208,172. $0.56 $0.68 $26,472.29 $12.72 

Group No. 4 

20. Two exciters 54,300. $0.90 $1.59 $6,609.27 $12.17 

21. Two 150 kw. syn- 

chronous gener- 
ator sets 41,898. 0.76 1.67 7,149.39 17.09 

96,198. $0.84 $1.63 $13,758.66 $14.30 

Group 1 contains the erection of engine machinery. It was here 
necessary, in addition to handling heavy w^eights and placing on 
the foundation, to clean, adjust, and line up many mechanical parts. 
Group 2 is very similar to 1. but the machinery is not of the engine 
type and not so heavy In proportion to the labor required to put 
it in working order. Group 3 composes machinery that required 
little other labor in the main than the lifting of heavy loads into 
place. Group 4 is somev.'hat similar to Group 3, but the labor is 
principally electrical. The above costs are reported as labor, erec- 
tion, and total costs. The labor cost is self-explanatory. The 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 267 

erection cost is the labor cost plus the needed small supplies, such 
as waste, oil, small tools, and the like. The total cost is also self- 
explanatory. Further details relating to the machinery in Table 
XVIII are given in the following notes. 

(1) Two Electrical Feed Pumps located back of the boilers were 
lowered into the 13-ft. pit onto their foundations and set ready 
for piping connections. They are two vertical triplex, 8- by 10 -in. 
Aldrich, electrically driven pumps each attached with flexible coup- 
lings to a 40-h.p. motor. The cost covers the material segregated 
below and the labor of installing the same : 

Factory Freight Total 

Two 40-h.p. motors $1,700.00 $24.44 $1,724.44 

Two vertical triplex pumps 2,794.00) 547.07 3,859.07 

Spare parts for pumps 518.00 j 

Miscellaneous 50.46 

$5,633.97 

In wiring the two 40-h.p. motors of the feed pumps to the 
mains the material was as follows : 

2 circuit breakers $ 31.70 

Conduit and covering 85.20 

Wiring and miscellaneous 60.99 

$177.89 

(2) Six No. U Wilgus Oil Systems. This account covers the 
cost of 6 Wilgus oil pumps, asbestos covering for portions of these 
pumps, the labor of installing the pumps, the labor of thoroughly 
overhauling them, required because of the unsatisfactory condi- 
tion existing in the leaking steam heating coils and the labor of 
applying the asbestos covering. The 51^- by 3%- by 5-in. duplex 
oil pumps were set directly on the concrete floor in front of the 
oil-fired boilers. 

(3) Steam Feed Pump. Here is given the labor of installing 
and the material cost of one 10- by 6- by 12-in. duplex boiler 
steam feed pump. This pump is located next to the two electrically 
driven Aldrich pumps. 

(4) Nordbery Blowers — Cost and Installation. This account 
covers the cost of the material as listed below, together with the 
labor of erecting. Engines are two Nordberg cross-compound 
blowing engines, designed to compress 10,000 cu. ft. of free air 
at an altitude of 3,500 ft. to 12 lbs. pressure, while 15 lbs. may 
be carried if desired. The high-pressure steam cylinder is 20 
ins., the low-pressure 42 ins., while the air cylinders are 44 ins., all 
having the common stroke of 42 ins. The engines are furni.shed 
160 lbs. steam pressure, superheated 75 degs. F. The speed is 
71 r.p.m. The labor of grouting, and the labor of testing out and 
starting up are included. 

2 Nordberg blowing engines, with receivers. .$30,967.34 

2 No. 34 crane tilt traps 107.78 . 

Grout, etc 1,438.90 

$32,514.02 



268 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

(5) Turbines ■ — Cost and Installation. This account covers the 
purchase price of three Curtis turbines and material as listed 
below, together with the labor of erection, grouting, wiring from 
generator to switchboard, testing and starting up. The turbines 
are 2,000-k.w, Curtis-type horizontal shaft engines and direct con- 
nected to 2,500-k.v.a., 6,600-volt, 60-cycle, 3-phase, 1,900-r.p.m. 
generators. The approximate size of each unit is 23 ft. 8 ins, long 
by 10 ft. 6 ins. wide by 9 ft. 7 ins. high, with a net weight of 
108,300 lbs. 

3 turbines $77,828.10 

486 gallons of gargoyle turbine oil . , 233.04 

Grout, electrical material 1,525.35 

$79,586.49 

(6) Jet Condenser — Dry Vacuum Pumps. These air pumps re- 
move the air from the barometric condenser and are located in the 
power house. The account covers the cost of the material listed 
below and the labor of erecting the same. 

Two 15-h.p. slip ring motors, 440 volts, 3 phase, 60 cycles, 

565-r.p.m,, with resistance controllers. $ 739.92 

Two 16 by 12 single-stage Alberger dry vacuum pumps... 1,888.82 

2 circuit breakers 39.88 

Grout, cable, condulets, etc 191.99 

$2,860.01 

(7) Circulating Pump — Cost and Erection. These air pumps 
furnish the circulating water for the barometric condenser. The 
cost includes the price of the material listed and the labor of in- 
stalling. 

Two 35-h.p., 440-voIt, 60-cycle. 570-r.p.m. motors $1,687.50 

Two 2 Lobe cycloidal jumps, 14 by 12, 17.8 gal. per rev. . 2,341.41 

2 oil switches, 6G0 volt 39.89 

Miscellaneous 66.88 

$3,535.68 

(8) Air Compressor — Erection. This account covers only the 
erection at the smelter of the following IngersoU-Rand tv,'0-stage 
compressor. It was brought from the mines and erected at the 
smelter power house. The compressor has a steam-driven cross- 
compound Corliss engine. The steam cylinders are 13 in. and the 
air cylinders are 22 in. and 13 in. and the common stroke is 36 in. 

(9) Three Dry Vac^uim Pu))ips — Cost and histallation. These 
pumps are for the surface condensers. The account covers their 
cost, erection, grouting and trying out. They weighed 14,000 lbs. 

3 dry vacuum pumps 8-in. steam by 20-in. air by 12-in. 

stroke $3,136.11 

Grout, packing, etc 53.99 

$3,190.10 

(10) Three Circulating Pumps and Engines — Cost and Installa- 
tion. These pumps furnish the circulating water for the surface 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 269 

condensers. The account covers the cost of the material licted 
below and the labor of erecting and trying out. 

3 Lobe, 18 bv 20. cycloidal pumps, capacity 49.5 gallons 

per rev., and three 27-in. flexible couplings $4,425.25 

Three 11 by 14 Ridgway, simple balanced, slide-valve 

engine.^ for direct connection to above pumps 4,124.60 

Grout, packing, etc 179.43 

$8,729.37 

(11) Pumps. This account covers the cost of the following ma- 
terial and its erection in the pump house. 

Two 5 by 8 Aldrich vertical triplex, single-acting pumps, 

37 r.p.m. with metallic packing $1,597.91 

Two 10-h.p. induction motors, squirrel-cage, 3-phase, 60- 

cycle, 440-volt, 850-r.p.m 287.22 

2 auto starters 

2 overload releases calibrated from 6 to 18 ampere per ter- 
minal 124.36 

Miscellaneous • 26.09 

$2,035.58 

(12) Cranes. This covers the cost of two 40-ton Morgan cranes 
and the labor of installing them on the craneway, and putting 
together the equipment ready for operation. It does not include 
the wiring. They were hoisted in place on the craneway by the 
use of two erecting engines. These cranes are of 40-ton capacity, 
have 4 four motors, span 55 ft. from rail to rail, and are rigged 
for a 50-ft. lift. Each crane has a 15-ton auxiliary hoist. 

(13) Clinkering Machines. These two machines are set 24 ft. 
above the floor of the converter building on structural steel sup- 
ports. The steel supports are a part of the converter building 
and have been costed in that account. The main body of the 
jnachine, the mixer, is the frustrura of a cone 13 ft. 6 ins. long, 
whose head end is 5 ft. diameter and whose discharge end is 
9 ft. 6 ins. diameter. It is made of %-in. steel plate, lined with 
1-in. cast-iron liners. The whole is mounted on trunnions oper- 
ated by a 50-h.p. motor. The ladle which feeds the converter slag 
into the head end is 60 cu. ft. capacity and is tilted by a screw 
oper.ated by a 15-h.p. motor. 

The feeder which lets siliceous ore into the head end to ag- 
glomerate with the slag extends from the silica bins to a pipe 
discharging into the dropping stream of slag. It is a screw con- 
veyor 4 ft. 91/4 ins. long. Each machine has a hqod connected 
to a steel flue 2 ft. 6 ins. diameter by 36 ft. 8 ins. long, leading 
Into the converter dust chamber. 

The machinery for two machines enumerated above cost . $11,872.82 

Two 50-h.p. motors as above 828.61 

Two 15-h.p. motors as above 820.16 

2 V)rakes for ladle tiT)ping motor 176.51 

2 traveling switches for brakes 1 36.4 4 

2 circuit breakers 102.80 

Miscellaneous 4 4.60 

$13,981.94 



270 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

This cost includes the price of the machines and the cost of 
installing them. 

(14) Casting Machine — Cost and Erection. This account cov- 
ers the cost of ail the material composing 2 casting machines, 
and all the labor required to erect on their foundations ready to 
operate. Each machine has a steel cradle to receive a ladle of 
molten copper. This cradle is controlled from a pulpit and is 
tipped by the power from a 20-h.p. motor. It is set high enough 
to pour into a casting spoon of IV^-in. cast iron whose approxi- 
mate dimensions are 2 ft. wide by 3 ft. 6i/^ ins. long, and from 
7 ins. to 1 ft. 5V^ ins. deep. This casting spoon pours into the 
moulds, which are attached to a heavy steel conveyor. The 
moulds are 39 in number, made of 2V^-in. cast iron reinforced 
with 'yjo-in. perforated plate. Their inside dimensions are 2 ft. 4 
ins. by 1 ft. 6^4 ins. by 3^4 ins. deep. From the pulpit, by use 
of power from a 20-h.p. motor, the conveyor with the moulds 
moves along under a spray of water from needle holes in pipes 
placed above them until they reach the end of the conveyor, where 
a device in the bottom of the moulds loosens the ingots, allowing 
them to drop into a tank of water. This bosh is made of ^le-in. 
plate, 3 by 3 and 4 by 3 angles. It is 7 ft. wide, 23 ft. 5% ins. 
long, and varies in depth from 7 ft. 10 ins. to 2 ft. 10 ins. The 
copper bars are removed from here by a .steel drag conveyor oper- 
ated by a 11-h.p. motor, controlled from the pulpit. When the bars 
leave the bosh and fall onto the striking plate they are handled 
by a radial crane whose moving end travels on a 40-ft. curved 
I-beam. Along the radial crane beam travels a small air hoist 
capable of picking up 1 ton. It operates undar an air pressure 
of 16 lbs. A jib crane is so located, attached to a building column, 
that it can handle the moulds for removing and replacing. It has 
a 3,000-lb. capacity triplex block and 8-in. I-beam trolley. Below 
is a segregated material list : 

2 casting machines $18,657.89 

Two 11-h.p. and four 20-h.p. motors 2,933.88 

2 jib cranes 327.22 

2 radial cranes 1,167.91 

2 traveling switches 135.75 

2 brakes for ladle tipping motors 176.51 

4 circuit breakers 103.50 

Moulds, etc. 708.55 

$24,211.21 

(15) Crushing Machinery. This account covers the material cost 
and labor of installing the following machinery : 

One 36-in, by 18-in. Farrell Crusher, second hand, weight 

50.000 lbs $1,000.00 

Miscellaneous lumber 93.61 

$1,093.61 

(16) Motor-driven Fans. This covers the price and cost of in- 
stalling upon their foundations 2 motor-driven fans, which furnish 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 271 

the air to cool the roaster arms. They are 55-in. double width, 
full housing conoidal fans, direct connected, each with a 25-h.p. 
squirrel-cage induction motor. 

Each fan has a capacity of 22,000 cu. ft. of air per minute against 
a pressure of 1% ins. water. 

Cost Freight Total 

2 fans and motors $1,203.00 $199.49 $1,402.49 

Miscellaneous 3.42 

$1,405.91 

(17) Crane. This covers the purchase of the crane listed below, 
the labor of overhauling and erecting it. 

One 5-ton hand power traveling crane, chain block trans- 
fer type 18-ft. span, complete with roller bushed geared 
trolley and provided with 5-ton triplex chain block for 
13 ft. lift $378.35 

Miscellaneous 60.06 

$438.41 

(18) Condensers — Cost and Installation. This covers the cost 
of 3 Alberger surface condensers and the labor of placing and 
grouting them in position. Each condenser has 7,600 sq. ft. of 
surface. 

3 Condensers $19,436.04 

Grouting, etc 127.51 

$19,563.55 

(19) Jet Condenser — Cost and Erection. This covers the cost 
of one 28-in. Alberger type " F," barometric jet condenser and erec- 
tion above a tank. 

(20) Jet Condenser — Hot Well Supporting Structure and Tank. 
This account covers the cost and erection of 5.76 tons of steel. 
There was a quadrangular tower 19 ft. 6 ins. high, with about 
12 ft. base, surmounted with a 10 ft. diameter by 8 ft. 6 in. high 
steel tank. 

(21) Two Motor Generator's — Cost and Installation. This ac- 
count covers the material listed below as well as the labor of un- 
loading, erecting, grouting, wiring to switchboard, and trying out. 

Two 150-k.-w. synchronous motor-generator sets to supply 

250 volt d.c $6,450.16 

Conduit and wire 317.36 

Miscellaneous 62.81 

$6,830.33 

Installation of Pelton and Doble Wheels of 3,000 to 4,000 h. p. 
in general takes about 30 days' time of an erecting engineer at $10 
a day and expenses and 6 men at $2.50 to $3 per day, making a 
total cost for the installation of about $1,100, or $50 per ton. 

Weight of Electrical Apparatus and Prime Movers. Leonard A. 
Doggett (Electrical World, May 3, 1913) gives curves of approxi- 
mate weights prepared after consulting the bulletins of American 



272 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and European manufacturers, periodicals and textbooks, the only- 
requirement being that the data must be less than 10 years old 
and preferably not over 5 years. See Fig-s. 3, 4 and 5. 

Logarithmic paper was used, because it gives straight line plots 
and is economical of space. Curves of this nature can easily be 
Interpolated as the dotted curves, whereby the weight of the 
smallest motors and transformers can be easily estimated. In 



4500 

'WOO 

4400 
^ 4200 
^ 4400 
^ 3&00 
•5* 3600 
I 3400 
r^ 3200 
§ 3000 
"S 2300 
% .2600 
g 2400 
% 2200 
a 2000 
■ S 1900 
^ l&OO 
Z KOO 
J 1200 

1000 

800 

^0 

2040 WSOiOCKOWOieO 180 200 220- 240 2W 250 300 32Q3W 369 380 400 
5ire& of Generators ir>K,VA. 

Fig. 3. Cost of directly connected engine (#iven D C and A C 
generators installed under ordinary conditions, bases being fin-- 
ni.shed by engme contractor. »jciiis lui 







































~7\ 






































/ 






































y 


' 




































J 


/ 






































/ 






































/ 






































/ 




































\ 


/ 






































^/ 




































w 










^ 


























// 






t 


^'> 


X 






























'^ 


^ 






























/ 


,*./! 






























f 


/ 




/ 


/■ 






























/ 


/ 


y 


X 
































/•' 


x- 


































y 




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/ 


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C( 






































n 


























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using the curves it should be noted that for transformers the upper 
scale is to be used. For the machines "pounds" means weight 
of active material plus weight of shaft, spider, bearings, etc. ; 
in other words, the total weight of the machine. In the case of 
alternators the abscissas are (kva.) -- (r.p.m.) ; for induction mo- 
tors (kw. output) -f- (r.p.m.). 

Any of these curves for electrical apparatus can be expressed in 
the form of an equation, for example : 

Weight in pounds of a transformer, including case and 



oil - 1800 



/ kva. \ 

\ frequency / 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



273 



Setting Horizontal Return Tubular Boilers. The following data 
are abstracted from a publication of The Big-elow Company, New 
Haven, Conn. The first thing- necessary to secure a setting that 
will remain tight and free from cracking is a good foundation. 
This should be prepared before the arrival of the boiler. When a 
boiler arrives it should be carefully unloaded and transported to 
the site of erection. One should remember that it is made up of a 
number of plates riveted together, and that the tightness of each 
tube depends upon two expanded joints ; therefore a boiler should 
be handled with care. Pipes or bars should never be stuck in the 
tubes to aid in moving the boiler. 



100.000 



10.000 



100,000 




1000 Iba 



Pounds 



1.0 
Multiple Logarithmic 

^ KW 

" exm: 



100 
£l«etrUal World 



Fig. 4. Curves for obtaining approximate weight of prime movers. 



Place the boiler in the correct position with the front properly 
set up before commencing the brickwork. When a boiler is to be 
supported on lugs resting on the brickwork, place it y^ in. higher 
than the desired final position, to allow for lowering on the brick- 
work when the supports are removed. If a boiler is to be hung 
from beams it can be placed in the correct position at once. No 
weight should be carried by the boiler front. To insure against 
this leave % to % in. clearance between the bottom of the shell 
and the front. This is especially important in the lug-supported 
type in order to allow for settling. 

The front end of a boiler should be set 1 in. higher than the 
rear to aid in draining through the blow-off pipe when washing 
out. This also allows an extra inch depth of water over the rear 
tube ends, a precaution against damage from low water. In 
leveling a boiler cros.swise consider two points, the top line of 
tubes and the face of the steam nozzle. 



274 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Barrels are preferable to blocking for supporting a boiler while 
the setting walls are being built, for they are less in the way of 
the masons. Two heavy oil barrels will support a 66-in. by IC-ft. 
boiler, if the blocking below them and on top is arranged so that the 
load is distributed evenly over all the staves. Use more barrels for 
larger boilers and arrang*} the blocking on top so that the load 
will be distributed evenly between the barrels. If good barrels 
are not available, a cribwork of blocks placed under the front 
and rear of the sheU will serve the purpose. Care should be used 
in the arrangement of the blocking so that it will not interfere 
with the building of the setting walls. 




0.01 

(O.Ol-For use— 0,001) 
with dotted lines 

Fig. 5. Curves for obtaining approximate weight of electrical 
apparatus. 

Some masons use common lime mortar in building boiler set- 
tings, but a much better and more lasting job can be obtained by 
adding cement to the bonding mixture. First mix regular lime 
mortar, using % cu. yd. of good, sharp sand to 1 bbl. of lime. 
Then make a mixture of sand and cement, using 2 bbls. of sand 
to 1 bbl. or 4 bags of cement ; add this to the lime mortar and 
then it is ready for use. and this quantity should be enough to 
lay about 1.000 bricks. If all the mortar cannot be u-^ed at once, 
the sand and cement mixture should be added only to such portion 
of the lime mortar as will be reciuired for immediate use. It is 
difTicult to keep it in proi)er condition for use overnight after the 
cement has been added. Fire-cl;iy only should be used for bond- 
ing, in laying fire-brick. For this purpose mix it with water to 
about the consistency of buttermilk, so that the bricks may be 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 275 

dipped in it and rubbed together when laying them. About 2 bbls. 
of fire-clay are required to lay 1,000 bricks. 

To estimate the amount of common bricks required for a boiler 
setting, figure the number of cu. ft. of wall to be laid with this 
kind of brick, and multii)ly Ijy 23 ; the result will be the numbi^r 
of bricks required. In making calculations no deductions should 
be made for openings in the setting walls for cleaning doors, etc. ; 
the waste from breakage and cutting will require the extra brick 
figured in this way. Where fire lining is laid iV^ ins. thick and 
with every sixth course a header, figure 8 fire-bricks for each 
square foot of wall surface lined in this manner. If the lining 
is to be 9 ins. thick and with every sixth course tied to the common 
brick with a header, figure in 15 bricks for every square foot of 
wall surface lined. 

Return tubular boilers are set with an air-spaced wall. This 
lessens the radiation losses by keeping down the temperature of 
the exposed wall surface. The chief advantage of the air-space 
construction, however, is that when properly built it tends to pre- 
vent the cracking of the outer wall surface and therefore makes 
a better-looking setting. An important point in the designing of 
setting walls, to prevent cracking, is the method u.sed to join the 
ends of the bridge wall with the side walls. Usually a mason will 
build the two at the same time and tie the bridge wall rigidly to 
the side walls. This will result in cracked side walls, because the 
bridge wall expands when heated and pushes out the side walls. 
"With the wall having an air space this does not necessarily show 
on the outer wall unless the two are tied together at this point. 

There are two ways of preventing trouble from expansion of the 
bridge wall, one by leaving the ends of the bridge wall about an 
inch away from the side walls, packing the space with asbestos or 
mineral wool. The elasticity of the packing allows for the ex- 
pansion of the bridge wall and it prevents the space from becom- 
ing clogged with ashes and cinders. The other way is to build 
a recess about 4^^ ins. deep in the side walls having the same 
.shape as a vertical section of the bridge wall, and build the ends 
of the bridge wall into this recess, leaving 1 1^ ins. of clearance 
at each end for expansion. 

The chief function of a bridge wall is to limit the length of 
grate surface by presenting a barrier beyond which the spreading 
of the fuel is prevented ; it also aids in mingling the unburned 
gases and air, so as to cause complete combustion before reaching 
the tubes. Where girth seams are located in the vicinity of the 
bridge wall, the top of the wall .should be so shaped and of such 
a distance below the shell that the products of combustion will not 
strilve directly against the seam. Leave at least 10 or 14 ins. be- 
tween the top of the bridge wall and the shell to prevent over- 
heating of the .sheets, even in the absence of seams. The top of 
the bridge wall should be built straight across, and not follow the 
contour of the shell as is sometimes done. 

The combu.stion chamber at the rear of the bridge wall is a very 
important feature. It aids complete combustion, especially if 



276 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

bituminous coal is used. The rear edge of the bridge wall should 
be built vertically, and the space behind it down to about the level 
of the floor should be left open. The deep combustion chamber 
at the rear of the bridge wall causes a whirl in the air and gases 
coming over it and greatly aids in their proper mixture. It also 
increases storage capacity for the fine ash and cinder that is car- 
ried beyond the bridge wall. 

The practice of filling the space behind the bridge wall cannot 
be too strongly condemned, for it seriously interferes with the 
accessibility for inspection of the most important surfaces of the 
boiler, and is certain to prevent complete combustion, especially 
if bituminous coal is used. It is easier to clean out the combus- 
tion chamber by arranging the bottom of it so that the blow-off 
pipe passes out below the paving. The cleanout door, which is 
usually located in the rear wall, should be placed on a level with 
the paving so that no obstacle is offered to raking out the ashes. 
Place the blow-off pipe in a brick trough, the bricks on top being 
arranged so that they may be readily removed for inspection. 
This arrangement admits the blow-off pipe being placed" above 
the boiler-room floor without interfering with free access to the 
cleanout door. The vertical section of the blow-off pipe should 
be protected from the direct impingement of the flames by use of a 
pipe sleeve over it. 

Some engineers prefer to line all the inner surfaces that are 
swept by flame and heated gases with fire-brick, and while this 
makes a good and lasting setting it adds considerably to the cost. 
If the front wall and the side walls as far as the bridge wall are 
lined, together with the face of bridge wall, and the balance of 
the setting is laid with good, hard-burned red brick, a satisfac- 
tory and very durable job will result. Every fifth or sixth course 
of fire-brick should be a header course to properly bind the lining 
to the main wall. When laying the fire-brick care should be taken 
to use only the minimurn amount of fire-clay for bonding. 

When a boiler is set with a Dutch oven, there is absolute need 
of binder bars or their equivalent to carry the thrust of the arch, 
but no such need exists with the ordinary return tubular setting 
where the boiler is hung, and probably not where the boiler is 
supported by lugs resting on the setting walls. 

Proper provision to allow freedom for expansion of the shell 
must be made if the cracking of the setting walls is to be pre- 
vented. The walls should be left about 1 in. from the shell of the 
boiler at all points, and this space can be closed with asbestos 
rope or plastic asbestos to prevent air leakage into the setting. 
Pockets should be left in the brickwork around the rear supporting 
lugs so that there will be no chance for the lugs to push against 
the walls. A point where clearance is of vital importance is- 
around the pipe connection to the water column and blow-off. 
Unless there is proper freedom allowed at these points there is 
danger of the piping being broken off. 

Where boilers are hung from beams and supported on columns 
and more than one boiler is used, a column is often placed in the 



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278 MECHANICML AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

dividing wall between boilers ; where this is the case too great 
care cannot be exercised to keep such columns from being over- 
heated. There should be at least 13 ins. of brickwork between the 
column and the fire and a 2-in. air space around the column, 
with free ventilation in this space. To accomplish this, air 
should be admitted near the bottom of the column through an 
open duct not less than 10 ins. square, and with free opening at the 
top. These requirements, where a column 8 ins. in diameter is 
used, mean that the minimum wall thickness between the boilers 
at the grate level must be 38 ins. 

Floor Space for Reciprocating Engines. H. A. Lardner (Trans- 
actions American Institute of Electrical Engineers, April, 1903) 
states that the floor .space required is affected more by the design 
than the size of the unit. Vertical space has proved cheaper than 
floor space. The floor space required per h. p. at 3 central sta- 
tions in New York is as follows : 

Units, h.-p. Sq. ft. per h.-p. 

Edison station 5,500 .33 

Metropolitan station . . •. 4,500 .50 

Manhattan Station 8.000 ,55 

Cost of Space for Different Types of Boilers. C. R. D. Meier 
(Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 22, 1913) in comparing the 
space occupied, per rated horse power, by the various types of 
boilers, shows the cost of floor space per boiler horse power. Tak- 
ing the cost per sq. ft. as $10, for example, we note that the cost 
per boiler hor.se power with Type A is $7.84; with Type A with 
alleys. $8 96; with Type C, $11.50; with Type B, $13.50, and with 
Type D, $13.32, Type A being the horizontal pass type boiler; B, 
vertical baffle, horizontal water tube boilers. No. 1 with inclined 
header.s No. 2 with vertical headers, and No. 3 with a cross-dium 
and vertical headers, this reducing the head room ; C, inclined water 
tube boilers. No. 1, being a standard setting and No. 2 arranged 
with A -shaped furnace; D, horizontal boiler with steel water legs 
instead of sectional headers, as in Type B. It has 4-in. tubes, ver- 
tical baffles, and a tube spacing similar to Type A. so that the space 
occupied is approximately the same as for Type B. 

Money Valve of Head Room. The different head room require- 
ments with the boilers under consideration are given below. 

COMPARATIVE HEIGHTS AND COSTS FOR DIFFERENT 
TYPES OF BOILERS 



Type of 
boiler 


Ht.ft. 


Add'l. ht. 

comp'd. 

to A 


Ditto. 

% 


Add'l. cost of 

boiler plant 

bldg., acc't. 

greater ht. 

per hp. 


A 
Bi 

B2 

Ba 
Ci 

c, 

D 


22.00 
26.25 




4.25_ 



19.3 


0.00 
0.24 


23.60 
30.00 
33.50 
24.00 


1.60 

8.00 

11.50 

2.00 


6.8 
36.4 
52.3 

8.7 


0.09 
0.46 
0.65 
0.11 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 279 

It now remains to determine the money value of head room so that 
these costs may be properly combined with the floor space figures. 

We may assume $5 per boiler h. p. as an average cost of a 
boiler plant building alone, as corresponding to the average value 
of $10 \)er sq. ft. for the cost of building foundations and real 
estate. It is unnecessary to analyze the money value of head 
room for a range of values of boiler plants from the minimum to 
the maximum, because this item is less important than floor space. 

Obviously, the height of the boiler plant building will not affect 
the cost of real estate afid, and for all practical purposes, the cost 
of foundations. Furthermore, increasing the height of the boiler 
room does not increase its cost so much in proportion as does an 
increase in the plan area of the building. The reason for this is 
that the side walls and columns may be increased in height at a 
less cost than the roof construction. We shall therefore' assume 
that doubling the height of the building increases its cost only 
50%, whereas if the cubical contents were increased the same 
amount by making the floor area double, the cost would be in- 
creased 1009^. In the second place, an increase of a certain per- 
centage in the height of a boiler does not increase the height of 
the boiler room by the same amount ; the clearance above the 
boilers remains practically the same in any case. We shall there- 
fore make the further assumption that an increase in the height 
of a boiler of 100%. instead of increasing the height of the boiler 
room by 100%, increases that dimension only 50%. 

Total Saving per Boiler Horse Power. Table XXIV shows the 
additional costs, due to increased floor space and head room, of the 
different types of boiler as compared with Type A without 6-ft. 
alleys between batteries. These costs are evaluated on a basis of 
$10 per sq. ft., which is a fair average. The costs due to greater 
heights are taken from the calculations above, which were made 
on a basis of the cost of a boiler plant building of $5 per h. p, 
which would correspond to $10 per sq. ft. for buildings, real estate 
and foundations. 

It is seen that, compared with Type A without alleys (for hand 
firing and a few types of stokers), the additional cost for the 
various other types of boilers ranges from $3.49 to $5.90 per h. p. 
As compared to Type A with alleys (the general condition for 
stokers), the additional cost ranges from $2.37 to $4.78 per boiler 
h. p. If, instead of considering the one basis of $10 per sq. ft., 
we consider the upper and lower limits of $22 and $3.50, it is evi- 
dent that the saving in space occupied, with the Type A boiler, as 
compared to the various other types, is worth from $1 to $10 per 
boiler h. p. 

Money Value of Floor Space. The money value of space saved 
will depend on : 

(1) The cost of real estate. 

(2) The cost of foundations. 

(3) The cost of the power plant building. 

Power plants, factories and industrial plants are generally lo- 




280 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



281 



cated where real estate is cheap, but nevertheless in many cases 
the cost of the site will be 50 to 100% of the cost of the building 
itself. (Power, Jan. 26, 1909, p. 219.) 

The cost of the generator station building, and of the land oc- 
cupied, of the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn, is $29 
per kw. (Engineering and Contracting. April 6, 1910), and as the 
cost of the building probably lies between $10 and ?20, the land 
and the building are about equally expensive. 

As against this upper extreme, we have such plants as factories 
in outlying districts of small towns where the cost of real estate 
might be as low as 25 cts. per sq. ft. Between these values lie 
the factories, breweries, mills and similar plants, in medium-sized 































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Coshpf Real Estate, Foundations ^Boiler Plant Building Per 5q Ft in Dotiars^ 

Fig. 7. Relation of cost per sq. ft. of floor space, to cost per boiler 
hp. of various types of boilers. 



cities. "We must also consider isolated plants in cities and shall 
assume the following limits for the value of real estate : Real 
estate, 25 cts. to $10 per sq. ft. 

In a paper on " Steam Power Plants," by O. S. Lyford and R. 
W. Stovel, in the January, 1911, Proceedings of the Engineers' 
Society of Western Pennsylvania, it is pointed out that foundation 
costs range from $1.25 to $4 per sq. ft. of building plan area, 
depending upon the character of the soil. The lower figure covers 
simple concrete footings for. good bearing soil, while the higher 
figure covers locations where piling or rock excavation is required. 
We shall assume the same figures, viz. : Foundations, $1.25 to 
$4 per sq. ft. 

The same paper states that power plant buildings cost $4 to 



282 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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MOVING AND INSTALLING 



283 



$12 per kw. and that the plan area will average from 0.8 to 1.5 
.sq. ft. per kw., giving a cost per .sq. ft. of from $2.70 to $15. 

In Power, of Aug. 22, 1911, p. 274, A. E. Dixon cites a case of 
a power* plant building in the Middle West of 1,600 kw. where the 
building cost was .|2.35 per sq. ft. The author also states that in 
many of the larger steam plants the cost of the building per sq. ft. 
is much higher than the figure for this plant, ranging from $5 
to $10 without foundations. 

Tn Data Chicago, for September, 1910, is given a chart with 6 
cases of power plant buildings varying in plan area from about 






Type A(Wifhout Alleys) 



— -JW-"-- 


6' 


- 




Type 



Fig. 8. Required floor space for eight boilers of 9,000 sq. ft. heat- 
ing .surface, each for different types of water tube boilers. 

3,000 to 30,000 sq. ft., which ranged in cost from $2 to $4 per 
sq. ft. 

On the basis of the foregoing, we shall assume : Cost of build- 
ings, $2 to $8 per sq. ft. of plan area. Grouping the three items of 
real estate, foundation and power plant building, we have the 
following : 

Real estate, cost per sq. ft. $025 to $10 

Foundations, cost per .sq. ft 1.25 to 4 

Power plant buildings, cost per sq. ft.... 2.00 to 8 

Total cost per sq. ft $3.50 to $22 



The chart of Fig 7 is drawn with the above limits of cost 
per sq. ft. of space. 

Number of Brick Required for 507 h. p. Boiler. The brick re-, 
quired above the fioor line in setting a 507 h. p. Stirling boiler in 
a power house in Washington were as follows; 



284 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Arch fire brick : Number required 

High grade, standard size 476 

High grade, wedge shape, 2 Va by 2 by 4 V2 by 9 

ins 5,32 

Wall Fire Brick: 

High grade, standard size 3,846 

Second grade, standard size 2,398 

Third grade, standard size 2,758 

Miscellaneous : 

Red brick 23.755 

Fire tile, 12 by 2 by 12 ins 279 

Cost of Erecting Harrington Automatic Stoker Under a Return 
Tubular Boiler. C. L. Samson (Engineering and Contracting. Aug. 
16, rj 11) gives the cost of tearing out the old cast iron front, 
furnace iron work, bridge wall and all flre brick lining in front of 
the bridge wall of a 72-in, and 18-ft. horizontal return tubular 
boiler, and the erection of a Harrington automatic stoker in i)lace, 
rebuilding the bridge wall and relining the furnace from the bridge 
wall to the front. 

The floor line of the old furnace was too low to permit the use 
of the ash drag furnished with stoker. This necessitated cutting 
out the concrete floor and digging pit 8x9 ft. by 2 ft. 6 ins. deep 
at the front of the furnace. The material excavated consisted 
of 6 ins. of concrete floor and 2 ft. of shelly rock. All excavating 
was done with sledge an I wedges. The itemized costs of the 
various parts of the work were as follows : 

Cost of tearing out old boiler front, 13 hrs. at $0.25 $ 3.25- 

Excavation for ash pit, 74 V, hrs. at $0.25 18.62- 

rrentering for arches, 18 hrs. at $0.30 5.40. 

Forms for concrete work, 7 his. at $0.30 2.10^ 

Door over ash pit. V2 hr. at $0.25 13^ 

Brick work. l65i/> hrs. at $0.25. 55 hrs. at $0.21 52.93-- 

Erecting iron work. 59 hrs. at $0.25. % hr. at $0.30 14.90- 

Steam piping to stoker engine, 21 hrs. at $0.25 5.25 

Sorting and handling old firebrick, 25 hrs. at $0.25 6.25' 

('oncrete work, 15 hrs. at $0.25 3.75 

Total cost of labor $112.58 

The above costs do not include superintendence and material. 

In another case the work included erecting stokers, rebuilding 
the bridge wall and relining the furnace from the bridge wall to 
the front. The floor of the old furnaces was so low as to neces- 
sitate cutting out the floor and excavating a pit ; the floor being 
concrete and the excavation being rock and the work being done 
with sledge and wedges. The cost of installing the first stoker 
as Itemized in article mentioned above was $12 58. The same gang 
put in the remaining three stokers. It will be noted that the cost 
gradually decreased with the successive installations. The follow- 
ing were the costs of labor for stokers 2, 3 and 4 : 

• Second Stoker 

Excavation. 82 hrs. at 25 cts $ 20.50 

Tearing out old fronts, 10 hrs. at 25 cts 2.50" 



MOVING AND INSTALLING * 285 

Forms for concrete, 7V:? hrs. at 25 cts $ 1.'88 1 4 28 

Forms for concrete, 2 hrs, at 30 cts 2.40 j 

Centering for arches. 2 Mj hrs. at 30 cts 75 ^ ^ a-, 

renteriijg for arches, 1 1 V2 hrs. at 25 cts 2.88 j "^"'^ 

Concrete work. 32 V-, his. at 25 cts 8.13 

Unloading- stoker. 4V2 hrs. at 25 cts 1.13 

Unloading sand, 2 hrs. at 25 cts , .50 

Unloading firebrick. 152^.^ hrs. at 25 cts 3.92 

Brickwork, 36 hrs. at 22 cts 7.92 1 07^7 

Brickwork. 119 hrs. at 25 cts 29.75 f- •^'•°' 

Erecting iron woj k, 44 hrs. at 25 cts. ..,< 11.00 ( 1010 

Erecting iron work. 27 hrs. at 30 cts 8.10 j 

Teaming 2.50 

Shafting. 12 hrs. at 30 cts 3.60 J . qo 

Shafting. 5 Ms hrs. at 25 cts 1.38 J ^-^^ 

Total labor $108.84 

Third Stoker 

Excavation. 89 hrs. at 25 cts .....* $ 22.25 

Tearing out old front. 10 hrs. at 25 cts 2.50 

Forms for concrete, 16 hrs. at 30 cts. $ 4.80 | f- ,,, 

Forms for concrete, 2 hrs. at 25 cts 50 J ^ 

Centering for arches. 7 hrs. at 25 cts 1.75 

Concrete work, 20 hrs. at 25 cts 5,00 ) ^ 04 

Concrete work. 4 hrs. at 21 cts 84 j "'^^ 

Unloading stoker, 4 V> hrs. at 25 cts 1,13 

Unloading sand. 2 hrs. at 25 cts .50. 

Unloading firebrick, 152/;j hrs, at 25 cts 3.92. 

Brickwork. 98 hrs. at 25 cts 24.50 1 00 r-j 

Brickwork. 43 hrs. at 21 cts 9.03 | ^'^^"^ 

Erecting iron work. 77 hrs. at 25 cts 19.25 j 91 ou 

Erecting iron work, 13 hrs. at 21 cts. . 2,73 \ "^'^^ 

Shafting. 4 hr.s. at 30 cts 1 20 

Teaming -, 2 50 



Total labor \ $102.40 

Fourth Stoker 

Excavation, 101 1^ hrs. at 25 cts $25.38 \ ».,(. ^. 

Excavation, 7 hrs. at 21 cts 1,47 ( if-"^^ 

Tearing out old front, 12 hrs. at 25 cts 3 00 

Forms for concrete, 2 hrs. at 30 cts 60 | ., ^ ,. 

Forms for concrete, 6 hrs. at 25 cts 1.50 \ " 

(Centering for arches. 5 hrs. at 21 cts 1.05' 

Concrete work. 26 V2 hrs. at 25 cts 6.62 

Unloading stoker. 41/2 hrs. at 25 cts 1.13 

Unloading sand. 2 hrs. at 25 cts 50 

Unloading firebrick, 15% hrs. at 25 cts 3.92 

Brickwork, 98 hrs. at 25 cts 14,50 f 91 ■$ . . 

Brickwork. 32V2 hrs. at 21 cts 6,84 ( "^'^^ 

Erecting iron work, 1 hr. at 30 cts 30 ( 1.1 55- 

Erecting iron work. 57 hrs. at 25 cts 14,25 j 

Shafting. 3 hrs. at 30 cts 90 [ , r.^ 

Shafting. 3 hrs. at 25 cts 75 J ^ ""^ 

Teaming 2.50 

Platform for ash pit. 3 hrs. at 25 cts .75 

Cleaning up boiler room, 5 hrs. at 25 cts 1.25 

Total ' , $87.21 

Cost of Setting Two 200 h. p. Boilers at the Bush Terminal, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. The work was accomplished in bad weather. 

Labor $ 449.83 



286 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Material : 

38.360 red brick at $12 per M $ 400.00 

4,500 fire brick at $32 per M I i ai aa 

75 Bull nose fire brick at $32 per M j ^^^-^^ 

36 bbls. of lime at $1 36.00 

12 lbs. of Rosendale cement at $2 24.00 

29 yds. sand at $1.25 34.25 

11 bbls. fire clay at $3 33.00 

$ 670.65 
Total cost of setting boiler $1,219.83 

Cost of Two Engine Foundations at the Corliss Surprise Store, 
8th Avenue, New York. A 1 :4 ;6 mixture of concrete was used. 

Labor : 

271/2 days at $2 ...$ 55.00 

Material Used : 

21 bbls. cement at $2 42.00 

8 yds. sand at $1.75 14.00 

13 yds. stone at $3 39.00 

Material Hauled Away: 

18 yds. earth at $1.25 22.50 

Total cost of foundations $172.50 

Excavation, cu. yds 17 

Concrete, cu. yds 17 

Cost of foundation per cu. yd $10.10 

Cost of Moving and Erecting a 400 h. p. Corliss Engine and 500 
k. w. Generator. In describing the moving and erection of a Cor- 
liss engine and generator C. L. Samson (Engineering and (Con- 
tracting. Aug. 16, 1911) states that the engine and generator came 
knocked down on flat bars and were hauled 1 y-y miles over paved 
streets on a heavy truck, especially designed for hauling heavy 
loads. The heaviest piece weighed 15 tons. It so chanced that 
the streets were slightly down grade for the entire distance, so 
that four horses were sufficient to draw the heaviest parts. The 
most of the parts, however, were drawn by a 2-horse team. 

The installation was in an old building and the floor was not 
strong enough to support the weight of the heavier parts. Shores 
were accordingly set under floor sills and joists at about 36-in. 
centers to strengthen the floor. 

A gin pole with a 4-sheave rope block and a hand power double- 
geared winch was used in taking off the top half of the generator 
field ring and for lowering the bottom half of the flywheel into 
the wheelpit. All other parts were placed on skids, rolled into 
position and lowered with jacks. 

A house mover furnished his services with the truck, one team, 
blocking and the necessary jacks and rigging for $10 per day. 
The man sent by the engine company supei'vised the erection of 
the engine and the company furnishing the generator sent a man 
to supervise the erection of the electrical ecjuipment. 

Charges for moving the generator are high, due to a truck break- 
ing down under load with considerable delay in transferring the 
load. 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 287 

The charges for erection on both engine and generator are high, 
due to delay in arrival of certain parts that failed to come with 
the rest of the machinery. The charges for installation and cov- 
ering of steam and exhaust piping are high due to the fact that 
they were laid under the lloor where only about 18 ins. woiking 
space was available. Further, two concrete foundation walls had 
to be pierced. The steam line was about 18 ft. long -and the ex- 
haust line was about 45 ft. long. Both steam and exhaust lines 
were 8 ins. and flanged pipe and fittings were used. Aside from 
pipe and fittings, little material was used and the charges below 
given are for labor only. 

The weight of the engine was 41 tons and the weight of the 
generator was 20 tons. The switchboard, transformers and fittings 
weighed about 5 tons. The itemized costs of labor were as follows : 

Cost of shoring up engine room floor, 43 1/^ hrs. 

at $0.30 $ 13 05 

Cutting walls for steam piping. 591/2 hrs. at $0.25.. 14.88 

covering steam piping : 

20 hrs, at $0.30 6 00 

91 hrs. at $0.25 22.75 

Total , $28.75 

Piping for oiling system : 

8 hrs. at $0.30 $ 2.40 

118 hrs. at $0.25 , 29.50 

Total $ 31.90 

Moving engine : 

23 hrs. at $0.30 $ 6.90 

1361/2 hrs, at $0.25 ,. 34.12 

House mover 34.50 

Extra men 6.00 

Total $ 81.52 

Setting up engine : 

137 hrs. at $0.30 $ 41.10 

343 hrs, at $0.25 85.75 

House mover , 5600 

Erector 286.15 

Total $469.00 

Moving generator : 

431/2 hrs. at $0.30 $ 13.05 

581/. hrs. at $0.25 14.62 

House mover 42.50 

Extra team 4.00 

Total $ 74.17 

Setting up generator: 

4 hrs. at $0.30 ■ $ 1.20 

102 hrs. at $0.25 ' 25.50 

House mover 38.00 

Erector 190.00 

Total $254.70 

Total cost of labor for moving and erecting engine 

and generator $967.97 



288 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Wrecking a Plant after a Fire. Wilfred Twinch (Power, 
Oct., 1907) gives the following account of wrecking the Minnesota 
Sugar Company's plant, at St. Louis Park, Minn., after it was 
burned down. The plant cost $400,000. The main building and 
warehouses were of enamel brick, one end of the plant being of 
mill construction, two stories high, and the other end part steel 
and three stories high. Some of the heaviest machinery was sup- 
ported by iron columns. The floors were wood. After the insur- 
ance was adjusted the plant was turned over to the engineer to 
wreck. He was instructed to save everything worth saving, to 
sell the scrap, and to clear the ground. There were four cast-iron 
evaporators, built-up structures, 20 ft. long, 8 ft. wide and 8 ft. 
high, with their backs broken. There were eight wrought-iron 
crystallizers weighing 20 tons each, and there were steel storage 
tanks and pipe lines galore. Altogether there was sufficient salvage 
to preclude the use of dynamite. 

The engineer had had no previous experience in wrecking, so he 
concluded that scrapmen could do it more cheai)ly. These gentle- 
men were found to be banded together and very difficult to deal 
with. At first the best proposition they would offer was to pay 
us $2.40 a ton for the wreck, they to clear the ground, leaving us 
everything we wished to retain. Finally competition got pretty 
sharp, and we closed a contract with one fellow to clear the ground 
and pay $6.75 a ton for all wrought- and cast-iron scrap, 12i^ cts. 
per pound for copper scrap, 4 cts. for brass, and $3 per thousand 
for whole brick. Fortunately we had a lawyer to draw up a 
contract which contained a penalty clause for not finishing the 
job within 60 days. 

These wreckers were specialists, competent to handle such a 
proposition. Incidentally we learned that it is best to consider 
all machinery that has been in the heat of a fire as scrap, only 
scrap, and that cast-iron columns go through fire better than builtup 
columns, because they are capable of withstanding more heat. 

The wreckers first extended the railroad track into the wreck 
and procured two gondola cars, then removing by hand and team 
such as they could, they put the cast-iron scrap into one car and 
the wrought-iron into the other. Next they installed a guy derrick 
with a 60-ft. mast, with 18 X 18-in. base and a 70-ft. boom; al.so a 
double-cylinder. 7 X 10-in. hoisting engine. Care was taken in lo- 
cating the derrick so it would need shifting only three times, as 
each move cost $50 to $60 in labor. 

The big cast-iron evaporators, condensers, vacuum pans, etc., 
were broken up by dropping a big ball upon them from the top 
of the derrick. All wrought-iron work and the steel structures 
were cut up with cold chisels and sledge hammers, piece by piece. 
To show that the workmen were not amateurs, the pipe work was 
unscrewed where necessary, or the flanges were broken with sledge 
hammers. 

Cost of Wrecking the Plant.' The market price for wrought- 
and cast-iron scrap, mixed, was $10 per ton. f.o.b. cars; the con- 
tract price was $6,75 per ton on the ground, so the contractor 



MOVING AND INSTALLING 



289 



evidently allowed $3.25 a ^n for wrecking and loading. Follow- 
ing is the actual cost as checked up daily by the company's en- 
gineer : 

Labor (excluding derrick gang) 4500 hours at 22i/^ cents... $1,012 

Supervision, 2 men for two months, at $75 300 

Team, 10 days at $4 40 

Setting derrick 60 

Derrick, 60 days at $12 a day (4 men) 720 

Derrick repair 50 

Loading derrick 50 

Tools (say) 30 

$2,262 

There was 990 tons of scrap iron shipped, so the actual cost of 
wrecking and loading was $2.28 per ton. 

Installation Costs of Miscellaneous Equipment. Table XXVIII 
gives actual costs of installing power plant equipment and is 
largely taken from accounting records, in connection with recent 
appraisals (prior to the war). 



TABLE XXVIII. INSTALLATION COSTS 



Weight, 
Description lb. 

2-18,000 hp. turbines 611,400 

■ 1-10,000 hp. turbine 169,000 

2- 500 hp. impulse wheels.. 19,200 
1— 5,000 hp. turbine and gov- 
ernor 143,900 

1- 1,000 hp. turbine 148,000 

2-10,000 kw. generators 470,000 

2- 225 kw. exciters 48,000 

1- 7,000 kw. generator 199,100 

2- 1,500 kw. motor generators 309,700 
1— 500 kw. motor generator. 41,115 

1-1,250 kw. generator 32.500 

1-3,750 kw. generator...... 107,360 

1-1,400 kw. generator 66,700 

7-3.333 kw. transformers.... 245,000 

4-1,000 kw. transformers 78,000 

1-1,000 kw. transformer 33,000 

3- 200 kw. transformers 28,500 

3-1,500 kw. transformers 55,500 

3-1,000 kw. transformers 57,600 

3- 200 kw. transformers 28,300 

1-2,200 kw. transformers 66,200 

1-60 ton crane 114,000 

1-50 ton crane 77,000 

1-25 ton crane 24,000 

1-30 ton crane 42,000 

1-10 ton crane 11,500 





Misc. 




Cost 




mate- 




per 


Labor 


rial 


Total 


ton 


$9,848 


$2,440 


$12,288 


$40.20 


3,973 


924 


4,897 


57.90 


1,357 


1,051 


2,408 


25.10 


1,288 


209 


1,497 


20.80 


825 


36 


851 


11.50 


3,719 


1,332 


5,051 


21.50 


590 


362 


952 


39.50 


2,285 


1,190 


3,475 


35.00 


1,566 


372 


1,938 


12.50 


347 


7 


354 


17.30 


235 


62 


297 


18.30 


392 


17 


409 


7.80 


401 


21 


422 


12.60 


1,573 


340 


1,913 


15.60 






507 


13.00 


110 


33 


143 


8.70 


262 


10 


272 


19.20 


1,138 


152 


1,290 


46.50 


752 


237 


989 


34.30 


765 


22 


787 


55.80 






771 


23.30 


1,708 


140 


1,848 


32.40 


1,004 


136 


1,140 


29.60 


290 




290 


24.20 






417 


19.80 






140 


24 30 



How a IVIachine Foundation in a Substation Was Removed by 
Dynamite. (Electrical World, March 11, 1916.) A booster set in 
the Kolmar Avenue (Chicago) substation of the Commonwealth 
Edison Company has been removed to make room for a new 



290 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

2000-kw. synchronous converter. A part of the reconstruction 
work incident to the change consisted in removing the booster 
foundation, which was built in a solid concrete block 12 ft. wide 
by 15 ft. long- by 5 ft. high. To remove this monolithic block by 
manual labor would have taken 8 men a week working 8 hrs. a 
day with points and sledges. 

A quicker and more efficacious method, however, was adopted. 
Working with air hammer and drills, a workman made 25 1.5-in. 
holes varying in deptli from 12 ins. to 30 ins. in the concrete. Two 
licensed dynamiters, whose seiwices had been secured from the Chi- 
cago surface Lines, then set and ignited 14 dynamite blasts, which 
completely removed the old foundation. The man who drilled the 
holes worked from 2 to 11 p. m on his part of the job. The dyna- 
miters worked from 1.30 A. M. till 4.30 a. m. the following morning, 
firing the first blast at 1.30 a. m. and the last at 4.21 a. m. While 
the dynamiters were at work the two converters at the substation 
were shut down. This experience with dynamiting has led the 
company's engineers to believe that machine foundations inside 
of buildings can be more safelj*. speedily and economically removed 
by men who thoroughly understand dynamiting than by laborers 
with sledges and points. 



CHAPTER VI 
FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 

Easy Calculation of Steam Coal Required by Power Plants. R. E. 

Horton in Engineering-- News, March 11, 1915. gives the data in 
Table I for use in calculating the cost of coal required by actual 
or hypothetical steam plants under comparison with proposed 
hydraulic stations. 

Computations were carried through and tabulated for the yearly 
coal consumption in tons at a rate of 1 lb. per h.p.-hr. under vari- 
ous conditions. Now it is only necessary to ascertain or estimate 
and combine (1) the simplest unit coal consumption (per h.p.-hr., 
including allowance for shrinkage and waste if any) ; (2) the 
average h.p. in use when running; (3) the allowance for banking; 
(4) the hrs, use per day, and days per year. 

TABLE I. FACTORS FOR CALCULATING AMOUNT OF STEAM 
COAL REQUIRED PER HORSEPOWER-YEAR 

Gross tons. Net tons, 

2,240 Ib.^. 2.000 Ib.s. 

310 365 310 365 

Method of operation days days days days 

10 hrs. per day, no banking 1.38 J. 63 1.55 1.83 

10 hrs. per day, plus % for banking. 1.8 4 2.17 2.07 2.43 

12 hrs. per day, no banking 1.65 1.96 1.86 2.19 

12 hrs. per day, plus i/^ for banking 2.21 2.61 2.48 2.92 

24 hrs. per day, no banking 3.32 3.91 3.72 4.38 

For example: A plant runs 10 hrs. per day and 310 days 
per year, produces 500 h.p. average, useg 2i^ lbs. per h.p.-hr. of 
steam coal, has % allowance for banking; coal co.'^ts $3.50 per 
gross ton. From the table, the proper unit consumption per h.p.- 
year is 1.84 gross tons. Then, 

2.5 X 1.84 X 500 X$3. 50 = $7,735 annual co.st. 

Sometimes it is necessary to know the tons of ash that will have 
to be disposed of each year ; then it is necessary only to substitute 
the decimal percentage of ash in the coal for the price per ton. 
For 15% ash the foregoing case shows 

2.5 X 1.84 X 500 X 0.15 — 345 gross tons. 

Theoretical Mechanical Equivalent, in H. P. Hours, of Heat 
Energy Contained in Common Fuels. Fig. 1 shows the equivalent 
theoretical energy contained in the ordinary units of measure of 

291 



292 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

common fuels. The chart has been prepared by taking accepted 
standards for the heat content per pound of fuels such as wood, coal 
anthracite and bituminous, alcohol, petroleum, etc., taking 1 B. t. u. 
equal to 778 ft. -lbs. and 1 hp. .equal to 2,545 B. t. u. per hour. 

Knowing tJie thermodynamic efficiency of any combination of 
boiler and engine and tlie heating value of any fuel in B. t. u.'s 
the amount of fuel required to operate the plant can readily be 



Eiiuivalent Theoretical Energy in Horse Power. 1 Lb. of Fuel 



Fig. 




1. Theoretical energy contained in lbs. of fuel for heating 
values up to 24,000 B.t.u. per lb., a B.t.u. being equal to 778 ft.- 
Ibs. 



estimated from the chart. Or, knowing the heating value of a 
fuel, and the amount of fuel required to produce a mechanical 
h.p., the thermodynamic efficiency of the plant can be determined. 
Thus, a plant operating with an average boiler efficiency of 
70%, a heat loss from radiation of 5% and an efficiency of engine 
and auxiliaries of 20% has a total net operating efficiency of 
70 X 95 X 20 = 13.3%, If the plant uses coal with a heating value 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 203 

of 14,000 B. t. u. per lb. 1 ton of fuel would produce 11,000 X 0.1 33 - 
1,463 h.p.-hns. If the jjlant is required to develop 100 h.p., 8 hrs. 
per day for 300 days or 240,000 h.p.-hrs. per year there will be 
required 240,000 — 1.463 = 164 tons of fuel. 

The Economy to the Consumer Resulting from the Purchase of 
Coal Under Specifications. The advantage to the consumer aris- 
ing from the purchase of coal according to specifications was 
shown clearly by W. O. Collins, vice-president of the Gullocl< Hen- 
derson Co. of Chicago, in a paper before the Illinois Water Supply 
Association, printed in Engineering and Contracting. March 27, 
1912. The adoption of this phase of the economic operation of 
pumping and power plants merits the careful consideration of the 
superintendents of such ])lants. 

The heat value and buining qualities have always been the 
underlying basis of consideration wherever it has been possible to 
choose between one or more grades or sizes of coal. We find all 
sorts of crude methods used in making these decisions and too 
often we find that a consumer simply knows that one kind of coal 
seems to burn better than another without really knowing whether 
or not it is cheai)er for him than some other available fuel. 

Up until a few years ago the larger consumers emi)lf>yed the 
boiler test to determine whether or not coal was efficient or up to 
contract requirements. Selections of coal for contracts were fre- 
(luently made by this method. Coal contractors were requested 
to make a .shiiiment of coal representative of the fuel which they 
proposed to furnish if awarded the contract. Several shipments 
so received were subjected to burning tests under the boiler and 
the evaporation per pound of coal and the cost to evaporate 1,000 
lbs. of -water were dc^termined with more or less accuracy depend- 
ing on the care with which the tests were made. If coal con- 
tractors were wi.se, as they usually were, extra good coal was 
often supplied for the test and, generally, extraordinarily high 
results were recorded. 

However, in individual cases this method has been satisfactorily 
handled and the system is often us(^ful in determining the gen- 
eral grade of fuel best suited for any particular boiler equip- 
ment. 

On public and political contracts the eva|)oration method has 
caused no end of criticism as there are many conditions under 
the control of the testing engineer and firemen by means of v\hi(!h 
ihe results can be controlled at will. Furthermore, even if the 
tests are honestly and efficiently made, they are u.'^eless in the 
case of a legal fight as it is always possible to show th^it the con- 
<Iitions of testing are constantly changing to a greater or less 
extent due to the formation of boiler i^cale, weather, load and 
firing re(iuirements. 

Along with and following this method of specifying and regu- 
lating deliveries a chemical analysis showing the amount of mois- 
ture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash and heat v»lue was fre- 
quently incorporated in the contract together with the guarantee 
of evaporation obtained by the boiler test method. This was often 



294 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

a strengthening clause and was many times the basis of making 
settlement where substitution was clearly evident. 

It can not be said that any of these methods were ever uni- 
versal nor is . the new and improved B. t. u. system in universal 
use. In many cases the fuel which forms from 10 to 25% of the 
yearly expense, is bought without any supervision whatever, while 
the much less expensive items, such as steel, pig iron, cement, 
electrical materials, paper, etc., are often purchased on the most 
rigid sj)ecifications and guarantee. 

Following the public demand for efficiency and honest purchas- 
ing, the political and public institutions have in many cases been 
the leaders in scientific methods of purchasing coal. Thus in 1907 
the U. S. Government adopted a form of B. t. u. specifications 
which is now in use by practically all Government departments. 
The methods used by the Government and the method now in use 
by other consumers are, generally, based on the same fundamental 
principle, which is the " delivery of heat units." While there are 
several different methods of regulating and figuring the value of 
a delivery, practically all of them consider the analysis of as much 
importance as the weight of the coal. 

The B. t. u. system as applied to public institutions briefly is as 
follows : Bids for the delivery of fuel are advertised for in the 
usual way. The advertisement differs little from the common 
form and often simply states that an ainount of coal is desired 
and that the same will be purchased in accordance with the B. t. u. 
system, specifications for which may be had by application, etc. 

Other specifications differ in detail for different institutions, due 
to the variations in the coal requirements and business methods 
of the office. All embrace clauses to cover the following principal 
points and it will be seen that a specification should cover some- 
thing more than the mere physical properties of coal. 

(1) Conditions under which proposals are to be made must be 
clearly defined, the bond, certified check, and other general con- 
ditions must be explained. 

(2) Special requirements such as time and place of delivery, 
amount of coal required, strike clause (if any), liability of con- 
tractor, and clauses covering the purchase on open market must 
be clearly and specifically drawn. Since a specification is usually 
the basis of and a part of a contract, it must be legally drawn 
and fair to both the contractor and consumer, as an unfair contract 
may not stand the test of the court eve*n though it may have been 
accepted by the contractor 

(3) A general description of the coal wanted should be included 
in the specifications. This description is usually composed of the 
chemical analysis limits together with a paragraph relating to 
size, as follows : 

DESCRIPTION OF COAL WANTED 

Bituminous lump containing not less than 12,500 B.t.u. per pound 
of dry coal and not to exceed 14 per cent, of ash dry coal. Lump 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 295 

coal shall contain all the lumps as mined and shall be* so screened as 
not to contain to exceed 20 per cent, by weight of coal which will 
pass through a li/4-in. circular perforated screen. 

These limitations are the basis on which future deliveries are to 
be enforced. Similar chemical and physical restrictions can be 
drawn to cover other grades and sizes of coal, such as screenings, 
chestnut anthracite, washed and unwashed nut, etc. 

(4) A specification must contain a clause covering and providing 
for a means of rejection of a shipment should it be far below the 
limit of the specification as to quality and size. 

If coal inferior as to size and quality is kept and burned, it may 
be accepted and paid for on the basis of deductions made in accord- 
ance with the terms of the specifications. 

The penalty for excess of fine coal is usually based on a deduc- 
tion of something like 1%% of the contract price for each 1% ex- 
cess of fine material as limited above. For example, if lump coal 
containing not to exceed 20% fines at about $2 per ton was con- 
tracted for, and mine run coal containing 32% of fines was actually 
delivered, the deductions due to fineness would be 1V2% of $2 for 
each 1% of fine coal in excess of the 20% of allowed or a net deduc- 
tion of 36 cts. per ton. This deduction would be made in addition 
to any deduction originating fiom lower heating value. 

(5) The real essence of the specification lies in the clause cover- 
ing methods of payment. This paragraph must literally be bull 
strong and hog tight. 

Believing that each individual contractor should know the analy- 
sis and heating value of the coal he is attempting to sell, the re- 
sponsibility of stating the exact guarantee as to moisture, ash and 
heat value, is placed upon him. A sheet is provided whereon he 
may place this detailed information together with the price per 
ton and the number of heat units which he is willing to guarantee 
to furnish for one cent. 

The testing and payment clause clearly states in words how the 
B. t. u. for one cent shall be figured and is briefly stated as follows: 

Multiply the number of heat units per pound of coal as deliv- 
ered by two thousand. This gives the number of heat units de- 
livered in every ton. Divide this product by the price of the coal 
per ton expressed in cents plus an arbitrary correction for 
ash amounting to one-half the percentage of ash expressed as 
cents. 

Since the anlysis of coal is often expressed on the dry basis, the 
heat value as delivered must be determined by deducting for the 
percentage of moisture. Thus the calculation resolves Itself to this 
formula : 

B.t.u. dry coal X per cent, dry coal (100 less per cent, of 

moisture) X 2. QUO 

Price per ton in cents -f- (0.5 X per cent, of ash dry coal) 

The result of this simple calculation gives the number of heat 
units for one cent which the bidder proposes to deliver. Samples 



296 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

are taken from all subsequent deliveries and upon these samples 
analyses are made and by a converse calculation the value of the 
coal as delivered is determined accurately. 

The specifications state the high and low limits of analysis which 
will be accepted under any conditions. Coal accepted is paid for 
on the showing of the analysis. 

The method of sami»ling. chemical analysis and other details 
of the process are now fairly well standardized and while there are 
still differences of opinion in minor details, nevertheless it is a 
fact that they are as well standardized and can be as accurately 
handled as in the sampling and testing of other materials of com- 
merce, such as iron, steel, cement, etc. 

After the preparation and adoption of a scientific and fair speci- 
fication the personal element again enters and unless the work is 
honestly and accurately done, without fear and without favor, the 
system becomes a failure. Although the system has enjoyed a 
steady growth, still much of thef criticism and many of the objec- 
tions are based entirely on the inefficiency and dishonesty of the 
testing. 

The best of ai>paratus and the most careful and straightforward 
work are required. Needless to say the tester must have no af- 
filiations or connections with the coal trade and his efforts must 
be to maintain the absolute confidence of the coal trade as well as 
that of the consumer. 

In several cases the contractors have continually earned a bonus 
due to their care in the selection of good coal. There are other 
cases where they always run behind, due to overbidding. We 
believe that the bonus should be paid where it is earned and like- 
wise believe in making deductions where the coal is below the 
guarantee. 

Economic Points in the Selection and Purchasing of Coal. An 
analysis of the coal bids made for a large manufacturer in 1915, 
made by H. R. Callaway and described in Engineering Magazine, 
Sept.. 1915, is given in the following table, the names of the coals 
and of the dealers being indicated by index numbers. 

Volatile Fusing 

Index matter Sulphur Ash B.t.u. point, 

number per cent, per cent, per cent. dry Price deg. P. 

1 27.53 1.93 8.32 14,314 $2.80 

2 23.17 1.70 11.93 13,713 2.85 2,189 

3 16.22 1.39 7.52 14,532 2.80 2,774 

4 23.20 1.20 10.00 14,135 2.85 2,580 

5 16.10 1.69 8.73 14.350 2.90 2.662 

6 22.35 .83 9.44 14,178 2.95 

7 22.75 1.03 8.06 14,307 2.95 2,734 

8 17.59 1.81 11.75 13.736 3.00 2,560 

9 21.41 1.61 7.42 14,535 2.95 2.938 

10 17.28 2.04 10.04 14,160 3.00 2,444 

11 22.12 1.49 10.10 14,100 3.00 2,780 

12 21.18 .86 7.06 14,587 3.05 2,780 

13 18.77 1.34 7.38 14,500 3.05 

14 20.36 1.33 9.42 14,228 3.05 .... 

15 17.47 1.56 11.90 13,961 3.10 2.586 

16 21.96 2.10 9.36 14,237 3.00 2,460 

17 17.65 1.30 7.60 14,565 3.10 2,800 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 297 

The data as to the character and quality of these coals repre- 
sented the average of several tests made in connection with inde- 
pendent investigations of the same coal delivered to other plants. 
The plant in question needed coal running over 20% volatile mat- 
ter under 1.5% sulphur, under 8.57c ash and at least 2,700 degs. F. 
for the fusing point of ash. Inspection of the table shows that 
only Nos. 7 and 12 met these requirements, prices shown in the 6th 
column. The advantage in favor of No. 7 over No. 12 figured 
out about $0.04 per ton, No. 12 being of somewhat higher quality 
on the basis of the ash and the B. t. u. quality. 

Mr. Callaway cites a case of a manufacturer who adopted a 
certain coal seven years ago at $1.60 at the mines and although 
normally he was running his business in an efficient manner he 
was continuing to pay $1.60 for this coal in spite of a considerable 
reduction in the general soft coal market and at that he was not 
getting the best coal that he could for $1.60 in any market, thus 
throwing away over $1,000 a year because of a lack of basis 
of comparison between the coal that he was buying and other 
coals that he could get. 

Specifications for Purchasing Coal. Leo Loeb in Engineering 
Magazine, March, 1911, quotes the follov/ing forms of coal speci- 
fications covering large deliveries. The Interborough Rapid Transit 
Company purchased 360,000 tons of run-of-mine bituminous and 
dry coal analysis as follows: Carbon, 71%; volatile, 20^6; a.sh, 
97o ; B. t. u. 14,100 per lb. and sulphur, not over 1.5%. Premiums 
or deductions on heat value are based on a rate of 17c for each 
50 B. t. u. per lb. of coal for each V-^% of volatile matter in excess 
of 217o, 2 cts. per ton was deducted and also 2 cts for each i^% 
of ash in excess of 9% and a 6-ct. deduction for each V4% of sulphur 
in excess of lMs7,. Mr. Loeb criticises certain features of this 
contract as inequitable ; first excessive penalties in the case of 
sulphur and volatile matter, and deductions without corresponding 
premiums in the case of volatile matter, ash and sulphur, and he 
objects to the omission of incentive to the dealer to deliver coal 
low in moisture. The coal is not actually delivered dry but always 
contains a certain amount of moisture and the B. t. u. in the coal 
as delivered form the only true basis for potential heat. 

The Panama Canal coal for vessels, locomotive, and fuel for 
dredges and steam shovels, aggregating 650,000 tons per annum, 
is purcha.sed on a desired quality of 14,600 B. t. u. as received, 
with acceptance down to 14.350 B. t. u. on deduction of 14 7o per 
25 B. t. u. or fraction thereof. Coal that analysed below 14,350 
B. t. u. and on a dry basis less than 14,750 was penalized 1 cent for 
each 25 B. t. u. below 15,000 in addition to the above noted penalty. 
This, in effect, being an ash adjustment, since the coal actually 
had a value dry of 14,900 B, t. u. Mr. Loeb criticises this as a 
severe contract, but is justified because although the prices f. o. b. 
vessels at Norfolk were $2.72 y^ per long ton in 1908. $2.44 in 
1909, and $2.60 in' 1910, the total cost distributed to shovels and 
dredges amounted to $6.50 per ton. He states that the result of 
this contract was an average delivery for 1908 of 14,547 B. t. u., 



298 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

for 1909 there were 14,528 B. t. u. The banner cargo for that 
year consisted of 5,021 tons containing 2.06% moisture, 3.69% ash, 
yielding 14,888 B.t.u. 

The U. S. Ckwernment pays a premium for all coal showing more 
than 15,000 B. t. u. dry, allowing an ash variation of 2% and 
penalizing at rates increasing from 2 cts. to 35 cts. per ton from 
3% to 9% ash above guarantee. The ash penalties do not change 
with the price. 

Economic Hints on Calorific Tests of Coal. Whereas, the calorific 
qualities of coal can be determined by laboratory te.sts in a very 
convenient and inexpensive manner, the physical properties of the 
coal, which involve clinkering, packing down on the grates, or 
adaptability to the mechanical features of automatic stokers, must 
be determined by actual tests on firing, and these tests depend upon 
the skill of the fireman, the conscientiousness with which he does 
his work, and the ability with which he is supervised while the 
tests are being made. They should be tests under regular running 
conditions for a considerable period, possibly a week. 

iVIethods of Estimating the Heat Value of Fuel. There are two 
generally used methods : 

Calculations. The formula frequently used is as follows: B, t. u. 

O 

per lb. of fuel -CX 14,600 + (H ) 62,000. Where 

8 

C — Decimal part by weight of carbon in the fuel ; 
H— Decimal part by weight of hydrogen in the fuel; 
O -- Decimal part by weight of oxygen in the fuel. 

Tn using this formula in determining the value of gas fuels care 
shf)uld be taken not to confuse the weight of gas with its volume 
and temperature and pressures of gas mu.st be specified. The 
temperatures most frequently taken are 32 and 60 degs. F., and 
the pressure. 14.7 lbs., absolute. 

rroxiniate Ayialysis. The proximate analysis of coal does not 
give the percentage of total carbon nor the percentage of gases, 
but it does give the percentage of fixed carbon. The accompanying 
diagram. Fig. 2, appeared in Power, June 10. 1913, and w-as con- 
.structed from over 300 analyses made by the U. S. Government, 
representing coal found in 27 different states and territories. It 
is almost exactly correct for a limited number of cases, reasonably 
near correct (ju-obably within 3'/') ioi- a large number of cases 
and quite far from correct in a few cases. The curve is most 
uniformly accurate for coals having combustible matter that con- 
tains from 64 to 90% fixed carbon. Where the fixed carbon runs 
less than 6 1%. the curve may. in a few cases, err as much as 7%. 

Application of the Chart. "To estimate the heat value of a coal 
with a given proximate analysi.s, add together the percentage of 
fixed carbon and the percentage of volatile matter in the coal ; 
divide this sum into the percentage of fixed carbon and multiply 
by 100. This gives the percentage of fixed carbon in the com- 
bustible matter. Locate this percentage at the foot of the chart, 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



299 



extend your pencil straight up until you strike the curve, then 
extend it to the nearest (left or right) margin in a straight hori- 
zontal line and read off the B. t. u. per pound of combustible. 
Multii)ly the B. t. u. thus found by the sum of the percentage of 
fixed carbon and volatile matter in the coal as shown by the proxi- 
mate anlysis, and the answer, divided by 100, gives the B. t. u. 
per pound of coal. 

"To illustrate with an actual example, assume a coal with this 
proximate analysis: Moisture. 5 127f ; volatile matter, 27.25%; fixed 





T 


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Fig. 



2. Diagram for e.stimating heat value of coal fi'om proximate 
analysis. 



carbon. .53.38'7r ; ash. 14.25%. Adding together the percentage of 
fixed carbon and the percentage of volatile matter, 

53.38 + 27,25 - 80.63. 

Dividing this into the fixed carbon, we have 

53.38-^80.63 — 0.662, 

which, multiplied by 100, gives 66.27c fixed carbon in the com- 
bu.stible. Referring to the base line of the chart, find the 66% 
line and judge a point 0.2. or Vi. of the distance to the next line 
beyond. Trace an imaginary vertical line (this line is shown 
dotted on the chart) up from this point to the curve and then hori- 
zontally to the left margin. It strikes exactly the 15,400 B. t. u. 
line. Then, 15,400 B. t. u. may be taken as the heat value of a 
pound of the combustible matter found. 

" Now, if the coal were all combu.'-tible and had no moisture 
nor a.sh, the heat value per pound of coal would be identical with 
the heat value per pound of combustible. But only 80.63% of the 



300 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

coal is combustible, and hence the heat value of a pound of coal is 
equal to only 8 0.6 3% of the heat value of a pound of combustible. 
Thus, the heat value of the coal is 

15.100 X 80.63 -^ 100 = 12.417 B. t. u." 

Relative Value of Anthracite and Semi-Bituminous Coals. The 

comparison of the relative fuel value of the steam sizes of anthra- 
cite semi-bituminous coals shown in Fig. 3 was made by G. B. 
Gould, vice-president of the Fuel Engineering- Company of New 
York, and was printed in Cost of Power by that company. The 
average coal quality upon which the chart is based was determined 
from 8.195 tests of semi-bituminous and 9,885 tests of steam sizes 
of anthracite niade by that company. 

The Cost of Coal Analyses. The analysis of coal to determine 
the calorific value of the fuel costs from a maximum of 2 cts. 
per ton when the work is done on a small scale to % ct. per ton 
when the analyses of large shipments are made regularly. 

The cost of a calorimeter is from $100 to $150, and the cost for. 
a complete proximate analysis calorific determination in the U. S. 
Inspection Laboratory is $1.95 per sample in 1911 (Fng. Magazine, 
March, 1911). 

Coal Size and B. t. u. per $1 Cost. The data in Table II given 
in Isolated Plant, Sept., 1913, .^how the relative value of various 
size coals when properly burned, 



TABLE II. RELATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS SIZE COAL 



Kind 
Broken . . 
Egg 

Stove .... 
Chestnut . 

Pea 

Buckwheat 

No. 1 . . 

No. 2 . . 

No. 3 . . 



Pass 

square 

hole 

. 4V4 

. 3 

. . 21/2 

. . 1V:> 

■ . % 

■ . V2 

. . /A 

• • 4l6 



Not 
pass 

2% 
2 

IM 

% 

V2 

Vi 

%2 



-Specification- 



Ash, 
pr. ct. 

11 

11 

12 

12 

18 

19 
19 
19 



B.t.u. 

13.200 
13:200 
13,000 
13,000 
12,200 

12,000 
11.900 
11,900 



Approx. 
price 
$6.00 
6.25 
6.25 
6.25 
4.25 

3.50 
3.15 
2.75 



Evaporation Tests as a Check upon Coal Analysis. 
Loeb, Engineering Magazine, March, 1911.) 



No. of 
B.t.u. 
for $1.00 
4,400,000 
4,220,000 
4,000.000 
4,000,000 
5,740,000 

6,860,000 
7.510,000 
8,600,000 

(After Leo 



EVAPORATION TESTS OF TWO COMPETING COALS 



Name of coal 

Duration of test, hours. 
Analysis : 

Moisture 

Ash 

Fixed carbon 

Volatile matter 

B.t.u. as received 



Elk Licl 



1.80 

9.10 

68.60 

20.50 

14.050 



B.t.u. dry coal 14,310 

Refuse : 

Combustible matter 22.75 

Non-combustible 77.25 



Orenda. Orenda. Elk Lick, 



2.10 

8.20 

73.70 

16.00 

14,070 

14,370 



30.10 
69.90 



2.70 

9.30 

71.50 

16.50 

13,770 

14.150 



20.80 
79.20 



5.80 

8.30 

65.90 

20.00 

13,565 

14,400 



21.00 
79.00 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 301 

Name of coal Elk Lick. Orenda. Orenda. Elk Lick. 

Duration of test hours. .9 9 9 9 

Peicent.refu.se. 12.86 9.73 9.74 10.46 

Boiler horse power 42G.5 421.8 426.8 455.2 

Equivalent evai)oration per 

lb. coal as receivod 10.25 10.51 9.97 9.92 
Equivalenl evaporation per 

lb. dry coal 10.44 10.74 10.25 10.52 

Equivalent evaporation per 

lb. combustible 11.98 11.90 11.35 11.75 

Efficiency of boiler and 

grate, per cent 70. }5 72.18 69.95 70.55 

Contract price, per ton,. $3.01 $3.15 $3.15 $3.01 

A.sh in dry coal, per cent. 7 6 6 7 

B.t.u. Hs received 14,000 14,300 14,300 14,000 

Smoke, per cent, black. . . 15.2 1.7 3.62 13.8 
Cost of evaporating 1,000 
lbs. of steam under ob- 
served conditions, cts. 13.08 13.09 13.69 13.12 

The two bids considered gave respectively 9.84 and 9.66 cts. per 
million B. t. u., showing a ratio of 1.018. The first bidder had sup- 
plied satisfactory coal for a year; and the second one was known 
to be slightly inferior from records in the Bureau of Mines. But 
since there was a possible saving of 1.8'/<. it was decided to leave 
the results to evaporation tests on two Babcock & Wilcox boilers 
of 206 boiler h.p.. fitted with mechanical stokers, the results being 
given in the above table. The result being that the average coat 
of producing steam with the Elk Lick coal was 13.10 cts. per 
thousand lbs. and with Orenda 13.39 giving a ratio of 1.021, show- 
ing a saving in favor of the first of 2.1% as compared with an 
expected saving by calculation of 1.8%. 

The Weathering of Coal. As the result of some experiments 
on the weathering of coal conducted at the engineering experiment 
station of the University of Illinois the following conclusions were 
reached: (1) Sul)merged coal does not lose appreciably in heat 
value. (2) Outdoor exposure results in a loss of heating value 
varying from 2 to i^)%. (3) Dry storage has no advantage over 
storage in the open except with high suljihur coals, where the 
distintegrating effect of sulphur in the process of oxidation facili- 
tates the e.scape of hydiocarbons or the oxidation of the same. 
(4) In most cases the losses in storage appear to be practically 
complete at the end of 5 months. From the seventh to the ninth 
month, the loss is inapi)reciHl:»le. 

Variation of Car and Mine Samples of Coal. The following data 
are from Bulletin 85 of the U. S. Bureau of Mines. 

Method of Mine ^am2)ling Follovjed by Bureau of Mines. The 
method of collecting mine samples that is practiced by the Bureau 
of Mines has been described in detail in a previous publication. 
It involves selecting a repre.septative face of the bed to be sampled; 
cleaning the face ; making a cut across it from roof to floor, and 
rejecting or including imi)Uiities in this cut according to a definite 
plan as they are included or nxcludi^d in mining operations; re- 
ducing this gross sample, by crushing and quartering, to about 



302 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL^COST DATA 

3 lbs. ; and immediately sealing the 3-lb. sample in an airtight 
container for shipment to the laboratory. 

Collection of Car Samples. The carload lots of coal shipped to 
Pittsburgh for test were sampled by taking definite quantities of 
coal at regular intervals from a car as it was unloaded, and by 
reducing to convenient size (about 50 lbs.) the gross sample thus 
obtained. 

Method of Sampling Folloioed by the United States Geological 
Survey. In collecting mine samples the Geological Survey follows 
essentially the same method of sampling as that used by the Bureau 
of Mines. However, in sampling outcrops and prospect holes or 
country banks when mining is not in progress, the geologist can not 
imitate the miner in rejecting or including impurities in the sample, 
and hence the sample from the cut across the bed includes all part- 
ings or binders less than % in. thick and every concretion or " sul- 
phur ball " having a maximum diameter of less than 2 ins. and 
a thickness of less than y^ in. All other impurities in the bed 
are excluded from the sample. Obviou.sly an arbitrary and uni- 
form system of rejecting impurities is necessary for sampling out- 
crops, prospects, and undeveloped mines. 

Relation of Mine Satnples to Co)n)nercial Shipments. In making 
statements, on the basis of the analyses of mine samples, in re- 
gard to the quality of coal shipped from a mine due allowance 
must be made for the larger proportion of impurities that may be 
included in the commercial operation of the mine. It is difficult to 
take a mine sampl.e in which impurities are rejected in exactly the 
same manner as is done by the miner. The practice of different 
miners will vary, especially if rigid inspection at the tipple is not 
enforced. In some mines, for instance, where the coal bed has 
friable partings or has a soft, flaky roof or floor, the inclusion of 
some foreign matter is unavoidable. Hence the analysis of the 
mine sample usually indicates a better grade of coal, as regards 
ash content and heating value, than the actual commercial ship- 
ments, and for this reason the mine sample should be considered 
as representing the coal that can only be produced under the most 
favorable conditions of mining and preparation. 

In commercial shipments that are sampled at their destination 
the moisture content may be either more or less than that in the 
mine samples, the relative proportions depending on the amount 
of bed moisture, the size of the coal, and the weather conditions 
during transit. 

Coals containing 5% or more of moisture tend to lose moisture 
while in transit. Slack coal usually contains more moisture than 
the mine sample. Low-moisture coals shipped in open cars may 
gain or lose moisture, depending on weather conditions. 

The calorific value, referred to moisture-free and ash-free coal, of 
samples taken from shipments at destination, tends to be slightly 
lower than that of the fresh mine samples from the same mine. 
The deterioration is caused mainly by the freshly exposed surfaces 
of coal absorbing oxygen from the air. The rate of deterioration 
varies with the different types of coal and depends on a number of 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



303 



factors, chief of which are: (1) Size of coal, (2) proportion of 
surface exposed to circulating air, (3) duration of exposure, (4) 
temperature and humidity. 

It is therefore difficult to assign any definite values for deteriora- 
tion of coal while in transit. A number of mine and car samples 
tested by the United States Geological Survi'y and the Bureau of 
Mines showed ihe following average losses in moisture-free and 
ash-free calorific value of car sample as compared with that of 
mine sample. 

Kind of coal. Per cent. 

Semibituminous, New River and Pocahontas 0.1 

Bituminous, Appalachian field 3 

Bituminous, Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri 8 

Subbituminous and lignite 1-3 

TABLE 111. CALORIFIC VALUE OF COALS FROM VARIOUS 
STATES 
State Kind of fuel County perVb. 

Alabama Soft — Caking Bibb 13,671 

Alabama Soft — Free-Burning Jefferson 14.447 

Arliansas Soft — Caking Sebastian 13,705 

Arkansas Semi-Anthracite — Caking Johnson 14.125 

Arkansas Lignite Ouachita 9,5 19 

Georgia Soft — Free-Burning Chattooga 12.865 

Illinois Soft — Free-Burning Williamson 12,920 

Illinois Soft Briquets St. Clair 13,271 

Illinois Soft — Caking Saline 13,621 

Indiana Soft — Free-Burning Greene 13,099 

Indiana Soft — Caking Pike 13.545 

Indiana Soft Briquets Parke 11.930 

Indian Territory Soft — Free-Burning 13,932 

Indian Territory Semi-Anthracite 14,682 

Kansas Soft — Free-Burning Linn 12,343 

Kentucky Soft — Free-Burning Union 14,026 

Maryland Soft — Free-Burning Allegany 14,515 

Maryland Soft Briquets Allegany 14,717 

Missouri Soft — Caking Randolph 11,747 

Montana Lignite — Free-Burning Carbon 11,628 

New Mexico Soft — Caking Colfax 13,059 

New Mexico Soft — F'ree-Burning Colfax 12,721 

Ohio Soft — Free-Burning Belmont 13,381 

Pennsylvania Soft — Caking Indiana 14,240 

Pennsylvania Soft — Free-Burning Cambria 14,119 

Pennsylvania Soft Briquets Westmoreland 14,382 

Tennessee Soft Briquets Claiborne 14,092 

Tennessee Soft — Free-Burning Campbell 14,008 

Tennessee Soft — Caking Grundy 13,257 

Texas Lignite — Free-Burning Wood 11,131 

Utah Soft — Free-Burning Summit 12,586 

Virginia Anthracite — Free-Burning Montgomery 12,679 

Virginia Soft — Caking Tazewell 14,177 

Wa.^hington Sub-bit. — Free-Burning King 11,772 

Washington Soft — Free-Burning Kittitas 12,996 

West Virginia Soft — Free-Burning Marion 13,964 

West Virginia Soft — Caking Kanawha 13,995 

Wyoming Soft — Free-Burning Carbon 12,222 

Wyoming Sub-bit. — Free-Burning Uinta 12,488 

The valuations in Table III were obtained at St. Louis testing' 
plant from 139 samples of coal. The heating values of the various 
coals were established by " actually burning one grain of the air- 
dried coal in oxygen in a Mahler bomb calorimeter." 



304 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Calorific Value of Selected Free-Burning and Caking Soft Fuels. 
The data in Table HI are from U. S. rjeological Survey Bulletin 
No. 332 and U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 23. See Fig. 3. 



TABI^E IV. COMPOSITION AND HEAT 
ANTHRACITE COALS 

Fixed 

Locality car- Vola- Mois- 

bon tile ture 
Anthracite 

Penna 78. GO 

Buckwheat 81.32 3.84 3.88 

Wilkesbarre ... 76.94 6.42 1.34 

Scranton 79.23 3.73 3.33 

84.46 5.37 0.97 

Cross Creek 89.19 1.96 3.62 

Lehigh Valley 75.20 7.36 1.44 

Lykens Valley 76.94 6.21 

.... 81.00 5.00 

Wharton 86.40 3.08 3.71 

Buck Mt 82.66 3.95 3.04 

Beaver Meadow . . . 88.94 2.38 1.50 

Lackawanna 87.74 3.91 2.12 

Rhode Lsland 85.00 

Arkansas 74.49 14.73 1.52 

Semi- Anthracite 

Penna., Loyalsock 83.34 8.10 1.30 

Bernice 82.52 3.56 0.96 

89.39 8.56 0.97 

Wilkesbarre 88.90 7.68 

Lycoming Creek... 71.53 13.84 0.67 

Virginia, natural coke .... 75.08 12.44 1.12 

Arkansas 74.06 14.93 1.35 

Indian Territory 73.21 13.65 5.11 

Maryland, Basby . 83.60 16.40 . . . 



VALUES OF 




Sul- 


B.t.U. 


Ash 


phur 


per lb. 


14.80 


0.40 




10.96 


0.67 


12,200 


15.30 




11.801 


13.70 




12,149 


9.20 




12,294 


5.23 


. . . 


13.723 


16.00 




12 123 
15,300 
15,300 


6.22 


0.58 


15,000 


9.88 


0.46 


15,070 


7.11 


0.01 




6.35 


0.12 





7.00 


0.90 




9.26 




13,217 


6.23 


1.03 


15,400 


3.27 


0.24 


15,050 


9.34 


1.04 


15,475 


3.49 




14,199 


13.96 


0.03 




11.38 


0.47 




9.66 


. . . 




8.03 


1.18 


13,662 
11,207 



TABLE V. HEAT VALUE AND COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS 

FUELS 

, Composition ^ 

Vola- Calo- 

tile rifle 

Name of combustible C H mat- Ash power 

ter B.t.U. 

Carbon 1.00 ... 14,400 

Anthracite coal 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.01 13.500 

Bituminous Coal 85 0.05 0.06 0.06 14,400 

Lignite 0.70 0.05 0.20 0.05 11.700 

Peat 0.55 0.05 0.30 0.10 9.000 

Peat 0.30 water 0.39 0.04 0.50 0.07 7.200 

CoUe 0.85 0.05 ... 0.10 12.600 

Peat — charcoal 0.82 ... ... 0.18 9.000 

Dry wood 0.48 0.06 0.05 0.01 7.200 

Wood 0.20 water 0.40 0.05 0.25 0.01 5.400 

Wood charcoal 0.80 ... 0.04 0.07 10,800 

Hydrogen 1.00 ... ... 62.000 

Carbonic oxide 0.43 ... 0.57 ... 4.320 

Illuminating gas 0.62 0.21 0.17 ... 18,000 

Gas from blast-furnace ... 0.06 0.02 0.92 ... 1.620 

Note. Above information is quoted from standard authorities. 
Not guaranteed. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



SOS 



Influence of Ash on Value of Coal. All motive power officers, 
locomotive engineers and firemen are familiar with the trouble 
occasioned by what is designated as " bad coal," which makes 
clinkers as well as fills the firebox with ashes, so that the capacity 
of the locomotive is very materially reduced, resulting In delays 
and various other troubles, due not to inferiority in the coal itself, 

4.80 
4.60 
4.40 
4.20 
H 4.00 
3.80 
3.G0 
3.40 
3.20 
3.00 





























7 


























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§ 2.80 
S 2.60 
S 2.40 
^ 2.20 
« 2.00 
W 1.^0 
l^CO 
1.40 



oooocaooooooogooo 

ANTHRACITE VALUE 
Fig. 3. Relative Value of Semi-Bituminous and Anthracite 



but to the fact that the ash in or associated with the fuel is ex- 
cessive. In Railroad Age Gazette, July 30, 1909, there are given 
two diagrams, Figs, 4 and 5, the first illustrating value of coal 
fuel with varying percentages of ash, and the second, showing the 
results of experiments from which Fig. 5 is derived. 

These experiments were made with a Babcock & Wilcox boiler 
served with a chain grate' stoker. A .special lot of four cars of 
what is Itnown as No. 4 washed coal from Williamson county, 
Illinois, were provided to insure that no effect produced would be 
due to irregularity in size. In preparation it was passed over a 
screen having round perforations i/4 in. in diam. and through a 
screen having round perforations % in. in diam. The coal as re- 
ceived contained approximately 8% ash. The first experiment was 
run with this coal in condition as received. In the test of the fol- 
lowing day a small quantity of ash-pit refuse was mixed with it, 
and on each succeeding day a gradually increasing quantity of 
ash-pit refuse was added to the coal and thoroughly mixed. This 
process was continued until the efficiency and capacity dropped 



306 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

* 

to zero, or in other words, until there was no water evaporated 
from the coal burned, notwithstanding the fact that 60% of the 
fuel composition was pure coal. 

The above mentioned experiments were conducted for the Com- 
monwealth Edison Co., Chicago, and they refer to conditions 
of stationary boiler service rather than of locomotive. Some re- 
sults plotted from tests made by the United States Geological 
Survey using coal containing ash ranging from 5 to 15% on hand- 

100 



i 80 

o 
u 



u 



60 



40 



7. 20 

8 



_=i.,^__ ^: . — 






^^^^^^^ " : -± " ~ ::: 


li -^i"*w N : 


•^. V ■^ V 


^ ^^ ^■ 


X ^^^»; ^ ~ " " 


s s ^ 


!5i, S J 


5* S !^ 


!^. ^ ^r- 


\^^S - - -- - 


_ _ ^^s\ : : :_ 


-- - - - s_L^ _. . :::_ 


_ _- _ - - - ^:,L, :_ _ .: : 


_ - _ -^s^ _ __: : 


- _- -- _ -S-^ _ ::: : 


-- - __ - -L^^ __ . _ 


v^ 


5 k 


N> . - 




* 1 1 .1 :rK Y Mf 




:::?':!i::::: = :: ::-::H:::::::: 


in 



10 20 30 40 
PER CENT or ASH IN DRY COAL 
Fig. 4. 



fired grates, conform very closely to the corresponding portion of 
the curve shown in Fig. 5. 

The matter of ash in locomotive fuel may be considered from 
two standpoints ; one, the desirability of employing fuel which is 
low in ash, the other, the removal of the ash as rapidly as it 
accumulates, each tending to the same result. It has been the 
author's experience that by frequently shaking the grate, the ash 
accumulation could be so disposed of that an engine would come 
in at the end of a division with the fire in apparently as good 
condition as when leaving. This, however, added very materially 
to the labor required on an engine, but more recently, grate-shaking 
apparatus, which is operated by steam, has been proposed and also 
employed to a limited extent. 

The whole matter of the ash in locomotive fuel is one of the 
very first importance, probably much greater than has been re- 
alized. The characteristic of smallness in size, which cuts a con- 
siderable figure in stationary practice, is largely absent in the case 
of locomotives, for the reason that the fine coal is carried out of 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



307 



the stack by the intense draft and does not clog the fuel to such 
harmful extent, leaving the ash as the greatest cause of trouble 
with the railway fuel, which results in many so-called engine 
failures. 



600 
700 
600 
SCO 
400 



•^ 300 



200 



100 



ErrKtcHor 



^^ 



^. 



70 

60 H 
Z 
lU 

50 O 
(t 

u 

40 0- 

>- 

30 ^ 

LJ 

20 y 

Lu 
to UJ 



10 20 30 40 

PER CENT OF ASH IN DRY COAU 

Fig. 5. 

Cost of Preparing Powdered Coal. W. L. Robinson states that a 
general average from available data, covering a period of the past 
5 or 10 years of cement and metallurgical plants, will justify the 
following conservative estimates for plants of different sizes, as- 
suming the cost of the raw coal at from $1 to $2 per short ton. 
The material will require crushing and have a moisture content of 
from 5 to 10% when placed in the dryer. 



Capacity of plant in 

short tons per hr. 

2 



Average total cost for prepara- 
tion per short ton, cts. 

25 to 50 

20 to 45 

16 to 40 

14 to 35 

12 to 30 

10 to 20 



The fuel required for drying the coal will average from 1 to 2% 
of the coal dried, and the distribution of the total cost is approxi- 
mately as follows : 

Per cent. 

Fuel for drying 10 

Power for operation ^0 

Labor 30 

Maintenance and supplies ^o 

Interest, taxes, insurance and depreciation 5 

Total 100 



308 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Coal Burned per Sq. Ft. of Grate Area. Fig. 6 gives the results 
of tests on briquettes and run-of-mine coal noted by W. F. M. Goss 
in Bui. No. 363, U. S. Geological Survey. 

The experiments were made on the U. S. torpedo boat Biddle 
by Kenneth McAlpin of the U. S. Navy Department and W. T. 
Ray and H. Kreisinger of the U. S. Geological Survey. The run- 
of-mine coal from the New River district of West Virginia was 
low-volatile, bituminous or semi-bituminous in character and very 
friable. It was tested after an exposure of 23 days. The bricjuettes 
were made on Johnson and Renfrow machines using 6% of water- 
gas pitch binder. 

Cost of Briquetting Coal. From a paper on " Coal-Briquetting 
in the United States." by K. W. Parker, appearing in the Transac- 
tions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, and published 
by them with the permission of the director of the U. S. Geological 
Survey we abstract the author's description of a plant in New 
York City and the costs of its operation. 




°OUN03 0( COAl. «S riREO euXNEO PER HOUR PER SQUARE rOOT OC CRATE AREA 

Fig. G. lOvaporative elhciency of briquettes and coal. 



The Mashek press in this iilant has a capacity of about 14 tons 
per hr. of 2-oz. briquettes, but because of unfav(»rable conditions 
its capacity is about 10 tons per hr. The briquettes mo.st in de- 
mand were found to be the 2-oz. size, which corresi)onds with the 
stove-coal size of anthracite. The weight varies with the nature 
of the dust from which the briquette is made, and it has been found 
that in using coke-breeze a 2.5-oz. briquette is mo.st desirable, and 
about a 3-oz. if made of soft coal and lignite. The press is de- 
signed so that a charge of the mould shells can be made in about 
2 hrs. 

The arrangement of the plant is such that the anthracite-dust is 
elevated to a dust bin. from which it is drawn by a feed-conveyor 
so arranged that the feed is constant and can be regulated as de- 
sired. This conveyor discharges into a chain elevator, which in 
turn discharges into a battery of five 18-in. rotary diiers and 
heateis. These are sui)erimposed ,one above the other and all 
bricked in. The mateiial is conveyed through these driers by 
means of screw-mixers until it passes into the following elevator. 

On the side of these driers is constructed a furnace, the products 
of combustion from which are distributed into the driers through 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 309 

openings into different units, so that no unit gets heat sufficient 
either to char the dust or to burn out the iron-work of the paddle- 
conveyor. An exhaust-fan draws off the products of combustion 
and the moisture. The temperature of the discharge-gases and 
moisture from the drier rarely exceeds 212 degs. F. After the 
material passes out of the drier into the elevator it is elevated 
and dropped into a 36-in. Williams pulverizer, where the larger 
pieces are crushed, so that everything passes through about a 
12-mesh screen. From the pulverizer the material is again ele- 
vated to another series of mixers and coolers similar in construc- 
tion to the driers. The anthracite dust at this point has a tem- 
perature of about 300 degs. F. The coal-tar pitch is here intro- 
duced by means of a pitch-pump so arranged as to deliver a definite 
quantity of i)itch. as desired. Alongside of this last battery of 
mixers is a small furnace which heats the two upper mixers, main- 
taining an even temperature of the mixture and not allowing 
it to stiffen or set. From the last mixer the mateiial drops to an 
elevator which takes it up to the second floor and discharges it on 
to an 18-in. belt conveyor, which delivers the material over the 
press and into the hopper. The press is continually discharg- 
ing the briquettes into a perforated-pan conveyor, which conveys 
them to the briquette bin. While on this conveyor the briquettes 
are subjected to a heavy spray of water in order to cool and 
clean them. 

The coal-tar pitch used in this plant is of the ordinary roofing- 
hardness; it is delivered by lighter on an adjacent dock and carted 
to the pitch melting house. 

The plant requires about 125 h.p. to turn out 10 tons per hr. 

The cost of manufacture is as follows : 

Pitch: 

Using 676 of pitch at $10 per ton $0.60 

DedU(;tirig increased weight of product due to 6% of pitch 

and calculating product at $5 per ton 0.30 

Net cost of pitch $0.30 

Fuel: 

For boilers, brol<en coal and screenings, broken briquettes, 

4 tons i>er day of 10 hrs., at $2.50 per ton $10.00 

Per ton of hi itjueLtes 0.10 

For healiMs, diiers and pitch-melting, 3 tons at $2.50 per 

ton of briquettes 0.075 

Labor : 

Per day 

1 foreman $ 5.00 

2 pitch-melteis 3.50 

1 dust-bin man 1.75 

1 engineer 3.50 

1 man on .second floor . . . ., 1.75 

1 man on giound floor 175 

1 night watchman 1 75 

1 oiler 175 

$20.75 
Per ton of briquettes $0.21 



310 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Miscellaneous: 

Wear and tear, per ton of briquettes $0.10 

Lubricating oil, per ton of briquettes 0.01 

Insurance 005 

Interest on capital invested $40,000 at Q% 0.10 

Office expense, telephone, stenographer and stationery, 

$2,000 per annum 0.09 



$0.99 
Anthracite (dust at $1.40 per long ton) per net ton of bri- 
quettes 125 

Total cost of briquetting $2.24 

Re-briquetting 3% of breakage and abrasion, charging it 

back to plant as dust, per ton of briquettes 0.06 

Net cost per ton of briquettes $2.30 

Wholesale selling-price in bin 4.80 

Net profit per short ton ' $2.50 

Cost of Briquetting Coal. M, H. Blauvelt in the Transactions of 
the American Institute of Mining Engineers, March, 1910. described 
the fuel briquetting plant of the Solvay Co., at Detroit, Mich., and 
gave the following figures for the plant, the capacity of which 
has been brought up to 9 tons per hr. and may reach 10 tons: 

Power consumed in motor driving in different parts of the plant 
was as follows : 

Brake h.p. 

Breeze conveyor to drier 1.50 

Breeze drier and ventilating fan 2 85 

Pulverizing mill 22 00 

Elevator shafting and rotary mixer , . 10.00 

Briquetting press 25.00 

Total 61.35 

Tests extending over a number of days showed a consumption 
of 206 lbs. of steam per ton of ' riquettes produced, and the writer 
says that the above steam consumi)tion per ton of product would 
undoubtedly be decreased by a larger output. 

Labor cost of briquetting was as follows : 

Cost per hr. 

1 foreman $0.50 

1 pressman 0.26 

1 oiler, breeze-drier and conveyor man 0.18 

1 pitch man 0.18 

1 briquette loader 19 

2 laborers, at 17 cts 0.34 

Total $1.65 

This labor cost amounts to 18.3 cts. per ton, when producing 9 
tons of briquettes per hr. Two presses would double the output, 
but would only require two more men at 18 cts., and a second 
pressman at 26 cts. per hr., which would reduce the labor cost to 
12.6 cts. per ton. 

Cost of briquetting per ton of product with and without coke- 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 311 

breeze, and a plant similar to that dencribed, producing 9 tons of 
briquettes per hr., was as follows : 

U.sing Using 

507c of breeze 100% of coal 

Labor $0.].83 $0,183 

Power, at 1.25 ots. per kw. -hr 0.072 0.072 

Steam, 206 lbs., at 0.5-ct. per hp.-hr 0.034 0.034 

Breeze-drier and superheater fuel 0.03 0.011 

Miscellaneous supplies, oil, waste, lights 

and water 0.03 0.03 

Repairs on rolls 0.191 0.035 

Other repairs 0.06 0.035 

Total $0.60 $0.40 

The cost of the pitch for binder and of the coal, coke-breeze, or 
other fuel used, must be added to these figures to obtain the total 
operating cost of such a plant. And the following estimate is given, 
as.suming the suitable slack coal can be obtained at $2, coke-breeze 
at $1, and pitch at $8 per ton, delivered at the plant, and assuming 
the use of 7.5% of binder with the coal and 9% with the mixture 
of coal and breeze. 

Estimated cost of one ton of briquettes on above bases was as 
follows : 

Equal parts of 
coal and breeze All coal 

0.455 ton coal, at $2 $0.91 

0.925 ton coal, at $2 $1.85 

0.455 ton breeze, at $1 0.455 

9% of pitch, at $8 0.72 ... 

7.576 of pitch, at .l;8 ... 0.60 

Cost of briquetting, as above 0.60 0.40 

Total $2,685 $2^85 

These results were obtained with the simplest form of apparatus 
for preheating the air. All the steam required for operating the 
plant, handling and storing coal, distilling ammonia, etc.. being 
produced in the waste heat assisted by the breeze that the plant 
produced. 

Cost of Coal Briquetting in the West. The following costs 
are given in the Proceedings of the American Institute of Mining 
Engineers, 1905 : 

ESTIMATED COST PER TON OF BRIQUETTES IN WESTERN AMERICA 

Labor $0 16 

Oil and grease 006 

Sundrv stores 01 

Steam -fuel ; 04 

Depreciation 3.05 

$0 266 

S% of pitch at $1 2 ton 96 

1,840 lbs. of coal-slack at $1 94 

$2,166 
Cost of plant was $10,500 to $14,000. 

Sales price of brifiuettes is 66-80% price of best lump-coal. 
In Germany the sale price is $2 to $3 per metric ton. 



312 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In East America coal-slack is almost worthless and cost of 
briquettes will be less than $2.17 per ton. 

By-Products Coke Ovens (after W. H. Blauvelt) give results per 
ton of coal coked : 

Fuel eras Surplus gas Steam pro- 
Type of oven per cent. per cent. duced, lbs. 

No air preheating- 70 30 1,050 

Partial air preheating .... 60 40 800 

Maximum air preheating . . 40 60 

Distribution and Consvynplion of Pmver in a By-Product Coke 
Oven Plant having Capctcily of IJOO Tons of Coal per Day. (After 
W. H. Blauvelt.) 

Daily power consumption in kw.-hrs. for various operations was 
as follows : 

Ijighting 599 

Pum])s handling ammonia lifpior .390 

Scrubbers and pumi)s in by-product recovery-plant... 1.283 

Coal-charging and coke-pushing 192 

Coal-conveyors 393 

Coal-unloading 282 

Coal-storage 102 

Crushing and pulverizing 287 

Coke-handling 686 

Pumping water 1,800 

Total power consumption and distribution — 6,014 

For 1,300 tons of coal coked — 1.63 kw. per ton 

F. E. Lucas in a paper before the American Institute of Mining 
Engineers in 1912 stated that a modern by-product oven, run at 
a reasonable capacity will give 50% or more of surplus gas from 
a coal of about 28% volatile-content. The .surplus gas is the gas 
over and above the quantity needed to keep the oven up to the 
required temperature. This surplus gas should run from 450 to 
500 B. t. u. per cu. ft. The quantity of surplus gas is approximately 
5,000 cu. ft.; hence, 5,000x450-2,250,000 B. t. u. per ton of 
coal carbonized is available for the production of power,.— 93,750 
B. t. u. per hr. The builders of gas-engines tell us we can get 
1 h.p. on a heat-consumption of 11,000 B. t. u. On that basis, we 
find 8.5 h.p. per hr. from the surplus gas from 1 ton of coal. 

The Cost of iVIanufacturing Coke. In the older so-called bee- 
hive type of oven nothing is recovered except the coke, in the so- 
palled by-product type of oven, in addition to the coke itself various 
kinds of by-products are recovered, consisting mainly of tar, am- 
monia, and gas, varying greatly in quantity and quality with the 
composition of the coal. In America, coals similar to those of the 
Pocahontas region, containing as low as 16%, or less of volatile 
matter, stand at one end of the classification, while in Europe, 
some coals are coked which contain not more than 13% of volatile 
matter. These produce the maximum yield of coke and the mini- 
mum yield of by-products. At the other end of the list are the 
gas-coals, containing as much as 38 or 40% of volatile matter, and 
yielding correspondingly small amounts of coke. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 313 

The economic advantages of the bee-hive oven are that it is 
quickly built, has relatively low first cost, and can be operated by 
low grade labor. It can be put out of run at relatively small cost, 
and can easily be started up again after a shut-down. 

Since the organization of the United States Steel Corporation the 
conditions in the steel business in America have been much more 
stable and uniform and the relative advantages of the beehive type 
of oven have decreased in proportion as the stability of the steel 
industry has increased. In addition to this the coals which are 
best adapted to the beehive are becoming less plentiful. 

The beehive process consists essentially in heating the coal with 
controlled admission of air to the coke in the chamber, to the end 
that the heat necessary for the distillation of the volatile matter 
is j)roduced by combustion within the oven chamber ; whereas in 
the by-product oven the process is a true dry distillation, in which 
no air is admitted to the chamber and the heat necessary for the 
distillation is supplied through the chamber walls. 

The by-product oven is generally located at the point of con- 
sumption of the coke or at some center of distribution. The dis- 
advantage of fi'eight charges thus entailed, on from 1.2 to 1.4 
tons of coal for every ton of coke produced, is partially offset by 
the fact that the coal usually carries a lower freight-rate than 
coke, is more easily tran.sported, and is not so likely to be injured 
by handling. Thus a blast-furnace plant, having its own coke 
ovens at the furnace may possess an assured supply of coke inde- 
pendent of weather or shipping conditions, and it is quite common 
for such a plant to accumulate a stock of from one to eight months' 
supply of coal, the cost of the coal stock pile with the cost of the 
facilities for handling coal being a charge upon the coke plant. 
Another advantage of this arrangement is that the by-products 
so produced are much nearer to their market and the gas is often 
available for industrial uses or for municipal lighting. Such loca- 
tions are likely to be well adapted to the securing of diversified 
labor and the various processes of the by-products of this type 
ot oven. Still another important advantage in locating the oven- 
plant at the ])oint of consumption is, that it permits a convenient 
assembling of several kinds of coal at the ovens, this mixture per- 
mitting the best quality of coke to be produced, while the coke 
made from any one of the coals alone might be of inferior quality 
or possibly not well adapted to the particular requirements of the 
market at the time of manufacture. 

W. H. Blauvelt of Syracuse, N. Y., to whose paper at the Cleve- 
land meetings of the A. I. M. E., October, 1912, we are indebted 
for the above facts, says that a complete beehive oven plant com- 
jilete in every respect and constructed in the best manner to in- 
clude all the equipment besides the ovens and their immediate ap- 
purtenances such as electric power-plant, water-supply, railroad- 
approaches and sidings, coal-handling equipment, etc., would cost 
about .$950 per oven; 675 to 700 tons per annum representing the av- 
erage output per oven of such a plant, this giving a plant-cost of 
$1.38 per ton of coke produced per year, whereas a by-product oven- 



314 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

plant of 80 ovens, complete in every respect, and built in the best 
manner, and costing $1,100,000 would produce 425,000 tons of coke 
per annum from average coal, this amounting to $2.58 per ton of 
coke per year. Thus, on the basis of the same output of coke alone 
the by-product plant costs 1.86 times the beehive type. Economi- 
cally speaking, this is hardly a fair basis for a comparison, because 
the dollar output of the by-product plant would be considerably 
higher than unity as compared with that of the other. Moreover, 
the higher price plant is usually built for more than twice as long 
a life as that of the beehive plant. 

In 1912 the by-product coke ovens in America had often a capacity 
for as much as 20 tons of coal per oven per day, and in the rate 
of coking, American practice was well ahead of Europe. Several 
types of ovens coking regularly at the rate of from 50 to 55 min. 
per in. of oven width, this high rate being made possible partly by 
better control of the heating-systems, and partly by the adoption 
of silica brick, which for many years has been used generally in 
bee-hive oven construction. 

Economic Comparison between Beehive and By-Product Ovens. 
Mr. Lucas in Proc. Am. Inst. Mining Engrs,, 1905, gives the fol- 
lowing : 

Bee-Hive. 

Ordinary type, 12.5 ft. in diam. 

Cost from $700 to $1,200 per oven. 

Produces 4 net tons of coke in 48 hrs. = 2 net tons in 24 hrs. 

Yield of coke from coal, 60%. 

By-products and surplus gas = none. 

By-Product Ovens. 
Oven charge. 9 tons. 
Coking-time^ 24 hrs. 
(Ovens may be larger or smaller than this, but 9 tons would 

probably be about the average charge for the modern type of 

oven. ) 
Coke produced on 70% yield = 6.3 tons of coke per oven in 

24 hrs. 

By-Products. 

Ammonium sulphate, 22 lbs. per net ton of coal = 31 lbs. per 
net ton of coke. Value, 2.25 cts. per lb. above cost of manu- 
facture :- 70 cts. per ton of coke made. 

Tar. 8.5 gaLs. per ton of coal =: 10.7 gals, per ton of coke, at 
2 cts. per gal. =21 cts. per ton of coke. 

Surplus gas. 5.000 cu. ft. per ton of coal = 7,143 cu. ft. per ton 
of coke, at 10 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft. = 71 cts. per ton of coke. 

Total value of by-products as above was as follows : 

Ammonium sulphate $0.70 

Tar 0.21 

Gas 0.71 

Value per ton of coke $1.62 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 315 

Add to the above the difference between 60% yield in bee-hive 
ovens and 70% in by-product ovens on the same coal. Taking 
coal at $1.50 per ton: 

Coal per ton of coke produced in bee-hive oven $2.50 

Coal per ton of coke produced in by-product oven 2.14 

Balance in favor of by-product oven $0.36 

So that the total saving in coal and by-products equals $1.62 plus 
$0.36 = $1.98 per ton of coke made. — $12.45 per oven in 24 
hrs. — $4,551.55 per oven per year. Or for by-products alone, 
without saving in coal, $3,723 per oven per year. 

For a plant of 100 ovens, saving = $455,155 per year. 

Cost of 100-oven plant complete, approximately $1,000,000. 

A 100-oven plant of above capacity will produce 630 tons of 
coke per day =r 229,950 tons per year, working on 24 hrs. 
coking time. 

If benzol is recovered it will further add to the income from 
by-products. 

Output of Gas from a By- Product Plant. Mr. Blauvelt states 
that from two plants within his knowledge, using coal containing 
less than 27% volatile matter, the year's average of gas per ton 
of coal coked was over 4,200 cu. ft., heat units from the two plants 
averaging over 2,600,000 B. t. u. per net ton of coal coked. 

Cost of Gas from a By- Product Coke Oven Plant. For the gas 
actually distributed and sold, it is found by the Citizens Gas Co. 
of Indianapolis, Ind., that the cost of distribution and management 
(not including taxes and insurance) was 13.1 cts. per 1,000 cu, ft. 
The accompanying figures show the expenditures and receipts per 
ton of coal carbonized (1) as actually occurring for the first six 
months of operation, using 260- tons per day, and (2) as estimated 
for regular working at 375 tons per day: 

Actual Esti- 

results mated 

Coal per day 260 tons 375 tons 

Expenditures per ton : 

Cost of coal $2,494 $2,750 

Labor, supplies and repairs .334 .686 

Distrib. and management .349 .736 

Taxes and insurance .099 .149 



Total $3,276 $4,321 

Receipts per ton : 

Coke •. $2,336 $2,450 

Ammonia .447 .405 

Tar 242 .180 

Gas 1.542 2.280 



Total $4,568 $5,315 

There are 50 by-product ovens, and operation was begun in No- 
vember, 1909 : part of the time only 25 ovens were in use, and 
when all were in use (for four months) they were operated on thQ 



316 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

slowent i.)os!sible s^chedule. The plant its det^igned for charging 60 
ovens per day. but during the four months only 36 were charged 
daily. Even on this slow t^chedule the ga.s production was 50.000,000 
cu. ft. in excess of the demand. (Engmeering News. Sept. 22. lit 10.) 

Cost of Burning Charcoal. The charcoal plant at Gorgona. I'an- 
ama. has discontinued oijerations, with a stock on hand stifficient 
for a year's supply. Since April, 1911. 30 kilns have been burned, 
producing 350.229 lbs. The cost of this, including the erection of 
the kilns, was $1,592.76. The average cost of producing charcoal 
was 45 V^ cts. per 100 lbs. ; the two last kilns cost 29 cts. per 100 
lbs. The price of charcoal a year ago was $1.10 per hundred- 
weight, at which the amount produced in the year past would have 
cost $3,852.52, so that the saving effected by the operations of the 
plant amounted to $2,259.76. The principal use of charcoal in the 
canal and railroad work is in starting fires in locomotives and 
steam shovels. 

Comparative Costs of Fuel. We are indebted to the Automatic 
Gas Producer Company, New York, and to Power, where they 
were published in 1906, for the accompanying figures showing the 
comparative costs of fuel per h. p. -year for steam and gas engines 
under various conditions of operation and cost per unit of fuel. 
The figures are based on 10 working hours per day and 300 work- 
ing days per year, and the range of prices and consumption rates 
are such as to enable one to make very satisfactory comparisons. 

STEAM ENGINE AND BOILER 

Coal per , Cost per hp.-year ^ 

h.p-hr. 3 lbs. 4 lbs. 5 lbs. 6 lbs. 7 lbs, 8 lbs. 
Coal at 

$2.00 a ton $9 $12 $15 $18 $21 $24 

2.50 " 11 15 19 22 26 30 

3.00 " 13 18 ,22 27 31 36 

3.50 " 16 21 25 31 37 42 

4.00 " 18 24 30 36 42 48 

4.50 " 20 27 34 40 47 54 

5.00 " 22 • 30 37 45 52 60 

GAS ENGINE 

Using 20 cu. ft. of illuminating gas per horsepower hour: 

Cost per 1.000 cu. ft $0 75 $0.80 $0.85 $0.90 $0.95 $1.00 

Cost per h.p.-year 45. 48. 51. 54. 57. 60. 

Using 15 cu. ft. of natural gas per h.p.-hr. : 

Cost per 1.000 cu. ft $0.16 $0.18 $0.20 $0.22 $0.24 $0.25 

Cost per h.p.-year 7.20 8.10 9.00 9.90 10.80 11.25 

Using producer gas: l\i lbs. of coal per h. p. -hour: 
Cost of coal per ton $2.00 $2.50 $3.00 $3.50 $4.00 $4.50 $5.00 
Cost per h.p.-year. . 3.34 4.17 5.00 5.83 6.67 7.50 8.33 

GASOLENE ENGINE 

Using one pint of gasolene i^er h.p.-hr. ; 

Cost per gal $0.08 $0.09 $0.10 $0.11 $0.12 $0.13 $0.15 

Cost per h.p.-year. . 30.00 33.75 37.50 41.25 45.00 48.75 56.25 

Comparative Cost of Power with Coal versus Oil Fuel. Reginald 
Trautschold published Tables VI and VII, giving the method of 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 317 

calculating the fixed charges on two 500 h.p. plants, one burning 
coal and the other oil, in Power. Mar. 4, 1913. 

TABLE Vr. AVERAGE FUEL COST PER H.P.-YR. WITH 
VARIOUS PRICES OF COAL AND OIL 

FUEL COSTS 

Fuel oil Fuel oil per Coal per Coal per h.p. 

per gal. h.p. yr. ton yr. 

$0.01 $9.00 - $1.00 $7.20 

0.015 13.50 1.50 10.80 

0.02 18.00 2.00 14.40 

0.025 22.50 2.50 18.00 

0.03 27.00 -3.00 21.60 

0.035 31.50 3.50 25.20 

0.04 36.00 4.00 28.80 

0.045 40.50 4.50 32.40 

0.05' 45.00 5.00 36.00 

0.055 49.50 5.50 39.60 

0.06 54.00 6.00 43.20 

AVERAGE FIXED CHARGES OF POWER HOUSE 

Oil Biirnmg Plant 
Engine room : 

Building, etc $10 

Engine, accesHorieH. piping, etc 30 

Foundations, installation, etc 5 

Total per h.p ! $45 

Depreciation, total cost 5% 

Repairs 2% 

Interest 6% 

Insurance 1% 

Taxes, % cost , 2% 

Total per h.p $22.00 

Boiler room : 

Building, foundations, etc $4.50 

Chimneys, Hues, etc 7.00 

Boilers, etc 7.50 

Oil burning systems (complete) 3.00 

Total per h.p.-yr $22.00 

Depreciation, total cost 5% 

Repairs 2% 

Interest 6% 

Insurance 2% 

Taxes, % cost ,. 2% 

Total per h.p.-yr $3.63 

Cost of operation : 
Engine room — 

Attendance $180 

Supplies 0.80 

Total per h.p.-yr. $2.60 

Boiler room — 

Attendance $1.10 

Supplies 0.47 

Total per h.p.-yr $1-57 

Total fixed charges, per h.p. year $15.00 



318 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Coal Burning Plant 
Engine room $ 7.20 

Boiler room : 

Building, foundationis. etc $ 5 

Chimneys, fines, etc 8 

Boilers, feed pumps, etc 12 

Total per li.p $25 

Depreciation, total cost 5% 

Repairs 2% 

Interest 6% 

Insurance 1% 

Taxes, % cost 27c 

Total per h.p.-yr $3. 87 

Cost or operation: 

Engine room $2.60 

Boiler room — 

Attendance $1 90 

Supplies 0.90 

Total per h.p.-yr $2.80 

Total fixed charges, per lip. per yr $16.47 

TABLE VII. AVERAGE FUEE COSTS PER H.P.-YR. WITH 
VARIOUS PRUNES OF COAL AND OIL 

Oil Burning Plant. 

Cost of oil Steam power per 

per gal. h.p. year 

$0.01 $21.00 

0.015 28,50 

0.02 33. SO 

0.025 37.50 

0.03 42.00 

9.035 46.50 

0.01 51.00 

0.0 15 55.50 

0.05 60.00 

0.055 61.50 

0.06 69.00 

Coal-Burning Plant. 
Cost of coal Steam power per 

per ton h.p. year 

$100 $23.67 

1.50 • 27.27 

2.00 30.87 

2 50 34.47 

3.00 38.07 

3.50 41,67 

4.00 45.27 

4.50 48.87 

5.00 52.47 

5.50 56.07 

6.00 . 59.67 

These figures are based on those obtained for various plants 
for about 500 h.p. and the results are applicable to both smaller 
and larger plants of reasonable limits, if only a relative comparison 
between oil and coal be desired, this relation holding true principally 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 319 

because the efficiency of the plant is increased with an increase in 
size, while the fixed charges per h.p. are correspondingly reduced, 
all in the same proportion. 

Comparative Cost of Coal and Oil Fuel for Railroads. The fol- 
lowing figures relating to the relative cost and efficiency of coal 
and of oil are current in California: 

Two and one-half barrels of oil are the equal of one ton of coal 
in thermal units. In other words, the same amount of heat can 
be obtained from 2^2 bbls. of oil as can be obtained from one ton 
of coal. But the difference in price is very great. Coal, 
producing the same amount of heat per ton as 2 Vi bbls. 
of oil, costs in California anywhere from $6 to $8 per ton 
wholesale. Two and one-half bbls. of oil, figured at the market 
delivery price of $1 per bbl., costs $2.50 — a saving of from $3.50 
to $5.50 on every ton of coal displaced by oil. 

Comparative Sizes of Smoke Stacks Necessary with Fuel Oil as 
Compared with Coal. K. G. Dunn of San Francisco in the Journal 
of the American Society of Mechanical I<]ngineers for 1911, has 
called attention to the fact that the amount of draft necessary to 
overcome the friction of the fuel bed in a coal furnace may vary 
between 35 to 70% of the total draft head, whereas when fuel oil 
is u.sed there is no draft friction through the fuel and a smaller 
and shorter stack will give the necessary draft for proper circu- 
lation of the hot gases through the furnace. Ordinarily for oil 
burning, a stack of 50% draft capacity is not required, but for a 
coal furnace may safely be designed. 

Comparative Quantities of Oil and Coal Consumed for the Same 
Quantity of Power Produced. Howard Stillman gives the figures 
in Table VIII of comparative tests on the Southern Pacific Rail- 
road, the comparison being with ordinary bituminous coal of about 
13,350 B. t. u. and also Table IX for steam.ships. 

TABLE VIII. LOCOMOTIVE TESTS ON OIL AND COAL 

Evaporation, 2000 
lbs. coal equiva- 
Number in lent to fuel oil. 

Type of locomotive service gals. 

Eight-wheel 18-24 50 144 

Ten-wheel 294 151 

Mogul 176 146 

Twelve-wheel 67 158 

Consolidation 139 162 

Atlantic 19 144 

Mallet consolidated 17 No coal record 

Mean of results — 152 gaLs. = 3.6 bbls. = 2,000 lbs. coal. 

This is the record of coal burned during the last 6 months of 
1901 and oil burned during the last 6 months of 1908 on the steam- 
ers of the Southern Pacific Company. These figures are not from 
evaporated tests, but cover the .service of 11 steam boats and are 
from the official accounting records. 

Comparative Coal and Oil Consumption of the " Nevadan " of the 
Hawaiian American Steamship Company was as follows: 



320 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Voyage No. 1 . 
Voyage No. 2 . 







Total 






Total 




consumption 


Coal 


Oil 


i. h.p. 


Fuel 


of fuel 


per i. h.p. 


per i. h.p. 


1.833 


coal 


2.269 tons 


2 lbs. 




2,196 


oil 


9.l:i6bbls. 




1.1 lbs. 



Voyage No. 1 with coal was from San Diego to Ne-vv York and 
No. 2 with oil was from New York to San Diego. The figures are 
from the report of the Naval Liquid Fuel Board published in 
1904 and quoted in the Journal of the American Society of Mechan- 
ical Engineers for Aug.. 1911. Part of the coal burnt was Eurela 
and part Coronel. The heat value of the coal was not given. The 
ship was new and fitted with triple-expansion engines using the 
Howden system of forced draft, and the Lassoe-Lovekin oil-burn- 



TABLE IX. STEAMSHIP TESTS OF OIL AND COAL 

S-.S t2 'S'^ S^' ^-2 "S ^^o 

^ = 5 8^ cB o- og ^^ '^'^^:=i 

steamer o"i u^ o3 «„_ s-^ ^E o^o 

rt X ?3 ;=; So c-S ■-- a; c <km "" o 

g.2o ni: CO — o c5 ^ ^ '^ ~ "^ g.-^o-.Q 

fH § § cQ § ^ a 

Berkeley 2,764 18.592 6.72 11.207 21.130 1.89 356 

Piedmont 4.223 19.548 4.63 15.414 20,808 1.35 3.43 

Oakland 3.209 18.348 5.72 13.603 19,894 1.46 3.92 

Bay ('ity 2,889 21.536 7.45 11.548 20,913 1.81 4.12 

Encinal 3.703 20.284 5.47 10.512 19.678 1.87 2.93 

Newark 1.860 9.372 5.04 6.559 10.631 1.62 3.11 

Transit 2.581 16.715 6.48 9,548 17.922 1.88 3.45 

El Capitan 1.019 7.238 7.10 3,431 6.072 1.77 4.01 

Solano 4.516 5.480 121 17,151 7.143 0.42 2.88 

Apache 1.971 18,992 9.64 7.996 21.380 2 67 3.61 

Modoc 2,265 20.685 9.13 7.682 21.170 2.76 3.31 

Totals and Re- 
sultant means. 31,000 176.790 5.70 114.651 186.771 1.63 
Mean equivalent of 1 ton of coal in bbl. of oil, 3.4 95. 

ing system. When oil was consumed, six men were necessary in 
the fireroom as against fifteen for coal. The saving in space for 
cargo on account of the decreased bulk of the oil fuel was 457 
tons, which was supposed to have resulted in a financial gain to 
the company from all causes, including the saving in the cost of 
the oil fuel, of $500 per day. 

Comparative Cost of Fuel as Betxoeen Coal and Oil on a Small 
Coasting Steamer. (J. H. Hopps in the Journal of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers. Aug.. 1911 ) For an average 
period of 6 months in each case the cost of fuel per hr. of actual 
steaming was as follows: Coal at $5.25. $2.65 i)er hr, ; oil at $0.70 
per bbl.. $1.64 per hr. 

Tests on Two Tugs on San Fraucisco Bay, Owned hy the Santa 
Fe Railroad Coynpany. Tests were made in 1903 and quoted by 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



321 



Mr. Hopps, whose detailed data were destroyed in the San Francisco 
fire, the summary of the results only remaining. The tests were 
made with great care, the feed of water and fuel oil being weighed 
on platform scales, which was feasible on account of the water 
of San Francisco Bay being smooth. The machinery of the 2 
vessels were identical with the exception of the boilers. One ship, 
the Richmond, was fitted with a boiler of the Scotch marine 
type, 13 ft. mean diameter by 11 ft. long, with three Morrison 
furnaces, 3 ft. 6 ins. in diameter by 7 ft. 10 ins. long, and 230- 
tubes 3^/^ ins. in diameter by 7 ft. 10 ins. long. The depth of the 
combustion chamber is 36 ins. and the total heating surface is 
2.136 sq. ft. The A. H. Parjson is fitted with a Babcock and 
Wilcox marine water-tube boiler, total heating surface 2,770 sq. ft. 
The engines in both cases are compound engines, high-pressure 
cylinders 20 ins. in diameter, low-pressure cylinders 42 ins. In 
diameter, and stroke 24 ins. 

A large_ number of tests were made on these vessels in actual 
service when towing car floats to and from Point Richmond. In 
addition, a 5-hr. test, running steadily without a tow, was made 
on each boat, with the results given in Table X. 

TABLE X. RESULTS OF FUEL TESTS OB" TUGS 

FIVE-HOUR RUN, TUG A. H. PAYSON (Aug. 2, 1903) 





































•"=. 




















a 


^--1 






















c?"^' 


CM 


% 














TJ 


1^ rf 


oi'S 


o 


a^ 




CO 








• 'C 


<u 


^ 3 


tl ,w 


t- a 


;- a , 


u a 




2 


a 




^ w 


3 




tt 


O rt 


t^ 


^^ 


ii 


s 


a 


a 


rt 3 




rt rt 


oj rt 


1^ 


03.^ 




<i)X 


H 


oi 


ffi 


^ 


o 


^ 


^ 


^ 


0" 


m 


11.00 


. . . 






. . . 


. . . 


.... 










12.00 


9 5.3 


535 


lV,4 75 


853 


13.4 


14.68 


l'.695 


2 v. 4 


l'.59 


.... 


1.00 


96.0 


523 


11,326 


837 


13.5 


14.77 


1.094 


21.6 


1.60 




2.00 


94.5 


509 


11,418 


809 


14.1 


15.32 


1.087 


22.4 


1.58 


lY.72 


3.00 


95.5 


498 


11,300 


826 


13.6 


14.66 


1.078 


2'^ 9 


1.65 


10.63 


4.00 


96.4 


537 


12,251 


845 


14.6 


15.84 


1.085 


22.9 


1.56 


11.65 




FIVE-HOUR RUN, 


. TUG 


RICHMOND (Aug. 24, 


, 1903) 


1 




12.00 






















1.00 


91 


418 


9.532 


829 


l"2'2 


12.80 


1.140 


2V.8 


l".98 


.... 


2.00 


92 


424 


10.331 


835 


12.4 


14.10 


1.143 


24.3 


1.97 




3.00 


91 


418 


8,831 


806 


11.0 


12.55 


1.140 


21.1 


1.92 


iV.os 


4.00 


91 


418 


10.496 


833 


12.2 


13.90 


1.140 


25.1 


1.99 


10.04 


5.00 


91 


418 


9,627 


865 


1L2 


12.90 


1.150 


23.0 


2.06 


10.75 



AVERAGE FOR FIVE HOURS RUN 

Payson — 

95.5 520 11,553 834 13.8 15.05 1.089 22.2 1.59 11.15 
Richmond — 

91 419 9,743 833 11.8 13.05 1.142 23.2 1.96 10.47 



From examinations of the logs of numerous steamships, it ap- 
pears that with vessels fitted with triple-expansion engines de- 



322 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

veloping from 1,000 h.p. up, with everything in first-class condition, 
the fuel consumption will be about 1 Vi lbs, of oil per 1 h.p.-hr. 
For smaller vessels fitted with compound engines, the consumption 
will range from 1.6 to 2 lbs. per 1 h.p.-hr., depending on the effi- 
ciency of the plant. 

Economic Advantages of Petroleiun Over Coal as a Fuel 
for Steamships 

a. The saving in labor and consequent reduction in the number 
of firemen. The amount of money saved varies with the size 
of the ship and the number of firemen carried. In installations 
of average size, one-third the number of firemen and coal 
passers necessary when burning coal would be sufficient. 

b. Reduction in weight and bulk of fuel, giving increased cargo 
cai>acity and resultant greater earning power. Comparing 
" Wellington Screenings," a type of coal generally used for 
steamship worii on the coast, and fuel oil at frpm 14 to 17 
Baume, oil for equal heating value occupies about one-half 
the space taken by the coal and has less than one-half the 
weight. Oil may be carried in parts of the ship not otherwise 
useful. 

c. Saving in time. The time consumed in coaling and expense 
of moving to bunkers is saved, as fuel oil can be pumped into 
the ship when at the dock and while the cargo is being taken 
on or discharged. 

d. Uniform steaming. The rate of steaming can be kept uniform, 
there being no loss due to cleaning fires, etc. 

e. Cleanliness, due to the absence of coal dust and dirt when 
coaling and to the absence of ashes in the fireroom, 

/. Reduced cost of maintenance. Fewer repairs on boilers due 
to uniform temperature in furnace and combustion chamber. 
No corrosion of floor plates, fire fronts, or bunkers. No grate 
bars to burn out, fire doors or ash-handling machinery to re- 
new or repair. 

A Comparison of the Economy of Powdered Coal, Oil and Water 
Gas for Heating Furnaces. C. F. Herington (Engineering News, 
Dec. 10. 1914) gives the following: 

0(7. Of the 3 fuels, powdered coat, oil and water gas, fuel oil 
has come into use far more than any other. The U. S. Navy 
yards have been consistent in their adoption of it. All now use 
fuel oil for heating operations, many to the complete exclusion 
of coal. 

Without a doubt, fuel oil is one of the easiest of fuels to handle; 
it can be carried in pijjes anywhere so long as there is air pres- 
sure or pump pressure behind it. It requires only a comparatively 
small outlay for equipment — all that is necessary is a couple of 
storage tanks, ^ pump to fill the storage tanks from the cars, a 
piping system to the furnaces, and means to secure the necessary 
pressure. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 323 

But fuel oil has one disadvantage — and this is conceded by 
many to be a big one ; the price is constantly going up. Ten 
years ago, fuel oil could be bought for 2^^ cts. a gal., and one 
could contract for any quantity at that price; now it is 4Mj. 5 
and 51/2 cts. a gal., and one has to take what quantities he can 
get at that price. Present conditions indicate that this advance 
in cost will continue beyond the limits of economy. 

Powdered Coal. Steady increase in the price of oil has led, 
quite recently, to extensive experiments in the use of powdered 
coal and of water gas and producer gas as substitutes. As a fuel 
for burning under boilers, powdered coal may some time be a 
success. The use of i)owdered coal in portland-cement manufac- 
ture has proven very economical and here it has come to stay. 
But when it is claimed that it is equally good for various heating 
operations, such as welding, shingling, annealing, riveting and 
forging, there is likely to be a difference of opinion. 

In a recent article in an engineering paper, the following ad- 
vantages were claimed for powdered coal : 

(1) "Complete combustion, doing away with losses due to the 
carbon contained in the ash and in the escaping volatile mat- 
ter." This is not correct, for if one stands for an hour watching 
one of these furnaces working, as the writer did, he will be com- 
pletely covered with fine, unburned powdered coal which has es- 
caped through the furnace doors. This has become such a nui- 
sance to the surrounding machinery and workmen that attempts 
are now being made to relieve these conditions by placing a hood 
over the furnace door and connecting it into the furnace stack. 
This has not proven successful as yet, and probably will not until 
an exhaust fan is provided to discharge this unburned coal through 
the roof. 

(2) "Total absence of smoke." Certainly this is not true inside 
of the shop, for powdered-coal furnaces, due to their ununiform 
feed, smolie worse than oil. Powdered coal, as is well known, 
must be very dry to be pulverized and, when pulverized and al- 
lowed to remain quiet for 48 hours, it cakes and requires that a 
man knock on the bins to loosen it. This leads to uneven com- 
bustion in the furnace with large quantities of smoke when there 
is a large amount of coal coming through the burner and no smoke 
when the coal is sticking back in the bins. No doubt this is largely 
due to inefficient handling of the feeder and burner; even so, a 
total absence of smoke cannot be claimed when such conditions 
are met. 

(3) "A cheaper grade of coal may be used." The best coal 
for powdered fuel has a volatile content of not less than 30%, not 
more than 8% ash. and l^^% sulphur. I think the readers will 
agree that coal meeting these specifications is of no very cheap 
grade. 

Pulverized coal must be handled with great care, for if it is 
mixed with any quantity of air, it is highly explosive, as the 
records of accidents in cement plants will prove. In the January 



324 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

issue of the Quarterly of the National Fire Protection Association, 
the following appeared regarding the hazards of drying pulverized 
coal : 

" Under no circum.stanees iy it recommended that the products 
of combustion be allowed to come in contact with the coal to be 
dried. . . . Already there have been quite a number of accidents 
from this cause in which lives were lost. 

"A characteristic coal mill explosion (March 2. 1903), in New 
Village, N. J., at the Edison plant, killed six men and burned five 
others, i)erhaps fatally, besides injuring a score of others 
and destroying the coal building. It is supposed that the 
pulveiized coal in bin fired spontaneously and some of the burning- 
fuel was carried by the automatic conveyor into the blower house. 
The atmosphere of the blower house being charged with coal dust, 
an explosion was the result. 

"On August 19, 1900. an explosion in the plant of the Nazareth 
Cement Co., Nazareth, Penn.. caused a loss of $16,000, while on 
November 26 of the same year $40,000 damage was done to the 
Martin's Creek Portland Cement Co. (then known as William 
Krause Sons), Martin's Creek, Penn. The Dexter Cement Co., 
Nazareth. Penn., and the Alpha Portland Cement Mill No. 1, Alpha, 
N. J., had similar experiences the same j'ear." 

Another very serious objection to powdered coal, due to the in- 
complete combustion of all the coal ejected into the furnace, is 
that this coal lies on the work, and when the work is taken out 
of the furnace, if not cleaned off, it is apt to be hammered into 
the work and make flaws which later are likely to be more or less 
serious according to the nature of the work. This is a fact seen 
from personal observation and cannot be denied. 

Powdered coal is not good for small furnaces, as it requires 
too large a chamber of combustion, and from the experience of 
the users of ])owdered coal it is not desirable to have a combustion 
chamber se])arated by a bridge-wall from the working cliainber. 
It is found that the lesser of two evils is to remove the bridge- 
wall and blow the powdered coal directly upon the work, which 
aggravates the condition mentioned above. If the large furnaces 
are changed from fuel oil to powdered coal, there still remain the 
small furnaces, and especially the portable ones, which will have 
to work on fuel oil. Then there would be the expense of handling 
two kinds of fuel where before there was but one. 

Gas. Greater familiarity and extended experience with natural 
gas for power and metallurgical purposes have led to better ap- 
preciation of the many advantages of gaseous fuel. It has em- 
phasized the value of the gas producer for converting solid into 
gaseous fuels. But such conversion always involves a loss of a 
part of the energy of the coal ; it is only because the gas can be 
utilized more efRciently that the duty obtained from it is greater 
than that given by the direct bui'ning*of the coal from which it is 
generated. Hence, any process which claims to deliver In the 
gas an amount of energy greater or even equal to that in the orig- 
inal fuel is a delusion or worse. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 325 

There are at present two kinds of made gases used for heating 
furnaces — producer and water gas. Industrially, producer gas 
is the combustible product of rather a complex series of physical 
and chemical changes induced in the fuel by the heat arising from 
its incomplete combustion in the producer. The combustion is 
termed incomiJJete not in the sense of leaving an uribui-nt-d residue 
of carbon or coke, but because the combustible while comiiletely 
gasified gives up only about 307c of its heat in primary coHibustion 
in the producer. The remaining 70% is develoijed when the gases 
are burned after leaving. Water gas is made by an intermittent 
process — first using an air blast to bring the fuel to high incan- 
de.scence, then shutting off the air and forcing steam through the 
fire. During the air blow, a lean producer gas is made whit.h 
may be enriched by the addition of water gas of a higher calorific 
value and used in the low-temperature furnaces or to diive gas 
engines. The true water gas is made during the steam blow, 
the steam being decomposed by the incandescent carbon so that 
its hydrogen is freed and its oxygen united \Aith the caibon to 
form carbon monoxide. 

The water gas can be used for all purr)Oses where high tempera- 
tures must be secured without regeneration, as in factories carry- 
ing on a large variety of brazing, small forge work, etc., Avhere 
the furnaces are small and distributed over a large area. Tem- 
peratures ranging from 2,500 degs. F. to 2.900 degs. P. are easily 
obtainable with this gas, and with properly constructed furnaces 
it is possible to gain an added efficiency in operation so that the 
total B. t. u. in the gas used need be only 66 to 807^, of the B. t. u. 
required in oil as used in approved oil furnaces for the same pur- 
poses. Water gas does not cause the metal forged to scale as 
does oil, and with gas it is possible to get a closer regulation of 
furnace temperatures. 

Comparative Efficiencies. Now comes the debatable point of 
what is the efficiency of the fuinace when using the different fuels. 
The powdered coal advocates will claim that the efficiency should 
be figured on the B t. u. basis. That is, if a furnace burns say 
22 gals, of oil to do a certain piece of work and each gallon von- 
tains 140.000 B. t. u.. 3,000,000 B. t. u. in all, it will take 3,000,000 
B. t. u. in coal to do the same work, but the coal is cheaper. If 
oil were 5 cts a gal., it would take coal at $10 a ton to equal the 
cost ; so the reader will perhaps agree that this is i\oi the proper 
method of comparing efficiencies, any more than saying that the 
cost of gasoline pei- gallon is the operating cost of running an 
automobile. 

The true way is to measure the efficiency of the furnace by the 
cotnparison of the input and. output, and below are given results 
of .some efficiency tests, made by the writer for a well known con- 
cern contemplating a revision of its furnace practice. 

Poioder-fid Coal. (Furnace using preheated air for combustion.) 
Furnace cold at CO degs. F. 
Steel and furnace heated to 2 200 degs. F. 
Rise in temperature, 2,140 degs. F. 



326 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

By test, 6.29 lbs. of steel heated per lb. of coal burned. 
Specific heat of steel, 0.117. 
0.117 X 2,140 = 250 B.t.u. per lb. of steel. 
250 B.t.u. X 6.29 — 1,572 B.t.u. output. 
1 lb. of coal = 14,000 B.t.u., input. 
1,572 X 100 

Efficiency = =11.3%. 

14,000 

Fuel Oil. Same furnace with same rise in temperature and the same 
charge of work. 

Heated 8.68 lbs. of steel per pound of oil. 
1 lb. of oil = 19.400 B.t.u.. input. 
250 B.t.u. X 8.68 = 2.170 B.t.u., output. 
2.170 X 100 

Efficiency = ■ = 11.3%. 

19,400 

Water Gas — (Furnace using preheated air for combustion). 

1 cu. ft. of gas = 300 B.t.u. 

Specific heat of wrought iron = 0.113 (Kent). 

Temperature rise from 1,400 to 2,500 degs. r: 1,100 degs. F. 

Furnace charged with 3.800 lbs. iron. 

To raise this iron to that temperature required 14,000 cu. ft. of 

gas. 
.113 X 1.100 := 124 B.tu. 
3,800 X 124 := 471.200 B.t.u. 
14,000 X 300 = 4,200,000 B.t.u., input. 
471,200 X 100 

Efficiency — =11.2%. 

4,200.000 

Another furnace using fuel oil (not using preheated air). 

Temperature rise from 1,200 degs. to 2,200 degs. = 1,000 degs. F. 
Charge of wrought iron, 2,150 lbs. 
. Oil required, 22 gals. 
2,150 lbs. X 113 B.t.u. = 242,950 B.t.u. output. 
1 gal oil = 140,000 B.t.u. 
140,000 B.t.u. X 22 = 3.080,000 B.t.u. input. 
242.950 X 100 

Efficiency = = 7.88%. 

3,080,000 

First Costs. In making comparison as to the relative first costs 
and operating costs with the three kinds of fuel, let us assume a 
plant now using fuel oil with a consumption of 50,000 gals, of oil 
per month at a cost of 5 cts. per gal., delivered at the shop. 
(These estimates were made for the company already mentioned.) 

FUEL OIL 

Cost of equipment (storage tanks in place, auxiliary pressure 
tanks in place, piping and fittings in place, steam connec- 
tions, furnace connections, tank-car connections, tank 
pumps and air-blast outfit) $21,100 

Contractors' profit (157t) 3,165 

$24,265 
Engineering and contingencies (10%) 2,435 

$26,700 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



327 



POWDERED COAL 

Pulverizing- machinery, house, foundations, trestle and track, 
electric wiring, conveyors, walkways, motors, burners 
and controllers (30), furnace bins (30), furnace changes, 
hoods and connections, etc - $68,100 

Contractor's profit (15%) 9.900 

$78,000 
Engineering and contingencies (10%) 1,^0^ 

$85,800 

FUEL OIL FOR SMALL FURNACES 

Tank in place, auxiliary tank in place, piping and fittings, 
furnce connections, tank-cars connections, pumps, air 
blast, etc ^?'oAn 

Contractor's profit ( 15%) l''^^^ 

$10,100 

Engineering and contingencies (10%,) ^'Q^Q 

$11,100 

WATER AND PRODUCER GAS PLANT 

Gas-making machinery, building, trestle and siding, piping, 

furnace changes • *i ?' aaa 

Contractor's profit (15%) ^-^^'^"^ 

$87,000 
8,700 

$95,700 

K„e. on '""."^''.^. J27.000 

Powdered coal with fuel oil al'SSn 

Gas plant 96,000 



Engineering and contingencies (10%) 



FIXEDCHAR6K 
FUEL OIL 




10 


70 


Dollars.thous 
30 40 so 60 


and 

70 


5 
80 


m 


100 


no 


■77) 


.48^0 


1 


































PWOiREDCOAL 


Zj 


Jl. 


v-\ 


s,szo 


































GAS 


J^ 


f 


/s.M 


> 
































^^g^ES 










































































































3/, 


















































^■/ki 


^c 




n 




































GAS 








c-h 


fOO'^ 




































M, 








'■^'^ 






































































































..J 


r 


50l 


p 






































"T^rT 








.-^ 


f,i 


I2t 




































OAS 


JXU:^ 




c7 


^,' 


f>(. 


























FUEL OIL 
































■■ 






"~ 


r 


~ 












Ic 






































m 


t^ 


27 



























c 


7, 


\ot 


'•• 


fmDEREDCOAL 
OAS 

tN».Hcv<» 




" 


"" 








liH 










"" 






















" 






r~ 






■! 


















"* 




"" 




■ 


" 










"t" 


















• 


-J 


"r 


^ 




'£i 



Fig. 7. Diagrammatic comparison of estimated first cost and 
annual charges of coal, oil and gas plants to supply fuel for dO 
furnaces. 



328 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Fuel Consumption of Plants. For the fuel-oil plant, at 50,000 
gals, of oil per month and 140,000 B. t. u. per gal., 7,000,000 
B. t. u. are consumed per month. If we allow 10 lbs. of coal at 
14,000 B. t. u., equal to 1 gal. of oil. we have 500,000 lbs. or 250 
tons of coal used per month, for the powdered-coal plant. In 
addition, this plant consumes about 8,000 gals, of oil, the difference 
being compensated for by coal required in drying the main fuel 
supply. For the gas plant, we require about 60.000 cu. ft. of 
water-gas per hr., at 20 cu. ft. per lb. we require 3,000 lbs. of 
coal per hr. or 375 tons per month. 

Now the total charges can be assembled. 

FUEL OIL PLANT (estimated cost, $27,000). 
Fixed charges : 

Interest (5%) $ 1,350 

Depreciation (12%) 3,240 

Taxes and insurance (1%) 270 

$ 4,860 
Operation : 

Oil (50,000 X 0.05 X-12) $30,000 

Labor, 1 man 1,000 

Electrical current, steam, air 500 

Miscellaneous supplies 200 

$31,700 

Total yearly charge $36,560 

POWDERED COAL PLANT (estimated cost, $97,000). 
Fixed charges : 

Interest (5%) $ 4,850 

Depreciation (10%) '. 9,700 

Taxes and insurance (1%) 970 

^ ^. $15,520 

Operation •. 

Coal (250 X 2.50 X 12) '.$7,500 

Oil (8,000X0.05X12) 4,800 

Labor CI operator, 2 assts. ) 2,000 

Electricity for motors 5,000 

$19,300 

Total yearly charge $34,820 

GAS PLANT (estimated cost, $96,000). 
Fixed charges : 

Interest (5%) $ 4,800 

Depreciation (10%) 9,600 

Taxes and insurance (1%) 960 

$15,360 
Operation : 

Coal (375X2.50X12) $11,250 

Labor ( 1 operator, 2 assts. ) 2,000 

Water 744 

$14,000 

Total yearly charge $29,360 

These several figures are plotted on the accompanying diagram 
for easy comparison. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 329 

Oil and Coal Costs Compared. One ton (2000 lbs.) of coal is 
equivalent in practical heating value to 3.34 bbls. of oil at 325 lbs. 
The table below compares the prices of coal and oil for equivalent 
cost as fuel in a boiler furnace : 



Coal, per ton 






Coal, per ton 






(2,000 lbs.) 


Oil, 


per bbl. 


(2,000 lbs.) 


Oil, 


per bbl. 


$5.00 


$1.50 


$1.66t 


$3.25 


$0.98 


$1.01 


4.75 


1.43 


1.60 ' 


' 3.00 


.90 


1.00 


4.50 


1.35 


1.50 


2.75 


.83 


<92 


4.25 


1.28 


1.42 


2.50 


.75 


.83 


4.00 


1.20 


1.33 


2.25 


.68 


.75 


3.75 


1.13 


1.25 


2.00 


.60 


.66 


3.50 


1.05 


1.02 









* Not allowing for labor saving, t Assuming 10% of cost of fuel 
in labor of firing and handling ashes saved by using oil, a conser- 
vative estimate for plant of over 300 horsepower. 

An interesting point to notice is that the heat value of an oil 
usually given is the high heat value, or heat value determined in 
a bomb calorimeter. The actual heat value available in a boiler 
furnace is less, because all fuel oil contains a considerable per- 
centage of hydrogen, and the latent heat of the steam formed by 
the combustion of this hydrogen passes up the stack as waste her.t. 

In all the heavier grades of fuel, particularly the Mexican oils, 
water mixed with the oil is in the form of an emulsion and will 
not settle out in a tank, as it will with the lighter American 
crudes. This is not so much a disadvantage as it would seem other 
than causing a lowering of the heat value. With an oil light 
enough for the water to settle out of its own accord, this water 
will frequently accumulate in the tank and piping and go over 
into the burners in a slug, putting the burners out ; but with heavy 
oil a very considerable amount of water can go through the burner 
with no bad effect. A small quantity of water in heavy oil is 
probably an advantage in that these oils are usually heated above 
the boiling point of water to effect atomization, and the vaporizing 
of the moisture in the oil as it leaves the burner tip probably helps 
to atomize the oil more thoroughly. (B. S. Nelson, Journal of the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, June, 1917.) 

Fuel Values of Coal, Gas -and Oil. E. H. Hunter and L. G. 
Purtee, operating engineers in Oklahoma, state in Electrical World, 
June 5, 1915, that about 10.5 cu. ft. of air is required for the combus- 
tion of 1 cu. ft. of gas. There are several good makes of gas burn- 
ers on the market, but the secret of using most of them is in proper 
manipulation to get the right mixture of gas and air. To burn 
natural gas properly requires a furnace of somewhat different design 
from that used in burning oil. In some furnaces checker walls are 
used, while in others these walls are omitted entirely. There is con- 
siderable vibration in burning gas, as in oil, but this may be con- 
trolled to a considerable extent. 

Comparing the 3 fuels as to value, said Mr. Hunter: At 212 
degs. F., and atmospheric pressure, 1 lb. of coal will evaporate 
9 lbs. of water; 1 lb. of oil will evaporate 15 lbs. of water, and 
1 lb. of natural gas will evaporate 20 lbs. of water. Approxi- 



330 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

mately 4,800 cu. ft. of gas equals a bbl. of oil. and 4.125 bbls. of 
oil equals a ton of good coal. 

L. G. Purtee stated that gas as a fuel for the pro^duction of elec- 
tric power is only a makeshift and a very expensive one. The 
only thing in its favor is the fact that it may be installed quickly 
and cheaply, used with a minimum amount of help, and has the 
advantage of cleanliness. But by the time the cost of a complete 
auxiliary oil-burning system and reserve supply of oil is taken 
into consideration the first cost is no small item and in the ag- 
gregate reaches a sum which would go a long way toward the 
installation of a mechanical coal handling and burning system, 
which would be permanent and by the use of which at least 25% 
better results may be obtained than is possible with gas. 

Summing it up, Mr. Purtee offered the following estimates : 
$2.50 will buy 1 ton of coal containing 27.000,000 lbs. F. heat 
units; $2.50 will buy 4.5 bbls. of oil. containing 24.367,500 lbs. F. 
heat units; $2.50 will buy 25,000 ft. of gas, containing 22,500,000 
lbs. F. heat units. 

In other words, coal at $2.50 is 167-3% cheaper than 10 -ct. gas 
and 9.8% cheaper than 55-ct. oil, Fifty-five-ct. oil is 7.7% cheaper 
than 10-ct. gas, although operating conditions will usually make 
the final results of 55-ct. oil and 10-ct. gas practically the same. 

Benzol as a Motor Fuel. The Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung 
(Germany, 1915) quotes some particulars of substitutes for gaso- 
line which, it states, have acquired importance as fuels for motor 
vehicles because of the scarcity of petrol in Germany, The con- 
sumption per horse power developed is approximately proportional 
to the calorific power of the fuels. The net calorific power in 
B. t. u. per lb. is given by Mohr for various fuels as follows: 
Petroleum spirit, 18,000 to 18,900 ; pure benzene, 17,208 ; com- 
mercial 90% benzol, 17,100 to 17,280; pure alcohol, 11,452; 95% 
alcohol, 10,575 ; pure naphthalene, 16,722. The following specifi- 
cations for substitutes for benzol are given : 

Benzol-Spirit, (a) 95% methylated s])irit, 70 parts; benzol, 30 
parts. The benzol is poured slowly into the spirit while stirring 
— not the spirit into the benzol. (&) 90%, or ordinary methylated 
spirits, 50 parts ; commercial acetone or acetic alcohol, 20 parts ; 
benzol, 30 parts. The spirit and acetone are first mixed, and the 
benzol gradually added. 

Benzoline -Spirit, (a) 95% methylated spirit, 70 parts; ben- 
zoline, 30 parts. The benzoline is poured slowly into the spirit, 
stirring. (&) 90% or ordinary methylated spirit, 50 parts; com- 
mercial acetone or acetic alcohol, 20 parts ; bezoline, 30 parts. 
The spirit and acetone are first mixed, and the benzoline added 
gradually. 

Spirit-Ether, (o) 95% methylated spirit, 90 parts; sulphuric 
ether, 10 parts. (&) 95% methylated spirit, 90 parts; sulphuric 
ether, 10 parts, naphthalene, 1 part. 

Acetone-Spirit. (a) 95% methylated spirit, 70 parts; commer- 
cial acetone, 30 parts, (&) 90% or ordinary methylated spirit, 
50 parts ; commercial acetone, 50 parts. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 331 

Petroleum Mixtures, (a) Petroleum and benzoline (petroleum 
spirit) mixed in proportion of 2 to 1. (&) Petroleum 3 parts, 
acetone 1 part, (c) Petroleum 90 parts, ether 10 parts, and 1 
part naphthalene. 

Oil Consumption of a Diesel Engine Ocean Vessel. The oil-en- 
gine cargo ship Christian X of the Hamburg-American Line 
is 370 ft. long, 53-ft. beam, 30 ft. deep, with a loaded draft of 
23 ft. 6 ins. and a deadweight capacity of 7,400 tons. The twin 
screws are driven by a pair of 8-cylinder 4-cycle Diesel engines, 
aggregating 2,500 i.h.p. at 140 r.p.n>. and there are two similar 
auxiliary engines of 200 h.p. at 225 r.p.m. The deck machinery, 
winches, windlass and steering gear are "electrically driven. The 
ship was launched in March, 1912. The following account of its 
sea service is abstracted from a report published in The Engineer 
(London), July 18, 1913: 

After loading in Hamburg for Havana, she commenced her 
first voyage on July 23, 1912, and until the vessel ran into Havana 
on Aug. 9, the engines ran at full power without any stoppage. 
The weather was very good, except for a couple of days when a 
fresh westerly wind raised a very rough sea, so that the pro- 
pellers now and then came partly out of the water, causing the 
governors to come into action. 

The fuel used was Roumanian oil. Its effective heat value w^as 
17,800 B. t. u. The total consumption of fuel in 24 hrs.' trial was 
8.545 tons (metric) for the main engines and 0.84 ton for the 
auxiliary engine. Thus the consumption per i.h.p.-hr. was: Main 
engines, including the oil used for the auxiliary machinery, 0.361 
lb. ; main engines, excluding the oil used for the auxiliary ma- 
chinery, 0.328 lb. ; the auxiliary engine, 0.357 lb. At Havana, 
the machinery was overhauled and found to be in perfect order, 
though the exhaust valves were changed and the oil valves were 
ground in. 

The ship then proceeded to Vera Cruz. In August an easterly 
trade wind blows at about the same rate as the vessel's speed, 
and tnis portion of the voyage was hottest of the whole trip in 
the engine room, since the ventilators did not carry much air to 
the engineers' platform. The highest temperature was on Aug. 
15. The temperature on deck in the shade was 89.6 degs. F., and 
that in the engine room 107.6 degs. P., or considerably less than 
the temperature in the engine room and the stokehold of a steamer 
under similar conditions. 

From Vera Cruz the ship proceeded to Tampico, and took 100 
tons of oil fuel, which was said to contain 1.72% of sulphur. The 
engines worked excellently with this oil, although the exhaust 
gases smelt very strongly of sulphur. On this account, in order 
to run no risk of damaging the machinery by the action of the 
sulphur, it was decided to continue the voyage on the Roumanian 
oil which was .still left in the bottom tanks, until the other oil 
could be analyzed in order to make sure that the proportion of 
sulphur did not exceed 1.72%. which, of course, would be harmless. 
The vessel left Coatzacoalcos Aug. 31 for New Orleans with 



332 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

her holds empty. There it took a full cargo and left on Sept, 15, 
arriving at New York Sept. 19. 

After filling the bottom tanks with fuel oil the ship left New 
York on Sept. 20 for the return to Hamburg. The next day there 
was a very strong head wind, the sea was very rough and the 
ship pitched and plunged heavily. The Aspinall governors worked 
without interruption as the propellers were thrown right out of 
the water. On Sept. 23 and 24 the starboard engine was put 
" half speed " to enable the ship to steer better against the high 
sea. On those two days the. speed was only 6.26 and 8.41 knots 
respectively. On the 30ch a storm commenced again from the 
northeast, and the engines had to be stopped for eight minutes 
to clean out the oil filters which were not then provided with by- 
passes. The constant rolling of the vessel set the oil in the tanks 
in such violent movement that the sludge or sediment had got 
down into the piping and had stopped up the filter entirely. 

On Oct. 2 the very high sea smashed the railing on the prome- 
nade deck and bent all the awning posts on the port side. The 
starboard engine was afterward put to half speed so as to enable 
the ship to hold on her course, and the speed dropped to 5.9 knots. 
The vessel reached Hamburg on Oct. 6. The mean speed for the 
home voyage was 9.58 knots, a good result if bad weather and 
the head wind the whole way are taken into account. A sum- 
mary of the voyage is shown in the accompanying table. 



PERFORMANCE OF THE OIL-ENGINE SHIP ' 
X" ON A VOYAGE OF 11,894 MILES 

Dis- 
tance Speed 

Voyage naut. knots Total 

days hrs. miles per hr. I. h.p. tons 

At Hamburg 14.02 

To Havana 17 12 4,627 11.01 2,390 179.80 

To Vera Cruz 2 19 810 12.11 38.75 

ToTampico 17 210 12.54 10.28 

To Coatzacoalcos. , 1 3 311 11.38 13.28 

To New Orleans.. 2 10 698 12.10 33.68 

To New York ... 5 5 1.613 12.92 58.60 

To Hamburg 15 18 3.625 9.58 2,415 157 00 

Total and average 45 12 11.894 10.89 2.440 505.41 



CHRISTIAN 

Oil consumed 
Kilos 
Per 24 per 

hrs. i.h.p. 

tons per hr. 

9.732 0'.i69 
10 

9'.56 '.'.'.'. 

9.80 

9.90 

9.713 0.168 

9.75 0.169 



On arrival, the engines were inspected and everything was found 
in order. Of the escape valves, which had been working since 
the departure from New Orleans, only two were attacked to such 
an extent that it was necessary to turn the valve seats. Not- 
withstanding the bad weather on the home run, the mean speed 
over the whole trip, outward and homeward, was 10.89 knots. 

On the second voyage of the Christian X, which was made 
to New York and Philadelphia, things went well, and, notwith- 
standing very severe weather in the Atlantic on the outward trip, 
the average speed was 10.56 knots, while on the home run the 
rate was 11.41 knots. 

Oil the third voyage, from the departure, on Jan. 6,- a westerly 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 333 

hurricane and wild sea had to be fought up to Jan. 15, and ac- 
cording to the engineer's log books, the Aspinall governors were 
working uninterruptedly. One of the life-boats, the after wheel- 
house and various fittings on deck were washed overboard, and 
it became necessary to slow down the engines in order to prevent 
everything being swept away by the heavy seas that constantly 
washed over the vessel. 

In New York a new sort of oil fuel was taken on board which 
caused too early ignition with the engines going slow and the 
Aspinall governors at work, so that the valves hung open and 
some of them were spoiled. As there were only a few spare fuel 
valves, and as the captain did not think that he could hold the 
ship against the strong sea with a single engine in case of need, 
he preferred to turn and put into Queenstown, Ireland, rather 
than expose the vessel to further damage. On arrival in port the 
ignition was retarded by a simple operation, and the ship then 
went out on a trial trip which showed that all was in order. Spare 
valves were put on board and the vessel then continued her voyage 
toward Boston, where she arrived Feb. 15 without trouble, but 
again after experiencing very severe weather. 

Fuel Oil for Steamships. The use of fuel oil for steamships has 
been constantly on the increase on the Pacific Coast, according 
to a recent Canadian Government report, largely because it is 
considered that 2 tons of oil will do the work of 3 tons of the 
best coal. The advantages in favor of oil are counted as having 
five main points : Great saving of time and labor in loading fuel ; 
fewer men required for handling fuel on board ship ; reduced cost 
of boiler and other repairs; increased cleanliness; and more com- 
plete combustion, and therefore greater efficiency of oil fuel. Re- 
cently many vessels have been altered so as to use either coal or oil 
fuel. Comparative costs of coal and oil on the Princess Vic- 
toria, operating daily between Vancouver, Victoria and Seattle, 
are given as follows ; 

COAL 

Per day 

100 tons at $4.50 $450.00 

9 firemen at $55 per month each 16.50 

9 trimmers at $45 a month each 13,50 

Food for 18 men 7.50 

Total $487.56 

OIL 

344.17 bbls. at 90 cts $314.25 

6 firemen 11.10 

Food for 6 men 2.53 

Total , $327.87 

Effect of Diesel Engines on Fuel Supply and Cost. S A. Hadley 
of Kansas City, Mo, before the annual convention of Kansas En- 
gineering Society, abstracted in Engineering and Contracting. Feb. 
16. 1916, stated that tlie Diesel engine has not been introduced into 
this country long enough for the effect of its remarkable economj' 



334 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

to be perceived, though this economy has been proved and ad- 
mitted. The cost of fuel, like everything else, is governed by the 
Taw of supply and demand, and Diesel engines will affect both. 

The fuel supply of this country consists chiefly of petroleum and 
bituminous coal ; natural gas and anthracite being sold now almost 
exclu.sively for house use are not affected much by the economy of 
the Diesel engines and will not be considered here. 

The price of coal has increased about 1 ct. per ton at the mines 
each year in spite of increased production from 270,000.000 tons 
in 1900 to nearly 600,000,000 tons in 1915 on account Of a de- 
mand which increased faster than improved methods of mining 
have cheapened the cost of production. Within the last 6 months 
the combination of an active demand, a threatened shortage and 
sympathy with the rise in oil prices has made a sudden increase 
of 15 cts. per ton. nearly 11% of the cost at the mine. It is be- 
lieved that the cost of mining coal can not be further reduced, as 
increasing difficulties will more than offset improved methods. 
There is no large margin of profit to be absorbed and so the in- 
dustrial growth of the country means constantly increasing prices 
for coal. 

The Diesel engine which uses oil fuel will produce a brake horse 
power on 7.500 heat units in the fuel. Steam plants which now 
use coal almost exclusively for fuel require an average of 50,000 
heat units per horse power ranging from 75,000 for the common 
factory or central station plant of less than 100 h.p. to about 20,000 
for the best and most expensive large central station plants. Now 
much of the country is supplied with power by these smaller, less 
efficient steam plants where poor water supi)ly or varying or in- 
sufficient load has prevented the installation of large steam plants 
of the better type. Here the Diesel engine can step in and make an 
immediate saving of about 80% of the fuel, for it is nearly as effi- 
cient in small sizes or at half load as in large sizes or at full load 
and is not affected by a poor or deficient water supply. Several 
instances in Kansas can be shown where small central station plants 
have reduced their annual fuel bill from more than $2,500 to less 
than $500. 

The Diesel engine is limited in size to units of about 100 b.-h.p. 
and this might be thought to prevent it from competing with the 
large central station. To some extent this is true, but only in 
congested districts where power can be sold in large quantities 
with small distributing cost. There the coal fired steam plant 
of the latest design can produce the electrical energy at nearly as 
low fuel cost as with Diesel engine, because of the difference in 
the cost of heat units in coal and in oil. The invevStment in such 
a plant is nearly or quite as much as in the Diesel plant, being 
from $75 to $110 per k.w. exclusive of land or transmission lines. 
The convenience of having prime movers equal to the largest in- 
dividual loads may warrant the use of steam, but where users of 
power are .'scattered over wider territory and no one unit requires 
several thousand k.ws. as may be the case in rolling mill work or 
electric smelting, electro-chemical processes such as obtaining nitro- 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 335 

gen from the air by electrical discharges, etc., the Diesel engine 
can compete easily with the coal fired steam plant. Instead of 
central stations of from 5,000 to 50,000 capacity with step up 
transformers, high tension transmission lines, step down trans- 
formers and in the case of electric railways, rotary converter 
sub-stations, there may be a number of Diesel plants of 500 to 
2.000 h.p. capacity each, equal to the sub-stations of the other 
system with generators producing current at moderate voltage, 
say, 2.300 to 3,300 in a.c. practice or 2,500 volts in the case of d.c. 
railway systems, and all these stations tied into one another in 
parallel operation. The investment would be less, the attendance 
no more, the plants could assist each other in emergencies by 
raising the voltage enough for two adjoining stations to carry the 
load of one temporarily disabled or cut down for any reason, the 
whole system would be more flexible and the economy of the Diesel 
engine could be realized at all loads. This method is possible 
because the Diesel engine is more efl[icient in units of 1,000 h.p. 
or smaller than the steam turbine plant in units of 25,000 h.p. and 
because power is finally used in relatively small amounts over a 
wide area and by producing it closer to where it is used the cost 
and loss of distribution is reduced. With high tension electrical 
transmission from large central plants, it must be transmitted 
twice, once at high tension to the sub-station and again at lower 
voltages back over practically the same ground to the user. The 
cost of distributing oil fuel to .scattered Diesel plants is slight be- 
cause of the small quantity and the fact that it can be piped or 
shipped in tank cars. 

Electric traction has other advantages besides the saving of 
fuel and is being adopted on a large scale now, by the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad to its mountain divisions where 
water power is available. The reduction in demand for coal caused 
by increasing use of Diesel engines may not result in decreased 
cost, but will at least check the increasing price and will allow 
more coal to be used for coke making, smelting ore, and for in- 
dustrial processes that will benefit by a continued supply at a 
moderate price. Powdered coal is now being generally adopted 
for burning clinker in cement kilns, for brick and tile kilns, open 
hearth furnaces, etc. Increased prices for coal would be felt by 
these products and by all iron and steel makers, which take 
nearly as much coal to make the coke smelting ore as do the rail- 
roads. 

The production of coke furnishes a source of fuel for the Diesel 
engines in the oil that can be distilled from coal tar. In Ger- 
many this fuel is used in preference to petroleum fuel oil, which 
is imported duty free. In this country it has not yet become a 
commercial reality as so much tar is used in the crude state for 
roofing, road building, paving, etc., but when we begin to refine 
the tar to obtain aniline dyes, fertilizers and other valuable by- 
products this tar oil will be produced in quantities sufTicient to 
have a regular market and being a by-product will be sold at low 
price. 



336 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The increased demand for oil fuel can not raise the; price much, 
for the engine uses the cheap heavy grades of crude oil which 
have little value for refining, and uses the residue after the gaso- 
lene and more valuable constituents have been removed. It is 
true that this by-product has risen in price lately almost 50% 
more than its low price of a year ago and there has been more 
than a doubling of price of crude oil. but a little consideration will 
show that further increases will affect the price of gasolene and 
the lighter products only as they have no substitute. 

The production of crude oil for 1914 was 290.312.535 bbls. and 
for 1915 about 2,000.000 bbls. more. There was a decline in the 
last half of 1915 of almost 100.000 bbls. per day in the largest 
field, the Cushing. a decrease from the 1914 rate of 18.000.000 bbls. 
i. e., had Cushing kept its past rate the 1915 production would 
have been over 310.000.000 bbls. But this was the only field that 
decreased and many new wells were brought in and extensive 
new fields developed in (Central Kansas and in Montana ai»d it is 
expected these new fields will hold up production. The increasing: 
demand which is raising prices is for gasolene and the heavy 
residue will remain a drug on the market except at prices which 
will compete with coal for boiler use in down town power plants 
and heating plants where its cleanliness and easy handling will 
allow it to be used at prices of frbm $1.25 to $1.50 per bbl. and 
probably a little higher. At these prices the Diesel engine can 
produce power to compete with coal in the waj'^s mentioned before. 

It remains to be seen how much of this comparatively cheap 
liquid fuel is available. Without taking into consideration the 
fuel oil that can, and undoubtedly will, be produced from coal tar, 
the supply is very large. P^ormerly over 50% and now about 20% 
of the crude oil. from the mid -continent field is marketed as fuel 
oil. though there is a wide variation with different oils and differ- 
ent refining companies. A much larger percentage of California 
.and Mexican oil is fit only for fuel. In 1915 the production of 
the mid-continent field was 152.869.680 bbls.. which by modern 
methods of refining yielded about 30.000.000 bbls. of fuel oil. Cali- 
fornia in 1915 produced 112,89 2,855 bbls. yielding over 50% of 
fuel oil or about 60,000,000 bbls. The total fuel oil supply for 
.1915 was 90,000.000 bbls. The above figures take account of mod- 
ern methods of refining and by the older methods there will be 
much more fuel oil. There will probably be further changes in 
refining as the demand for gasolene grows. To offset this is the 
supply of Mexico which has just been tapi)ed and is not now being 
imported at ^11 in any considerable quantities. It is fair to as- 
sume that aiexico will at least supply enough to make up for a 
decrease in the production of fuel oil by improved methods of 
refining now unknown. It is a fact that the production of rrude 
oil in the United States has increased steadily each year and that 
proved oil territory has widened. Some fields, notably the Cush- 
ing field, have fallen off in production, but none, not even those, 
are exhausted. It may be taken as an indication of the steadiness 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



337 



of the supply that the Standard Oil Co. now have under con- 
struction 180 new stills in 7 different refineries. 

Any builder of Diesel engines, of whom there are now a con- 
siderable number of good repute, will guarantee a brake h.p. on 
less than Vi lb of fuel oil. The annual production of 90,000,000 
bbls. means 60 billion h.p.-hrs. or 20,000,000 h.p.-yrs. of 300 
10 hr. days each. This is the amount of power now produced 
at an average of over 5 lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr., which can be 
had from Diesel engines, not taking into account the fuel oil from 
coal tar. It represents a yearly decrease in the demand for coal 
of 150.000.000 tons, one-fourth the present production, which will 
be ihat much added to our coal supply and will serve to prevent 
a rise in price. Our conclusion must be that the Diesel engine by 
its use of a by-product as fuel will defer the exhaustion of our 
coal supply and tend to maintain present prices and that with- 
out it there must be a considerable increase in fuel prices. 

Types of Storage Plants for Anthracite Coal, Their Economic 
Features and Cost of Construction and Operation. R. V. Norris, 
in the Journal of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
1911, by E^ngineering and Contracting. July 12, 1911, states that 
storage-plants vary much in detail of design, but may be gen- 
erally divided into two classes — non-mechanical and mechanical 
storage — with the following types: 



NGN -MECHANICAL 



(a) Level. Stocking on the 

surface. 

(b) Level. Stocking from tres- 

tles. 

(c) Level. Stocking from tres- 

tles. 

(d) Level. Stocking in bins. 

(e) Level. Stocking by cable- 

railwayand 
dump-cars 

(f) Hillside. Stocking from tres- 

tles 



Reloading 

shovel. 
Reloading 

.shovel. 
Reloading 



by hand or steam- 
by hand or steam- 



or 



by tunnel with 
without dock-scrapers. 
Reloading by tunnels. 
Reloading by hand or from bins, 



Reloading by hand, scrapers, or 
hydraulicking. 



MECHANICAL 



(g) Hill.side. 

(h) Level. 
(i) Level. 

(j) Level, 
(k) Level. 



Stocking by travel- 
ing-cantilever 
trimmer. 

Traveling or fixed 
tramways. 

Dodge system. 
Stocking by truss- 
trimraers in con- 
ical piles. 

Stocking by travel- 
ing trimmer. 

Covered plants. 
Stocking by fixed, 
trimmers. 



Reloading by hydraulicking. 



Stocking and reloading by trav- 
eling buckets. 

Reloading by swinging convey- 
ors. 



Reloading by tunnel and travers- 
ing-conveyors. 

Reloading by traversing-convey- 
ors or by tunnel and dock- 
scrapers. 



The line between the non-mechanical and the mechanical types 
is hard to draw, so many plants being combinations of both types. 
We have taken as mechanical storage, all plants using machinery 



338 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in storing coal, and as non-mechanical those storing by dumping, 
without regard to the occasional incidental use of machinery for 
reloading in some of the non-mechanical plants above described. 

Dump-Storage (Non-Mechanical) . The simplest method of stock- 
ing large volumes of coal consists in forming a dump on a fairly- 
level surface, laying temporary tracks on the accumulating stock, 
and raising and shifting these as the storage grows in extent and 
height Reloading is accomplished either by steam-shovels or grab- 
bucket cranes, operated from the edges of the pile from tracks 
which are shifted as reloading progresses. This plan is only suit- 
able for temporary storage of steam sizes. Only one size can be 
stored, the breakage is excessive in any event, and prohibitory 
with prepared sizes, no rescreening is possible, and the cost of 
operation, not including waste, approximates 20 to 25 cts. per 
ton handled. 

Trestle-Storage (Non-Mechanical) . A method of storage now in 
general use in retail yards, and also attempted on a larger scale, 
consists of a trestle of the height of the proposed top of the pile, 
over which the loaded cars are dumped, forming a long pile of 
usually only moderate height, sizes being separated by partitions. 
Reloading is accomplished usually by hand. Trestle storage is 
small in capacity for the cost, expensive in operation, high in 
breakage, and is generally costly and inefficient ; it does, however, 
permit the storage of various sizes. Its use should be confined 
to small retail yards, used for transport to proper screens for 
final reloading. 

Trestle and Tunnel Storage (Non-Mechanical). A more efficient 
type of trestle-storage unites, with the trestle-stocking, the provision 
of a tunnel under the trestle for reloading. The coal is fed into cars 
in this tunnel through gates, and the cars may be either regular rail- 
road equipment or narrow-gage dump-cars. Breakage is excessive, 
including not only that incident to the trestle-storage, but to draw- 
ing at least a portion of the coal from the center of the pile under 
pressure. Except with the use of separate screening-plant, no re- 
screening is possible ; and further, less than 60% of the coal is tribu- 
tary to the tunnel by gravity, and the two outlying wedge-shaped 
piles must be transported to the tunnel by hand, or better, by the 
use of dock-scrapers, which are also occasionally used for ex- 
tending the storage beyond the gravity-range of the trestle. 

Bin-Stocking (Non-Mechanical) . In general, the construction 
consists of wooden bins traversed by railroad tracks from which the 
various sizes and types of coal are dumped, each in its appropri- 
ate bin. Reloading is usually accomplished by cars passing under 
the bins, either on the surface or more frequently in tunnels. To 
reduce the danger from fire, the movement of the reloading-cars 
is usually by gravity or by rope-haulage. The individual bins 
are necessarily limited in capacity to from 50 to 100 tons each, 
and an extensive plant covers a very large area. One such plant 
at the seaboard has 384 bins, reloading into cars in 9 tunnels, and 
covers approximately 9 acres. Such a plant costs in excess of 
$3 per ton of capacity to erect, requires an enormous amount of 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 339 

timber, with resulting large fire-hazard and high maintenance 
charges, and the operating expenses approach 10 cts. per ton. 

A great advantage is the practicability of storing many sizes 
and kinds of coal, and keeping separate many small consignments. 
The breakage in this type of plant is very serious. The loss at 
seaboard on 1,000,000 tons of prepared and pea coal in about the 
usual proportions, would amount to $545,000, or 54 ^/^ cts. per ton, 
in addition to the cost of storage. 

Cahle-Raib'oad Storage (N on- Mechanical). A modification of 
the bin and tunnel type involves the use of cable or gravity return 
cars, running out on trestles over bins or surface storage, and 
dumping their contents at the desired points. This type is used 
at many retail yards and at transfer points, especially where 
water-borne coal is transferred to yards or cars The plant is 
moderate in first cost, economical in operation, but high in break- 
age ; does not permit rescreening except as a separate operation, 
and, being of timber, is subject to destructive fires. It does, how- 
ever, lend itself readily to covering for weather protection. 

Hillside Storage (N on- Mechanical) . Given a not impracticable 
hill, a plant consists essentially of one or more dumping tracks at 
the top, which in the older forms of plant are necessarily on 
rather high trestles. The coal is dropped from these trestles (the 
fall being broken as much as possible by chutes) and spreads 
down the hillside until arrested by walls, barriers, or by a level 
space at the bottom. But little coal can be reloaded directly by 
gravity except the layer which may be held by a retaining wall at 
the bottom, so it is usual to reload by hand, or better, by the use 
of dock scrapers or swinging conveyors along the level space at 
the bottom of the plant. 

In one large plant almost all the coal is put into a conveyor 
at the foot of the hill and scraped to a central screen house, where 
it is thoroughly rescreened and all the sizes recovered. In other 
cases reloading is done over fixed or shaking screejis placed at 
intervals above the tracks, and the screenings fiom these are taken 
by cars or conveyors to a small screen house for separation. In 
many cases the difficulty of handling at the foot of the hill is 
solved by the use of hydraulicking water, best heated in winter, 
which is used under considerable pressure to carry the coal to 
the conveyors or cars for reloading. This solves the problem of 
frozen coal as far as the storage plant is concerned ; but ar- 
rangements must be made for the disposal of the water, and in 
winter shipments the coal reaches its destination frozen. 

Where various sizes are stored it is necessary to provide par- 
titions between the sections. These usually take the form of 
fences of heavy planking supported by large vertical posts, and 
braced by a forest of props. The downward motion of the coal 
has a strong tendency to dislodge these supports, with resultant 
heavy maintenance cost. Moreover, to avoid admixture of dirt 
with the coal, it has been found necessary to protect the entire 
hillside, either by paving, planking, or concrete. This is particu- 
larly necessary where water is used in reloading. 



340 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The cost of installing a hillside storage plant of this type is 
about $1.60 per ton of capacity complete, including railroads, 
trestle, partitions, water supply, conveyors, screen house and plank- 
ing. With concreted or paved hillside the cost would probably 
be a little higher. The operating cost, exclusive of fixed charges 
and deterioration of coal, but including labor, repairs, power, and 
shifting cars, will approximate 10 cts. per ton for the coal passed 
through storage, dependent, as in all cases of storage operating 
cost, on the activity of the plant. The breakage of coal is some- 
what large. 

From the above it appears that the non-mechanical plants are 
generally expensive, both to erect and to operate, do not generally 
lend themselves to the necessary screening, and involve a serious 
breakage of coal. On the other hand, they are suitable to small 
quantities of storage, lend themselves to separation of sizes and 
qualities, and are in general suitable rather to retail yards or the 
smaller type of wholesale piers than to extensive storage. 

Mechanical Storage Plants 

Hillside with Mechanical Stocking (Mechanical). The most not- 
able plant of this type was constructed during 1905-6, for the Le- 
high Valley Coal Co., at Hudsondale, Pa. Owing to the high 
breakage loss in prepared sizes in hillside storage the plant was 
designed and is operated exclusively for the storage of small sizes. 

The hillside selected was fairly straight and true in grades, but 
required heavy earthwork for the reloading tracks, and the stock- 
ing track at the head of the hill was inaccessible at reasonable 
grades with prohibitory cost, and is reached by an engine plant. 
The plant (Fig. 8) differs from all previous hillside plants in many 
particulars. Owing to the configuration of the ground the loaded 
cars are hoisted up a plane 500 ft. long on a 30% grade, by a pair 
of 18-30-in. hoisting engines, double geared 16 to 1 to a 10-ft. 
drum. The cars are pushed up by a steel barney, which returns 
into a pit at the foot of the plane. From the head of the plane 
the cars run over a double track trestle just high enough to permit 
dumping the coal into a traveling cantilever trimmer, by which 
it is elevated and discharged on to the concrete floored hillside, 
making a pile more than 55 ft. deep at its maximum, tailing 
down against a concrete retaining wall extending 7 ft. above the 
storage floor. This wall has a total height of 24 ft. above the 
reloading tracks, and is provided with openings on 20-ft. centers 
discharging the coal over screens directly into railroad cars for 
shipment. The screenings are washed in a trough to a small 
screen house at the lower end of the plant, where they are re- 
screened for .shipment As but a small portion of the coal is ac- 
cessible by gravity, the main reloading is done by the use of water 
pumped from a nearby creek to a storage tank on the hill above 
the plant, and used with hose streams to wash the coal to the 
gates and over the screens 

liaijroad cars 9,re Jiandled by gravity on both reloading and 



1 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



341 



stocking' tracks, and the empty cars from the latter are lowered 
on a plane, operated by a drum with powerful air brakes, to the 
level of the railroad. 

Except the hoisting engines for the loaded car plane, the entire 




plant is electrically operated and lighted from a station included 
in the equipment. 

The two tracks on the dumping trestles are at different eleva- 
tions, to minimize the drop at this point, and the chutes under 



342 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

these form a shallow pocket controlled by numerous gates. This 
pocket, while not of a depth to increase the drop from the hop- 
pers of the cars, has sufhcient capacity to give the trimmers a 
continuous supply, regardless of the variations in discharge in 
unloading and moving the cars. The cantilever trimmer consists 
of a platform traveling parallel to the dumping trestle on a 16-ft. 
gage track and carrying a cantilever truss equipped with a scraper 
conveyor. Except the drop from the cars to the chute immediately 
below and just clearing the hoppers, the only other drop involved 
in storing coal is in making the first small pile behind the bulk- 
head. After this reaches the line of trimmer the pile is filled by 
moving the discharge outward, and the coal from the end of the 
trimmer reaches the growing pile without appreciable drop, and 
extends the pile by avalanching, as previously described. 

The storage floor averages 200 X 1,000 ft. on the hillside. This 
was first traced to squares 25 ft. on a side, so designated to give 
the best slopes without re-entrant angles, attainable without too 
serious grading. The floor thus prepared was covered with from 
2 to 3 ft. of cinders, placed by the use of a temporary cable way, 
and then with 6 ins. of cinder-concrete with a wearing surface of 
1 in. of cement and .sand. The entire preparation of the floor 
cost a little less than 26 cts. per sq. ft., of which nearly 14 cts. was 
for the concrete. The lowest 30 ft. of the floor is on a much flatter 
grade than the rest, and with a view to a better conduction of 
the water and coal over this section the floor is made with 
20-ft. corrugations, the bottom of each leading to a gate. Experi- 
ence has proved the advantage of this arrangement, and further, 
that it would have been very advantageous to carry these corruga- 
tions the entire width of the floor, as considerable ditficulty is 
encountered in washing down the fine coal by reason of the spread- 
ing of, the water. In inany cases in reloading the coal temporary 
iron chutes are laid to prevent this spread. 

The retaining wall was built of concrete reinforced with old 
wire rope, with an aggregate of crushed mine refuse ; this, by 
reason of its character, has somewhat deteriorated the concrete, 
and the wall, while designed amply against overturning, and an- 
chored back by numerous tie-rods, has been forced forward to 
some extent in places, probably by the freezing of water in the 
fill behind it. 

The problem of letting down the loaded cars was solved by 
the use of a second plane, single track, with a barney ahead of 
the cars disappearing at the bottom into a pit. The controlling 
drum lowers by means of a band-brake on an asbestos-lined brake- 
wheel, operated by a standard Westinghouse air-brake equipment, 
supplied with air by an automatic electrically driven air pump. 
The barney is hoisted by a small motor, clutch connected to a 
train of gearing operating the drum, and runaways ai-e guarded 
against by a governor, which sets the brake in case a safe speed 
in lowering is exceeded. The brake is also arranged for hand- 
operation in emergency. 

Different sizes when stored are either separated by temporary 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 343 

bulkheads or the edges of the piles are allowed to mix, the sizes 
being separated by the shipping screen. 

As this plant is used (and is suitable) only for the small sizes 
of coal, the question of breakage is not of supreme importance, 
and no accurate figures are available as to its amount. From 
observation I would consider it small, probably not much exceed- 
ing that in a standard Dodge plant. The entire cost including all 
charges approximated $1.50 per ton of capacity, and when in 
active operation the handling cost has reached the record figure 
of 1.25 cts. per ton handled through the plant. 

Traveling or Fixed Traviway Storage (Mechanical). The tram- 
way type of storage, stocking and reloading by traveling buckets, 
while in very general use for ore-storage, has been but little used 
for stocking anthracite on an extensive scale, largely on account 
of excessive breakage, the impracticability of rescreening before 
reshipment, and small handling capacity. 

The largest plant of this type for anthracite storage was built 
for Coxe Bros. & Co., at Roan Junction, Pa., with a capacity of 
100,000 tons in a continuous pile, since increased to more than 
150,000 tons. This plant consists essentially of a traveling truss, 225 
ft. span, with 100-ft. cantilever-extension and 40-ft. back-projection. 
The truss is 55 ft. high above the rail at the traveler, and the bot- 
tom memteer has an elevation of 40 ft. above the storage ground. 
The truss is supported by a tower, spanning the reloading tracks 
and containing the engines and boiler for operation. The outboard 
end, supported by an A-frame, travels on a single rail, outside 
of which the stocking track is elevated to such a height that cars 
can be dumped into small hoppers, 50-ft. centers, from which the 
coal is drawn into 5-ton buckets, supported on traversing truck. 
One bucket is hoisted, carried along the truss, lowered, and dumped 
on the stock pile while its companion is being filed ; these buckets 
dump automatically only when resting on the stockpile. Reload- 
ing is accomplished by the use of a 3-ton " shovel bucket," which 
is filled by pulling it over the surface of the coal, and dumped by 
hand into cars at the reloading tower. 

While a large storage at low cost per ton is attained, the hand- 
ling capacity of the plant is small, the average rate of stocking 
is but 83 and of reloading 70 tons per hour, woefully insufficient 
for a plant of this capacity. This condition could, of course, be 
remedied by the use of several trusses, which, however, would 
greatly increase the cost of installation. The breakage, particu- 
larly in reloading, is heavy, and on this account the plant is 
chiefly used for the smaller sizes. The original cost of construc- 
tion is said to have been but $60,000, or 60 cts. per ton of rated 
capacity. The present cost would be at least 50% greater. The 
cost of operation averages slightly over 5.5 cts. per ton for stock- 
ing and about the same amount for reloading on a total exceed- 
ing 150,000 tons handled, including all labor, repairs, and train 
service, but not interest charges or depreciation of plant. 

An interesting plant of this type is situated at Fall River, Mass. 
The plant consists (Fig. 9) of a traveling tramway, with cantilever 



344 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

extension over the pockets and hinged bridge extension to extend 
over the barges. The tramway is hung from its supports by a 
number of thin eye-bars, giving flexibility sufficient to permit of 
swinging 11.5 degs. either side of the center line, allowing a 
variation of 50 ft. each way over the pockets, which is necessary 
to permit of the selection of pockets for various sizes of coal. 
Unloading, both from the barges and from stock, is done by means of 
a 2-ton clam-shell bucket, in which coal is carried to the desired 
point, lowered, and let out either on the storage pile or in the 
pockets, which are large enough to receive it. The plant handles 




Fig. 9. 



Travelling tramway storage and handling plant, Staples 
Coal Co., Fall River, Mass. Plan and elevation. 



both anthracite and bituminous coal, as may be required and in 
reloading from stock the tramway is assisted by a locomotive crane 
with clam-shell bucket of 0.5 ton capacity. 

The cost of operation in the plant has been reduced to about 
one-third of its previous cost. The total cost of the plant was 
about $50,000, and the saving by its use exceeded 10 cts. per ton 
on 150,000 tons handled per year, besides reducing the screen- 
ings from 7 to less than 4%. The guaranteed speed of operation 
is 100 tons per hour, which rate in practice has been nearly 
doubled in emergency. 

In general the tramway system, within its limitations, is prob- 
ably the lowest in first cost of all the storage systems, while the 
operating cost is between that of the non-mechanical and the 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



345 



large mechanically operated plants. The principal advantages of 
this type are low first cost, flexibility, moderate labor cost and 
repairs ; the disadvantages, large space occupied by reason of 
relatively low piles, danger from wind, excessive breakage (from 
the tendency of the operators to dump the buckets without low- 
ering to the stock pile), and lack of facilities for rescreening in 
loading out from stock. 

Dodge Storage System (Mechanical). The Dodge system fills 
more nearly than any other the conditions of an ideal plant. In 
its standard form, Fig. 10, anthracite is stored in conical piles 
by means of a trimmer truss carrying a flight conveyor, with a 
movable bottom, which discharges at the apex of the growing 




Fig. 10. 



TRACK HOPPERS AND TRIMMER TRUSSES 

Standard type of Dodge storage plant. 



conical pile, and reloading is accomplished by a horizontal swing- 
ing truss, placed between two conical piles, carrying on its edge 
a flight conveyor. This conveyor takes the coal from the edge 
of the conical pile, draws it to a cential point, and by a change 
in direction carries the coal up an incline to a tower, in which 
it is thoroughly screened on its way to the car. 

The trimming conveyor is supported by a light hinged arch truss 
of span suited to the size of the pile, with a pitch equal to the 
angle of repose of the coal, carrying in its bottom memj)er the 
trough-and-chain conveyor, which returns over the top. The bot- 
tom of the trough is a single movable strip of sheet steel wound 
on a drum at the foot of the truss and pulled by power up the 
truss, advancing as the pile grows, leaving an open bottom above 
the point of discharge, thus minimizing the breakage at this point, 
as the coal is merely shoved out on to the point of the conical 
pile and builds the pile by avalanching rather than by rolling. 
The thrust of the arch-truss is taken up by tie-rods extending 



346 MECHAXICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

under the storage floor, and wind-pressure is provided for by guy- 
ropes extending above the surface of the coal to anchorages out- 
side the piles. The trimming conveyor extends from the foot of 
the truss on a catenary curve to an extension under the dumping 
tracks, \\-here hoppers are provided, feeding the conveyor to ca- 
pacity by adjustable gates. 

Two trimming trusses with respective track hoppers and a cen- 
tral reloader form a unit of construction. 

The reloader is pivoted between the two piles, and swings on 
curved supporting tracks, just clearing the outer ends of the 
trusses, and covers both floors, leaving only a small crescent- 
shaped pile outside its reach on each floor. These piles are 
handled either by hand or by dock scrapers to within reach of the 
end of the reloader. The reloader-truss. carrying the moving 
conveyor on its faces, is fed by power against the bottom of ths 
pile, being operated from a station on the pivot, from which a 
full view of the operation is assured. As the piles cone down by 
avalanching, and not by continuous rolling, it is often necessary 
to back out the reloader in a hurry to avoid having it buried. 
The movement is accomplished by wire cables which lie along one 
of the circular tracks under the coal, and the ends of which coil 
on reversing drums in the engine house, controlled by clutches 
from the operator's platform. 

At the pivot-end of the reloader the chain carrying the conveyor- 
flights is deflected up an incline to the reloading tower. In the 
case of the largest piles, the strain from this extension has proved 
too great for the Dodge chain necessarily employed in making 
this turn, and separate conveyors are installed on the reloader 
and tower. The reloader-conveyor in this case transfers to the 
tower-conveyor. 

The reloading tower contains shaking screens of ample capacity 
to fully rescreen the coal, and after passing over these the coal 
goes by a chute to the cai's for reshipment. These loading chutes 
are long and originally caused considerable breakage, but the 
later ones ai'e covered and provided v.ith an end-gate, by means 
of which the chutes can be kept full and the coal poured from 
the end without the velocity which would be acquired in a free 
slide for the length of the chute. 

The screenings are collected in hoppers in the towers, and in 
modern plants they are taken to a separate screen house for 
repreparation into marketable sizes, either by long conveyors or 
by cars, with rope or locomotive hauhige. 

Power is provided for the operation of each unit from engines 
or motors in a house adjoining the reloading tower. The trimmer 
conveyors, while occasionally driven by motors at the top of the 
trusses, are usually operated by rope-drives from the engine house 
to the head sheaves on the trusses, with the object of minimizing 
the weight on the truss. 

It is evident that but one size and kind of coal should be stored 
in any one pile, and this limitation, involving the installation of 
numerous piles, is the most serious objection to the system. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 347 

The approximate cost of the machinery and trusses, per ton of 
capacity, varies g-reatly with the size of unit-piles. The following 
is a table of approximate costs : 

Capacity tons Diam., ft. Height,, ft. Cost per ton 

120,000 333 85 $0.6625 

100,000 313 80 0.72 

80,000 293 74 0.8125 

60,000 263 67 0.995 

50,000 248 63 1.08 

40,000 230 581/2 1.265 

30,000 208 53 1.54 

This is for plants of 2 units. To this amount must be added the 
cost of foundations, track-hopper pits, pieparation of floors, central 
power plant (steam or electricity) and power-distribution, drainage, 
screen-house for screenings, and railroad tracks, scales and yards. 

The most modern plants have been built of great capacity, with 
large unit-piles of from 50,000 to 60,000 tons' capacity, with the 
result of reducing the first cost of a complete plant from $1.50 
per ton of capacity for a 300,000-ton plant, with 25,000-ton units, 
to $1.06 per ton for a 480,000-ton plant, with 60,000-ton units. 
Depending upon the size of units, the handling capacity varies 
from 50 to 150 tons per hour for stocking or reloading, which 
speed is attained easily in actual work, including the time lost 
in spotting and opening the hopper-bottom steel cars. 

Owing to the thorough rescreening in use, the breakage in hand- 
ling by this type of plant is quite accurately known. In the oper- 
ation of a typical modern plant the following breakage calculation 
from cleaned-up piles has been recorded. The amount screened 
out as smaller sizes is as follows : 

Rice, 
Buck- barley 

Stove, Nut, Pea, wheat, and dirt. 

Size stocked % % % % % 

Egg 8.9 2.4 0.58 0.50 1.82 

Stove 3.9 0.93 0.65 0.37 

Nut ., 1.40 1.10 0.36 

Pea . ..* . . ... 1.01 0.37 

Buckwheat . . ... . . . ' 0.56 

This loss, figured on 1,000,000 tons of assumed quantities of each 
size passing through storage, is $53,561.25, or 5.36 cts. per ton. 

The cost of operation, fairly averaged at 5 cts. per ton handled 
each way, is extremely variable, dependent upon the activity of 
the plant. For a large tonnage it has been as low as 2.4 cts. per 
ton, and for three consecutive months it averaged 4.6 cts. per ton, 
including all labor, repairs, and supplies, but not interest, taxes; 
or depreciation, with occasional jumps to 35 cts. or 40 cts. per 
ton during inactive times v/hen but little coal was handled and 
the fixed charges for attendance dominated the cost. 

An essential feature of this type of plant is ample railroad 
trackage. A plant of 500,000 tons' capacity will be nearly 1.5 
miles long, and will contain jn the aggregate about 10 miles of 
tracks. 



348 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The power required to operate a plant of this type was deter- 
mined for a 60,000-ton unit, two 30,000-ton piles, at the McClellan 
plant of the Susquehanna Coal Co., to be : 

I. h.p. ' 

Engine and attached machinery, light 15.5 

No. 1 trimmer-conveyor, empty 37.0 

No. 1 trimmer-conveyor, loaded 53.5 

No. 2 trimmer-conveyor, empty 36.7 

No. 2 trimmer-conveyor, loaded 53.3 

Reloader-conveyor, empty 38.7 

In the screen house and on the tovvers, each shaking screen, 
6 X 12 ft. in size, required 2.62 h.p. for operation. At the time 
when this test was made reloading was not in progress, so no 
test could be made on the reloader actually in service. 

The m.ost recent plant of the standard Dodge type was erected 
in 1907-08, for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., at Hauto, Pa. 
The detailed costs of this plant are available through the cour- 
tesy of W. A. Lathrop, president, and Baird Snyder, Jr., general 
superintendent of the company. 

The plant consists at present of four 30-000-ton and two 60,- 
000-ton piles, total capacity 240,000 tons, arranged in line on one 
side of the tracks, the other side being reserved for extensions. 
At the present time two more 60,000-ton piles are being erected, 
increasing the capacity to 360,000 tons, which should be available 
early in the summer. 

Special features of the plant are electrical driving from the 
central station of the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Co., at Lans- 
ford. Each unit, two piles with pivoted reloader, is driven from 
its own power house ; the transmission to the trimmers, reloader, 
and loading-tower of each is by rope-drives. Each loading-tower 
is equi^oped with a shaking-screen. 5X12 ft. screening surface, 
provided with a full set of perforated plates for any size of coal. 
The screenings are washed in troughs to a very complete screen 
house at the lower end of the plant. Sufficient grade for this 
washing is obtained by the use of 2 elevator towers in the line 
of troughs, which by raising the screenings avoid undue elevation 
of the troughs. 

The screen house is provided with breaking-down rolls and a 
full set of screens for separating the screenings into sizes, which 
are shipped directly from the screen house pockets. 

The site selected is a favorable one for this type of storage. 
No excessive grading was required, and drainage is available, so 
that it is the practice to use water for reloading frozen coal. 

As in all plants of this type, the capacity of the piles is rated 
on the assumption of strictly conical structure, built directly by the 
trimming conveyors, while in case of necessity the piles can be ma- 
terially extended by the use of sheet-irbn chutes from the head of 
the trimmer. In this plant such extension has been carried to 
the limit by the further use of plank bulkheads between the piles, 
so that a rated 30,000-ton pile of egg coal actually contained 
70,600 tons, more than 135% above its rated capacity. The bulk- 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING . 349 

heads are built with a face of 2-in. plank, retained by cleats of 
plank extending- into the body of coal and held against spreading 
by the friction of the coal itself. 

The cost of the present 240,000-ton plant complete was $415,- 
771.70, or $1,732 per ton of rated capacity, made up of items as 
follows : 

Per ton 
of rated 
capacity 

Grading and masonry $ 94,996.49 $0,395 — 

Railroads 32,656.84 0.136 

Buildings 26,070.5.4 0.108 + 

Machinez^y 215,766.73 0.900 — 

Electric installation 15,829.81 0.066 

Screen-house 28,415.37 0.119 -{- 

Electric power-transmission 2,035.92 0,008 

$415,771.70 $1,732 

The two 60,000-ton piles now under contract are estimated to 
cost $120,000, which will make the entire cost of the 360,000-ton 
plant $536,000, or $1.49 per ton of rated capacity. 

The cost of operation for the first year only is available, amount- 
ing to 209,690 tons handled to $9,263.59, or $0.0442 per ton, as 
follows : 

Amount Cost per ton 

Superintendence $ 584.62 $0.00279 

Labor 3.541.48 0.0169 

Supplies 1,536.39 0.00732 

Repairs 80.68 0.0003 

Electric power 1,133.67 0.0054 

Cost $6,876.84 $0.0328' 

Transportation 2,386.75 0.01143 

Total cost $9,263.59 $0.0442 

In general this type of plant combines most of the qualifica- 
tions of an ideal plant; its main disadvantages are: (1) the 
■large individual units, with consequent tying up of capacity when 
but a small amount of coal of a particular size or kind is to be 
stored; (2) expensive operation in the case of frozen coal, with 
liability to this difficulty from the method of making the piles. 
The coal can be handled with hot water if a supply is available, 
but this requires extensive drainage. This type is suited either 
to very extensive storage of hundreds of thousands of tons, or 
for the storage of moderate quantities of a single size, as for 
large steam plants. 

The Ransom Storage System {Mechanical). A notable varia- 
tion from the Dodge type was built for the Lehigh Valley Coal 
Co., at Ransom, Pa. The' type of plant erected. Fig. 11, varies 
from the standard Dodge type in the use of a traveling trimmer- 
truss, building a wedge-shaped pile of coal with rounded ends, 
and reloading by conveyors in tunnels, with the assistance of 
traveling reloaders, to a central loading tower and screen house. 

The cost of the plant complete, including machinery, power 




350 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



351 



equipment, grading, tracks, reloading and transfer tower, screen 
house, dam, and a 0.5-miIe pipe line for water supply, trestles, 
rope haulage, and lighting, was very close to $1.15 per ton of 
capacity, and the operating expense, excluding interest, taxes and 
depreciation, is reported as low as 1.75 cts. per ton handled during 
months of active operation. No reliable data from a full clean-up 
are available as to breakage, but this appears to be somewhat 
greater than in a standard Dodge plant. 

The plant as a whole has the advantages of low first cost, 
cheap handling, large storage for the area occupied, ease and 
cheapness of extension, exceptionally thorough rescreening and 
ease of preparation of the screenings, low repairs, moderate main- 
tenance, and very rapid handling. The disadvantages are in- 
herent to the type : impossibility of handling more than one size 
at a time, in either stocking or reloading; partial mixing of sizes, 
except at a great sacrifice of capacity ; limitation of number of 
sizes to not exceeding four ; some fire danger ; and high depre- 
ciation on the wooden trestle. 



Bf loading Tower 




Fig. 12. 



Erie Railroad covered storage and transfer plant, 
Hammond, Ind. Cross section. 



Covered Storage Plants {Mechanical). The difficulties from 
frozen and snow-covered coal, which are annoying in the latitude 
of New York, become so serious in more northern regions as to 
warrant expensive arrangements for their avoidance. As mere 
cold involves no difficulty in reloading, trouble from freezing is 
cured by the use of covered plants. 

The Hammond, Ind., plant of the Erie R. R. (Fig. 12) of 60,000 
tons' capacity, a building 840 ft. long by 90 ft. wide, stores coal 
by a conveyor system, with cross conveyor in the roof. The sizes 
are separated by A-partitions and the walls sustained by anchor- 
bands in the coal itself. Reloading is accomplished by running 
the forward coal by gravity into a longitudinal conveyor in front 
of the building, whence it is transferred to the return-buckets of 
the storing-conveyor, elevated to the loading tower, screened and 
shipped. The screenings are prepared in a separate building. 
The balance of the coal in each pocket is delivered to the front 



352 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

conveyor by traversing Dodge reloaders, one serving each two 
bins. These are sheltered under the A~partitions when the bins 
are full. This plant, which also is used as a transfer plant, has 
the advantage of covered storage, moderate cost under the con- 
ditions, good handling capacity and rescreening, with, as its most 
serious objections, fire risk and excessive breakage from trans- 
fers between conveyors, and drop from the roof of the building 
in storing coal. 

A bettor type, also designed by the Dodge Co., and erected for 
the Lehigh Valley Coal Co. at West Superior, Wis., to store coal 
from lake vessels, is practically a 50.000-ton trimmer-truss in- 
closed in a circular dome-shaped building. Fig. 13. The roof is 
supported by steel-dome construction and the low vertical sides 
by retaining bands buried in the coal. Storing is accomplished 
by the use of the usual trimmer-conveyor with movable bottom, 
the only drop being for the first coal deposited until this makes 




Fig. 13. Covered storage plant. 



a pile reaching to the point of trimmer entrance into the build- 
ing. Reloading is accomplished by the use of a tunnel-conveyor 
extending to the center of the building, into which the coal tribu- 
tary by gravity is admitted by valves in the roof of the tunnel. 
When all the coal thus available has been removed, a reloader, 
pivoted at the center of the building, has been uncovered and 
this delivers the balance of the contents to the tunnel conveyor. 
All the coal is elevated by this to a loading tower, where rescreen- 
ing can be properly accomplished. 

The cost of this plant, which comprises two such buildings, was 
about $3 per ton of capacity. Except for the breakage in un- 
loading Vessels the stocking breakage .should but little exceed that 
of a standard Dodge plant, while the reloading breakage would 
be somewhat greater by reason of the drop into the tunnel con- 
veyor, the necessity of drawing the first of the coal under pressure, 
and the double handling by reloader and tunnel of part of the coal. 

The plant, being all of metal, js practically fireproof, the main 
disadvantage being the lack of flexibility. Only one size of coal 
can of course be .stored in each building, and any size stored 
must be entirely reloaded before the building is available for a 
different size. 

A covered plant of 100,000 tons' capacity, built at Wende, near 
Buffalo, by the Lehigh Valley Coal Co., in 1906, Fig. 14, has also 
some unique features. The building is 480 ft. long by 250 ft. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



353 



wide. The front and rear walls, 20 ft. high, are braced by a 
retaining band, and the end walls and two partitions are secured 
by tie-rods from double lines of piles. The curved roof is sup- 
ported by steel trusses, the lower members of which are on the 
angle of repose of piled coal. 

Each of the three pockets is provided with a central trimmer 
conveyor for stocking, and a central tunnel conveyor with valves 
on 14-ft. centers for reloading. The tunnel conveyors carry the 
coal each to its own reloading tower provided with proper screen- 
ing facilities, and the coal which is not tributary by gravity to 
the tunnels is brought to them by dock-scrapers. 

The driving is done by rope from a centr-ally-located engine. 




Sbkufet ConTeror' 



Beloadiog Conveyor i 

ELEVATION 



Fig. 14. ' Wende storage plant, Lehigh Valley Coal Co., Buffalo, 
N. Y. Plan and cross section. 



The cost of the plant approximated $2.25 per ton of capacity, and 
the operating expense is said to be moderate. Breakage should 
approximate that of the plant previously described, over which 
this plant appears to have the advantages of lower first cost, 
greater handling capacity, less area occupied, and provision for 
three sizes of coal. 

In general, it appears that mechanical storage has distinct ad- 
vantages over non-mechanical, and the Dodge type with its modi- 
fications is best suited to extensive storage plants, and the travel- 
ing tramway to smaller plants and to secondary wholesalers' in- 
stallations. All the non-mechanical plants involve such serious 
breakage in stocking as to warrant the greater first cost of the 
mechanical types. 



354 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Labor Costs of Handling Coal and Ashes at Locomotive Coal- 
ing Stations. According to H. J. Edsall, who gives Tables XI and 
XII in Engineering News, Sept. 8, 1910, labor costs from 2 cts. 

TABLE XI. LABOR COSTS FOR HANDLING COAL AT LOCO- 
MOTIVE COALING STATIONS 

Station No. 1. Av. No. locomotives per day, 120 

Men employed Cost per day 

1 foreman, $55 per month $1.80 

5 men to unload cars 10 hrs. per day 7.00 

2 coal dumpers, 12 hrs. per day 2.80 

Total $11.60 

Tons per day 550 

Cost per ton $0,021 

No. 2. 120 locomotives per day. 

1 machinery man 10 hrs. per day $1.50 

5 men to unload cars 12 hrs. per day 6.50 

2 coal dumpers, 12 hrs. per day 2.60 

Tatal $10.60 

Tons per day 550 

Cost per ton $0,019 

No. 3, 76 locomotives per day. 

% foreman's time at $66 per month $1.10 

1 machinery man at $55 per month 1.80 

3 men to unload cars 10 hrs. per day 4.50 

2 coal dumpers, 11 hrs. per day 3.30 

Total $10.70 

Tons per day '. 500 

Cost per ton $0,021 

No. 4 * 

% foreman's time at $66 per month $1.10 

1 engineer at $55 per month 1.80 

% fireman's tnne, 11 hrs. per day 0,83 

2 machinery men, 11 hrs. per day 3.30 

3 men to unload cars 4.95 

2 coal dumpers 3.30 

Total $15.28 

Tons per day 625 

Cost per ton $0,024 

♦ Wages estimated from those paid at previous stations. 



TABLE XII. LABOR COSTS FOR HANDLING ASHES AT 
LOCOMOTIVE COALING STATIONS 

No. 1 :* Cost 

Amt. ashes assumed at 40 cu. Men employed per day 

ft. per loco. Wages assumed. 5 day and 5 night men to 
Av. No. locomotives per day, 60. operate mach'y, feed 

ashes to same and 
clean fire boxes $15.00 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



355 



No. 2 :t % of foreman's time at 

Assumed that three 25-ton coal $66 per month 1.10 

cars = 120 cu. yds. Locomo- 1 day and 1 night man 
tives per day, 75. to operate gates of ash 

hoppers 3.30 

$4.40 
6 day and 6 night fire 
box cleaners, 11 hrs. 
per day $19.80 

$24.20 

No. 3 :t Average cu. yds. per day 120 

Assumed that six 25-ton coal Cost pits to pockets per 

cars = 240 cu. yds. cu. yd $0,037 

Cost per cu. yd. includ- 
ing cleaning fire boxes $0,202 
y. of foreman's time at 

$66 per month $1.10 

1 day and 1 night ma- 
chinery man 3.30 

1 day and 1 night man 
to operate gates of 
hoppers 3.30 

$7.70 
10 day and 10 night fire 

box cleaners 33.00 

$40.70 
Average cu. yds. per day 240 
♦ Cost pits to pockets, per 

cu. yd $0,032 

Cost per cu. yd. includ- 
ing cleaning fire boxes $0,169 

♦ At Station No. 1, ashes are deposited in pits about 50 ft. long and 
scraped to either of two conveyors. Machinery operated 1^/^ to 3 
hrs. per day, usually only morning and evening. Average cu. yds. 
per day 88. 

t At Stations No. 2 and No. 3, ashes are deposited in hopper and 
fed directly to conveyors, which have to be operated each time the 
hoppers become filled up. 

to 2Y2 cts. per ton for coal, and from 1% cts. to 2 cts. per cu. yd. 
for ashes. 

Cost of operation and maintenance of gravity-discharge ele- 
vators handling coal at locomotive coaling stations : 



Operation, 
cost per 
Station. No. tons handled ton 

No. 1. 16,704 tons per mo. (av. of 

12 mos.) $0.0206 

No. 2. 27.313 tons in one year, end- 
ing Sept. 30, 1908 

No. 3. 37.102 tons, 1906 0367 

46,283 tons, 1907 0319 

49,325 tons, 1908 0367 

No. 4. 12.711 tons, 1906 0299 

13,934 tons, 1907 0323 

11,542 tons, 1908 0352 

No. 5. 10.910 tons. 1906 0260 

13,970 tons, 1907 0241 

9,416 tons, 1908 0246 



Mainte- 


Opera- 


nance, 


tion and 


cost per 


maint.. cost 


ton 


per ton 


$0.0080 


$0.0286 


.0005 




.0048 


.0415 


.0010 


.0329 


.00006 


.03676 


.0002 


.0301 


.0017 


.0340 


.0009 


.0361 


.0000 


.0260 


.0003 


.0244 


.0005 


.0251 



356 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Estimated operating costs for a large locomotive coaling station 
for handling 750 tons of coal per day by means of two gravity 
discharge elevator conveyors are as follows : 

Cost per 
day 

% of foreman's time, at $66 per mo $1.10 

4 men to unload cars, 15c. per hr. 10 hrs. per day 6.00 

1 day and 1 night coal dumper (to tenders) 15 cts. per 

hr., 11 hrs. per day 3.30 

$10.40 
Cost per ton, cts $0^15 

Items pertaining directly to this system: 

1 man to run coal conveyors, $55 per month each 1.80 

15 h.p. for 10 hrs. at 2 cts. per h.p.-hr 3.00 

Supplies 50 

$15.70 
Cost per ton, cts $0,025 

For handling 250 cu. yds. of ashes per day by means of two 
pivoted bucket carriers the costs are as follows : 

Cost per 
day 

% of foreman's time at $66 per mo $1.10 

6 men to scrape and feed ashes to conveyors, 15 cts. per 

hr., 10 hrs. per day 9.00 

$10.10 

Cost per ton, cts $0.04 

Items pertaining directly to this system : 

1 day and 1 night man to run ashes to conveyors, $55 per 

month each $3.60 

Cost of 2 h.p. for 10 hrs. at 2 cts. per h.p.-hr 40 

Cost of supplies • ,60 

$14.70 
Cost per ton, cts $0,059 

TABT.-R XTII. OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS OP 
SEVERAL LOCOMOTIVE COALING STATIONS FOR ONE 
YEAR 



Type 



H 

Bucket elevator 130,850 

Inclined belt conveyor. . 62,899 

Bucket elevator 43,321 

Bucket elevator 183,410 

Inclined belt conveyor. , 47,109 
•Trestle 110,138 

• Trestle 276,397 

* Trestle 61,570 

* Locomotive places cars, 
t No record kept of repairs. 



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|8 


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a; 


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0.21 


0.71 


3.36 


0.63 


4.91 


2.36 


0.70 


5.81 


0.79 


9.66 


0.74 


1.05 


2.30 


0.87 


4.96 


1.32 


0.69 


2.47 


0.30 


4.78 


3.09 


0.71 


5.25 


0.67 


9.72 


t 

t 


0.74 


4.21 




4.95 


0.74 


3.05 




3.79 


t 


1.30 


3.34 




4.64 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



357 



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FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 359 

Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost of Several Locomotive 
Coaling Stations. The following notes are from Engineering News 
April 16, 1908: 

Data on one month's operation of a Pittsburg locomotive coal- 
ing plant are as follows : 

Number of engines supplied 766 

Maximum time per engine 5 minutes 

Minimum time 2 " 

Average time 2.86 " 

* Total cost $92.00 

Cost per engine 12 cts. 

Average tons per engine 4 14 

Cost of coaling per ton 2.67 cts. 

Number of tons hoisted during month. 3,606 

Average time per carload 1 hi\ 37 mins. 

Total cost for hoisting $49.50 

Cost per ton 1.37 cts. 

* Cost of hoisting and coaling 4.04 cts. 

* Including labor, repairs, power, and fuel, but not interest on 
the investment. 

Operating Costs. In Table XV the cost of operating conveyor 
plants varied from 4 to 8.1 cts. (total cost of handling coal 
per ton). These costs will usually be lower as the tonnage 
handled is greater. The following figures are supplementary to 
Table XV. The average labor costs from 12 stations of railway in 
the Middle West is 1.4 cts. per ton. A typical record of one 
pocket near Pittsburg for one month is shown. 

Detailed records of the cost of operating 8 coaling stations and 
trestles along the lines of large eastern railroads were kept care- 
fully and give an interesting record. Table XIII shows the type 
of plant, the number of tons handled during the year, rejjair and 
operating costs and switching charges. 

This is an interesting table and worthy of considerable study. 
The two-belt conveyor installations noted were at a disadvantage 
in handling material at nowhere near the full capacity of the 
belts, and in each case a new belt was charged up against the 
, station during the year covered by the data. Wear on convey- 
ing belts is due principally to the bending of the belt back and 
forth and the cost of repairs per ton handled by a belt conveyor 
will be considerably lower where it can be operated at maximum 
loads. The figures for trestles are misleading, because no labor 
or material for repairs were charged against them for the year 
covered by the record. These charges are small for the first 10 
or 12 years of operation and considerable thereafter. The me- 
chanically operated stations are unquestionably the most econom- 
ical in the long run. 

Comparative Cost of Handling Fuel in a Boiler Houise by Hand 
and by Telpher. Henry J. Edsall published in Power in 1912 the 
following comparative analysis : 

A comparison of two boiler houses with the same boiler and 
stoker equipment, and the coal handled mechanically in one case 
and by hand in the other follows. 



360 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Boiler House A. A cross-section of boiler house A is shown 
in Fig. 15. The boilers are set in two rows, with a low trestle 
between, on which the coal cars are run in and unloaded, so 
that the coal is placed directly within reach of the firemen ; no 
wheeling or second handling is necessary before shoveling it into 
the stoker hoppers, unless the coal pile under the trestle gets low. 




Fig. 15. Boiler house without conveyor system, ashes removed by 
means of a telpher. 

In addition to shoveling the coal, there is the additional labor 
of breaking up the large lumps and, as this is not always prop- 
erly done, there is more or less grate-bar trouble with the stokers, 
thus reducing the efficiency of the steam plant as well as the 
additional cost of maintenance on the stokers. 

Ash Handling. For ash-handling there is a bucket carried by 
an electrically operated telpher running on an overhead track. 
The ashes are raked from under the stokers up to the boiler- 
room floor and then shoveled into the bucket, which takes them 
out and delivers them into a railroad car. This means consider- 
able labor and, as there is but little room between the boilers and 
the coal pile, the men get into each other's way. 

Boilers. There are sixteen 260-h.p. Babcock & Wilcox boilers 
in this boiler house, and all are equipped with Roney stokers. 
This makes a total rated capacity of 4160 h.p. At the time the 
figures were obtained only 10 boilers were in use, the other 6 
being cleaned and repaired. 

The weekly coal consumption with 10 boilers in service averages 
about 910 tons, or 91 tons per boiler. Assuming roughly 10% ash, 
there would be about 91 tons of ashes to be disposed of each 
week. Table XVI gives the total weekly cost for labor, power 
and supplies directly connected with coal- and ash-handling. 

In Table XVII the figures for boiler house A are changed to 
what they would be with 12 boilers in service, thus affording a 
direct comparison with boiler house B, where there are, as a 
rule, 12 boilers in use. The only changes are providing a fireman 
for each additional boiler, both day and night, and a slight in- 
crease in the power cost. 

Boiler House B. In boiler house B there are fourteen 260-h.p. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 361 

TABLE XVI. BOILER HOUSE A COSTS. COAL TRESTLE AND 
ASH TELPHER EQUIPMENT 

(Sixteen 260-hp. boilers, ten in service; weekly coal consumption, 

910 long tons). 

No. of Total 

men Preformance of men per week 

1 Telpher operator (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 $14.22 

1 Telpher operator (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 16. 02 

3 Loading ashes to telpher (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 42.66 

3 Loading ashes to telpher (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 .... 48.06 

3 Unloading coal from cars (day) 72 hrs. at 0.15.... 32-40 

2 Unloading coal from cars (night) 78 hrs. at 0.14. .. 21. 84 

1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 0.25 . 19. 75 

1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. at 0.25 22. 25 

1 Assistant chief (day) 79 hr.s. at 0. 221/2 17.78 

1 Assistant chief (night) 89 hrs. at 0.22 1^ 20.03 

10 Fireman (day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 142.20 

10 Fireman (night) 89 hrs. at 0.18 160.20 

$557.41 

150 hp.-hr. for telpher motor at 3 cts. 4.50 

Supplies for telpher 2.00 

Total per week $563.91 

Babcock & Wilcox boilers, or a total of 3640 h.p. Usually 12 of 
these boilers are in use at one time, the other two being held 
for cleaning and repairs. In this boiler room the coal is fed 
from an overhead bin to the Roney stokers and a conveyor sys- 
tem handles both the coal and the ashes. The run-of-mine soft 
coal is unloaded into a track hoi)per underneath the track, then 
delivered to the crusher by means of an apron feeder, and after 
passing through the cru.sher a bucket carrier elevates it and 
distributes it in the overhead bin. The ashes are raked out of 




Fig, 16. Section through boiler house showing conveyor system. 



362 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the hoppers and into the lower run of the carrier, which elevates 
them to an ash pocket from which they are discharged into rail- 
road cars. Fig. 16 shows a cross-section of the boiler room thus 
equipped. 

Coal Consumption. The average amount of coal consumed per 
week with 12 boilers in service is about 12G0 tons, or 105 tons 
per boiler. This is an increase of about 15% over the amount 
of coal consumed by the boilers in boiler house A, which means 
that a greater output of steam is obtained from these boilers, 
because the coal is properly crushed and is fed continuously to the 
stokers, resulting in better and more even fires. Figuring 10% 
ash, as before, about 126 tons of ashes are disposed of. 

Hours and Wages. The hours and wages of the men are given 
in Table XVII. which shows a total weekly labor cost of $395. 
The power used for handling coal is figured on the basis of 30 
tons per hr., which is about the average amount handled. This 
gives a total of 42 hrs. per week, and taking the average h.p. 
consumed as 20, gives a total of 840 h.p. -hrs. per week for hand- 
ling coal. The actual amount of power used in handling ashes 
is hard to determine, but 660 h.p. -hrs. per week would cover it, 
making a total of 1500 h.p.-hrs. per week for handling both coal 
and ashes. 

This gives a total weekly cost of $445 for boiler house B against 
a cost of $625 for boiler house A, or a saving of $180 per week 
and $9360 per year. This does not include the cost of main- 
tenance and the depreciation of the coal- and ash-handling equip- 
ment or the interest on the investment in either case. 

Overhead Bin and Conveyor System. Since the foregoing figures 
were obtained, four more boilers have been installed in boiler 
house A and, as the possible saving increases with a greater num- 
ber of boilers, the advantages of an overhead bin and conveyor 
system for handling both coal and ashes are still more strikingly 
shown when the costs for this boiler house, with twenty boilers, 
are worked out. 

Such a comparison is shown in Table XVIII. the first part show- 
ing the costs with the present type of equipment and the second part 
showing the costs with the overhead bin and conveyor system, 
the number of boilers in service being assumed as 16, and the 
wages, etc., being based on the actual figures obtained for the 
two boiler houses. No men are added for the present type of 
equipment except the firemen, though with this number of boilers 
in service there might be more men required for loading ashes 
to the telphers or for unloading coal from the cars. 

With the overhead bin and conveyor system two day men and 
two night men are included for handling ashes. Having an effi- 
cient modern system this number should be ample ; in fact, one 
man should be able to handle the 10 or 12 tons of ashes on each 
shift — about one ton per hour. 

The excavating and concrete w^ork for the ash hoppers and 
tunnels, etc., would make the installation of this system in an 
old boiler house considerably more expensive than in a boiler house 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



363 



designed especially to suit these conditions. The total cost of 
installation has, therefore, been assumed as $50,000, including an 
overhead coal bin with a capacity of 900 tons. 

Cost of Maintenance. Assuming then that a loan of $50,000 

TABLE XVII. COAL AND ASH HANDLING COSTS 



BOILER HOUSE A 

With Present Coal Trestle and 
Ash Telpher Equipment 

(Twenty 260-hp. boilers, sixteen 
in service ; weekly coal con- 
sumption, 1,466 long tons). 



Total 
per 
week 



■ e 16.02 



No. 

of Performance 
men of men 

1 Telepher operator 

(day) 79 hrs. at 0.18 $14.22 

1 Telepher operator 

(night) 89 hrs. at 
0.18 

3 Loading ashes to tel- 
pher (day) 79 hrs. 
at 0.18 

3 Loading ashes to tel- 
pher (night) 89 hrs. 
at 0.18 

3 Unloading coal from 
cars (day) 72 hrs. 
at 0.15 32.40 

2 Unloading coal from 

cars (night) 78 hrs. 

at 0.14 

1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 

0.25 

1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 

at 0.25 

1 Assistant chief (day) 

79 hr.s. at 0.22 V^ • • • 
1 Assistant chief 

(night) 89 hrs. at 

0.22 Va 20.03 

16 Firemen (day) 79 hrs. 

at 0.18 227.52 

16 Firemen (night) 89 

hrs. at 0.18 256.32 



42.66 



48.06 



21.84 

19.75 



22.25 
17.78 



$735.85 
Weekly cost of power 

for telpher 8.15 

Weekly cost of sup- 
plies for telpher. ... 3.00 



Total per week. . $750.00 



BOILER HOUSE A 

Equipped with Overhead Bin and 
Conveyor System for Han- 
dling Coal and Ashes. 
(Twenty 260-hp. boilers, sixteen 
in service ; weekly coal con- 
sumption, 1,680 long tons). 
No. Total 

of Performance per 

men of men week 

1 Conveyor operator 

(day) 76 hrs. at 0.30. $22.80 

1 Conveyor operator 

(night) 85 hrs. at 

0.30 25.50 

2 Disposing of ashes 

(day) 76 hrs. at 
0.161/2 25.08 

2 Disposing of ashes 

(night) 85 hrs. at 
0.161/2 28.06 

3 Unloading' coal from 

cars (day) 72 hrs. 

at 0.15 32.40 

1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 

0.25 19.75 

1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 

at 0.25 22.25 

1 Assistant chief (day) 

79 hrs. at 0.221/,. . . 17.78 
1 Assistant chief (night) 

89 hrs. at 0.22 1/2. . . 20.03 
8 Firemen (day) 79 hrs. 

at 0.18 113.76 

8 Firemen (night) 89 

hrs. at 0.18 128.16 

$455.57 



Weekly cost of power 
for modern conveyor 
system 40.00 

Weekly cost of sup- 
plies for modern 
conveyor system... 4.43 



Total per week. . $500.00 



is obtained at 5% interest, and that 3% per year will cover the 
cost of maintenance, the following saving is effected : 

Weekly saving, $750 — $500 = $250 ; yearly saving, $250X52 = 
$13,000. 

That is, the installation would pay for itself in a little over 6 



3G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

years, and each year after this shows a clear saving of several 
thousand dollars. The 3</f for maintenance should be ample, as 
much of the installation cost is for foundation work, concrete 
and steel bins. etc.. which work would be either permanent or re- 
quire but little for maintenance. Besides, coal and ash convey- 

TABLE XVI II. COST OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING 



BOILER HOUSE A 

Coal Trestle and Ash Telpher 

iilquipnient. 
Sixteen 260 h.p. boilers, 12 in 
service, weekly coal consump- 
tion, 1.09 2 long tons. 
No. Total 

of Performance per 

men of men week 

1 Telpher operator 

(day) 79 hrs. at 0.18. $14.22 

1 Telpht^r operator 

(night) 89 hrs. at 

0.18 16.02 

3 Loading ashes to tel- 
pher (day) 79 hrs. 
at 0.18 14.22 

3 Loading ashes to tel- 
pher (night) 89 hrs. 
at 0.18 16.02 

3 Unloading coal from 
cars (day) 72 hrs. 
at 0.15 10.80 

2 Unloading coal from 

cars (night) 78 hrs. 

at 0.1 t 10.92 

1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 

0.25 19.75 

1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 

at 0.25 22.25 

1 Assistant chief (day) 

79 hrs. at 0.22i.l>. . . 17.78 
1 A ssi^-'tant chief (night) 

89 hrs. at 0.22 V>. . . 20.03 
12 Firemen (dav) 79 hrs. 

at 0.18 14.22 

12 Firemen (night) 89 

hrs. at 0.18 16.02 



$617.89 
Weekly cost of power 

for telpher 5.11 

Weekly cost of sup- 
plies for telpher. . . , 2.00 



Total 
per 
week 



BOILER HOUSE B 

Overhead Bin and Conveyor 
Equipment 
Sixteen 260 h.p. boilers, 12 in 
sei-vice ; weekly coal consump- 
tion, 1,260 long tons. 
No. 

of Performance 
men of men 

1 Conveyor operator 

(day) 76 hrs. at 0.30. $22.80 

1 Conveyor operator 

(night) 85 hrs. at 

0.30 25.00 

2 Feeding ashes to con- 

veyor (day) 76 hrs. 

at 0.16ii. 25.08 

2 Feeding a.shes to con- 

veyor (night) 85 

hrs. at O.ieyo 28.06 

3 Unloading coal from 

cars (day) 72 hrs. 

at 0.15 32.40 

1 Chief (day) 79 hrs. at 

0.25 19.75 

1 Chief (night) 89 hrs. 

at 0.25 22.25 

1 Assistant (day) 79 

hrs. at 0.22y> 

1 Assistant (night) 89 

hrs. at 0.221/, 

6 Firemen (day)"79 hrs. 

at 0.18 

6 Firemen (night) 89 

hrs. at 0.18 



17.78 
20.03 
85.32 



5.12 



Weekly cost of power 
for conveyor system 
(1,500 hp.-hrs. at 3 
cts. per. hr. ) 

Weekly cost of con- 
veyor system sup- 
plies 



$395 09 



45.00 



4.91 



Total per week. . $625.00 



Total per week. . $445.00 



ors have reached a point of perfection in design and construction 
where they will stand up wonderfully well under very severe 
service, and the handling of both coal and ashes in one carrier 
is now good engineering practice. 

In fact, a well designed carrier embodying first-class construe- 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 365 

tion throughout should, when handling both coal and ashes, re- 
quire little or no repairs in the first 4 or 5 years, and after this 
3% per year would probably cover them, unless the amount 
handled is unusually large, in which case the cost per ton of 
material would shov/ to even better advantage. 

Cost of Economic Features of Modern Locomotive Coaling Sta- 
tions. A committee of the International Railway Fuel Association 
made a report at an annual convention of that organization on the 
design, construction, operation and maintenance of modern loco- 
motive coaling stations, which was abstracted in Engineering and 
Contracting, 1913. 

The report is based on a set of questions which it prepared 
and the answers to the questions as received from members of 
the association. The committee recognize the following seven 
types of locomotive coaling stations: 

(1) Gravity chute, self-clearing cars, handled up incline by 
locomotives or gasoline or electric hoist. (2) Balanced buckets, 
using gasoline, steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal 
dumped into pit and elevated by one to four balanced buckets, 
holding one to three tons each. (3) Bucket conveyor, type .using 
gasoline, steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal dumped 
into pit and hoisted to main bin by small buckets on chain or 
link-belt. (4) Inclined conveyor, rubber or canvas belt; gasoline, 
steam or electric power, self-clearing cars, coal dumped into pit 
and conveyed to main hopper on the inclined belt. (5) Locomo- 
tive crane and clam-shell, gondola flat-bottom cars used, coal 
handled direct from cars to locomotive tenders. (6) Hydraulic 
power-hoist loaded railroad cars and dump into main hopper by 
inverting the cars. (7) Inclined trestle with pockets, shovel coal 
from cars to pockets, served by locomotive. 

Having in mind the cost of installation, operation, maintenance 
and depreciation the following recommendations were made by 
certain members as to the foregoing general types : 

Type 1 is generally favored where there is sufficient room for the 
construction of the incline approach, but naturally the cost of 
property in the larger terminals would materially offset any ad- 
vantage that might be claimed. Eight members favor this type 
for large stations, handling 10,000 tons or more per month, and 
where not more than two tracks are to be served. One member 
recommends that road cars be handled by locomotives. One mem- 
ber calls particular attention to the advisability of raising the 
cars high enough that the road cars may be dumped direct into 
the serving pockets, saving expense of shoveling and breaking of 
coal. It must not be forgotten that the railroads still retain a 
large percentage of flat-bottom non-dumping gondolas, from which 
the coal will continue to be shoveled. Storage of coal v/ith Type 
1, except such as may be provided through the medium of the 
pockets and the road cars, is practically prohibitory, due to the 
additional initial cost. 

Type 2 is recommended by twelve members for locations w)iere 
the space is restricted and where two or more tracks are to bQ 



366 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

served. This type is particularly favored for large stations serv- 
ing 50 or more locomotives, and, in fact, for any service calling 
for an issue of 100 or more tons of coal daily. As this type calls 
for the installation of considerably machinery, due care should 
be given its permanent location where it will not be disturbed by 
future improvements. 

Type 3 has been endorsed by 3 members for use at the larger 
stations where 2 or more tracks are to be used. It is particularly 
recommended that wherever Types 2 or 3 are used that the plant 
be provided with a duplicate hoisting arrangement. 

Type 4 has not been mentioned in any of the replies received. 

Type 5 — Seven members have recommended the locomotive 
crane and clam-shell for the smaller stations, and for temporary 
use where the larger plant cannot be permanently located. This 
type is favored as being very flexible in its use in any class of 
road cars, and its adaptability to many purposes at any point 
on the railroad. 

Type 6 — No mention was made. 

Type 7 — for smaller stations handling less than 50 tons per 
day, where the physical conditions would prohibit the use of the 
more expensive plant, this type has been recommended by three 
of the members. 

Frame construction is favored for small plants and where they 
are isolated from other buildings and where first cost is an im- 
portant element. One reply recommends the use of concrete founda- 
tions, and another recommends the use of creosoted timbers. 
Wherever frame is used, ample precautions, such as stand-pipes 
with hose connections, hand-grenades and fire extinguishers, should 
be generously provided, and it is thought that possibly the addi- 
tional expense for fire protection inay, at times, more than offset 
the increased cost of steel or concrete construction. 

Steel is recommended in preference to frame or concrete where 
fireproof construction is desirable, and where there is any pos- 
sibility that the tracks may be altei-ed at some future time, re- 
quiring the moving of the plant. All steel that comes in contact 
with the coal should be protected by concrete. 

Concrete is favored where the cost is not prohibitory for use 
in all mechanical plants that are permanently located. 

A combination of frame, steel and reinforced concrete would 
appear to be economical and safe for Type 1. Trestle approach to 
be of creosoted timbers on concrete piers. Framing of supports 

TABLE XIX. COST OF OPERATION 

Type. 1. 2. 4. 7. 

Average tons handled in 24 hrs. summer 130 120 320 110 

Average tons handled in 24 hrs. winter. 170 180 390 145 

Average tons used in 24 hrs. summer. 130 120 320 110 

Average tons used in 24 hrs. winter .''. 170 180 390 145 

Cost of labor per ton, cts 3.4 2.5 3.5 7.79 

Cost of power per ton. cts 0.19 0.28 0.38 

Cost of supplies per ton, cts 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 

Total per ton, cts 3.6 2.8 3.9 7.8 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 367 

under bins, hoppers and general structure to be of steel. Bins 
and any other parts coming in contact with the coal to be reinforced 
concrete slabs. The same general method of construction could be 
used for the other types, omitting the frame approaches. 

As a general rule the storage of surplus coal is not recom- 
mended, except to overcome temporarily local or general failures 
of transportation, or mining, or on account of possible car short- 
age. The general objection being the deterioration of the heat 
values. One member recommends storing two weeks' supply in 
winter months and another suggests that there might be condi- 
tions where it would not be objectionable to store thirty days' 
supply. Another member recommends keeping a storage supply 
with the necessary facilities to unload, store and reload on every 
Division. 

One reply received is so strongly in favor of storing a supply 
that it is quoted as follows : 

Coal should be stored in summer for winter use for the fol- 
lowing reasons: (a) To have the equipment which would other- 
wise be in use in company coal service available for revenue coal 
service, (b) As the cost of haulage of company coal, as well as 
all freight, is higher in cold weather than in warm, it is econom- 
ical to haul as much as possible in warm weather, (c) To give 
the mine operators every opportunity to sell all commercial coal 
possible at the period when the highest prices are obtainable, 
(d) To increase the operator's summer orders with the result 
that they can hold their miners through the summer, and be 
ready to put out a large winter tonnage, (e) For economy of 
purchase, as summer storage coal could usually be purchased 
at a lower price than coal purchased under a contract with a maxi- 
mum twice the minimum, and orders even running below the mini- 
mum in summer. 

It is the general opinion that it is good practice to unload stor- 
age coal, particularly to relieve cars earning per diem or losing 
revenue. All parties agree that when coal is stored on the 
ground, it should be piled on plank-car-siding-ties or other similar 
material. 

COST DATA 

Believing that the question of cost is the most Important con- 
sideration in determining the proper type of a modern locomo- 
tive coaling plant the committee presented in full all the cost 
data received from members who gave the type of chute used in 
connection with the costs. Six replies of this character were 
received and are here quoted : 

A — Two 'balanced tuckets, 350 tons capacity. 

First cost. $22,000. 

Cost of operation, 2 to 8 cts. per ton; average cost 3% cts. per 
ton. 

Cost of maintenance. 2 cts. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, 2 cts. 
per ton. 

Link belt, bucket conveyor, 'WO tons capacity. 

First cost, $37,000. 



368 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of operation, 1.7 cts, per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, 1.4 cts. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation per annum 5%, 1.5 
cts. per ton. 

Link belt, bucket conveyor^ 150 tons capacity. 

First cost, $9,000. 

Cost of operation, 5.6 cts. per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, 3.0 cts. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, from 
1 ct. to 2 cts. per ton. 

Inclined conveyor, belt, 150 and 350 tons capacity. 

First cost, 110.400 and from $13,000 to $23,000. 

Cost of operation, from 1.5 cts. to 8.8 cts. per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, from 0.1 ct. to 0.7 ct. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 5% per annum, 
from 1.4 cts. to 3.6 cts. per ton. 

Locomotive crane. 

Average total cost, 20 cts. per ton. 

Inclined trestles with pockets. 

First cost, $4,000 to $12,000. 

Cost of operation, from 1 ct. to 5 cts. per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, average 2 cts. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest, 5% and depreciation 10% per annum, 
from 1 ct. to 2 cts. per ton. 

Large balanced buckets, 15 tons capacity, running up vertically 
and over horizontal track, capacity, 1,500 tons. 

First cost. $64,000. 

Cost of operation. 2 cts. per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, 3 cts. per ton. 

Cost of maintenance, 3 cts. per ton. 

Fixed charges, interest 5% and depreciation 10% per annum, 
1.6 cts. per ton. 

B. — Bucket conveyor. 

Average tons handled and used July 257 tons 

Average tons handled and used December 542 tons 

Cost of labor, July 2.3 cts. per ton 

Cost of labor, December 2.4 cts. per ton 

Cost of power, July 1.0 cts. per ton 

Cost of power, December 0.9 cts. per ton 

Cost of supplies, July 0.59 cts. per ton 

Cost of supplies December 0.6 cts. per ton 

Total cost, July 3.89 cts. per ton 

Total cost, December 3.90 cts. per ton 

Locomotive crane and clam shell. 

Average tons handled and used, July 247 tons 

Average tons handled and used, December 356 tons 

Cost of labor, July 4.4 cts. per ton 

Cost of labor, December 3.0 cts. per ton 

Cost of power, July 0.19 cts. per ton 

Cost of power, December r 0.15 cts. per ton 

Cost of supplies, July 0.25 cts. per ton 

Cost of supplies, December 0.28 cts. per ton 

Total cost July 4.84 cts. per ton 

Total cost December 3.43 cts per ton 

C — The data given in reply C are shown in Table XIX. 

D — Figures submitted in Table XX, reply D, are for the month 
of November, 1912. 

E — Type, 300 to 500 tons' capacity. 

Hoists by means of cable running side dump cars up incline 
at the rate of 45 tons every 15 minutes. 

Total cost on locomotive — 1.5 cts. to 2 cts. per ton. 

F — Inclined gravity chute type. 

Capacity — Summer, 520 tons; winter. 730 tons. 

Cost, not including power for elevation by locomotives nor for 
supplies — Summer, 1 ct. per ton; winter, 0.9 ct. per ton. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



369 



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370 MECH4NICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Balanced bucket type. 

Capacity — Summer, 558 tons; winter, 652 tons. 
Cost, not including- power nor supplies — Summer, 2.6 cts. per 
ton; winter, l.y cts. per ton. 

Cost of Handling Coal and Ashes by Locomotive Cranes at 
Eight' Plants. In a paper before the Canadian Society of Civil 
Engineers in 1908 C. F. Whitton presented a compilation of data 
regarding the cost of handling locomotive coal and ashes, as 
developed in the use of various appliances. 

The fixed charges, which comprise interest, depreciation, in- 
surance, and taxes, have been taken as 10% of the total initial 
cost of the plant. Maintenance and operating charges vary so 
widely with local and climatic conditions, that, considering also 
the short time over which the costs obtained extend, they can 
hardly be considered exact, and certainly not applicable, except 
as an indication of general results. Pro I'ata charges are esti- 
mated as follows : The proportion of the time of yardmaster, 
clerks, etc., is distributed to the different departments on a labor 
output basis, and the per cent, added to the cost of handling coal 
and ashes is the proportion of the above wages based on the ratio 
which the labor charges for each of these departments bears to 
the total labor charges of all the departments fit the yard. By sev- 
eral railroads, this amounts to about 20% of the labor charge for 
the coal and ash handling plants. 

The cost of coal handling with a locomotive crane was based 
upon that obtained at the Cleveland yards of the Erie Railroad, 
and is as follows : 

a. Average number of locomotives fueled per day.. 25 

b. Average tonnage per 12 hrs 168 

c. Maximum actual tonnage per 12 hrs 180 

d. Total tonnage for year 1906 60,500 

The initial cost of the crane was $7,400, and the cost of bucket, 
pits. etc.. is estimated at $4,600. The handling costs per ton are 
made up as follows :■ 

Average tons handled per day 166 

Fixed charges, per ton 2 cents 

Operating charges, labor •. 2 

Operating charges, power and supplies 3.5 " 

Maintenance charges 0.3 " 

Pro rata charges 0.4 " 

Total cost per ton 8.2 " 

Other locomotive crane plants show the following costs (p. 371) : 
The cost of handling ashes does not include any proportion of 
the fixed charges. 

The actual cost per ton is not so important as a comparison 
of costs between old and new methods of doing the work. In the 
case of the Erie plant, at Cleveland, the reduction per ton due 
to the installation of a locomotive crane was about 12 cts. At 
this plant there is another crane not in service at present. 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



371 



COAL HANDLING 



Location 



Year . . 1905 

Average tons per day 176 

Fixed cliarges 1.9 

Operating charges . . 4.7 
Maintenance ciiarges 0.5 
Pro rata charges . . 0.4 



h:i 

1905 
116 

1.7 
6.1 
0.2 
0.4 



W 
1905 

230 
1.8 
3.6 
0.7 
0.4 



1905 
153 

1.8 
5 1 
0.5 

0.4 



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c 
o 
O 
1905 
106 
3.7 
3.0 
0.4 
0.4 



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xn 
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5.5 
0.2 
0.4 



O 
1906 
166 
2.0 
5.5 
0.3 
0.4 



ASH HANDLING 



No. of locomotives 
cleaned per day . . 
Cost per locomotive 
cleaned 4 



20 13 26 17 



12 



22.4 3.3 



5 

4.7 



s 

1906 
218 
1.5 
3.5 
0.1 
0.4 



Total charge per ton 7.5 8.4 6.5 7.8 7.5 14.0 8.2 5.5 



19 25 



cts. 



The belt conveyor, as operated in the Cleveland yards of the 
Pennsylvania Lines West, gave the following results : 

Average number of locomotives fueled per day. . . .50 to 75 

Average tons handled per day (1906) 260 

Maximum tons handled per day on a monthly basis 570 

The original cost of this plant was $13,000, and it is in opera- 
tion for 10 hours per day. 

The labor connected with this plant includes one engineer In 
charge of the machinery, and two laborers. 

The handling costs for 1906 are made up as follows: 

Average tons handled per day 258 

Fixed charges 1.4 cts. 

Operating charges 2.8 " 

Maintenance charges (belt renewal) 0.2 " 

Pro rata charges 0.2 " 

Total cost per ton 4.6 " 

In these same yards the ashes are handled by an overhead 
trolley. The first cost of the pits and the mechanism was about 
$5,000. During 1906, the number of locomotives handled was 
upward of 18,000, and the cost per locomotive was as follows: 

Fixed charges 2.4 cts. 

Labor of operating plant 27.5 " 

Cost of power and supplies 1.1 " 

Maintenance . 0.2 " 

Pro rata charges 5.6 " 

Total cost per locomotive cleaned 36.8 " 

For the bucket conveyor the plant of the Lake Shore & Michi- 
gan Southern at Elyria, Ohio, served as an example. The ca- 
pacity of the wharf is about 500 tons, and there are four 125-ton 
pockets. 



372 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Power is supplied to one conveyor by a 32-h.p. gasolene engine 
making 200 revolutions per minute. For the other system power 
is derived from a 60-h.p. gasolene engine making 160 revolutions 
per minute. 

Rope transmission is used throughout. 

The plant is operated by an engineer, a fireman, and two 
laborers. 

The following figures represent the operation of this plant : 

a. Average No. of locomotives fueled per day. . . .60 to 70 

b. Average daily tonnage — summer 300 

c. Total tonnage for year 1906 88,250 

This plant, as originally installed, consisted of the main struc- 
ture and one conve5^or system, and oost $34,000. Later the second 
conveyor was installed at an estimated cost of about $15,000, but 
as one conveyor only is in continuous operation at present, the 
fixed charges have been estimated for the original cost of $34,000. 

Average No. of tons handled per day 242 

Fixed charges 3.9 cts. 

Operation charges 2.8 " 

Maintenance charges 2.1 " 

Pro rata charges 0.4 " 

Total cost per ton 9.3 " 

The figures obtained from the trestle plant of the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern at Collinv/ood, Ohio, show that it handles from 
550 tons per day in summer to 900 tons per day in winter, and that 
the delivery ranges from 5 to 15 tons per engine, with an aver- 
age of 10. 

The labor force consists of three laborers and a foreman, who 
also has charge of the ash-pit gang. 

The original cost is estimated at $15,000, and the handling costs 
for 1906 were as follows: 

Tons per day 635 

Fixed charges 6.7 cts. 

Operating charges 4.1 

Maintenance charges 0.1 " 

Pro rata charges 0.4 " 

Total cost per ton 5.3 " 

In the case of the ashpits at the same locality, their capacity 
is as follows : 

Average number of locomotives having fires cleaned per day 58 

Total number of locomotives having fires cleaned per year. 21,000 

The cost of handling ashes is estimated as follows: 

Fixed charge 4.8 cts. 

Labor 26.1 " 

Power, supplies, etc 1.2 

Pro rata charge 4.8 

Total cost per Ipcomotive cleaned 35.7 " 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 373 

The locomotive crane has offered a very successful and moder- 
ately cheap method of handling coal and ashes in locations where 
the demands are not excessive. Its practical limit is said to be 
about 70 locomotives a day, as the capacity of the bucket is 
necessarily below 5 tons, and the number of trips per hour is 
restricted to about 50. 

It is not as rapid as plants having gravity discharge from 
storage, but, as the engine is necessarily held over the ashpit 
for about 40 minutes, this feature is hardly objectionable, as de- 
lays to engines can be obviated by providing pockets. 

The system proves a very flexible one on account of the di- 
versity of arrangements possible. One disadvantage of open-air 
storage in pockets or pits, however, is the liability of the coal 
and gates to be frozen up in cold weather. With the necessary 
tracks, pits, and pockets, it will be found that this sort of plant 
has a considerable first cost. Its operating cost depends upon 
the work which can be provided at spare times. Its value is great 
in emergency situations, and at points where, because of impend- 
ing changes, the construction of a permanent plant is unwise. 
With a large terminal where a conveyor plant is used, a locomo- 
tive crane can be very valuable to handle cinders and sand, and 
also coal ■ during a possible breakdown of the conveyor. Then 
again not only can it unload direct from flat-bottom cars, handle 
ashes as well as coal, move to any spot desirable to stop the 
locomotive, but if superseded by a different system, can be easily 
moved to another point. These are a few of the points of interest 
concerning the locomotive crane, but within its proper sphere of 
capacity, it seems to prove one of the very best now in use. 

Cost of Handling Coal by the Mechanical Plant of the Wabash 
R. R. at Decatur, III. The following, relating to improvements 
made by the Wabash R. R. appeared in Engineering Record, Feb- 
ruary 20, 1909. Mr. Cunningham, chief engineer, gives this cost: 
The cost of labor, supervision, etc., for operating for a period 
of 10 hours is $7. To this should be added depreciation charges, 
interest on the investment and cost of maintenance. The cost of 
the foundation and concrete receiving hopper was $1..225, and for 
the superstructure above foundation, $7,550, including the motive 
power and machinery, making the total $8,775. The interest 
charge of this investment at 5% would be $438.75. The deprecia- 
tion should vary according to the length of time the plant is in 
service, so nothing should be charged for this for the flrst five 
years, but thereafter a charge of 5% per annum should be made. 
This means that the life of the plant is assumed to be 25 years. 
Maintenance charges will vary greatly and will increase as the 
plant grows older ; 1% per annum should take care of this. As- 
suming these figures correct, then the cost of operating the plant 
will be $3,432.50 per year. As they are, on an average, 333 tons 
of coal per day handled by the plant, the cost for handling coal 
will be slightly less than 2.9 cts. per ton. 

No charge has been made for switch engine service for trans- 
ferring coal cars from the storage track to the depressed hopper. 



374 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The coaling chute, constructed of timber on concrete foundations, 
was designed with an elevated pocket that would hold 200 tons 
of coal, from which the engines could be coaled from ordinary- 
movable aprons, and was constructed by the Fairbanks-Morse 
Co. Coal is brought to the chute in bottom-dump cars and is 
dumped into a concrete hopper beneath the track. From this 
hopper it is emptied under control of the operator by gravity into 
hoisting buckets through an orifice in each of the 2 side walls of 
the concrete hopper. There are 2 of these buckets, each with 
sufficient capacity for holding a ton of coal, and as 1 bucket is 
hoisted the other is lowered. The full bucket, on reaching the 
top, dumps automatically into the receiving bin. The whole plant 
is operated by an electric motor, controlled by 1 man, but 2 men 
in addition are necessary to empty the coal from the bottom- 
dump cars. It requires about 2^^ firs, to fill the bin provided no 
engines are taking coal during that time. But since engines are 
continually being coaled, it is necessary to operate the plant about 
10 hrs., the capacity of the bin being sufficient to take care of the 
coal required during the other 14 hrs. 

Cost of Erecting a Small Bucket Coal Elevator. The elevator, 
described by C. L. Samson in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 30, 
1911, was furnished and erected by contract for $1,280., The cost 
of fabrication in shop was about $750. The elevator casing came 
in 10 ft. lengths and weighed about 900 lbs. per section. It was 
erected section by section by means of gin pole erected on top 
of coal bunkers. Hoisting was done with double rope block to 
which was hitched a i/^-ton Yale and Towne triplex chain block 
operated by hand. Naturally hoisting was intermittent, but con- 
sidering the shortness of time actually consumed in hoisting, this 
loss of time did not amount to much. 

As might be expected on a job of this size, the concrete work 
was quite high. The elevator belt was punched and buckets were 
attached on the job. There were 87 buckets and three bolts to 
each bucket. 

The charge in detailed cost statement " Cutting batter off build- 
ing wall " applies to the wall footing which projected out, pre- 
venting the elevator casing fitting up to wall. 

The superintendent spent 15 days on the job, but actual work 
only lasted about 11 days, since there was a 4-days' delay waiting 
for material. One carpenter and four laborers did the work. The 
detailed costs were as follows : 

Labor : 

Excavation at 25 cts. per hr $ 4.38 

Making 2 stone drills .50 

Drilling holes for anchors 3.00 

Cutting batter off of wall 4.00 

Forms for concrete at 30 cts 6.60 

Shed for motor, at 30 cts 2.70 

Platform and railing, at 30 cts 2.70 

Concrete work at 25 cts., 7 yds 14.50 

Brickwork, at 25 cts 3.88 

Erection of steelwork 38.12 

Belting and attaching buckets 5.00 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 



375 



Wiring and switchboard 6.60 

Cleaning- up debris 2.00 

Total labor $113.98 

Materials : 

9 bbls. Portland cement $ 14.85 

2% cu. yds. sand 4.00 

h\'z cu. yds. crushed stone 10.66 

450 brick * 1.80 

Total cost of material $ 31.31 

Total cost of erection — superintendence excluded. $145.29 

Comparative Cost of Handling Locomotive Cinders by a Pneu- 
matic Conveyor and from an Open Side Pit. Engineering and 
Contracting, Nov. 3, 1909, published data as determined by a 
14-day test reported to the American Railway Bridge and Build- 
ing Association, as follows : The track on which the cars were 
placed for receiving the cinders was on the same level with the 
engine track, and the cinders were dumped into the iron car below 
the track as shown in Fig. 17. 




Fig. 17. Pneumatic cinder conveyor. 

This car was then hauled up the incline by compressed air and 
automatically dumped the cinders into a gondola or a cinder 
dump. The incline was made of ordinary T-rails, and the char- 
acter of the whole construction was such that the maintenance 
cost was very low. The drainage problem was simple because 
of the shallowness of the pit under the engine track. 

Results of 14-day tests of this apparatus compared with an 
open side pit were as follows: 

Pneumatic Open 
conveyor side pit 

Switch engines 3 424 

8 wheel simple engines 357 85 

10 wheel simple and larger 716 56 

Total 1,076 565 



376 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Average per day, 14 days 76.9 40.4 

Number of men employed 12 4 

Wages per day $22.27 $7.44 

Cost per engine (wages) $0.29 $0,184 

Number of cars of cinders loaded 30.75 13.75 

Cu. yds. of cinders handled 1,417.6 207 

Cost per cu. yd. of cinder.s han(Ved $0.22 $0.35 

For each man employed, per day 8.4 5 3 

The engines handled over the pneumatic conveyor were of heavy 
type, while those handled over the open side pit were largely 
switch engines and the others of lighter weight. 

Cost of Ash Handling by Vacuum Conveyor in the Turkey Creek 
pumping station in Kansas City for $6 40 per day was less than by 
the former hand system, according to the last annual report of the 
Water Department, according to some notes in the Electrical 
World. Oct. 31, 1914. which also gives the following particulars-: 
The plant installed removes ashes from the ash pits in the base- 
ment to a tank from which they feed by gravity into railway 
cars. The railroad pays $6 per car for the ashes. The guaran- 
teed capacity of 250 lbs. per min. was exceeded in test by 20 lbs. 
Two men remove all ashes, load cars, clean the machine and 
take general care of the boiler-room basement. Costs of opera- 
tion during 178 days were $712 for labor and $37.19 for repairs. 
Against this are receipts for $186 for 31 cars sold, a figure bal- 
anced by the estimated cost of power for running the machinery 
3% lirs, per day. By the old method 5 men and a mule would 
have cost $1,886.80. 

Cost of Operating a Vacuum Ash-Kandling System. C. O. 
Sandstrom in Power. .July 7. 1914, gives the following: 

Let us assume a plant of four 400 -h p. boilers, three of which 
are in constant operation at their rated capacities. With a boiler 
horsepower on 5 lbs. of coal and the ash content of the coal 12%, 
we would have 

1200 X 5 X 0.12 = 720 lbs. 

of ashes per hour. Assuming the plant has ash hoppers with 
capacity sufficient for a day's operation, we would have 

720 X 24 

nr 8.64 tons of ashes per day 

2,000 

According to the reported test, seven tons of ashes were handled 
in an hour. This would require the services of two men to feed 
the ashes into the pipe — rapid work being necessary to prevent 
a waste of steam. With two men at 20 cts. an hour and work- 
ing at the above rate, the labor charge per ton of ashes is 

2 X 20 
— 5.71 cents 



FUEL AND COAL HANDLING 377 

For a plant of this .size, the apparatus completely installed 
would probably cost $1,800, say, $1,000 for the tank and $800 for 
the piping. With 6% interest on an investment of $1,800, this 
charge against a ton of ashes is 

1,800 X 0.06 X 100 ' 

- 3.42 cents 



,365 X 8.64 

The depreciation of the a.sh tank is at least 8%. On an unlined 
tank it would be more, because of the corrosive action of the wet 
ashes. In either case, the bafile-plate would require frequent re- 
newal. The depreciation of the a.sh pipe is high — fully 40%. 
The effect of a.shes striking a bend in the piping while traveling 
at a high velocity can be appreciated only by those who have 
had experience with such things. At the above rates the depre- 
ciation charge per ton of ashes is 

1,000 X 0.08 + 800 X 0.40 

$0,1268 or 12.68 cents 



305 X 8.64 
Adding the foregoing, we have 

5.29 -h 5.71 + 3.42 + 12.68 = 27.10 cents 

as the cost of handling a ton of ashes. 

To dispel any suspicion that the assumptions made are unwar- 
ranted, I will say that I had some experience with a vacuum 
ash-handling system in which the vacuum was maintained by a 
so called " positive blower " which was driven by a back-geared 
50-h.p. motor. The average life of the manganese-steel wearing 
backs (2V2 ins. thick) at the bends was 11 days. These wearing 
backs were replaced by plugged tees, but the power required to 
operate was such that the 50- was replaced by a 75-h.p. motor. 
The cost of handling a ton of ashes at this plant was 26 cts., 
exclusive of fixed charges. The system was abandoned for a mine 
car and skip hoist. 

Gebhardt's " Steam Power-Plant Engineering " def-;cribes a vac- 
uum ash-handling system like the one just referred to. It winds 
up with the statement that " the cost of handling the ashes in 
this installation is approximately 7 cts. per ton." Now, anyone 
working up the data given will find that the 7 cts. would no more 
than cover the cost of power, and does not include labor, main- 
tenance or fixed charges. 

W. W. Ricker in Power, Sept. 15, 1914, states that a conveyor 
having 7 tons' capacity per hr. would require a motor of from 15 
to 30 h.p., never exceeding the latter unless of great length or 
having an unusual number of turns. The cost of electrical power 
varies with the locality and the conditions, but 5 cts. per ton is 
a fair average figure. 

One man can easily feed 7 tons of ashes an hour to a conveyor 
under ordinary conditions. In many cases, the hoppers are under 



378 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the stoker hoppers, thus minimizing this labor. In most plants 
as small as the one under consideration, no extra labor is required 
as the regular fireman feeds the ashes to the conveyor, working 
a few minutes at a time at intervals during the day. One-half 
of Mr. Sandstrom's figure, or 2.8 cts. per ton, is ample. 

In estimating the cost of complete installation, Mr. Sandstrom 
omits the motor and exhauster, which is more than fair to the 
conveyor manufacturer. A conveyor for such a plant as he de- 
scribes would cost not less than $3,500, and with a large tank, 
under some conditions, might reach $4,500, including trenches, 
floor, plates, etc. Assuming as an average $4,000, the interest 
amounts to 7.6 cts. per ton. 

Depreciation is the cost item which depends most largely upon 
the proper design, care and operation of a conveyor. Mr. Sand- 
strom's figure shows a depreciation of $400 per annum in the 
plant. I am familiar with a conveyor, built about eight years ago. 
where the repairs cost less than $15 per year. The motor is 25 
h.p. and the amount of ashes handled considerably exceeds 8. 64 
tons per day. The tank, although unlined, has never been re- 
paired, but is painted occasionally. 

Another conveyor, in operation over four years, removes the 
ashes from ten 500-h.p. boilers ; it has a 30-h.p. motor. The re- 
pairs, according to the user, have cost considerably less than $25 
per annum. The conveyor has never been out of commission, 
and the engineer has since specified another conveyor which has 
been installed and is operating successfully. 

A large conveyor, of 18 tons' capacity per hr., has been in 
operation for more than four years, handling from 40 to 50 tons 
per day at an annual cost for repairs of less than $50. This 
shows a cost under ^^ ct. per ton of ashes handled. 

A study of the records of a large number of plants shows that 
repairs vary from $10 to $300 per annum; cost of plants, from 
$3,500 to $10,000; ashes handled per year, from 3,000 to 20.000 tons. 
It is interesting to note that the highest repairs cost is frequently 
in smaller plants, probably because, where the amount of ashes 
is large, the removal is of sufficient importance to secure super- 
vision of the conveyor. 

In arriving at the cost of repairs, records from many plants 
show that $150 per annum is more than liberal for a plant of the 
size and capacity mentioned by Mr. Sandstrom. This amounts to 
4.7 cts. per ton handled. The total cost as taken from the rec- 
ords of many plants, is as follows: Power, 5 cts.; interest, 76 
cts.; labor, 2.8 cts.; depreciation, 4.7 cts.; cost per ton, 20.1 cts. 

It is not my purpose to establish a fixed price per ton for ashes 
handled, as this will vary through wide limits with varying con- 
ditions?. A cost of 25 cts. per ton for taking a.shes hot from the 
pits and placing them quenched in cars or carts outside the boiler 
room is not excessive where the total amount is small. 



CHAPTER VII 
STEAM POWER 

Definitions and Principles. The reader who is not familiar with 
the technical terms relating- to power will do well to read pages 
62 to 70 and pages 486 to 488. 

Economic Value of Furnace Efficiency. Joseph Harrington gave 
Table I and Figs. 1-5 in a paper read before the Western Society 
of Engineers in Chicago. 

The true boiler efficiency is not greatly affected by difference in 
the rate of heat absorption, but is controlled by ability to absorb 
heat, while furnace efficiency is affected by considerations of cleanli- 
ness. Under standard conditions of cleanliness the ability of a 
tube to transmit heat is practically invariable. Table I 
shows a number of heat balances which indicate a fairly constant 
boiler efficiency at a fair range of rating, the grate and furnace 



^^/^ 



^.700 

•^600 

J 500 
S 
O400 



^ 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 lOOONHOO 1200 
Capacity of Boiler in Honsepower 

Fig. 1. Relation between boiler capacity and flue gas temperature. 

efficiency being subject to an appreciable variation. For correct 
figures the analysis mu.^it be on the basis of heat contained in the 
fuel as fired, rather than upon either dry coal or combustible, an3 
since the moisture contained in the coal has an influence on the 
efficiency of the entire process it must be taken into consideration. 

The Middle Western coals may contain as high as 15% of 
moisture, lignites from 25 to 40% in which case an appreciable por- 
tion of the total heat value of the coal is used in evaporating this 
moisture. While Eastern coals show a closer relation between the 
actual and dry analyses, boiler tests with these coals must be 
analyzed on a basis of coal as fired. 

Fig. 2 is plotted on the assumption that the net amount of heat 
in a pound of fuel is the difference between the percentage of 
moisture and 100, disregarding the ash for the time being, or con- 

379 



380 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 





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STEAM POWER 



381 



sidering- the ash percentage as constant. For instance, wet coal 
containing 20% of moisture would contain only 80% of combustible. 
Lig-nite coals containing 35% of moisture represent 9350 B. t. u. 
instead of 15,000 if the coal contained no moisture. 

Experiment has shown that a moisture content of 25% is about 
the limit of practical usefulness with the ordinary furnaces in 



Coal 

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Fig. 2. 



5 10 15 20 25 ZO 35 40 45 50 
Por Cent. Morsfure in Coaf 

Effect of moisture in coal on available heat. 



commercial service. In excess of this lignites require a specially 
designed furnace. 

For Western coal a gas analysis of 13% of CO2 is about the limit 
of economic operation, because when it is carried much beyond 
this point, CO will develop and furnace efRciency on this account 



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Per Cent. Excess Air 

Fig. 3. Relation between furnace efRciency and excess air. 



will not increase, the loss due to imperfect combustion being greater 
than the gain effected by reducing the excess air. A study of these 
effects is given in Figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 3 has been carried to the 
ordinary extent of dilution, and illustrates the result of a leaky 
fuel bed or porous setting. 

Mr, Harrington says that from his experience it is most im- 



382 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

portant to keep the CO in furnace gases down to a minimum and 
when this gas appears he stops the reduction of air supply even 
though the mixing ability of the furnace is deficient. 

The deductions from Mr. Harrington's mathematics showing the 



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pressures. 



method of determining the excess air and CO curves, are to the 
effect that each 100% of excess air affects the efficiency 5.62%, 
and that 1% of CO reduces furnace efficiency by 31/3%,. Ultimately 
the efficiency would be zero when the per cent, of CO reached 30, 
assuming that such a condition were possible. 



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Fig. 5. Relation between furnace efficiency and loss from CO. 



Relation between the Cost of Power and Load Factor for Steam 
Turbine Plants of 25,000 kw. Capacity and Larger. In a paper be- 
fore the A. I. E. E. at the 30th Annual Convention, H. G. Stott 
and W. S. Gorsuch presented Fig. 6. 



STEAM POWER 



383 



The authors state that in a first class steam plant using coal 
as fuel the cost per kw.-hr. net output varies approximately as the 
inverse 4th root of the load factor, this law holding between 15% 
and 90% load factors and being applicable to individual plants. 



19 

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65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 



Fig. 6. Diagram showing the cost of power in its relation to load 
factor for steam turbine plants of 25,000 kw. capacity and larger. 
(14,000 B.t.u. per lb. of coal costing $3.00 per ton. 



In the diagram the full line curves are, for a steam plant operat- 
ing at normal rating. The cost of equipment and building is taken 
at $75 and land at $6 per kw. economical rating. The dotted lines 
show the charges for a plant operating at the maximum 2-hour 
overload rating of the prime mover. Here the cost of equipment 



384 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and building is reduced to $G0 and the land to $4.80 per kw. In 
each case the following allowances are made : Taxes 1% ; interest, 
5%; insurance 1%; amortization fund 3.5%; total investment charge 
of 10.5%. 

The lower dotted curve shows the cost of production plus produc- 
tion repairs during the maximum hour periods when operating at 
maximum overload rating of 25% above economical rating. This 
is about 2.25% higher than the cost of economic operation. 

Attention is called to the fact that if the two ordlnates at any 
load factor are added, the toal cost of power appears less when 
operating at overload rating in spite of the increase in cost due to 
poor economy and overload, thus showing the marked influence 
of the investment costs on the total cost of power. 

The investment cost curve which is an equilateral hyperbola, 
referred to its asymptotes as coordinates, (which are at right 
angles), is, 

Yi = , in which 

X 

Yi represents the investment cost in mills per kw-hr. net output, 
X the corresponding load factor of load expressed in %, xyj the 
constants for any given curve, where x and yj are the co-ordmates 
of any point on the curve. 

To compute these investment costs of any plant for any load 
factor it will be necessary first to determine the value of xyj in 
which X represents the present load factor and y-^ the corresponding 
investment cost. 

The curve showing the cost of production plus production re- 
pairs per kilowatt net output is an inverse fourth root curve and 
is represented by the equations, 

,, _ ypVH 



in which Y^ represents the cost in mills per kw.-hr. net output, X 
the corresponding load factor of load in^ % and p^ ^^ a con- 
stant for any given curve, where x and y are the co-ordinates of 
any point on the curve. To compute the production plus the pro- 
duction costs of any station for any load factor, first determine the 
value of y p \/x~^> where x is the present load factor and y^ the 
corresponding cost. 

Illustration: If a plant is operating at 30% load factor with a 
cost of 4.4 mills for production plus production repairs and 3.1 
mills for investment, making a total cost of 7.5 mills per kw. net 
output, what will be the cost if the plant were operated at 50% 
load factor? 

Investment Cost 

30X3.1 

Yi = = 1.86 mills 

50 



STEAM POWER 



385 



Production plus Production Repairs Costs 



4. 4 1^30 



3.87 mills 



Total cost of power per kw. 
net output . . . 



5.73 mills 



Ratio of Boiler Horse Power to Station Capacity. In a paper for 
the 25th Convention of the A. I. E. E., J. R. Bibbins gives Fig. 7, 
showing the modern practice of proportioning boiler installation to 




Fig. 7. Plot representing modern practice in boiler plant equipment. 



station capacity and Fig. 8 the maximum battery capacity for 
various frontage widths. 

Costs of Producing Power, Comparison of Estimated Costs with 
Those from Actual Tests. The following data for estimating the 
cost of power production, although based on the heating value of 
coal from a single state are from their nature of considerably 
more than just state-wide applicability. We therefore give them 
in much detail from a bulletin of the Iowa State College, where 
they were originally presented by H. W. Wagner, Assistant Engineer 
in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering : 

In working up figures on the generation of steam power with 
Iowa coals no special attempt has been made to point out the 
most economical methods of operation. The object has been mainly 
to analyze the details and to show what the power costs per brake 
h.p. hr., delivered at the belt ; and per kw.-hr., delivered at the 
switchboard, under the various common conditions of operation. 



386 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

All assumptions are made to represent as nearly as possible the 
average practice in Iowa. 

The conditions assumed as variable are the load factor, the num- 
ber of hours the plant operates during the year, and the cost of 
coal. Depending upon these, variations then occur in nearly all 
items of expense which go to make up the cost of the brake h.p. 
and the kw.-hr. 

The types of equipments for the different sized plants on Table 
II are chosen to represent not so much the more economical types 
for each size plant as the most practicable of those now in common 



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Fig. 8. Maximum battery capacity for various widths of frontage. 



use in the state. The type for each case considered is listed in 
the schedule of equipment of plants on Table II. Table IV and 
attached notes give the sizes and types actually found operating 
in the state. 

No attempt has been made to estimate or calculate the cost of 
electric power delivered to customers. That would involve the cost 
and upkeep of transmission lines, meters, etc. The initial cost as 
given includes nothing outside the power plant, proper. 

The text and data in this bulletin have been worked out under 
the direction of W. H. Meeker, Mechanical Engineer, and F. A. 
Fish, Electrical Engineer, both of the Engineering Experiment 
Station. 

Indicated horsepower is the mechanical power developed in the 



STEAM POWER 387 

engine cylinder by the steam working- against the piston. It is 
measured from indicator cards taken from the engine cylinders. 

Brake horsepower is the actual mechanical power delivered by 
the flywheel or pulley to the belt. It is measured by a Prony brake 
or by an absorption dynamometer and is always less than the 
indicated horsepower. 

Kilowatt is a unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 watts. 

1 h.p. equals 746 watts, or 0.746 kws. 

Conversely, 1 kw. equals 1.34 h.p. 

Horse-power-hour and kilowatt-hour are units of energy or work 
done by the respective power units in one hour's time. 

Table II gives the estimated costs of producing mechanical and 
electrical power in Iowa with Iowa coals. A thesis by "W. M. 
Wilson was used as a basis of these figures. This thesis was pre- 
pared from a large amount of data on costs and test runs collected 
by Mr. Wilson and presented by him for the professional degree of 
Mechanical Engineer at Sibley College of Cornell University, in 
1904. The figures worked out in this thesis were compared with 
cost data from other authorities and wherever a fair comparison 
could be made, were found to check fairly well. The* general dif- 
ference seemed to be that the other authorities gave somewhat 
lower costs. 

The estimates in the original thesis were based upon the follow- 
ing conditions : 

Fuel: Heating value of 14,0t)0 B. t. u. per lb., moist coal; 60% 
of heat in fuel absorbed by water in boiler. 

Condensing Water: 30 lbs. water required to condense 1 lb. 
steam. 

Cost: 1 ct. per 10,000 lbs. condensing water. 

Fixed charges as a per cent, of the initial cost of plant : 

Interest, 5%; depreciation, 5%; repairs, 2.5%; insurance, 0.5%; 
taxes, 1.0%; total, 14%. 

Methods of operation : 

First: 10 hrs. X 310 days = 3,100 hrs. per yr. 
Second: 24 hrs. X 365 days = 8,760 hrs. per yr. 

Only the second method has been given in Table II as reprinted 
here. Initial costs include duplicate feed pumps, one reserve engine 
and one reserve boiler, in addition to those required for rated load. 

The cost of building for the horizontal engines and turbines was 
taken at $1.50 per sq. ft. This is approximately the cost of a steel 
frame building having brick walls and a fireproof roof. The price 
of land was taken at $0.50 per sq. ft. 

Where condensers are not used it is assumed that feed water is 
taken from the heater at a temperature of 190 deg. ; in the case of 
condensing engines it is taken at 160 deg., and where economizers 
are used, it is fed into the boiler at 280 deg. 

When the plant is used only 10 hrs. per day, 310 days per yr., 
coal is required for banking fires and getting up steam before the 



388 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

10-hr. period that the plant is in operation. An allowance of 5 lbs. 
of coal per boiler h.p. per day should be allowed for this purpose. 

The load factor was taken at 100%, i. e., the plants are assumed 
to run at full load during the time of operation. 

In the original thesis from 3 to 6 types of engines were given 
for each size of plant. In the following but one type was chosen 
for each plant of a given rated capacity ; a different type was 
chosen for each different size of station, while at the same time an 
effort was made to choose that one which was the most typical 
of those producing power most cheaply. 

In order to fit Iowa conditions the following additions and modi- 
fications were made before arriving at the final figures : 

Cost and Heating Value of Fuels: 

First case: $3 per 2,000 lbs., delivered, for coal with a heat 

value of 11,000 B. t. u., per lb., moist. 
Second case: $2 per 2,000 lbs., delivered, for coal with a heat 

value of 9,000 B. t. u., per lb., moist. 

Boiler Efficiency at 100% Load Factor: 

60% of heat in 11,000 B. t. u. coal absorbed by water in boiler. 
55% of heat in 9,000 B. t. u. coal absorbed by water in boiler. 

With the above values the fuel cost of evaporating 1,000 lbs. of 
water from and at 212 deg. with the $3 coal is 22 cts. ; with the $2 
coal it is 19.6 cts. 

Initial cost of boilers and settings is increased 20% because of 
the greater boiler and furnace areas required to get sufficient heat 
out of the lower grades of Iowa coal. This increase in cost of 
20% is arrived at as follows : 

The efficiency of boilers is assumed as 60% in the original calcu- 
lations. Under Iowa conditions an average of 57.5% is assumed for 
the two low grades of coal. 

60% -^ 57.5% = 104%, the ratio of efficiencies. 

The heat value of coal in the original data is taken at 14,000 
B. t. u. per lb. Under Iowa conditions the average of 9,000 and 
11,000 is 10,000 B. t. u. per lb. 

14,000 H- 10,000 = 140%, the ratio of heat value in the coal. 

104% X 140% =: 146%, the ratio of weights of coal required to 
supply sufficient steam. In other words, 46% rnore Iowa coal 
under Iowa conditions must be burned than is estimated in the 
original data. 

Assuming, roughly, that half of this increase in coal consumed 
is taken care of by a fast fire, the capacity of boilers and grates 
must be increased by 23%. This would then make an increased cost 
of the boilers and settings of about 20%. 

Mechanical Efficiencies of Engines at 100% Load Factor: 

Per cent. 

100 and 200 hp.. reciprocating units 85.0 

600 h]). reciprocating units 87.5 

Turbines 90.0 



STEAM POWER 389 

Percentages of Exjjenses at Various Load Factors: 

Load factor, per cent 100 75 50 25 

Coal req., lecip. engines 100 87.5 75 62.5 

Coal req., turbines 100 85 70 57.5 

Condensing water 100 100 90 80 

Attendance 100 100 100 100 

Oil and waste 100 100 100 100 

The above percentages represent the relative costs per rated 
indicated h.p. of plant and not per h.p. actually developed. For 
instance, the cost of coal for reciprocating engines per rated indi- 
cated h.p. is taken at 100% when the plant is running at 100% 
load factor or at full rated capacity. At 75% load factor when the 
average load is only 75% of the rated capacity, the coal required 
per rated indicated horsepower is 87.5% of that required at 100% 
load factor. In other words, the whole plant takes .875 as much 
coal to develop 75% of the rated load as it takes to develop full 
load. 

The term " load factor " as used above, is the ratio between the 
average load and the capacity of the plant when both terms of the 
ratio refer only to the time operated. The same kind of load 
factor is used throughout on all data and curve sheets showing 
estimated power costs. 

The above paragraph leads to the fact that more coal is required 
per h.p.-hr. at the lower load factors. This is true because of 
lower boiler and engine efficiencies when working at lower load 
factors or when the plant is under loaded. Oil and waste and 
attendance costs are assumed to be the same for the whole plant 
at all load factors. Reciprocating engines are assumed to take a 
greater percentage of coal at the low load factors than the tur- 
bines because their efficiency droits more rapidly. The above fig- 
ures referring to the various expenses at different load factors 
were derived from a study of the tests and data from different 
authorities. 

The figures given above as well as those on Table II describing 
the conditions considered are to represent first-class operation. 
Local conditions vary a great deal. 

By comparing actual local conditions with those used above a 
closer estimate can usually be made for any specific case. For 
instance, in some plants the exhaust from non-condensing engines 
may be used for steam heating, the revenue from which will effect 
a lower cost of power. In other cases where the load factor is low, 
the cost of attendance may be cut down if the firemen can be used 
for other work during the period of low power demand. The price 
of coal delivered in the furnace room depends largely upon railroad 
facilities and varies much at different points. Poor firing or de- 
fective equipment adds greatly to the cost of producing power. 
This matter is discussed further. 

The costs per kw.-hr. were figured from the costs per brake 
h.p. by adding to the total yearly expense on account of the added 
electrical machinery and by taking into account the different effi- 
ciencies of the electrical generation at the different load factors. 



390 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

From Mr. Wilson's table initial costs of electrical generators were 
obtained and in the average case the fixed charges on these figure 
out to add about 8% to the total yearly expense. The following 
table of electric generator efficiencies was made up from a study 
of tests and from data of different authorities, 

, % ^ 

Load factor 100 75 50 25 

Operated by 100 and 200 hp. engines. 85 80 75 70 

Op. by 400 and 600 hp. engines 87.5 83 79 75 

Operated by 1,200 and 2,000 hp. engines.. 90 87 84 80 

The figures at various load factors assume that the plant be 
operated so as to produce rated load at any time. The load factor 
is taken as the ratio of the average load to the full rated capacity 
of the plant, when both terms of the ratio refer only to the time 
during which the plant operates. 

All figures dealing with fuel refer to moist coal. Moist coal with 
a heating value of 11,000 B. t. u. per pound corresponds to coal 
having 8.3% moisture and giving 12,000 B. t. u. per dry pound. 
Moist coal with a heating value of 9,000 B. t. u. per pound corre- 
sponds to coal having 10% moisture and giving 10,000 B. t. u. 
per dry pound. 

Calculations of Power Costs for any Particular Plant. 

The expense items have been separated somewhat to show how 
the final results have been reached. The separation of expenses 
is of value when the reader wishes to calculate costs where certain 
conditions are far from the ordinary. It is not supposed that any 
one plant will closely approach the " average " conditions as as- 
sumed in working out the figures on Table II. Large variations 
may occur in the initial cost of the plant, price of coal, or efficiency 
of machinery. 

TABLE II. ESTIMATED COSTS OF PRODUCING POWER 
WITH IOWA COALS 

Per 
^^^'^ . ^lo^d 24 hoursperday— 365 days per year 

factor 

1. Rated i. hp. of 100 200 400 600 1,200 2,000 

plant 100 

2. Number of units. 100 23 3 4 3 3 

3. Size of each unit, 

i. hp 100 100 100 200 200 600 1 000 

4. Number of boilers 100 2 3 4 4 3 4 

5. Size of each 92 74 88 113 230 256 

boiler, hp 100 

6. Brake hp. of plant 100 85 170 340 540 1,050 1,800 

7. Cost of engines, 

room and equip- 
ment 100 51.72 52.20 50.05 45.06 43.60 31.55] 

8. Cost of boilers. . . 100 22.85 14.76 11.00 9.04 12.70 11.04 | 

9. Cost of boilers, } a 

room and equip- 
ment 100 58.65 38.92 28.70 22.22 20.61 18.29 1 

10. Total initial cost. 100 110.37 91.12 78.75 67.28 64.21 49.84J 



15.40 


12.75 


11.03 


9.42 


9.00 


6.98 


2.89 


2.89 


2.89 


2.89 


2.89 


2.89 


43.80 


30.66 


21.37 


17.96 


13.14 


10.51 






5.48 


4.65 


3.55 


3.55 



STEAM POWER 391 

Per 
^^^ ^fj^^ 2 4 hours perday — 365 days per year 

factor 

11. Fi X e d charges, \ 

14% oij initial 

cost 100 

12. Oil and waste. . . 100 

13. Attendance 100 

14. Condensing water 100 



15. Boiler pressure, 

lbs. per sq. in. . . 100 

16. Lbs. of steam per 

i. hp.-hr 100 

17. Lbs. water evapo- 

rated per lb. 
coal 100 

18. Lbs. coal per i. 

hp.-hr 100 

19. Lbs. water evapo- 

rated per lb. coal 100 

20. Lbs. coal per i. 

hp.-hr 100 

21. Cost of coal per i. 

hp.-yr. , 100 

22. Cost of coal per 

i. hp.-yr 100 



23. Total cost per 1. 

hp.-yr 100 123.39 95.60 84.87 72.12 53.98 49.33 

24. do 75 115.71 89.44- 79.35 66.44 50.80 45.52 

25. do 50 108.07 83.27 73.28 60.51 47.28 41.36 

26. do 25 100.37 77.16 67.31 55.37 43.73 37.82 

27. Total cost per b. 

hp.-yr 100 145.00 112.50 99.70 80.10 61.60 54.70 

28. do 75 136.00 105.10 93.30 73.70 58.00 50.60 

29. do 50 127.00 97.80 86.10 67.20 54.00 46.00 

30. do 25 117.50 90.70 79.10 61.50 50.00 42.00 

31. Cost per b. hp.- 

yr 100 1.65 1.28 1.14 0.91 0.70 0.63 

32. do 75 2.07 1.60 1.42 1.12 0.89 0.77 

33. do 50 2.89 2.23 1.96 1.53 1.23 1.05 

34. do 25 5.37 4.15 3.62 2.81 2.29 1.92 

35. Total cost per 1. 

hp-yr 100 116.39 90.00 79.77 67.80 51.08 46.43] 

36. do 75 109.61 84.54 74.85 62.74 48.30 43.02 | 

37. do 50 102.87 79.07 69.48 57.51 45.08 39.36 1 

38. do 25 96.00 73.66 64.1152.87 42.00 36.12] 

39. Total cost per b. I 

hp.-yr 100 137.90 106.80 94.75 75.80 58.64 51.75 | 

40. do 75 129.80 100.13 88.90 70.05 55.45 48.15 | 

41. do 50 121.75 93.61 82.36 64.20 51.80 43.95 | 

42. do 25 113.06 87.20 75.55 59.04 48.20 40.30 1 



100 


120 


120 


120 


150 


150 




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24 


20 


17 


13 


13 




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6.4 


6.4 


6.0 


6.0 


6.8 " 


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4.65 


3.74 


3.34 


2.83 


1.92 


1.92. 


4.8 
6.20 


4.8 
4.98 


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4.45 


4.5 
3.76 


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2.55 


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22.50 


d 



43. Cost per b. hp.-hr. 100 1.57 1.21 1.08 0.87 0.67 0.59 

44. do 75 1.96 1.52 1.36 1.07 0.85 0.74 

45. do 50 2.77 2.13 1.88 1.46 1.18 1.00 

46. do 25 5.16 3.98 3.47 2.70 2.16 1.85 



392 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Per 
Item cent. 

No. load 

factor 

47. Cost per kw.-hr. . 100 

48. do 75 

49. do 50 

50. do 25 



51. Cost per kw.-hr. 100 

52. do 75 

53. do 50 

54. do 25 



24 hours per day — 365 days per year 



2.80 

3.73 

5.55 

11.00 


2.18 
2.88 
4.28 
8.51 


1.87 
2.46 
3.57 
6.95 


1.49 
1.94 
2.78 
5.40 


1.12 
1.47 
2.11 
4.13 


1.011 
1.27 
1.80 
3.45J 


2.67 

3.53 

5.32 

10.55 


2.06 
2.74 
4.08 
8.15 


1.77 
2.36 
3.42 
6.66 


1.43 
1.85 
2.66 
5.18 


1.07 
1.40 
2.02 
3.89 


0.95 1 
1.22 
1.71 
3.33. 


year. 


cCoal at $3. d Coal 


at $2. 



a Per i. hp. b Per i. hp. 

EXPLANATIONS OF ITEMS ON TABLE 

The left-hand margin of Table II shows which general items are 
figured at 100% load factor. The right-hand margin shows on 
what basis the general costs are figured and with what price of 
coal each particular cost is figured. 

All costs are given in dollars except those. for brake hp. -hours 
and kw.-hrs., which are given in cents. 

Item 1 gives the rated indicated hp. of the plant, upon which the 
yearly expenses are calculated. 

Items 2, 3, 4 and 5 show the actual number and rated capacity 
of engines and boilers, including one reserve engine and boiler in 
each plant. It may be noted that for the larger plants the rated 
hp. of boilers is low when compared with the engine hp. This is 
explained by the fact that the larger engines require less steam 
per hp. hour. 

Item 6 gives the estimated brake hp. of the plant, which repre- 
sents the actual mechanical horsepower delivered by the flywheel 
to engine belt at full rated capacity. 

Item 7 includes the cost of engine room and everything in it 
except the electrical machinery. 

Items 7-10 give the costs per rated indicated hp. 

Item 9 includes the cost of stack, boiler room and everything in 
the boiler room. 

Items 11-14 give the yearly expenses per rated indicated hp. 

Item 10 includes the entire cost of plant per rated indicated hp., 
exclusive of the electrical machnery. 

The electrical machinery is not considered before item 47 because 
the object is first to arrive at a cost of purely mechanical power. 

Item 17 gives the lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of moist fuel. 
These amounts vary with constant boiler efficiency because of the 
different temperatures at which the water is fed to the boiler. 

The costs per indicated hp. year and per brake hp. year are based 
upon the rated indicated hp. and brake hp. respectively, and not 
upon the power actually developed at the various load factors below 
100%. 

The costs per brake hp.-hr. and per kw.-hr. are based upon the 
power actually delivered to the belt and to the switchboard re- 
spectively. 

100 i. hp. plant: Simple, non-condensing, high-speed engines. 
Fire-tube boilers. 

200 i. hp^ plant : Compound, non-condensing, high-speed engines. 
Fire-tube boilers. 

400 i. hp. plant: Compound, condensing, high-speed engines. 
Fire-tube boilers. 

600 i. hp. plant: De Laval turbines. Fire-tube boilers. 

1,200 i. hp. plant: Horizontal, condensing, low-speed Corliss en- 
gines. Water-tube boilers. 

2,000 i. hp. plant: Parson's turbines. Water-tube boilers. 



STEAM POWER 393 

By comparing- the items of expense in an actual case with those 
g-iven for the corresponding " estimated " case, a net difference of 
costs will be obtained. Then by adding or subtracting (as the case 
may call for) this net difference from the " estimated " cost per 
rated indicated h.p. year a new cost per rated indicated h.p. year 
for the " actual case " will be obtained. This " actual " total cost, 
divided by the " estimated " total cost, will then form a ratio of 
total costs. This ratio multiplied by the '" estimated " costs per 
brake h.p.-hr. or per kw.-hr. given for the corresponding case, will 
give the calculated costs for producing these units of energy under 
the " actual " conditions. 

CURVE SHEETS 

Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12 are curve sheets showing graphically the 
estimated costs per brake h.p.-hr. for 10 and 24-hr. operation, with 
9,000 B. t. u. coal at $2 and with 11,000 B. t. u. coal at $3, all with 
100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%, load factors. Curves on Figs. 9 and 10 
are plotted from items 31 to 34 of Table II. Curves on Figs. 11 
and 12 are plotted from items 43 to 46 of Table II. 

Fig-s. 13 to 28 constitute a second set of curve sheets showing 
estimated costs per brake horsepower with coals costing from fl 
to $6 per 2,000 lbs. These curves show also the cost of coal per 
brake h.p.-hr. as separated from all other costs. The curve border- 
ing- the upper side of the shaded portion represents the total of 
all expenses except that of coal. Each of the upper curves repre- 
sents the total cost with coal at the particular price with which 
the curve is marked. 

For example, suppose one wishes to find the total cost and the 
fuel cost per brake h.p. in a 1,200 h.p. plant operating 10 hrs. per 
day, 310 days per yr., at 250 load factor, with 9,000 B. t. u. coal 
costing $3 per 2,000 lbs. 

Turning to Fig. 20 which corresponds to the conditions given, it 
is seen that the " $3.00 " curve indicates 3.5 cts. as the total cost 
per brake h.p.-hr. Dropping down to the curve bordering the shaded 
portion, it is seen that 2.15 cts. is the total cost per brake h.p. 
exclusive of coal. Subtracting 2.15 cts. from 3.5 cts. leaves 1.35 
cts. per brake h.p.-hr. due to coal. 

Table III g-ives the figures from which these curves were plotted. 
The costs to be added for each dollar that the coal cost per 2,000 
lbs. are given to be used in calculations where the cost per 2,000 
lbs. is not in even dollars. 

It will be noticed that Table III has the same arrangement of 
conditions as has Table II. Table III also has an index of figure 
numbers referring to curve sheets corresponding to each particular 
conditiou. 



394 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



3 



o o o o C 

o o ^ m 

OiHCOiH-^tHIOMiH rH CO r-l ■* IM LO fO iH 

o_: ; • • 1> 

XO tH t-I C 



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MW^' Tt<o' ' ' ' tH "m' • • • '^^ 'esq' 

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H X^ (u = 

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pq ^•'-'^C<IOO'>^OcO«OlOC^ COOOCOO^COtXM ^ 

<tj -i^S'S '^'d ■ 'i-i 'rH "cO ■ ■ 'rH " th" ' Co" ^ f3 

^$ So) 

Ph ^us'^oocot^ooc.ius eo-^oscDOiOOUSus _. 

2ir-i<35<Ms^^cooocoi>- cooicocq-^_oooot> _C5 

Md ' 'tH 'rH 'co" ■ ■ 'rH 'rH 'eo ^ ''-' 

<_,rHrHC£>CJCOCOt-U5 rHiHOOC^lC-ICOCOlrt ? "2 

^CO<MCOCO-^^t>00 Tt<C^5-^(X>CC>rt<O00 ^^ 

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f^ -J rH rH ft! 



STEAM POWER 



395 




Fig. 9. 



-^O — <fOO 600 SOO /o66 /eOO f900 IbOO 

ToCQ/I.nPorPkinb. 

Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal 
at $3.00. 




eoe 'Joo ddo 300 /660 koo /aoo tibbo /god sxx) 
7bbo.i IMP oTP/ont 



Fig. 10. 



Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 

$2.00. 



,000 B.t.u., coal at 



396 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 




eoo aoo ux) eoo /ooo eoo jooo /6oo jboo eooo 

Fig. 11. Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days per year, 11,000 
B.t.u., coal at $3.00. 













. 




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eoo ooo eoo eoo /ooo /eoo /'Mo m>oo laoo eooo 
TotQ/lrrPorPtint 

Fig. 12. Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u 
coal at $2, 



STEAM POWER 



397 



13. 




boo ooo /coo eoo moo /e>oo eoo eooo 
Total IfiP of Plant. 

Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u. 
100 per cent, load factor. 



coal, 




eoo 100 



boo BOO /ooo /eoo Mxto /eoo' 
^o&Q/ I/iP or PJbnt 



Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal, 
75 per cent, load factor. 



398 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 






Cf<t*t 



g 




Fig. 15. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u., coal, 
50 per cent, load factor. 




Fig. 16. 



600 aoo looo teoo /<^oo /e>oo jsoo eooo 
TbboHMPoTPJbnt 

Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u,, coal 
25 per cent, load factor. 



STEAM POWER 



399 









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aoo <}oo 600 aoo /ooo eoo moo /boo moo eooo 
^ibba/ I/iP ofP/onb 

Fig. 17. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
100 per cent, load factor. 





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600 a(3o /ooo leoo moo /eoo leoo eooo 
Tbto/ inP of P/ont 



18. 



Ten hours per day. 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
75 per cent, load factor. 



400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 




Fig. 19. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
50 per cent, load factor. 




400 t>oo ooo moo eoo taoo /boo eoo eooo 
Toto/I/iPofPhnt 



Fig. 20. Ten hours per day, 310 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u., coal, 
25 per cent, load factor. 



STEAM POWER 



401 



Fig. 21. 



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Toto/ LfiPoTP/ont 



Twenty-four hours per day. 365 days ner year, 11,000 
B.t.u., coal 100 per cent, load factor. 



Fig. 22. 



}* 3t 













"~i 










































































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eoo 900 yso aoo /ooo >eoo /f<x) /(,oo eoo eooo 
Toto/JJi.P oTP/onb 

Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 
B.t.u., coal, 75 per cent, load factor. 



402 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



^*l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


ip 










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7bto/J/iP of Pjbnb 

Fig. 23. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 B.t.u. 
coal, 50 per cent, load factor. 



^ 3* 

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eoo foo eoo boo /ooo iroo /aoo /t>oo 
7bdo/I.hP ofP/bnt 



Fig. 



24. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 11,000 
B.t.u., coal, 25 per cent, load factor. 



STEAM POWER 



403 





w„t 


4: "^ 


^60^^K 


% Ai^ 


^5* C^S 


|^**^5S^S 


|«i.SS^s5^ 


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^ ..pp^^^^^^^- =::;z~ = :^ 


^^ ~§¥^$§¥§$^^¥f¥^^¥~r 


cf.\. Mm/MUmmMt€mi 



eoo too 600 eoo looo eoo fKo /boo /eoo eooo 
Toto/ I.MP or Phnb 

Fig. 25. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
coal, 100 per cent, load factor. 



IJ 



<Bg| j [ 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 




t& 




^X 




at^ 




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&00 eoo /ooo /eoo /-mo /t,oo /eoo eooo 
TotofinPoTP/anb 



Fig. 26. 



Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
coal, 75 per cent, load' factor. 



404 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



«.* 








r— , 


1 




rn 


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Toto/ ZnP or Plant 

Fig. 27. Twenty-four hours per day, 365 days per year, 9,000 B.t.u. 
coal, 50 per cent, load factor. 




»aoo /eoo /aoo eooo 



roto/ I/iP oT Pfant 

Fig. 28 Twenty-four hours per day, %^^ day.s per year, 9,000 
B.t.u, coal, 25 per cent, load factor. 



STEAM POWER 



405 



■t--oirt'*comQocOLfsoc-. lo-^r 



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406 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 

EXPLANATION OF ITEMS ON TABLE IV 

All costs are given in dollars except those for indicated h.p.-hrs., 
b.h.p.-hrs., and kw.-hrs., which are given in cents. 

Items 4. 5, 6 and 7 give the number and ratings of only those 
engines and boilers actually operated in the test runs. Any re- 
serve units are mentioned in the notes of equipment. Items 8, 9 
and 10 include the cost of any reserve machinery and the costs 
per h.p. are obtained by dividing the total costs by the rated h.p. 
of the engines actually operated. 

Item 11 gives the fixed charges per indicated h.p. year and in- 
cludes interest, depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes. Ex- 
pressed as a percentage of the total initial cost, this item varies 
from 11.3% in the case of plant No. 8 to 18% in the case of 
plant No. 4. 

Item 21, boiler and grate efficiency, gives the per cent, of heat 
in the coal actually absorbed by the water in the boiler. 

Item 22, efficiency of conversion, is the ratio of the energy de- 
livered at the switchboard to that given the engine piston by the 
steam. 

Item 23, efficiency of plant, is the ratio of the energy delivered 
at the switchboard to that in the coal as fired. 

Item 24 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
the peak load when both terms of the ratio refer only to the time 
during which the plant was operated. 

Item 25 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
the rated capacity of the plant when both terms refer only to the 
time during which the plant was operated. 

Item 26 is the load factor or ratio between the average load and 
the rated capacity of plant when the first term of the ratio refers 
to the time operated and the second term refers to 24 hours opera- 
tion per day. 

All three kinds of load factors are figured from the indicated 
h.p. of engines and are based upon 365 days operation per year. 

Item 27 is the average indicated h.p. developed as figured from 
the indicator cards taken during the test. 

Item 29, average brake h.p., is figured from the average indi- 
cated h.p. by assuming approximately equal losses of conversion 
in engine and generator. 

Item 31, average kws., was figured from the switchboard in- 
strument readings. 

In the case of the turbo-generator in plant No. 10, the efficiency 
of conversion was figured at about 70% for the test load. The rat- 
ing of 750 indicated h.p. was figured from the 500 kw. rating by 
assuming an efficiency of conversion of about 90'>^: at full load. The 
load factors for this same plant were figured from the kws. 

EQUIPMENT OF PLANTS TESTED 

Plant No. 1. 

1 simple engine, 80 h.p. 

2 boilers, 100 h.p. each. 
Feed water heater. 

No reserve units. 

Plant No. 2. 
1 high speed engine, simple, 100 h.p. 
1 boiler, 100 h.p. 
Feed water heater. 
1 reserve boiler, 100 h.p. 

Plant No. 3. 
1 simple engine, 70 h.p. 

1 simple engine, 45 h.p. 

2 boilers. 70 h.p. each. 
No reserve units. 

Plant No. 4. 
1 Corliss engine, 100 h.p., run 5 hrs. per day. 
1 Corliss engine. 20 h.p., run 13 hrs. per day. 



STEAM POWER 407 

1 boiler, 60 h.p. 
1 boiler, 20 h.p. 
Feed water heater. 
No reserve units. 

Plant No. 5, 

1 compound engine, 150 h.p., run from 3 p. M to 12 midnight, and 
from 5a. m. to 10 a. m., making 14 hrs. of service per day 
for engine. 
1 boiler, 200 h.p., fire kept banked while engine was not running. 
1 reserve engine, 75 h.p. 

Storage battery used as auxiliary to provide 24-hr. service. 
With the same boiler efficiency a lower priced steam coal would 
have reduced the kw.-hr. cost from 6.15 to 5.2 cts. 

Plant No. 6. 

1 simple Corliss engine, 165 h.p. 

2 boilers, 100 h.p. each. 
Feed water heater. 

No reserve units. 



1 Corliss engine, 120 h.p. 
1 Corliss engine, 80 h.p. 
1 boiler, 120 h.p. 
1 boiler, 80 h.p. 
No reserve units. 

1 Corliss engine, 350 h.p. 
1 boiler, 150 h.p. 
Feed water heater. 
1 reserve engine, 75 h.p. 
1 reserve boiler, 125 h.p. 



Plant No. 7. 



Plant No. 8. 



Plant No. 9. 



1 tandem compound engine, 225 h.p. 

1 simple engine, 150 h.p. 

2 boilers, 200 h.p. each. 
Feed M^ater heater. 

1 reserve engine, simple, 120 h.p. 

Plant No. 10. 

1 Curtis vertical condensing steam turbine, 500 kw. 

2 boilers, 500 h.p. each. 
No reserve units. 

The indicated horse power of the steam turbine is used as 750 
on the data .sheet. This figure is obtained by assuming a conver- 
sion efficiency of about 90% at full load. 

POWER PLANT TESTS IN IOWA 

Table IV gives results of tests on Iowa power plants and supplies 
approximate figures on the cost of generating power in Iowa with 
Iowa coals in electric power plants of the capacities noted on data 
sheet. 

All figures are based upon a one day's test of each respective 
plant and upon the assumption that the plant is operated the same 
each day of the year. These tests were practically all run during 
the winter months and under the ordinary load conditions. The 
readings were taken and the results calculated by students of the 
Iowa State College under the direction of instructors in the Me- 
chanical and Electrical Engineering departments of the college. 
These figures were arranged and reduced to a comparative basis 
by the Engineering Experiment Station. 



408 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The costs arrived at are not claimed to be entirely accurate. The 
greatest discrepancy would perhaps be in the valuation of the 
pow^er plant or in fixing the operating expenses. It will be noted 
that the estimated value per rate indicated horsepower ranges 
from $50.00 to $133.00 for plants of 200 i.h.p. or under. 

Only the engines and boilers actually used in the tests are given 
In the table. Any reserve units are mentioned in the notes on 
equipment. The total cost of plants, however, includes the reserve 
units. 

The pounds of steam per i.h.p. -hr. represent dry stestm and 
include that used for auxiliaries in practically all cases. 

Efficiency of conversion is the combined mechanical efficiency of 
the engine and the efficiency of the electric generator. 

All costs are based upon 365 days of operation per year. 

The cost per b.h.p.-hr. is calculated from the cost per i.h.p.-hr. 
by assuming approximately equal losses of conversion in the engine 
and generator. 

The cost per b.h.p.-hr. includes fixed charges on the electrical 
equipment of the station, while on Table II it does not. The differ- 
ence amounts to about 8 or 10%. 

COMPARISON OP DATA ON TABLES II AND IV 

The results of actual tests are given to show how the estimated 
efficiencies and costs check with those found in actual practice. 
A very direct comparison is difficult to make because of the irregu- 
larities in cost of plants, hours of operation, load factors and types 
of equipment. Also most of the tests were made on plants of 
small capacities. 

The point of load factors should receive special attention. There 
is some disagreement among engineers as to the correct definition 
of load factor. To avoid misunderstanding on this point, load 
factors based upon different standards are given together with a 
definition of each. 

On Table II (estimated costs) the different percentages of load 
factor are based upon a peak load which is assumed to equal the 
full rated capacity of plant. On Table IV (actual costs) the peak 
load was found to be below the rated capacity in all cases. 

If the load factor based upon the rated capacity in the actual 
tests is used as a basis for comparison, the cost per unit of energy 
is found to be considerably below the estimated costs. But if the 
factor based upon the actual peak load is used, the actual check 
quite closely with the estimated costs. On Table II the operating 
expenses are put at a price which assumes the ability to produce a 
peak load of rated capacity at any time. On Table IV the operat- 
ing costs are at a price which insures the ability of the plant to 
produce not rated load but the actual peak load at any time. From 
this then, it appears that the most logical load factor to use is 
the one based on the actual peak load of the day. The following 
comparisons are made upon this principle. 

The estimated costs assume two methods of operation as regards 
hours operated per year. The first assumes 10 hrs. per day, 310 



STEAM POWER 409 

days per yr. The second assumes 24 hrs. per day, 365 days per 
yr. The first is of value in getting at the cost of power for fac- 
tories operating only 10 hrs. per day and 6 days per week. The 
second is of value in getting at the cost of all classes of power 
supplied every hr. of the year. Most electric central stations 
operate every day of the year, although many run less than 24 hrs. 
per day. Referring to Table IV it will be noticed that for the 
plants as tested the average number of hrs. operated per day is 18. 
The following is a comparison between the averages of the actual 
tests and the figures of the nearest corresponding estimated case. 

Actual. Estimated 

Hrs. per year 6,570 8,760 

I.h.p. of plant 230.5 200 

Total cost per i.h.p $75.50 $91.12 

Fixed charges per i.h.p. -yr $10.35 $12.75 

Operating cost per i.h.p.-yr $28.50 $66.32 

Total cost per i.h.p.-yr $38.85 $79.07 

Cost of coal per 2,000 lbs 2.36 $2.00 

B.t.u. per lb. moist coal 10,150 9,000 

Load factor .489 .50 

Average brake h.p. developed 61.8 85.0 

Cost per brake h.p.-hr., cts 2.58 2.13 

Average kws. developed 37. 47.5 

Cost per kw.-hr., cts 4.62 4.08 

The greatest difference in the above comparison is with the 
operating expenses per rated horse power year. It is much lower 
in the " actual " column than in the " estimated " column because 
in the first case the plant is so operated as to produce a maximum 
load of only about two-thirds the rated load, while in the second 
case the plant is so operated as to produce the full rated load at 
any time. Also in the first column, the time operated is but 75% 
of that in the second. 

The costs per unit of energy are slightly higher in the " actual " 
column than in the " estimated " column, but the average hrs. 
operated is only 75% of the time operated in the " estimated " 
column, which would naturally tend to make an even greater dif- 
ference than that shown. 

By a general comparison of all figures, the estimated costs seem 
to be higher than those figured from the actual tests in Iowa power 
plants ; this is especially true as the load factor decreases. It is 
possible, however, that in the case of the tests certain operating 
expenses were omitted, such as management and bookkeeping. 

Following is the relationship between some additional correspond- 
ing items on Tables II and IV. 

Table II — Steam consumption ranges from 13 to 30 lbs. per 
i.h.p.-hr. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 23 to 46.4. 

Table II — Boiler pressure ranges from 100 to 150 lbs. per sq. 
in. by gage. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 57 to 125. 

Table II — Efficiency of boiler and grate ranges from 55 to 60%. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 44 to 657c. 

Table II — Water evaporated per pound moist coal ranges from 
5.3 to 6.8 lbs. 



410 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Table IV — Same ranges from 4.1 to 7.87. 

Table II — Pounds of coal per indicated h.p.-hr. ranges from 
1.92 to 7.0. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 4.2 to 9.9. 

Table II — JEfficiency of conversion ranges from 49 to 81%. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 50 to 81%. 

Table II — Cost of coal per million B.t.u. ranges from 11.1 to 
13.6 cts. 

Table IV — Same ranges from 8.1 to 15.3 cts. 

Note. — In all the above comparisons, except efficiency of con- 
version, the figures are taken from Table II at 100% load factor, 
and from Table IV at whatever load factor occurred in each case. 
Efficiency of conversion was taken from the extreme limits in 
both cases. 



1 Mark =24 Cents 




Human Drive 

54 Helpers 

2 Skilled Laborers 



Chain Grate & Conveyer 
20 Helpers 
4 Skilled Laborers 



Fig. 29. 



Reduction of steam cost in boiler house by elimination of 
human labor. 



Reduction of Steam Cost in Boiler House by Elimination of 
Human Labor. Fig. 29 shows graphically the economic results of 
the adoption of coal conveyors and automatic stokers, and was 



STEAM POWER 



411 



included in a paper communicated to the Society of German En- 
gineers by Professor Kammerer, and reprinted in Power and the 
Engineer. November 8, 1910. 

Before the introduction of mechanical means, there were required 



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ZS, 50 75 100 IZ5 150 Hb ZOO 

Fig. 30. Per cent, of saving due to superheat. 

in the plant under investigation, 54 firemen and 2 overseers, neces- 
sitating an outlay in wages of 3.9 cts. per ton of steam. After- 
ward, only 20 firemen, 2 overseers and 2 machinists were needed. 



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Fig. 31. Curve of steam consumption for 240 h.p. Ideal Corliss 
Engine. (Amount of superheat varies from 75° F. at ^4 load to 
133'^ F. at 11^ load.) 



must be added the cost of upkeep, interest and amortization for 
The number of high class workmen was doubled, while the num- 
ber of unskilled laborers was reduced to a proportion of 2.5 to 1. 
The wages paid decreased to 1.45 cts. per ton of steam to which 



412 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

chain grates and conveyer, amounting to 0.85 ct., so that the total 
cost was reduced to 2.3 cts., which is almost % of the original 
amount. This saving was effected by employing automatic ma- 
chinery and high class labor in the place of unskilled labor. 

Saving in Steam Due to Superheat. The following data were 
obtained from the Power Specialty Co. Results of tests by Belliss 
& Morcom, Ltd., of Birming-ham, on one of their high-speed triple- 
expansion engines, are shown in Fig. 30. 

A 330 h.p. Lenz cross compound engine having 37.5 in. and 63 in. 
diam, cylinders and 55 in. stroke, at the Municipal Electricity 
Works of Charlottenburg, Germany, with 192 lbs. gauge pressure, 
26 in. vacuum, 107 rev. per min., gave the following steam con- 
sumption per indicated h.p. 

STEAM CONSUMPTION PER I.H.P., LBS. 



Load. 


'A 


V2 


% 


Vl 


% 


Superheat 185 deg-. P. . . . 


. . . 11.1 


10.1 


9.5 


9.2 


9.7 


Superheat 275 deg. P. . . . 


... 10.6 


9.7 


9.0 


8.8 


9.2 



Saving: due to superheat on a 240 h.p. Ideal Corliss Engine is 
shown in Pig-. 31. 

The saving in steam consumption by superheating 100 deg. P. is 
from 18% to 20% for simple engines to 10% for steam turbines. 

Superheaters, Advantages. Efficiencies and Costs. Fig. 32. show- 
ing the heat necessary to superheat steam above saturated steam, 
also the heat required to dry steam with from 1 to 5% of moisture 
was prepared by the Power Specialty Co. of Dansville, N. Y., who 
have kindly furnished us with a copy through the courtesy of 
R. H. Wyld. 

Advantages. With a dry g-as the friction in pipe lines is much 
less than with wet steam, or even v/ith saturated steam (v/hich 
is a vapor that is becoming- wetter each moment). Therefore a 
superheated steam line can be smaller in diam. for the same 
efficiency than when wet steam is employed. A corollary to thi.s 
is that with the same boiler pressure the installation of a super- 
heater will not only reduce the fuel consumption but will increase 
the end steam pressure on a long line. 

Increase in Capacity. The average increase in boiler capacity 
that can be added by installing superheaters is about 15%. 

Superheat in Reciprocating Engines. In the averag-e triple ex- 
pansion engine, with 100 deg. of superheat, 12% of steam will be 
saved by superheaters in averag-e compounds 1 4 to 15%, and the 
average simple engines, 18 to 20%. With small direct acting steam 
pumps and auxiliaries, the saving- may be as high as 25 to 40%. 

Superheat in Turbines. 10 degs. of superheat in a steam turbine 
are good for about 17o saving in steam. This will hold true up 
to 100 degs. and possibly to 150 degs., above which there is a 
tendency to fall off. 

The early stages of superheat are of particular value on account 
Of the collateral saving of moisture. 1% of moisture in steam is 
believed to decrease turbine economy by about 2%. 



STEAM POWER 



413 



All turbine guarantees are based on dry steam, which is a prac- 
tical rarity. 

Cost of Installation. For 100 degs. of superheat, on ordinary 
plants working at 150 lbs. per sq. in. pressure, the cost of super- 
heaters delivered and installed averages about $3 per h.p., maxi- 
mum $3.50, minimum $2.50. (Also see page 592.) 

Time to Install. On ordinary boilers the equipment will be out 
of service a minimum of about 4 days^ while the superheaters are 
being installed. 









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B.T.U.per Lb. Steam for Moisture 
Quantities in brackets [ ] are total beats 
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mtot^oooo^Mr) 

B.T.U.per Lb.Steam for Superheat 



Fig. 32. Diagram of the amount of heat necessary to superheat 
steam above saturated steam. 



Conditions Governing the Use of Super-Heat. O. S. Lyford. Jr., 
and R. W. Stovel, in the Electric Journal, April, 1912, state that the 
over-all efficiency of a lai'ge boiler plant will be increased from 5 
to 7% by the use of superheat ranging from 100 to 150 degs. F., and 
that, generally speaking, superheat is economical even wiih coaJ 
as low as $1.50 per ton. 

Since the general effect of superheaters is to raise the average 
temperature of the steam and its corresponding pressure, thus giv- 
ing greater velocity to the sujiply pipes, these latter need not be so 
large as where no superheater is used. 

Increasing the Economy and Capacity of Steam Boilers by the 
Use of Forced Draft. The following data were given by Henry 
Kreisinger and Walter T. Ray in U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 
No. 412. 




^ 



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m 



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tl. 



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..Horsepower Developed by Boiler 

Fig. 33. Data of tests of locomotive boiler. (Showing how 
"square" law of the pressure agrees with actual results.) 



the 



414 



STEAM POWER 415 

The total pressure drop between ash pan and smoke box for 
different outputs is plotted from 14 tests, 4 of which were made 
with small round briquets, 4 with large square briquets and 6 with 
run-of-mine coal, which contained a large quantity of slack that 
was carried out of the furnace before it had time to burn, thus 
resulting in a loss of the potential heat of the fine coal. Hence, 
briquet curves are more reliable than that of the coal. Note on 
the small briquet curve that when the total pressure drop was 2 ins. 
of water, the boiler developed 365 h.p. to double which, the pressure 
drop must be increased to about 8.5 ins. of water. Likewise with 
a pressure drop of 3 ins. and 435 h.p., the capacity curve follows 
the " square " law. Further proof of this law Is obtained in the 
U, S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 367. 

The product of the pressure drop and the volume of gases dis- 
placed is equal, or proportional to the work done by the fan, and 
since the former increases according to the " square law " and the 
.second directly as the capacity of the boiler, the work of the fan 
increases about as the cube of the capacity. 

Table V gives the fan work required for the multiple capacities 
and other related items calculated from the above mentioned 
" cube " law. 

TABLE V 

o 
oh 

100 1,000 1 
200 

300 3,000 27 

400 4,000 64 

500 5,000 125 

600 6,000 216 

700 7,000 340 

800 8,000 512 

100 9,000 819 

1.000 10,000 1,000 

Note that if the steam consumption of the fan were 2% when 
the boilers are run at their normal rate their capacity could not 
be raised more than 7 times the normal rating, on which basis it 
would seem that it is not practicable to increase the rate of working 
of ordinary steam boilers more than three-fold, nor that of boilers 
of approved efficiency more' than four-fold. The writers of the 
paper state that the mechanical efficiencies of most fans used at 
present for draft purposes range from 10 to 50%, and with many 
closer to the lower than the higher limits. 

Fig. 34 gives the data and results of a series of 21 tests made of 
a Normand water-tube boiler on the U. S. Torpedo Boat Biddle, 



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Per cent. of.Rated Capacity Developed by Boiler. 

f\tmr 

34. Data of tests of Torpedo Boat Boiler. (Giving- power 
required to push the gases through furnace and boiler.) 



416 



STEAM POWER 417 

made with run-of-mine coal, (represented in the figure by hollow 
circles), small briquets, (represented by solid circles), and large 
briquets, (represented by solid squares). The boiler had 2770 sq. 
ft. of heating surface, corresponding to 277 boiler h.p. on the basis 
of a stationary boiler, further details of the test being contained in 
U. S. Geological Bulletin No. 403. The weight of gases passed 
through the boiler and furnace per hour was computed from the 
weight of coal burned and the flue-gas analysis. The curve shows 
that the capacity of the boiler increases nearly but not quite as 
fast as the weight of gases passing through the furnace and boiler. 

The middle curve shows that the total pressure drop increases 
very nearly as the square of the capacity. 

In the upper curve the power has been computed from the total 
pressure drops and the volume of air displaced, the latter being 

TABLE Vr. RELATION BETWEEN BOILER OUTPUT AND 
STEAM CONSUMPTION OF DRIVEN FAN 

u ^ c , ii K ^^ 

&io c^ ^fio cert cs'^v 

^ ^ ^^ |p ^^ ^5w 

100 1,000 2.25 34 0.125 

200 2,000 • 18.00 272 0.500 

300 3,000 60.75 918 1125 

400 4,000 144 00 2,056 2.00 

500 5,000 281.25 4.250 3.125 

600 6,000 485 00 7,344 4.500 

700 7,000 771.75 11,662 6.125 

800 8,000 1,156,00 17.408 8.000 

900 9,000 1,640.00 24,786 10.125 

1,000 10,000 2,250.00 34,000 12.500 



figured from the data of the lowest curve. It shows that the power 
required to move the air increases very nearly as the cube of the 
capacity. The pressure difference was obtained by forcing air into 
the fire room and maintaining a pressure therein. The wheel of 
the blower supplying the air was 5 ft. in diam. and was directly 
in the fire room, being protected by a wire screen. The blower had 
no casing. There were no ducts and no leakage losses. 

The blades of the blower wheel were curved in the direction 
opposite to that of the rotation, which together with the omission 
of casing made the blower highly efficient. The engine driving 
the fan was capable of developing about 20 to 25 h.p., operated 
by steam, with maximum speed of 1000 revs, per min. 

When the boiler was working at capacity of 330% it required 
about 13 h.p. to push the gases through the boiler, at which rate 



418 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of working- the power delivered to the shaft of the blower was 
probably less than 20 h.p. or 2% of the energy which can be de- 
veloped from the total steam made in the boiler. 

The reason for the low efficiency of the existing mechanical draft 
appliances is that the power actually needed to move the gases 
through the boiler is so low that it would not pay to save part 
of it at the price of increased first cost for draft apparatus. It 
would hardly be good economy to spend several hundred dollars 
for more efficient fans and motors, and the construction of large 
air ducts to save perhaps 1% on the coal bill ; but in the future 
if boilers are to be worked 3 or 4 times as hard as they are ati 
present the power required to push the gases through the boiler 
will increase to a considerable amount so that it will paj' to install 
draft apparatus of high efficiency. By a proper design of the 
boiler plant, the first cost of the draft installation can be greatly 
reduced, and it may be possible to shorten the length of large, 
expensive air ducts by placing independent fans for each battery 
of boilers either above or under the boilers which they operate. 

It seems entirely practicable to increase the rate of working 
steam boilers to at least 3 and possibly 5 or 6 times the present 
rate. The cost of installing highly efficient draft apparatus of 
high pressure and high capacity will be small compared with the 
saving of the cost of installing extra boilers. 

A collateral advantage from the use of high pressure draft 
apparatus necessarily greatly increases the speed of the gases in 
the flues and all other gas passages, and consequently it Avill be 
very much more difficult for any soot or ash to collect on the 
heating plates or in the flues or tubes and reduce the efficiency. 

In the furnace excessively high gas velocities are not desirable. 
Since the burning of large quantities of coal with small grate 
areas and combustion spaces would necessarily involve a rapid 
flow of gas through the fuel bed which may carry the small pieces 
of coal out of the furnace, and the combustible gases distilled from 
the fuel bed may pass through the useful combustion space before 
they are burned. 

The velocity of the gases through the fuel can be reduced by 
increasing the grate area which is inversely proportional to the 
velocity of the gases. In most of the present boiler installations 
there is enough space under the boiler for twice the existing grate 
area. 

The velocity of the gases through the combustion space can be 
reduced by increasing the space, which can, perhaps, be done by 
raising the boiler itself, and the combustion in many cases can be 
improved by using proper mechanical stokers operated on the 
principle of slowly heating the fresh fuel. 

It is thus apparent that by doubling the grate area for instance, 
and doubling the present velocity of gases through the furnace,, 
about 4 times the amount of coal could be burned, resulting in 4 
times the weight of hot gases. By doubling or tripling the present 
effective combustion space and by the use of proper mechanical 



STEAM POWER . 419 

stokers the combustion of the gases would be fairly complete before 
they would enter the boiler proper. Hence it appears to be pos- 
sible to increase the ordinary steam-generating apparatus 3 or 4 
times without having the steam part of it take any more floor space 
than it does for the present " normal " rate of working. 

Reduction in Coal Costs by the Use of a Balanced Draft System. 
Walter L. Watson, in Engineering and Contracting, July 1, 
1908, has described the following experience in the proceedings of 
the American Water Works Association in a plant consisting of 1- 
100-h.p. Vulcan Iron Works horizontal tubular boiler, operating 
prior to the installation of a special system of draft, at about 125 
h.p., and using No. 1 buckwheat coal, at $2.30 per gross ton de- 
livered, burning it with chimney draft, carefully regulating the 
damper by hand. This station was pumping about 1,500,000 gals, 
per 24 hrs. against a head of 342 ft., costing for fuel about $14.10 
per million gals, pumped. 

As against No. 1 buckwheat coal with natural draft evaporation 
tests were made with No. 3 buckwheat or barley coal with the bal- 
anced draft, with the result that the coal cost per million gals, 
pumped was reduced from $14.10 to $8.44, which saving has since 
been maintained. 

The equipment consists of the following parts : First, a small 
turbine blower set directly against the ash pit wall, through which 
an opening is made to admit the air to the ash pit. The turbine 
exhausts into the ash pit. Its speed is automatically regulated by 
a .special type of regulating valve. 

A diaphragm damper controller is used, connected in such a 
manner to the blower, that the same variation of steam pressure 
that changes the speed of the blower, simultaneously changes the 
position of the damper. 

The blov/er and damper are so adjusted, relatively one to the 
other, that there is at all times practically atmospheric pressure in 
the furnace chamber. 

For each and every change in the speed of the blower, the damper 
assumes a different position within the limits of its travel. The 
air supply to the furnace and the exhaust of the gases from the 
furnace thus have a constant relation one to the other and the 
draft is at all times " balanced " against the atmosphere ; hence 
the name " Balanced Draft." 

The average steam consumption of the turbine is approximately 
2% of the steam generated. 

Increase in Capacity of Boilers Effected by an Increase in Grate 
Area without Increasing the Heating Surface. Walter S. Finlay, 
Jr., presented a paper on this subject at the meeting of the A. I. 
E. E. on December 13, 1907, from which we have abstracted the 
following. 

Increase in capacity while the heating surface remains constant 
is accompanied by a loss in the economy of evaporation due to 
the increased temperature of the escaping gases. This loss varies 
from almost nothing to perhaps 15% in fuel economy for an increase 



420 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of 100% in boiler capacity. Under the tlieory that combustion, dis- 
tribution and transfer of lieat could be mucJi improved under new 
conditions with careful attention to details of design, a change was 
made in the plans of 18 of the boiler furnaces in the Fifty-ninth 
Street plant of the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. of New York 
City and a second stoker was installed. This enabled the plant to 
operate within the range of the original single-stoker boiler, to- 
gether with the higher range of the double stoker. The second 
stoker installed has an area of 80% of the original one, local con- 
ditions preventing an installation of a larger size ; the second, or 
lower stoker, being constructed within a so-called " Dutch oven." 
Tests made after the installation indicated that, in this case, 
double-stoker operation covers the entire range of single-stoker 
operation and adds an increase in capacity proportionate to its 
larger grate surface, with no appreciable loss in economy, and an 
increase of 71% in capacity was accomplished with no loss in 
economy. 

Using the above results as a basis, Mr. Finlay considers the effect 
of such a change upon a plant as a whole and derives the follow- 
ing figures assuming a plant with a first cost of $125 per kw., 
equipment including turbo-generators and boiler stokers, with a 
ratio of 60 to 1. Following are the derived results: 

% 

Total cost per kw $125.00 100 

Building 43.75 35 

Boilers 6.875 5.5 

Grates 1.75 1.4 

Piping . 5,625 4.5 

Coal-handling apparatus per kw. . . ; • 2.30 1.84 

Balance of equipment 64.70 .... 

In figuring the expense of operating this plant the fixed charges 
were taken at 12%, including interest 5%, depreciation 6%, taxes 
and insurance 1%. The effect of a change, as outlined, on the 
different items making up the plant cost, is tjien considered as 
follows : 

Piping: \n the assumed case the cost of steam piping between 
boilers and manifolds, plus boiler feed piping and boiler blow-off 
piping alone has been considered. With any change in the number 
of boilers, capacity remaining constant, the cost of piping will vary 
in the same ratio multiplied by a factor which is due to the change 
in size of pipe. 

Coal Handling Apparatus: Fixed plant capacity would seem to 
demand fixed cost of this item, but the proportionate value of the 
conveying apparatus is so great that any change affecting the 
length of carry will raise or lower the total cost of the system 
although not in direct ratio to such j* change. 

Change of Ratio: Assume that it is decided to cut in half the 
ratio of heating surface to grate surface by using double grates 
or stokers under boilers of the same rating, with unchanged plant 
output. The revised costs would then be as follows : 



STEAM POWER 421 

Per kw. 

Building- (reduced 40%) $26.25 

Boilers (reduced 50%) 3.438 

Stokers (remain same) 1 75 

Piping (reduced 40%) 3.735 

Coal-handling apparatus (reduced 15%) 1.955 

Balance (remain same) 64.70 

$101,468 

Thus the plant first cost and fixed charges would each be reduced 
19.6%. From figures on this plant, furnished by Mr. H. G. Stott, 
Mr. Finlay estimates that the change to double grate operation 
would decrease maintenance and fixed charges by 25%. 

The summary of the above figures would indicate the following: 
First cost, 19.6% saving; total plant charges varying from a saving 
of 5.64% at 100% load factor, to 7.54% at 50% factor, to 9.657o at 
4.16%; factor (365 hours per year). 

Mr. Finlay also presented a set of figures on a plant cost of $150 
per kw., for which he estimated a reduction in first cost and fixed 
charges of 20.8%. 

The summary of the figures in the case of the $150 plant follows: 
First cost, 20.8% saving; total plant charges vary from 7.06% 
saving at 100% load-factor, to 9.26%, at 50% factor to 11.51% at 
4.16% factor. 

Annual Saving from the Use of Soft Water in 1,000 h.p. Boiler 
Plant. From a press bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey we 
have taken Tables VII and VIII. 

TABLE VII. COMPARATIVE EXTRA COST WITH USE OF 
HARD WATER 

Average coal consumption for 1,000 h.p. boiler, 48 tons a day, 
48 tons of coal at $1.50 is $72. Estimated saving in fuel 
on this water due to use of treated water is 5%. Five % 

of $72 is $3.60 per day, or. for 300 working days $1,080 

Cleaning boiler, at $8 per week 416 

Repairs for tubes, etc 200 

Boiler compounds 250 

Coal for raising steam after cleaning, 104 tons at $1.50 156 

7.5% depreciation on boiler plant costing $15,000 1,125 

Total $3,227 

TABLE VIII. COMPARATIVE EXTRA COST WITH USE OF 
SOFTENED WATER 

10% interest and depreciation on softening plant costing 

$3,500 $350 

Boiler repairs 50 

Chemicals at 1 ct. per 1,000 gals 300 

Coal for raising steam after cleaning, 16 tons at $1.50 24 

5% depreciation on boiler plant' costing $15,000 750 

Total $1,474 

The total saving is. therefore $1,753, which is practically half 
the cost of installing a softening plant, 



422 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Saving Derived from Water Softening Plant. G. H. Gibson, 
Power, September 14, 1909. An installation of 300 h.p., consisting 
of 4 Franklin and 2 Sterling water-tube boilers, taking the water 
from a creek, the analysis of which water shows the following sub- 
stances by solution. 

Grains per gallon. 

Silica 0.03 

Calcium carbonate- 8.83 

Magnesium " 0.33 

Calcium sulphate 9.66 

Magnesium " 4.79 

Sodium chloride 2.54 

F E 203 & A L 302 0.02 

Total 26.20 

These boilei's evaporate about 100,000 gals, of water per day, 
which would precipitate within the boiler 380 lbs. of scale, or over 
70 tons per yr., and due to the large proportion of sulphate, this 
scale would be quite hard. In fact before the installation of the 
water softening plant, a force of 3 men was maintained to clean 
the boilers and replace tubes, failures of which were almost a daily 
occurrence. 

After the installation of a hot process system for softening the 
water, consisting in effect of an open feed water heater, suitably 
equipped and modified to provide the necessary time and space 
for the settlement and filtration of the precipitate, resulting from 
the effects of heat upon carbonate and from the action of soda ash 
upon sulphate and chloride, it was found that only 1 man was 
required for cleaning the boilers which was accomplished with a 
hose, and that there were but few fractured or leaky tubes. 

It was also found that whereas the work of the plant had some- 
what increased, the consumption of coal had been reduced from 
42 to 32 tons per day. On the basis of coal at $2.50 per ton, and 
figuring that 1 new boiler tube per day was formerly required at 
$2.00 per tube, the saving from the installation of the softening 
system was about as follows : 

3,600 tons of coal $9,000 

Wages of 2 men for 1 year 900 

300 new tubes per year 1,500 

Total $11,400 

The treatment of the water required 200 lbs. of soda ash per 
day, costing $600 per year. The labor required for operation was 
2.5 hrs. time of 3 men every 2 weeks, or about $36 per yr., making 
a total cost of operation of the system of $636, which makes the 
net saving from the operation of the plant, $10,764, or about 4 
times wiiat the system cost. 

This does not take into account the longer life of the boilers 
because of the protection from corrosion, scale and cleaning tools, 
nor the increased steaming capacity through always feeding the 
boilers with hot water. 



STEAM POWER 423 

Results from Operation of Water-Treating Plant. The following 
article, by H. G. D. Nutting-, is from Electrical World, December 4, 
1915. Considerable trouble has been experienced by the Mineral 
Point (Wis.) Public Service Company in securing satisfactory 
boiler-feed water. The creek water and well water of the vicinity 
is hard, and in spite of the use of boiler compound a hard scale 
about .1875 ins. thick collects on the boiler tubes and shells in a 
run of 3 weeks. The effect of this scale on boiler operation and 
maintenance cost suggested an investigation of methods of water 
treatment which resulted in the installation of the apparatus shown 
in Fig. 35. 

The water-treating plant consists of 2 elements — a 30,000-gaI. 
steel settling tank and a chemical proportioning and feeding device. 
The settling tank is about 13.5 ft. in diam. by 25 ft. in height. 

The operation of the softener is automatic and requires operating 
attention only to provide daily a chemical mixture of lime and 
soda ash. The water is tested each day, the chemical orifice 
cleaned out, and the sludge blown off in addition. 

The cycle of operation of the softener is as follows: When the 
pure-water level has dropped to a point (by feeding to the feed 
pumps) where the controlling float 5 causes the valve 4 in the raw- 
water pipe to open, the raw water discharges into the waterwheel 
buckets 2, causing the paddles 6 to stir the chemical solution in the 
upper tank and also operate the chain buckets, thus delivering the 
chemical solution into the constant-level cup 7. The chemical 
solution then flows through the fixed orifice in 7, through the pipe 
11, to the down-take 12 of the settling tank. The raw water is 
exhausted from the waterwheel into the settling-tank down-take 
pipe 12, where it mixes with the chemical solution and is stirred 
by paddles arranged on a vertical shaft, actuated by the water- 
wheel through the bevel gears 13. As the water level rises in the 
settling tank, the float 5 rises and at a predetermined point shuts 
off the raw-water valve 4. This cycle of operation requires about 
10 mins., during which time treated water is also being drawn from 
the softener to the heater through the outlet 15. The softener re- 
mains idle for about 10 mins. or longer, depending upon the water 
required, and then starts again. 

The time and number of cycles of operation are recorded by an 
electrical curve-drawing voltmeter contacted by the main-control 
float rod 5, so that, by means of a calibrated orifice, operating 
under a constant head controlled by a float, the amount of water 
softened is determined. By adding the amount of steam con- 
densed in the heater, which can be accurately calculated from the 
record of inlet and outlet temperatures at the heater and the 
amount of water delivered to the heater from the softener, a record 
of daily water evaporated in the boilers is obtained. This quantity 
is corrected for the amount of water blown out of the softener 
with sludge, as determined by calibration of the sludge blow-ofC 
valve. 

To provide the hottest water possible to the softener and secure 
the best economy of heat distribution throughout the plant, the 




y/////////////////////////////////yy//y^y/'yy/'yyy- 



Fig. 35. Settling tank, chemical proportioning- and feeding device 
of water-treating plant. 
The mixing tank shown at 1 is installed on the ground level, 
provided with a hand-operated stirring paddle and a steam siphon 
for lifting the chemical solution to the chemical tank on top of the 
settling tank. The waterwheel at 2 is operated by the raw water 
discharged into the settling tank through the pipe 3. A raw-water 
control valve at 4. operated by float 5, is controlled by the water 
level of the treated water. The paddle wheel 6 used to stir the 
chemical solution in the upper chemical tank is operated by the 
waterwheel. The constant level cup 7 contains an orifice for feed- 
ing the chemical solution in the correct proportion to the raw 
water, and a bucket chain (not shown), for keeping the constant 
level cup full, is operated from the waterwheel. A sludge blow-off 
pipe is shown at 8 and a filter at 9. A raw-water-measuring de- 
vice consisting of an orifice and a constant head control is indi- 
cated at 10. 

1 I 



STEAM POWER 425 

water to be treated is taken from the discharge side of the West- 
ing-house Le Blanc condensers witliout additional pumping, the 
discharge head being sufficient to operate the softener. This water 
has a temperature of from 90 degs. F. to 120 degs. F., depending 
upon the load and weather conditions. The "make-up" water, 
which is practically equivalent to the amount used by the turbines 
not including the auxiliaries, and which is comparatively cold 
water, is fed to the condenser injection pipe. In this way the hot 
water is delivered at its most advantageous point (direct to the 
softener) 'and the cold water at its most advantageous point (the 
condenser). 

The amount of chemicals required per day on the average is 
35 lbs. of soda ash and 125 lbs. of lime. This amount is sufficient 
to treat 65,000 gals, of creek water per day, which shows by test 
not more than 5 grains of scale-forming material per gal. after 
treatment. The cost per 1000 gals, of water is 1.63 cts. The daily 
cost of softening chemicals is about $1, whereas before the treating 
plant was installed the cost per day for compound was $2.40 and 
the load was less than at present. The chemicals are purchased 
by the car-load at low prices, the soda ash costing 1 ct. per lb. 
and the lime 0.5 ct. per lb. 

All chemical charges to the ground mixing tank are weighed on 
platform scales and the tank is calibrated, so that by means of a 
measuring stick the strength of the solution can be determined. 
The mixing is done by an ordinary laborer under the direction of 
the chief engineer. After mixing, the charge is stirred, and while 
being stirred it is elevated to the upper tank by means of a Crane 
steam siphon, in about 10 mins., with a small expenditure of steam. 

Each day the treated water is tested by the chief engineer, by 
means of a testing cabinet furnished by the manufacturer of the 
softener. This would seem to be a formidable venture, in view of 
the time and knowledge required to make a laboratory analysis of 
water. As a matter of fact, it is quite as simple a.s making a CO2 
analysis, and requires about 15 mins. to perform. The test is 
conducted to determine (1) hardness, (2) causticity, (3) alkalin- 
ity. 

The hardness test is made by placing 100 cu. cm. of the water 
to be tested in a bottle and adding a " standard soap solution " 
from a measuring burette. The bottle is then shaken and the 
soap solution added in small quantities until the lather will hold 
together firmly for five minutes. A little practice in this test will 
produce duplicate results within a reasonable practical error. 

Causticity is determined by adding phenol to 100 cu. cm. of the 
water to be tested in a porcelain dish, the phenol serving as an 
indicator. An acid solution is then added from the measuring 
burette until the solution again becomes clear. The number of 
eu. cms. of acid-testing solution added gives the measure of 
causticity. 

The alkalinity test is made by adding methyl orange to the same 
water tested for causticity. The methyl orange gives this water a 
straw color. The acid-testing solution is again added from the 



426 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

burette until the indicator turns pink. The amount of acid-testing 
solution added gives the test for alkalinity. 

The relations between alkalinity and causticity tests are import- 
ant in showing correct reatment. The test indicating proper treat- 
ment should be about as follows: Hardness, 6; causticity, 4; 
alkalinity, 7. 

TABLE IX. ANALYSIS OP RAW CREEK WATER USED BY 
MINERAL POINT PUBLIC SERVICE COMPANY 

Grains ' Grains 

Content per U. S. Content per U. S. 

gallon gallon 

Silicia 0.04 Sodium chloride 2 97 

Iron and aluminum oxides 0.14 Total solids 29 9G 

Calcium carbonate 11.03 Incrusling solids 22.26 

Magnesium carbonate 1.32 Organic and volatile matter 4.73 

Magnesium sulphate 8.93 Alkalinity 12. GO 

Magnesium chloride 0.80 Hardness 22.00 

TABLE X. OPERATING CONDITIONS BEFORE AND AFTER 
TREATING BOILER-FEED WATER 

Item. Conditions before treating water. 

1. Comparatively low economy of evaporation. 

2. Lost, on an average, thirteen boiler tubes per month, costing 

about $10 each, including cutting out old tubes and replacing 
new ones. 

3. Rapid depreciation and high maintenance cost of brickwork due 

to extinguishing and starting of furnace fires. 

4. Loss of service of boilers and shut-down due to loss of steam 

when tubes blew out. 

5. Danger from explosion. 

6. Loss of coal in burning down and building up fires and loss of 

heat in water. 

7. Continuously calking leaks in tubes and shells. 

8. Compound deposits on feed-pipe valves. 

9. Required to clean heater weekly and feed cold water to boilers 

while doing so. Heater never could be thoroughly cleaned. 

10. Expense of frequent tui'bining of boilers (every thi-ee or four 

weeks) with consequent expense for hand-hole and man- 
hole gaskets, labor, power for turbine, etc. 

11. Turbo-generator sealing glands stopped up with scale, requir- 

ing turbine to be taken apart and cleaned, with consequent 
loss of service and with considerable expense. 

12. Numerous other troublesome conditions of a minor character. 

In some cases even loss of vacuum was caused by scale. 

Item. Results secured by treatment. 

1. The coal bill has been reduced by 18% of its former amount, 

based on the same load. The coal bill for July, the second 
month of use of the water softener, was $514 less than for 
May, when the softener was not in use — i.e., based on the 
same output. 

2. No boiler tubes have been lost since the softener began to ef- 

fect results, in spite of the fact that the boilers have been 
above rating most of the time. 

3. The load has been carried on 1 500-hp. and 1 250-hp. boiler, 

whereas previously 1 500-hp. and 2 250-hp. boilers were re- 
quired. Incidentally, the load has increased while the horse- 
power of the boilers in service has decrea.sed. 

4. Scale has practically disapi)eared, leaving the black iron. 

5. Maintenance and depreciation of brickwork have been di- 

minished. 



STEAM POWER 427 

Item, Results secured by treatment. 

6. Additional coai is saved, owing to lack of necessity of burning 

down and rebuilding tiies and reiieating water. 

7. Danger of blow -out lubes eliminated. 

8. Leaks stojji>ed. ( Innnediately after starting the softener, sev- 

eral leaks oijened up in the tubes and shells of one boiler. 
This was caused by a fireman permitting low water, al- 
though the elimination of scale from the tubes and shells 
probably aggravated the conditions. After calking and 
rolling, no leaks have reappeared.) 

9. No deposits on or eating out of valves. 

10. Heater now washed out every 2 or 3 weeks (previously it was 

cleaned weekly). Very little deposit found. What little is 
found probably caused by overtreating the water slightly. 

11. No turbining required. It is anticipated that once a year will" 

be sufficient 

12. Turbine glands remain clear. No cleaning required. 

13. Less loss fiom blowing down. 

14. No loss of vacuum from scale on atmospheric relief valves and 

other trouble caused by scale. 
The results in Table X have been shown by the use of the water 
softener two months and indicate that the external treatment of 
feed water at this plant returns a very handsome profit on the in- 
vestment required. The apparatus cost about $3,000 installed. 

This installation, in addition to furnishing treated water for the 
boilers of the central station, pi'ovides soft water for the Mineral 
Point & Northern Railroad Company for use in its locomotives. It 
is reported tnat a saving in coal similar to that of the operating 
company has been made, and, further, that fewer leaks are en- 
countered. One of the engineers has stated that previous to using 
soft water he did not get out of the yards in the morning before 
his flues started leaking. Since using soft water he has had no 
more leaks. This also results in a saving of water, as a large 
amount leaked out on each trij). It is anticipated by the manage- 
ment of the railroad, based on the saving so far, that the saving in 
maintenance cost will be at least as great as the saving in fuel. 
The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company has also 
contracted for a supi^ly of this water and is now using it. 

The Mineral Point Public Service Company serves a group of 
cities in southwestern Wisconsin, as well as several zinc mines, 
with light and power. The station equipment consists of 4 250-hp. 
and 2 500 h[). Heine boilers, 1 1200-kw. Allis-Chalmers turbine, 1 
1200-kw. Westinghouse turbine, and 1 275-kw. directly connected 
Nordbeig engine-generator set. The condensing water is cooled 
by a Stocker cooling tower and by a cooling pond recently con- 
structed. Make-up water is pumped .sometimes from a creek run- 
ning past the power house and sometimes from wells. 

The softener is made by the Northern Water Softener Company 
of Madison, Wis. 

Costs of Cooling Ponds. From Electrical World, Oct. 9, 1915. 
Tables XI and XII give data on the operation and cost of construct- 
ing cooling i)onds equipped with spray nozzles for cooling the circu- 
lating water of condensers used with steam engines and turbines. 
In order to make a proper comparison of the costs of cooling ar- 
rangements for prime movers varying in rating from 500 lews, to 



428 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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STEAM POWER 429 

2000 kws. it is necessarj' to assume a steam consumption that is 
faijly consistent with plant practice in each case. Foi- tlie 500 kw. 
turbo generator a steam consumption of 22 lbs. per k\v.-hr., when 
oi^^rating at a 17.5 in. vacuum letened to a oU in. baromelei, is 
taken as an average water rate for summer weathei in the Middle 
and Southern states, or a total steam consumption of 11,000 lbs. per 
hr. for the unit. In order to obtain the vacuum mentioned, it is 
necessary to have a ratio of circulating water to -steam of 60 to 1, 
therefore 1320 gals, per min. of water will be circulated and sprayed 
at the cooling pond. This will require about 35 nozzles of a size to 
discharge approximately 4 gals, per min. at 7 lbs. pressure at the 
nozzle. The cost of such an equipment of nozzles, spray heads, 
si)ray arms, drip sprays and pii)ing, including eccentric spray, tees, 
valves when required, suction-weil wall piece and flange-by-bell 
elbow, is about $825 as shown in Table XII. 



TABLE XJI COST OF CONSTRUCTING COOLING PONDS 
WITH SPRAY NOZZLE EQUIPMENT 

Size of steam unit, kws 500 1,000 2,000 

Assumed steam consumption, lbs. per 

kw.-hr 22 20 18 

Total steam condensed per hr., lbs. . 11,000 20,000 36,000 

Circulating water required, 60 to 1 

ratio, gals, per min 1,320 2,400 4.320 

Number of nozzles required 35 60 110 

Cost of nozzles, equipment and pip- 
ing complete $825 $1,585 $2,310 

Size of cooling pond required, ft. ... 50 by 128 90 by 90 112 by 120 
Approximate cost concrt-te basin 

comi)lete $2,560 $3,240 $5,400 

Approximate cost puddled clay basin 

complete $1,280 $1,620 $2,700 

Approximate cost concrete basin, 

equiiiment and piping complete . . $3,385 $4,825 $7,710 

Ai)proxiniate co.^t [juddied clay basin, 

equipment and piping complete . . $2,105 $3,205 $5,010 

The size of the pond required for a 500 kw= installation should 
be abcjut 50 by 128 ft. with the sjjrays arranged in 7 groujis of 5 
nozzles each, t-onneeled to a pi|)e line down the center of the pond 
If a concrete basin; is required, it should have a 5 in. reinforced 
concrete bottom and side walls, the side walls having a slope of 
2 to 1 to avoid the cost of forms In this case the pond should 
have a suitable suctitm well with double screens to prevent the 
nozzles from clogging and also piers carrying i)lates and rolls oh 
which the piping can rest The total construction cost for such a 
pond, including the excavation, will be about 40 cts. per sq. ft. 
under average conditions with no hazards, or a total of $2,560 
for the concrete basin complete. This amount added to the cost of 
the special equipment and r>iping makes the total ar)proximate cost 
for the 500 kw. installation $3,385. 

If the conditions are such that a pond can be constructed with a 
6-in. puddled clay bottom and the bank lined with puddled clay of 
the same thickness, the cost would be about 20 cts. per sq. ft, or 



430 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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STEAM POWER 



433 



$1,280 for the basin complete. Adding the cost of the special 
equipment and piping to this amount, the total cost of a pond of 
this character would be about $2,105. 

On a similar basis for the 1000-kw. unit, assuming a steam con- 
sumption of 20 lbs. per kw.-hr., a ratio of circulating water to 
steam condensed of 60 to 1, and the same size of nozzles as before, 
spraying 2400 gals per min., 60 nozzles would be required. The 
cost of this equipment, with the necessary piping, fittings and 



mmM^^i^^^^^M^^^^t^^^^^^ 




Pig. 36. Plan and elevation of cooling pond. 



the like, would be around $1,585. This installation would require 
a pond 90 by 90 ft. or 65 by 125 ft., with an arrangement of 3 or 2 
lines of pipe having 4 or 6 groups of sprays of 5 nozzles each 
per line. The cost of a concrete basin of these dimensions at 40 
cts. per sq. ft. would be $3,240 and, including special equipment and 
piping, $4,825. For a pond with puddled clay bottom and sides 
the total cost would be $3,205. The costs for the 2000-kw. installa- 



434 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tion shown in Table XI are arrived at in the same manner, assum- 
ing a steam consumption of 18 lbs. per kw,-hr. 

Cost of Making a Spray Cooling Pond. Power, April 13, 1915, 
Besides the pleasing appearance, the next important feature of this 
device is its durability. Being all iron and concrete (Fig. 36), 
there is practically no wear and nothing to require attention or get 
out of order, and there is no danger from wind storms. 15 lbs. 
pressure is all that is required to operate the spray. The loss by 
evaporation is about the same as in other spray cooling devices. 

This cooler handles 1500 gals, per min., reducing the water to 
normal temperature. This is regulated by the pressure, and thereby 

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APPROXIMATE YEARLY COSTS 
OF 

STEAM POWER 

150 DAYS - 10 HOURS PER DAY 

SIMPLE CONDENSING 

Plotted from data compUed by 

Wm.j:.Snow 




















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Horse Power 

Fig. 37, Approximate yearly cost of steam power, 150 days at 10 
hr. per day. 



the height to which the spray rises ; the humidity of the atmosphere 
is also a governing factor. The cost of the plant was as follows 
(estimated): Ground, $400; excavating (800 yds.), $250; concrete 
and labor, $1,250 ; iron pipes and nozzles, $550 ; total, $2,450 

The cost of a cooling tower with fan to perform the same amount 
of work was estimated at $5,000. The brass nozzles are of special 
make and cost $500 for the 20 used. The bottom of the pond is 
lined with 5 ins. of concrete and the depth of water is about 3 ft. 
The concrete columns supporting the pipes are 12 ins. square in 
cross-section, and they are spaced 12 ft. 6 ins. apart on straight 
runs. The cooling pond has been in service about a year. 

Cost of Steam Power. After Wm. E. Snow, Engineering Maga- 



STEAM POWER 435 

zine, May, 1908. These figures were compiled from a large amount 
of data obtained in many small power stations at various places, 
and are believed to be sufficiently accurate for any purpose of 
ordinary estimating. They are naturally general averages or ap- 
proximations thereto. 

Approximate Yearly Cost of Steam Power. The curves in Fig. 37 
were plotted from data compiled by Wm. E. Snow and represent 
the approximate yearly costs of steam power, 150 days, 10 hrs. per 
day, for simple condensing engines. 

The Cost of Steam Power for Small Engines. Tables XVI-XVIII 
are quoted from W. O. Webber's figures on the cost of one steam 
horse power per brake h.p. per year for simple engines as given in 
Engineering Magazine, July, 1908. 

TABLE XVI. COST OF ONE STEAM H.P. PER BRAKE H.P. 
PER YEAR, SIMPLE ENGINES 

Size of plant, h.p 10 20 40 60 80 

Cost of plant per h.p $230. $200. $190. $180. $175. 

Fixed charges, 14% 32.20 28. 26.60 25.20 24.50 

Coal per h.p. per hr 15. 12. 10. 9. 8. 

Cost of coal, $4.00 per ton . 82.50 66. 55. 49.50 34. 

Attendance 3,080 hrs 50. 30. 20. 15. 13. 

Oil, waste and supplies 

per yr 10. 6. 4. 3. 2.60 

Total 174.70 130. 105.60 92.70 84.10 

Without coal 92.20 64. 50.60 43.20 40.10 

Coal, at $5.00 195. 146.50 119.35 105.07 95.10 

" 4.50 185.01 138.25 112.47 98.80 89.60 

" 4.00 174.70 130.00 105.60 92.70 84.10 

" 3.50 164.38 121.75 98.72 86.51 78.60 

" 3.00 154.06 113.50 91.85 80.32 73.10 

" 2.50 143.74 105.25 84.97 74.13 67.60 

" 2.00 133.42 97.00 78.10 67.95 62.10 

Coal Consumption of Compound Condensing Steam Plant. W. H. 

Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the follow- 
ing figures, for running 9 hours a day and 305 days per year, in 
tons of coal per year. 



H.p. 


Tons in round numbers 


400 


1,500 


500 


1,800 


600 


2,100 


800 


2,600 


1.000 


3,100 


1,500 


4,400 


2,000 


5,500 


4,000 


10,200 



PLANTS WITH 2 ENGINES 

500 . 3,600 

750 5,000 

1,000 6,200 

2,000 11,000 

PLANTS WITH 4 ENGINES 

500 7,200 

1,000 12.400 



436 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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438 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Labor Costs in a Compound-Condensing Steam Plant. W. H. 

Weston. Eng-ineering Magazine, January, 1912, gives the following 
figures based on 10 hours per day with wages as in 1911. 

H.p. Cost per year 

400 $2,400 

500 3,000 

600 3,400 

800 4,000 

1,000 4,500 

1,500 4,600 

2,000 5,600 

4,000 9,000 

Fixed Charges in Compound Condensing Steam Plant. The fol- 
lowing figures are taken from an article by W. H. Weston, Engin- 
eering JNJagazine, January, 1912. 

Interest, insurance, and taxes j 10 to 11% 

Average depreciation on engine plants 4% 

Average depreciation on boiler plants 5% 

Average cost of repairs, depending upon age of the plant, 
intensity of the load and how it was handled, and 

whether or not repairs were promptly made 2 to 3% 

Fuel and Water Consumption for Compound-Condensing Steam 
Engines of 1000 h.p. Upward. W. H. Weston, Engineering Maga- 
zine, January, 1912, states that engines of this class, of 1000 h.p. 
will ordinarily use 17 lbs. of water per h.p.-hr. with pressures of 
125 to 135 lbs. ; 2000-h.p. engines will use 15 lbs. and 4000-h.p. 
will use about 14 lbs. He has compiled the following figures from 
a large quantity of data where soft coals were used. Working to a 
fair maximum performance, without overcrowding and with average 
chimney draft of 0.43 in., the average coal per sq. ft. of grate per 
hr. is 19 lbs. ; average water evaporation per lb. of coal, 8.65 lbs. 
.Under ordinary running conditions, feed-water at an average tem- 
perature of 190 degs. F, flue gases 450 degs. to 550 degs. 

17 -^ 8.65 = 1.96 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
19 -^ 1.96 = 9.7 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 
15 -f- 8.65 = 1.73 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
19 H- 1.73 = 11 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 
14 -^ 8.65 = 1.62 lbs. coal per h.p.-hr. 
19-^-1.62 = 11.7 h.p. per sq. ft. of grate. 

In using these figures it is worthy of note that four 1000 h.p. 
engines will not run on as small an amount of water as one 4000 
h.p. engine. The amount of coal burned per sq. ft. of heating 
surface will average 0.4 to 0.45 lb. per hr., or not over 0.5 lb. 
as a maximum. He considers that the amount for the best all- 
round efficiency is about 0.42 lb. 

The average amount of water evaporated per sq. ft. of heating 
surface per hr. in water-tube boilers is about 4.2 lbs. ; in tubular 
boilers, about 3.5 lbs. 

To calculate the total amount of coal required for a plant, the 
figures given, 1.96, 1.73 and 1.62 respectively per h.p.-hr., must be 



STEAM POWER 439 

increased about 15% to allow for keeping fires over night, steam for 
auxiliary, condensation in pipes, radiation, etc., which will make 
them respectively 2.25, 2.00 and 1.86 lbs. Steam used for heating 
or other purposes will be in addition to this. 

Compound-condensing engines of 800 h.p. will consume about 18 
lbs. of water per h.p.-hr., and 2.08 lbs. of coal, 15% added for 
miscellaneous making 2.39 lbs. of coal per h.p. hr. 

Similar engines of 600 h.p. use 19 lbs. of steam, and 400 h.p. 
equipment uses 20 lbs. of steam per h.p.-hr. 

The average cost of oil, waste and small supplies for such a plant 
will amount in dollars to about 12 times the square root of the 
h.p. per yr. 

The cost of water in a steam plant is a very uncertain quantity, 
depending upon local conditions ; such as the success in eliminating 
oil, quality of the condensing water, whether jet condensers or the 
mixing type are used, the distance which the water must be piped 
or the height to which it must be pumped, etc., the average figures 
are not trustworthy. This item should be figured out for every 
special case. 

Availability of Exhaust Heat from Different Types of Engines. 
The exhaust, be it steam or gas, contains heat, sometimes reach- 
ing 70 or 75%, and may be available for warming buildings, etc. 
The more efficient the engine, the smaller the amount of the exhaust 
heat available for this purpose. 

Table XIX indicates what may be expected and was published by 
Edwin D. Dreyfus in Power, January 31, 1911. 



TABLE XIX. STEAM PER BRAKE H.P. AVAILABLE IN THE 
EXHAUST FOR HEATING, LBS. 

Type of engine 

Simple automatic engine 40 

Small steam turbine 30 

Single cylinder Corliss engine 28 

Corliss non-condensing compound engine 22 

Automatic bleeder turbine 20 

Complete expansion turbine (bleeding 25% from receiver) 6 

Gas engine (waste jacket and exhaust heat used in hot water 

system) 5 

Gas engine only, exhaust applied to steaming 2 

Summary of Operating Results in Steam Turbo-Electric Plants 
from 200 to 20,000 kw. Capacity. O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. 
Stovel have given Table XX, Electric Journal, April, 1912. 

This table gives the maximum results that may generally be 
expected with bituminous coal of 14,000 B.t.u. per lb. The annual 
average boiler and furnace efficiency ranges from 50- to 70%. In 
the 2 sets of assumed conditions, the additional heat necessary to 
bring the temperature of the feed-water of the one case up to that 
of the other is sufficient to raise the steam pressure of the second 
case to 65 lbs. more than the first and to superheat the steam 125 
degs., the steam in the second case doing 10% more useful work 



440 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XX. SUMMARY OF OPERATING RESULTS 

Range of 
common practice 

B.t.u. per lb. of fuel (assumed) 14,000 14,000 

Average yearly overall boiler and furnace effi- 
ciency, % 50 70 

Effective B.t.u. per lb. of fuel 7,000 9,800 

Boiler pressure, lbs. per sq. in., gauge 125 190 

Superheat, degs. P 125 

Average feed-water temperature, degs. P 120 200 

B.t.u. per lb. of steam (approximate) 1,100 1,100 

Lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of fuel, actual . 6.36 8.91 
Lbs. of fuel per standard boiler h.p. (33,305 

B.t.u.) 4.76 3.40 

Average overall station water rate per kw 30 20 

B.t.u. in coal per kw. generated . 66,000 31,500 

Thermal efficiency of station, % 5.2 10.8 



than that in the first case, which emphasizes the importance of 
proper feed-water heating. 

The water consumption for the main units and all auxiliaries will 
vary over a year between 30 and 20 lbs. per kw.-hour, which 
figures, divided by the rate of evaporation, will give the lbs. of 
coal per kw. generated between the limits of 2.25 and 4.72 respect- 
ively. These figures multiplied by 14,000 give, for the average 
over the entire year, the B.t.u. in the fuel per kw.-hr. generated. 
Since the kw.-hr. is theoretically equivalent to 3,420 B.t.u. the re- 
sultant annual thermal efficiency of the station will appear as the 
last two figures in the table, namely — 5.2 and 10.8%. A few sta- 
tions to-day give better results than the best here indicated and a 
good many plants are worse than the 5.2% shown in the lower limit 
of this table, but a standard plant to-day ought to come lower 
than these two limits and if large enough ought ta be very close 
to the better one. 

Floor Space Required by Corliss Engines and Turbines. J. R. 
Bibbins gives the following information in a paper for the 25th 
Convention of the A. I. E. E. 

Por several years there has been a continual reduction in the 
bulk and cost of the turbine unit. To what extent, can best be 
appreciated by comparison with Corliss practice. 

Over-all floor 

Type of prime mover and size space, sq. ft. 

in electric horsepower per electric h.p. 

Horizontal Corliss, 500 to 1,500 0.7 to 1 

Vertical Corliss, 1,000 to 3,500 0.35 to 0.4 

Horizontal vertical comi)Ound Corliss, 7,000 0.46 

Vertical 3-cyl. Corliss, 5,000 0.2 

Single-flow turbine, 1,000 to 5,000 f 0.17 to 0.75 

Double-flow turbine, 15,000 0.05 

In large sizes, the turbine has reduced floor areas to about 20% 
of that required by the modern vertical Corliss engine, and to 
about 10% of the horizontal vertical type. A detailed comparison 
between single-flow and double-flow types follows : 



STEAM POWER 441 

TURBINES 

Unit size, Floor space required per sq. ft. 

kws. Type per kw. per e.h.p. 

1,000 Single-now ^ 0.200 0.149 

1,500 " 0.165 0.123 

2,000 " 0.141 0.105 

3,000 " 0.101 0.075 

5,000 Double-flow 0.092 0.068 

10,000 " 0.063 0.047 

Similarly in weight per kw. capacity. Data are not at hand for 
comparison with complete reciprocating- units, but without gener- 
ators, large vertical Corliss engines, including flywheel, weigh from 
320 to 500 lbs. per kw., the weight increasing with the size, whereas 
the large turbine unit complete weighs but a fraction, 15 to 20% 
of the above, and, moreover, the weight decreases with the size. 
In addition the horizontal turbine permits the installation of aux- 
iliaries beneath. 

Cost of Power for Various Industries Under Ordinary Conditions. 
Engineering and Contracting, May 4, 1910. Twenty-five years ago 
the expression " cost of power " was fairly well defined as meaning 
the yearly cost per indicated h.p.if produced by steam ; or power on 
the wheel shaft if produced by water for 10 hrs. a day and about 
308 days a yr., or for 24 hrs. for the same number of days. 

Since that time, when mechanical transmission of power by 
shafting, belting, ropes, etc., were about the only methods in use, 
there has been developed the electrical transmission of power now 
so commonly in use, with new units of power, as electrical horse- 
power and kilowatts. 

Also there has now come into common use the steam turbine, 
for which there is no indicated h.p., the measurements of power 
from which must be brake horsepower, electrical horsepower or 
kilowatts. There is the power produced by water wheels, which is 
gross h.p., net h.p. at the wheel shaft and, when transformed into 
electric power, it is measured in electrical h.p. and kws. 

New industries lilie public lighting and street railway companies 
have also come into existence. In these plants, the cost of power 
is affected very greatly by factors which were unknown to the 
type of plant which was common to industrial concerns of the past. 

It is the object of this paper to explain briefly some of the rea- 
sons for the very great differences in the cost of power under 
various circumstances, and to treat the factors affecting the net 
costs to various industries of both steam and water power, and to 
give a few examples of these which have come up during the course 
of our own engineering practice. 

Items in Cost of Power. Generally, the cost of producing power 
may be divided into 2 parts : 

(1) Independent charges, or the part which is independent of the 
output, embracing fixed charges on the plant, as interest, deprecia- 
tion, insurance and taxes, and, to a certain extent, repairs. 

(2) Proportional charges, or the part which is proportional to the 
output, including such charges as coal, labor, supplies, etc. 



442 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Steam plants in general may be said to have low independent 
charges and high proportional or operating costs. 

Water power plants are usually the reverse, with high fixed 
charge accounts and low operating costs. 

Another item which should be mentioned as affecting the cost of 
power is what Dr. Steinmetz calls " reliability factor," which takes 
into consideration the spare machinery needed to insure continuous 
service. The charges on this spare equipment are apt to have quite 
a bearing on the cost of power in a central station supplying power 
for public uses, where reliability must be one of the chief con- 
siderations and more spare or duplicate plant is usually maintained 
than in a private plant. This same factor, too, may have quite an 
important bearing on the value of a water power privilege. 

Factors Affecting the Cost of Poiver. The chief conditions which 
affect the cost of steam power are : 

(1) Cost of fuel delivered to the furnaces. 

(2) Amount of power produced. 

(3) The load factor in its relation to fixed charges, whether the 
power is continuous and uniform, or intermittent and variable. 

(4) The net cost of power is reduced considerably in some con- 
cerns where the waste heat of the power plant can be used in the 
manufacturing processes in the form of low pressure steam or warm 
water. 

The chief conditions which affect the cost of water power are as 
follows : 

(1) Fixed charges on the development. 

(2) Amount of power i)roduced in its relation to fixed charges. 

(3) The load factor in its relation to efficiency of wheels, pondage 
and reservoir capacity. 

(4) The cost of supplementary power necessary to make up for 
the fluctuations of the water power, if required. 

Variatioji in Cost of Steam Power, Steam power costs the most 
per unit of power when produced in small amounts, and the cost 
is increased for fluctuating loads and when used for purposes where 
the load factor is small. By " load factor " we mean the average 
output in per cent, of the full cajiacity of the plant. The cost of 
power in very small amounts has been eliminated from this paper, 
and it has been assumed that the plants discussed for different 
uses are fairly large and of about the same capacity. 

Steam power costs the least per unit of power for comparatively 
steady continuous loads, as for paper mills and other similar in- 
dustries, and the cost may be still further reduced where there is 
use for exhaust steam or other by-products from the plant. Such 
conditions as the last are found in colored textile mills. Power 
costs the mo.st in plants having a low load factor with a variable 
load and where there is no use for the by-products of the plant, 
as in a lighting or street railway pfant. Between these extremes 
are various industries for which the cost of power will vary greatly. 

Industries running 10 hours a day have a low load factor com- 
paratively, but the load while on is often fairly steady, particularly 
in textile mills. Public service plants usually have a load factor 



STEAM POWER 443 

somewhat lower than textile mills, but the load is extremely 
variable, which is not nearly so favorable to economical operation 
as the textile load would be. 

An example of the reverse of the procedure in a colored textile 
mill might be cited in the case of a steel mill, where the waste 
gases from the furnaces might be used in a steam or gas engine 
plant, thus making the net cost of power very low. 

Power for Various Ind^istHes. So far as we know, the net cost 
of steam power is the least and the net value of water power 
(but not of water) also the least for colored textile mills of all 
of the important industries. This is due to the usually steady load 
and to the fact that the waste products from the steam plant are 
most valuable for manufacuring purposes to those industries. If 
the heat required is not obtained from the waste products, it must 
be obtained direct from a separate boiler-plant. 

The net cost of steam power for textile mills gradually increases 
from the cost to the mill which can use all of the waste products, 
which will have the lowest cost, to the case of mill making white 
goods, where only exhaust steam for warming the building and 
drying the yarn on the slashers can be used. Next to this latter 
case in favor of net low cost are the industries of any nature 
where exhaust steam can be used only for heating. In order to 
give a general idea of the usual costs of power under ordinary con- 
ditions in this section of the country, an analysis of the cost of 
power for a station of 2,000 kws. capacity is given below. This 
station is similar to some which have been constructed within the 
last few years. Later on will be given some of the effects of by- 
products from the plant for manufacturing purposes. 

Cost of Power for Textile and Similar Industries. Let us first 
consider the cost of power under the various conditions for textile 
mills, and from these cases an idea of the cost to various other 
industries can be derived. 

As electric driving is becoming so common in textile mills, we 
will assume for the basis of these costs that the stations considered 
below will be electric and of 2,000 kws. capacity, composed of 2 
1000-kw. units. The costs of power from this station will usually 
be given as so much per kw. In case it is desired to reduce this 
cost per e.h.p., divide by 1.34. To get its cost per i.h.p., multiply 
the cost per electrical horse power by about 87%, or the cost per 
kw. by about 65%. It must be remembered also that there is no 
spare apparatus in these plants. This may be considered as fair 
average practice at present for manufacturing plants, but of course 
would not be tolerated for public service plants where reliability is 
so necessary. 

In making up the cost of power here, all charges have been con- 
sidered except the interest charges on the cost of land. These 
charges would be very variable, depending on the location of the 
plant. The cost of land for the station has also been omitted from 
the cost per kw. of the station. There are many opinions as to the 
proper percentage to charge to depreciation, interest, etc. In mak- 
ing up these costs, interest has been taken at 5% ; depreciation, 



444 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

repairs on the apparatus, at 5%, and on the building at 2.5%; in- 
surance and taxes at 1%, making a total of 11% on the apparatus 
and 8.5% on the buildings. This was for 10-hr. power. For 24-hr. 
power the depreciation and repairs on apparatus were taken at 
13%, instead of 11%. A small amount is added in both cases for 
incidentals. 

These figures, of course, would not do for a station where the 
manufacture of current was the main pi'oduct, as for public service 
plant, because heie, during a period covered by 4% depreciation 
newer and more efficient types of apparatus might make it necessary 
to discard ai)paratus which was mechanically good. This course 
would not be so necessary in a manufacturing plant, where the 
saving of a .small percentage of tlie cost of power is not of suchi 
vital itnpoftance as are some other considerations. 

You will note that we say " cost of power as a straight power 
proposition." The reason for this is that the net cost of this 
power can be materially reduced by using the by-products from the 
plant for manufacturing purposes, as will be explained later. 

Ten-Hour I'oiver. With a steam engine plant with direct con- 
nected generators the cost of the plant per kw. of capacity is about 
$125. The cost of i)ower from this station with coal at about $4.25 
a long ton in the pocket or $4.75 on the grates, would be about 
$33 per kw. per yr. of 3,000 hrs., as for a textile mill, as a straight 
power proposition. This is equivalent to about $24.60 per e.h.p. 
per yr. and about $21.50 per i.h.p. per yr. This is equivalent to a 
cost of 1.10 cts. per kw.-hr. 

If steain turbines are used instead of steam engines, the cost of 
the station will be reduced to about $105 per kw, capacity. The 
cost of power produced on steam turbines would also be reduced to 
about $29.50 per kw. yr., against $33 for the engine plant. A part 
of this difference is made up from the reduced cost of the station 
and apparatus and a part from the better economy of the turbines, 
which we have assumed are using sui)erheated steam and high 
vacuum, which is common practice. The use of suiterheated steam 
is not common practice in engine plants, and the engine plant con- 
sidered was assumed as not equipped with superheaters. 

2Ji Hour Poiver. If steam power were to be generated for 24 hrs. 
a day for 6 days in a week or say 300 days a yr., as for a paper 
mill or other similar industries, the cost of power would be about 
$57.50 per kw. per yr. for the engine plant and about $53 per kw. 
per yr. for the turbine plant. These costs reduce to 0.8 cts. per 
kw.-hr. and 0.74 cts. per kw.-hr.. respectively. 

These figures should be compared with 1.10 cts. per kw.-hr. for 
the engine plant and 0.1*83 cts. for the turbine plant when producing 
10 hr. a day power. The difference in the cost for the two l<inds 
of power is due to the fact that practically the same amount of fixed 
i-liarges is s])jead ovei a much greater numbei of kilowatt h(jurs. 
There is also some saving in coal per kw, houi- due to (he elimina- 
tion of banking of fires for a lai-ge portion of the time. 

Load Factors. The power i)lant for the textile mill o[)erating 10 
hrs. a day, 300 days a yr., would have a load factor of about 40%, 



STEAM POWER 445 

while the plant operating 24 hrs. a day for 300 days would have a 
load factor of about 93%. These figures of course assume that the 
plants are just large enough to drive their loads. This assunii>tion 
is hardly true, especially at present, when the use of electric trans- 
mission makes it easy to provide spare units. The term " load 
factor" as used here means the ratio of the actual kilowatt hours 
generated in a year to the number which would have been generated 
had the plant run at full load every hour in the year. It must be 
remembered also that for the industrial plants under consideration 
the load is nearly constant throughout the operating time, which 
means good operating conditions. 

Public Service Plants. In a lighting plant for a city, even with 
the same load factor as for the 10-hr. textile mill, which would 
be high for most of these plants, the operating conditions would not 
be nearly so favorable as in a textile mill, as about the same 
amount of banking would have to be done, and the prime movers 
would have to operate at variable loads. This latter undesirable 
feature would not be so serious in a large station as in a smaller 
one, so far as the efficiency is concerned, as the variation could be 
more nearly cared for by varying the number of units and thus 
operating all of them at advantageous points. 

The cost of power for this type of plant is more, other things 
being equal, than for a plant of the same size for a textile mill hav- 
ing the same load factor. This is due to the effect of variable load 
towards a reduction in efficiency, and because of the greater cost 
of plant and consequently greater fixed charges per unit of output. 
It should be borne in mind, however, that these public service plants 
are usually of a very large size and that their output delivered has 
to compfjte in price with the cost of power from very small stations. 
This would give the advantage all to the central station as far as 
the actual cost of making power is concerned. To the cost of mak- 
ing the power, the central station must add the cost of transmitting, 
distributing and selling it. 

Effect of Use of Waste Products from Power Plant for Manu- 
facturing Purposes. For many years it has been common practice 
to use the by-pioducts, such as exhaust steam and wai-m watei" from 
the steam plant, for manufacturing purposes and for heating build- 
ings, etc. It has been also common practice to take steam out of 
the receiver between the cylinders of a compound engine for these 
purposes. The saving fiom using the exhaust of a non-condensing 
engine, which would otherwise go to w^aste, is large, because there 
is no additional steam required for the engine unless the back 
pressure is increased. Any use of the steam is nearly all clear 
profit, and if all of it is used, the only part left to charge to power 
is the difference in B.t.u. due to the difference in pressure and the 
condensation in the engine cylinder, jackets, etc. The use of large 
noncondensing engines for producing power, excei)t in si>ecia] cases, 
is becoming comparatively rare, but the use of steam from the 
receiver of a cross-compound condensing engine for manufacturing 
purposes and for heating, etc., is a common practice. 

Receioer Steam. Table XXI shows the amount of coal charge- 



446 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

able to power when certain percentages of the steam entering the 
high pressure cylinder are taken out of the receiver. This table 
takes into consideration the effects on the economy of the engine 
of not passing all of the steam into the low pressure cylinder, cylin- 
der condensation, etc. The percentages in the first column are the 
percentages of the steam passing the high i)ressure cylinder which 
is taken out of the receiver for manufacturing purposes. The sec- 
ond column is the total coal burned, and the third is the coal 
chargeable to power after deducting the coal chargeable to manu- 
facturing : 

if nt !ii 

I- 1 :^ M 



O M 



^ 3 ^ 






1.75 1.75 

25 2.06 1.50 

50 2.38 1.25 

75 2.69 1.00 

100 3.00 0.75 

If the mill did not obtain its power from steam, so that it could 
use the low pressure steam of the i)Iant for manufacturing, it would 
have to maintain a boiler plant of suflicient size to produce an 
amount of steam equivalent to that bled out of the receiver. The 
amount of B.t.u. or its equivalent in coal chargeable to power is 
represented by the amount of work done by the engine, and the 
losses due to the i)resence of the engine. The cost of generating 
the rest of the steam is chargeable to the manufacturing processes. 
By cost of generating steam is meant the total cost, including coal, 
labor, fixed charges and supplies of all kinds for the boiler i)lant. 
The cost in the engine room does not vary with the bleeding of 
steam, except possibly in some very unusual cases. 

Exa})njlcs of Manufacturiny Plants. A few examples of the re- 
duction in cost of power due to the uses of the by-products from a 
steam engine plant and the bleeding of steam from the receiver may 
be of interest. These are all given for textile mills as a basis. The 
corresponding costs for other industries can be calculated from the 
ta'ble and curves when the amount of steam I'equired is known. 

In one colored cotton and silk mill the power to run the mill was 
about 1,800 i.h.p. and for manufacturing purposes about 25^ of the 
steam for this was required in the form of steam from the receiver. 
This did not include the steam for heating the building, but the 
cylinder ratio was such that it was deemed unwise to bleed a 
greater amount of steam from the receiver. Assuming the cost 
of power $33 per kw. with no bleeding, we get cost chargeable to 



STEAM POWER 447 

power .with 25% bled continuousiy $12.75 + $17 -- $29.75- The sav- 
ing then would be $33 — $29.75 :- $3.25 per kw.-yr. ; $12.75 i« the 
entjine room chnige. This was for the use of low pressure steam 
alone. Probably another material saving eould be made by using 
the overflow from the condenser for water for dyeing purposes, etc. 

In another iviill where much moje dyeing was done, requiring a 
large quantity of hot water, also a large amount of exhaust steam 
for maimfacturing and heating, the cost of jjower, if no steam and 
waste products had been used, would have been about $34 per kw.- 
yr. ; but when the proper credits had been allowed for items charge- 
able to manufacturing purposes, the cost was reduced to about $26 
per kw.-yr., or a reduction of about $8 per kw.-yr. 

In a plain or white goods mill where ho steam would be required 
for manufacturing other than warming the building and slashing, 
the saving to be effected by using receiver steam for these pur- 
poses would be about $2 per kw. About .6 of this, or $1.20, is for 
heating and the rest for slashing, so about $1.20 per kw. is the 
amount of the reduction which could be made in heating the build- 
ings of an industry similar to a textile mill. The above examples 
represent fairly average conditions. 

Several years ago in one mill there was an 800 hp. simple, non- 
condensing engine exhaustmg into the dyehouse. If the dyehouse 
was running full, the firemen in the boiler room could not tell 
whether this engine was running or not. 

In paper mills the usual custom is to drive the paper machines 
with simple, noncondensing engines, the exhaust from which is used 
in the drying cans. The net co.st of this power for coal is very 
small. In some mills some steam is also taken from the receiver 
of compound engines for other low pressure work. 

The Cost of Water Power. The cost of water power depends 
upon a great variety of factor.^ but the essential feature is usually 
the fact as to whether the combined result of all these factors is 
such as to make the cost of the development per horse power de- 
livered a reasonably small amount so that the fixed charges shall 
not be excessive. In other words, the allowable cost of water power 
cannot be materially more than the net cost of producing the 
same amount of power for the same purpose in some other satis- 
factory manner, usually by steam. 

There is an idea fairly common among laymen that water power 
is free or at least that after the development has been completed 
the cost of operation is practically nothing. This is not true be- 
cause the fixed charges go on whether power is generated and sold 
or not. The large.st item in the cost of water power is usually fixed 
charges. For in.stance, if a development should cost $125 per kw., 
the fixed charges alone would amount to about $12.50 per kw. 
per yr. whether the plant was operated or not. 

Another idea is that if a development which is to produce 10-hr. 
power costs about $100 per h.p. if carried to its most economical 
point, it will be a safe investment, but that if the cost reaches 
$200 per h.p. it will be well to proceed cautiously before investing 
in it. In general this idea is well grounded, but it should not be 



448 MECHANJCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

applied to all cases, as there are many factors affecting the cost of 
power and such great differences in the market that each case 
requires very careful study and general rules are not to be relied 
upon. 

The cost of maintaining and operating a supplementary steam 
plant to make up for the shortage of power during low water and 
floods, the effects of droughts, transmission problems in the case 
of electric plants, etc., must all be carefully considered as factors 
properly affecting the actual cost of power delivered from the 
hydraulic plant. 

For the reason that water powers usually have high independent 
charges they are more valuable for use on loads with high load 
factors than with low load factors and are hence more valuable for 
24-hr. power than for 10-hr. power. Their value increases as the 
price of coal rises. 

Many of the modern developments are of very large size and the 
cost per h.p. of the plant is in some cases small. In the deter- 
mination of the cost of power, the cost per h.p. of development 
should not be allowed to confuse or cause misrepresentation of the 
actual cost of p^ower delivered. Usually the larger the develop- 
ment installed, the smaller is the cost per h.p. of development, but 
it does not follow in all cases that the cost of delivered power will 
be smaller per h.p. After the engineers have made their estimates 
of the cost of physical structures for these developments, there must 
usually be added generous items for interest during construction, 
Interest on cost befoi-e there is any return, rights of way, inciden- 
tals, promoting, etc. The neglect of considering items like these 
has caused several of the recent developments to get into disrepute. 

There aie usually more elements of chance and more unknown 
factors in a hydraulic development than in a stetim i)lant, and these 
facts should be taken into consideration and properly cared for. 

On the other hand, a development properly made and at a rea- 
sonable cost is a valuable asset and one which bids fair to increase 
in value if the price of coal increases in the future as in the past. 

The prices of power where the development cost $100 and $200 
per h.p. mentioned above do very well for the ordinary case in the 
eastern states. There are, however, some particular uses, like min- 
ing, for instance, where there is no supply of wood, and coal is 
expensive, where a high cost of development is warranted and a 
high price can be obtained for the power. For example, there is 
one development where the cost of power at some mines was from 
$150 to $200 a yr. A hydro-electric development was made and 
power delivered at about $100 a h.p., thus making a great reduction 
in cost to the mine owners and yielding a substantial profit to the 
electric company. 

There, is a development which cost about $400 a h.p. to develop. 
A small portion of this power could be disposed of at the mines for 
$75 a horse power with comparatively short transmission lines, but 
the remainder had to be carried a long distance and sold in compe- 
tition with other power. The fixed charges alone on this develop- 
ment were about $30 to $35 a yr. a h.p., and the running expenses 



STEAM POIVER 449 

were also high. It was impossible to produce power cheai)ly enough 
in this case to compete with other sources of powers and pay the 
fixed charges on the investment. 

The following example is typical of many developments in New 
England str<^ams with mechanical transmission of power. Compare 
the cost of producing 1,000 h.p. by steam and water power on an 
average stream at a fixed locality, where coal is $4.50 a ton de- 
livered to boiler house, and the production of 1,000 h.p. by steam 
power alone at a chosen locality, where coal is $4 and ?.j 50 per 
ton delivered to boiler house. 

The assumed power of the river varies in an average year so that 
for the driest month 490 h.p. will be produced by water, leaving 
510 h.p. to be produced by steam ; and for the other months in the 
year the water power varies so that for four months in an average 
year no steam power will be required at all. The average of this 
steam power will be about 238 h.p. for 8 months per yr. 

In a dry year the minimum water power will be 250 h.p. It will 
be necessary to run the supplementary plant for about 8 months, 
supplying in an average year from nothing to 510 h.p. and in a 
dry year up to 750 h.p. In order to have such a plant run any- 
where near efficiently and cost a reasonable sum, it should be of 
such a size as to be overloaded for a portion of the time and under- 
loaded for the rest of the time. In this case a plant rated at 500 
h.p. capable of 50% overloading would answer. 

The water power plant will cost about $75 per h.p. of develop- 
ment, or $75,000. 

The cost of the water power will be as follows : 

Fixed charges on cost of plant, interest, depreciation, in.'^ur- 

ance, taxes and repairs, say 9%, $75,000 by 0.09 $6,750 

Attendance and .supplies 500 

Cost of water power if no charge is made for water $7,250 

The cost of supplementary power is as follows : 

E.stimated cost of plant, 500 h.p. at $60 $.30,000 

Fixed charges at 11% 3,300 

Average deficiency of water power. 338 h.p. for 8 months. 
Coal 338 h.p. by 2.10 lbs. by 205 days by 10 hr. = 650 tons 

at $ 1.50 2.925 

Attendance 1.700 

Oil, waste and supplies 200 

Cost of supplementary steam power $ 8,125 

$7,250 + $8,125 = $15,375, total yearly co.st of water power and 

supplementary steam power. 
$15,375 -=- 1,000 = $15.38 per h.p. 

Compare this with the cost of 1,000 h.p. produced by steam alone 
where coal is $4 per ton. This power should easily be made for 
$20 a yr. a h.p., thus leaving a margin in favor of water power of 



450 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

$20 — $15.38:= $4.62 a h.p. With coal at $3.50 a ton, the cost of 
steam power alone should be not over $18.50, with a margin in favor 
of water power of about $3 a h.p. 

Yariation in Value of Water Power. The value of a hydro- 
electric power to various industries will vary in approximately the 
same ratio as the cost of producing power in some other way, if 
considered as power pure and simple, without taking into considera- 
tion other important items affecting the business, which are some- 
times more vital than the cost of power itself. 

To illustrate the value and cost of power under different condi- 
tions it may be well to mention the two following cases: 

A price for hydro-electric power was submitted to a colored textile 
mill, of 1.2 cts. per kw.-hr. After due consideration, it was decided 
that the mill could not afford to accept the offer, the principal 
reasons being : 

(1) On account of the use of steam for manufacturing purposes 
and of the water of condensation for dyeing, the net cost of steam 
power would be less than the price of hydro-electric power. 

(2) It was better for the textile company to own and control its 
own plant, if it had the capital to build it, which it had, than to 
purchase current brought over many miles of pole line, and be 
tied up to some foreign company. 

The cost of power per kilowatt at the switchboard from the 
hydro-electric company for the operating time of the mill was about 
$36 per kw. per yr., and for the steam plant which the mill was 
proposing to install this cost was estimated at about $34 per kw.-yr. ; 
but if the power had been bought from the hydro-electric company, 
the mill would have had to install and operate a boiler plant nearly 
as large as the one required for both power and manufacturing 
steam. It was estimated that the use of the waste products from 
the steam plant would reduce the net cost of the power at least 
$8 per kw. 

In another case offers from two hydro-electric companies were 
made to furnish power. One offer was promptly turned down as 
being too high a charge. A second offer was to furnish current at 
1.2 cts. per kw.-hr., which is the same price which was refused for 
the colored mill. For a plain cotton mill, however, it was decided 
to be proper to accept the offer of 1.2 cts. per kw.-hr. 

The principal reasons for accepting this offer were: 

(1) 1.2 cts per kw.-hr. equals about $36 a kw. per year, or $27 
an e.h.p. delivered. This reduced back to i.h.p. equals about $23.50 
per yr., which was very near the estimated cost of steam power 
for the quantity required and at the price of coal for this particu- 
lar industry. 

(2) The mill desired to postpone the expenditure necessary for a 
steam plant if it could be done without serious loss. 

Relative Importance of Cheap Power. It is evident that where 
power is the chief product of a plant, and is sold as energy in the 
form of electric lighting or electric power, it is important to produce 
the output at the minimum price. 



STEAM POWER 451 

In most industrial plants power is a means used to produce other 
product, which is sold, and it is apparent that, other things being 
equal, the necessity for cheap power is more important where the 
cost of power is a large proportion of the cost of the product, as in 
electro-chemical works, and the least important where the cost of 
power is a small per cent, of the total value of the product. 

Textile mills require considerable power to run them, and the 
method and cost of production of this power must be kept in mind 
in selecting a location for a new mill and in estimating the value 
of an old mill already located, but it should not be allowed to play 
too important a pait in the decision. 

The chief items of cost entering into the product of a mill are 
materials and labor. The cost of power in a fair sized mill should 
not be over 5 to 6% of the total value of the product. It is, there- 
fore, far more important to locate in some place where operatives 
skilled in the particular kind of business to be carried on or who 
can be trained to this work can be obtained at reasonable wages, 
and where the cost of transportation of raw material and finished 
product is a relatively small amount, than it is to seek a location 
where cheap power can be obtained, but where the other items are 
lacking. A saving of 10% in cost of power would represent a saving 
of about 0.5% of the value of the product. 

The relative importance of locating a plant with reference to 
cheap power increases as the ratio of the cost of power to the value 
of the product increases. The relative importance of locating a 
plant with reference to the supply of help decreases as the amount 
of help required decreases. These factors tend to make textile 
mills locate with reference to good help and the paper mills with 
reference to cheap power. The latter use less help per horse power 
than the former, and usually use the power for 24 hrs. per day. 
This causes water power to be more valuable to paper mills than 
to textile mills. 

Standard Prices for Hydro-Electric Power. Sometimes this ques- 
tion is asked, " Is there any standard price for electric power de- 
livered?" There does not appear to be any standard, the prices 
varying largely according to the amount taken. For small 
amounts large prices can be obtained. The price, of course, must 
have a close relation to that at which power from a steam station 
would be sold. The prices for power in large amounts, as for 
textile mills for permanent power, seem to vary between $20 and 
$25 per h.p. delivered for 10-hr. power, and for 24 -hr. power $30 
to $40 i)er h.p. 

For surplus or secondary power which can be furnished for more 
than 6 months but less than 12 months a year, the charges cannot 
usually be more than at a rate of $10 to $15 a yr. a h.p. in large 
amounts for 10 -hr. power, or say about $1 a month a h.p. for such 
time as it is furnished, for about all that is usually saved is coal, 
as the fixed charges are going on all the time in the steam i)lant, 
and often a portion of the steam plant is run all the time. In a 
recent case it was estimated that some colored mills could afford 



452 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 









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STEAM POWER 453 

to pay at the rate of about $15 per yr. for secondary power, where 
the power could be obtained about 10 months a j'ear. This case 
represents fairly average conditions, where coal costs about $4 per 
ton and where the power is fairly steady from day to day, so that 
it is not necessary to keep a full force of steam plant help. 

Conclusions. The average results of the costs of power in the 
vicinity as outlined in this pai)er would be about as in Table XXll. 

Under the last column heading are given the possible reductions 
which may be made in the net cost of power by the use of by- 
products from the plant for manufacturing purposes. The extreme 
high saving from the engines would occur only when the engine 
was running noncondensing, which would be an extreme case. 

The saving from the use of by-products from the turbine plants 
has not yet been determined. The condenser water can certainly 
be used, and probably quite a saving can also be made from bleed- 
ing low pressure steam. 

Choice of Power for Textile Mills. Engineering Record, May 7, 
1910. To assist the officials of textile mills in a general way in 
deciding upon the best motive power to use under their particular 
conditions, Charles T. Main presented a paper before the National 
Association of Cotton Manufacturers, in which he discussed the cost 
of steam, hydroelectric and purchased power. All figures were 
based on the assumption that the mill is electrically driven and the 
cost of steam power was taken as the basis for all comiiutations and 
deductions. In considering the figures given in the following ab- 
stract of the paper it should be borne in mind that they are for 
textile milLs in which the load is fairly uniform and the service 
less severe than in most manufacturing lines. 

Steam Power. In making up the cost of steam power, all charges 
have been considered, except interest and taxes on the cost of land. 
The fixed charges, including dei)reciation, repairs, insurance and 
taxes, have been assumed at 11%, and the running time of 50 weeks 
of 58 hrs. each, or 2900 hrs. a yr. It is assumed that there will be 
2 steam turbine units in each plant. 

TABLE XXIII 

Size of plant, kw. 1,000 2,000 

Cost of plant per kw $125 00 $110 00 

Total coal per kw.-hr., lb. 3 2.8 

Yearly cost per kw., coal 

at $5 $39 00 $34.00 

Cost per kw.-hr. coal at $5, 

ot 1.34 1.17 

Yearly cost per kw., coal at 

$4 . $35.00 $30.50 

Cost per kw.-hr. coal at $4, 

ct 1.21 1.05 

The principal items affecting the cost of steam power are as 
follows : 

1, Cost of fuel delivered to boilers. 2, Amount of power produced. 

3, Fixed charges on cost of plant. 4, Attendance and supplies. 



3,000 
$100 00 

2.7 


4,000 

$95.00 

2 6 


5,000 

$90.00 

2 5 


$31.50 


$30.25 


$29 50 


1 09 


1.04 


1 02 


$28.00 


$27.00 


$26.25 


0.97 


0.93 


0.91 



454 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

5, The net cost is reduced in some concerns where the waste heat 
of the power plant can be used in the manufacturing processes in 
the form of low pressure steam or warm water. 

In most textile mills the power plant will vary from 1000 to 5000 
kws, capacity. With a modern plant, the figures in Table XXIII 
for cost of installation, Mr. Main states, are fair, when no steam is 
used for anything but power. 

The cost per engine h.p. for installation and operation is .75 of 
the figures given per kw. To compare with equivalent cost per 
i.h.p., take 65% of the above figures given per kw. 

It has been common practice for many years to use exhaust steam 
for heating buildings. The saving thus made is considerable. In 
the lack of more accurate data on bleeding turbines, we will assume 
that the savings by doing it are the same as for the steam engine. 
The reduction effected by the use of low pressure steam (for heating 
purposes) upon the cost of power is shown approximately in Table 
XXIV. 

TABLE XXIV 

Coal at $5.00 
%of * 

steam used Per kw.-yr. Per kw.-hr., ct. 

25 ....$ 3.00 to $ 4.00 0.10 to 0.14 

50 6.00 to 8.00 .21 to .28 

75 9.50 to 12.00 .33 to .42 

100 12.50 to 16.00 .43 to .55 

Coal at $4.00 

25 $ 2.40 to $ 3.20 0.08 to 0.11 

50 4.80 to 6.40 .17 to .27 

75 7.60 to 9.60 .26 to .33 

100 10.00 to 12.80 .34 to .44 

If a portion or all of the condensing water is used for manufactur- 
ing purposes, there will be a substantial reduction in the net cost 
of power, although not as great as by the use of steam. 

Water Power. The chief items affecting the cost and value of 
water power are as follows : 

1. The quantity of water and the uniformity of flow during the 
year or a succession of years. If the flow is variable, it must be 
supplemented by steam or other power, and the value diminishes as 
the need of supplementary power increases. 

2. The head. The cost of development increase per horse-power 
as the head diminishes. 

3. The location of the power has a large effect upon the value, 
but the ability to transmit power electrically has rendered useful 
and of value many powers which otherwise would be valueless. 

4. In nearly all lines of textile manufacturing there are some 
uses for low pressure steam. The use of exhaust steam and over- 
flow water from the condenser for these purposes tends to reduce 
the net cost of steam power, and therefore to reduce the value 
of water power. 



STEAM POWER 455 

The chief items in the yearly cost of power are : 1, Fixed 
charges, as interest, depreciation, insurance and taxes on the de- 
velopment. 2, The cost of supplementary power, if any is necessary 
to make up for the fluctuation in water power. 3, Attendance and 
supplies. 

No definite sum can be fixed as the cost of water power, as this 
depends largely upon local conditions. As the chief cost is usually 
the fixed charges on the cost of the development, the first cost is 
the most important item for consideration. 

In a development substantially made, the fixed charges for inter- 
est, depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes, Mr. Main states, may 
be as low as 8% with a short transmission line to 10% for a long 
line. For the purpo.ses of this paper, they are assumed at 9%. 

$75 a h.i)., or $100 a kw. would be considered a low cost of a 
development. Table XXV shows in a general way the cost of 
power under varying conditions of cost. 

TABLE XXV. COST OF UNIFORM HYDROELECTRIC POWER 

Size of plant, kw. 1.000 2.000 3.000 4,000 5.000 

Assumed cost per kw $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 $100.00 

Yearly cost per kw. 12.00 11.00 10.75 10.50 10.25 

Cost per kw.-hr., ct 0.41 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 

Assumed cost per kw $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 $200.00 

Yearly cost per kw 21.00 20.00 19.75 19.50 19.25 

Cost per kw.-hr. ct 0.73 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 

Assumed cost per kw $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 $300.00 

Wearly cost per kw 30.00 29.00 28.75 28.50 28.25 

Cost per kw.-hr., ct 1.05 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 

The above costs are for current on the switchboard in the gen- 
erating station. Transmission losses for short lines would be 
roughly 5% and for long lines 107^. Adding 10% to the last set of 
figures in Table XXV, we have the cost at the end of the line, 
assuming the cost of plant and line at $300 a kw., shown in 
Table XX VL 

TABLE XXVI 



Size of plant, kw. 


1,000 


2,000 


3,000 


4,000 


5,000 


Yearly cost per kw 


$33.00 


$31.90 


$31.62 


$30.80 


$30.00 


Cost per kw.-hr., ct 


1.61 


1.11 


1.10 


1.09 


1.08 



That portion of the power which is uniform and which can be 
depended upon all of the time is called " permanent power " or 
" primary power," and that power which is variable and cannot be 
furni.'^hed all the time is called " surplus " or " secondary power." 
The effect of variable power is the necessity of a supplementary 
plant of .sufficient capacity to make up the deficiency of water 
power. 

The fixed charges on the supplementary jilant would go on 
whethf.r this plant was used or not at 11% or $11 per kw.-yr. To 



456 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

this must be added the cost of operating, which under a varying 
load would be less economical than regular steam power, and would 
cost about $2.50 per kw. a month, with coal at $5 a ton, or about 
$2 a month, with coal at $4 for such time as it is run. 

These fixed charges would increase the cost of i)ower per kw.-hr, 
for the yr. by about $11 divided by 2900 equals 0.38 cts., and 
the operating charge would increase the cost per kw.-hr. by at 
least $2.50 divided by 2900 equals 0.09 cts. for each month that the 
plant is run full. 

The total cost of power in such cases would be approximately 
as is shown in Table XXVII. 

TABLE XXVII. COST OV VARIABLE POWER AT SWITCH- 
BOARD OF GENERATING STATION; HYDROELECTRIC 
PLANT COSTING $100 A KW. AND COAL AT $5 A TON 

Cost of Fixed 

Size of hydro- charges Cost when steam plant is run for time shown 

plant el. power steam One Two Three Four Five 

kw. kw.-yr. plant month months months months months 

1,000 $12.00 $11.00 $25.50 $28.00 $30.50 $33.00 $35.50 

2.000 11.00 11.00 24.50 27.00 29.50 32.00 34.50 

3,000 10.75 11.00 24.25 26.75 29.25 31.75 34.25 

4.000 10.50 11.00 24.00 26.50 29.00 31.50 34.00 

5,000 10.25 11.00 23.75 26.25 28.75 31.25 33.75 

Every $100 incerase in the co.st of the hydro-electric development 
adds $9 a yr. in fixed charges to the cost of power per kw. 

With coal at $4 a ton, instead of $5, the cost of supplementary 
power is 50 cts. less than for $5 for each month which the supple- 
mentary plant is run. 

Thus a 1000-kw. plant, costing $300 a kw., costs $30 a kw. for 
steady power. If supplemented by steam to its full capacity for 5 
months, with coal at $5, the total cost of power would be $53.50, 
and $51 with coal at $4. 

(For other data on water power consult the index). 

Comparison of Hydroelectric and Steam-Electric Power, Com- 
paring the figures above given, Mr. Main has made the following 
deductions : 

1. With transmission losses at 10%, a hydroelectric development 
producing uniform power should cost not over $300 a kw., including 
the cost of transmission lines and all other charges in order to 
compete with a steam-driven station located at the mill with coal 
at $5 a ton, except for the smaller plants. With coal at $4, the 
hydroelectric development should cost not over $250, except as 
noted above. 

The above is on the assumption that the steam plant produces 
power only, with no allowances for any further use of the by- 
product. 

2. With a hydroelectric development with a variable power, whose 
variation is po great as to require a supi)lementary plant of equal 
capacity to the hydraulic plant, and with coal at $5 a ton. the 
cost of the hydroelectric plant should not exceed the amounts 
shown in Table XXVIIL 



Coal at $4 a Ion 




Months 


supplement a 


iry 


plant 


runs 




1 




5 




$200 




$100 




175 




50 




150 




25 




125 




25 




125 




25 





STEAM POWER 457 

TABLE XXVIII 

Coal at $5 a ton 
Size, kw. Months .supplementary 

plant runs 
1 5 

1.000 $250 $150 

2.000 200 100 

3,000 175 75 

4,000 150 50 

5.000 150 50 

3. The figures in Table XXVIII would apply approximately to the 
"secondary" jjower. Having determined how much can be jiut 
into the development of the uniform power, it can be determined 
how nmch further the develunment could be carried to produce 
secondary power. All of the above is for power with no uses for 
exhaust steam and warm water. 

4. The effect of the use of exhaust steam has been shown before 
as malting a considerable reduction In the net cost of steam power. 

With coal at $5 a ton, each 25% of exhaust used reduces the net 
cost per kw. a yr. about $3.50, and per kw.-hr. about 0.12 cts., and 
with $4 coal each 25% of exhaust used reduces net cost per kw.-yr. 
about $3 and per kw.-hr. about 0.10 cts. 

The effect of this on a hydroelectric plant is to reduce the amount 
which can profitably be invested in the development by about $40 
a kw. for each 25% of steam thus used, with coal at $5 a ton, and 
by about $30 a kw. where coal is $4 a ton, so that if 100% of the 
exhaust could be used, the maximum economical sum to put in the 
hydroelectric development of 1000 kw. capacity of con.stant power, 
with $5 coal, would be about $150, in.stead of $300, and with .?4 
coal, $125 instead of $250. 

5. With a variable water power requiring a double plant of 
water and steam, the conditions might easily be such that it would 
not pay to consider the water power, as the cost of maintenance and 
operation of the double plant might exceed the cost of steam power 
alone. 

Purchased Power. Many mills now have the opportunity of pur- 
chasing power. There are many advantages to the mill if such 
power can be purchased at a reasonable price, some of which are 
as follows : 

In a new enterprise there will be required a smaller investment 
or the same investment can be used in machinery. Less space will 
be required. Some care may be removed from the manager. The 
company is able, by postponing the installation, to take advantage 
of any improvements in power plant equipment which may be 
made during the j)eriod when c.urrent is purchased. 

In considering the purchase of power, the. mill will, as a rule, 
determine the price it can alTord to pay by estimating what it would 
cost to produce the power in its own plant. 

Power Plants in Textile Mills. Engineering Record, Oct. 17, 
1908. It has often been said that the managers of textile mills could 
not be interested in power plant economies to any marked extent 



458 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

because the expense for power is only 3 to 5% of the total ex- 
penditures of the mill. While such a statement may have been true 
formerly, it does not ai^ply to the present feeling regarding power 
plants, for the experience of recent years has shown that the econo- 
mies possible in some of the old plants were a really large per- 
centage of the net annual profits of the mills. This saving has 
arisen not only in the power station itself, but also in the mills, 
where the elimination of irregularities in speed and the betterment 
of artificial illumination have proved quite important in increasing 
output and improving products. This subject was discussed in 
much detail in a paper by Mr. Lewis Sanders, presented recently 
before the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, from 
which the following notes have been taken. 

In order to obtain the best results, Mr. Sanders advises separat- 
ing the power and mill organizations. The sole business of the 
power plant force would be the generation of the power and steam 
required by the mill at the lowest possible cost. 

In deciding ujjon the type of power plant to construct, or upon 
the improvement or replacement of an existing plant, the invest- 
ment must be considered. A high-grade plant gi\ing the maximum 
economy of operation, which may show the best investment value 
in a locality where coal is $4 per ton, may, where coal is $1 per ton, 
show a lower investment value than a less economical but cheaper 
plant. 

Mr. Sanders suggests as a basis of fixed charges for mill power 
plants that they be charged with 10% depreciation and 6% interest, 
equivalent to 3% on the initial cost of the plant during the 10 yrs. 
that it is being written off. This gives IS'vc fixed charges to be 
added to the operating expenses in comparing the relative economies 
of several proposed designs of plants. Some may object that it is 
not proper to charge the interest on the investment as part of the 
operating expenses, as that forms part of the dividend returns on 
the capitalization of the mill, but it should be borne in mind that 
the mill is not in the power plant business and that it .^^hould treat 
its power plant more as if it were covered by a bonded indebtedness 
than as part of the stock capitalization. 

If of two power plant designs the more costly is only able to 
effect economies that will pay its extra depreciation charges and 
6% on the investment, then the plant involving the least investment 
had better be selected and the capital saved invested in securities 
where the capital will be in a more liquid form than if tied up in 
the power plant. In the case of a central station, on the other 
hand, under those same conditions it would be better to select the 
more costly plant. When alterations to an existing plant are con- 
templated, it may be necessary to charge the improvement with a 
higher rate of dei)reciation than 10%, owing to the fact that the 
life of the improveme'nt might be limited by that of the old iilant. 
In deciding to replace an old i^lant with a modern one. the new 
plant should be charged with the fixed charges on its investment, 
but the old one should not, because if the new plant does not show 



STEAM POWER 459 

economies sufficient to absorb its fixed charges, and to show a 
profit besides, it will not pay to make the change. 

The rate of dei)reciation recommended, 10%, is not advised on 
any idea that the power plant mat-hinery will be worn out in 10 
yrs., as in fact most of it should last 20, under good management, 
and maintain its efficiency. It is advised because the advances n\ 
power plant equipment are so rapid that the plant may readily be 
obsolete in 10 yrs., and warrttnt replacement with a more economical 
type. 

One mistake Mr. Sanders has observed to be made with sufficient 
frequency to justify calling attention to it, lies in the calculation of 
the savings that will be made by improvements that will reduce the 
power consumption of an existing mill. Take the case of a mill 
with a power consumption of 10,000 kw.-hrs. per day, and in which 
improvements are in contemijlation that will save 500 kw.-hrs. per 
day. Suppose the cost of generating power in that mill is known 
to be 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr., including all fixed charges. The mistake 
is frequently made of supposing that the saving of 500 kw.-hrs. 
will, therefore, mean a saving of $7.50 per day. As a matter of 
fact the saving will probably be nearer $2.50 per day, as the only 
item of the power plant costs that will be affected will be the coal 
con.sumption, labor and fixed charges not being reduced. Of course 
there are often changes that do mean a reduction in the labor item, 
but every case should be figured carefully to determine what the 
real saving will be. 

The saving to be effected in the power plant of a belt-driven mill, 
by merely changing from belt drive to electric drive, will in very 
few cases warrant the change, according to Mr. Sanders, If, how- 
ever, the proposition be taken up more fully and the opportunity be 
taken to completely redesign the entire power plant, then the econ- 
omies that can be effected will very frequently be found to justify 
changing the entire installation. Again, in deciding what pros- 
pective gain there is in changing a belt-driven mill to electric drive, 
the effect on the production of the mill should be taken into account. 
The speed of every individual machine in the mill should be deter- 
mined, to a.scertain how many run below the maximum permissible 
speed. Sui)pose the introduction of the electric drive will increase 
the mean speed of the machines 2% besides giving a more uniform 
speed, the mill production will be increased by about that amount, 
without any increase in machinery or operatives, and possibly with 
less expense for repairs. This item alone will in many cases war- 
rant electrification. 

As the discussion of a concrete case is of more interest than 
abstract ideas, Mr. Sanders stated at some length the results of an 
investigation, conducted by his firm, on the power plant of a large 
mill. The i^lant consists of three separate stations, known as 
A, B and C. 

Boiler plant A contains 12 Manning boilers of 19 6 h.p. each, Roney 
stokers, Green economizers, natural draft, closed heater. Capacity 
of plant, 2,350 b.h.p., steam pressure 100 lbs. 



400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Boiler plant B contains 7 Manning boilers of 175 h.p. each, hand 
fired, herringbone grates, smoke consumers, Green economizer, open 
heater, natural draft. Capacity of plant, 1,225 b.h.p. Steam pres- 
sure, 100 lbs. 

Boiler plant C contains 6 Manning boilers of 175 h.p. each, hand 
fired. Parsons grate system with a steam jet forced draft. Green 
economizers, open heater. Capacity of plant, 1,050 b.h.p. Steam 
pressure, 180 lbs. 

Engine plant A contains 1 twin, simple, noncondensing Corliss 
engine, geared to shafting. The exhaust of this engine is used for 
heating water, which is used for boiler feed, washing and other 
purposes. Engine develops about 800 h.p. 

Engine plant B contains 1 twin-tandem compound, condensing 
Corliss engine, geaied to shafting. Engine develops about 1,375 h.p. 

Engine plant C contains 1 cross-compound condensing Corliss 
engine of about 450 h.p., belted to a 300-kw. Bullock generator, one 
750-h.p. cross-compound condensing Corliss engine belted to a 600- 
kw. Crocker-Wheeler generator, and one 400-kw. Westinghouse- 
' Parsons turbo-generator. All generators are 2-phase, 60-cycle, 
440-volt. 

All the water for the plant is supplied by a central filter plant. 
Two centrifugal pumps are belt-connected to engines of about 
50 h.p. 

Besides the incandescent lamps there are a number of series arcs 
operated from 9 Brush arc machines, belt driven by the A engine. 

Besides the steam used for power, a large quantity is used for 
manufacturing purposes, such as boiling dye-kettles, scouring, wash- 
ing, tentering machines, etc. Live steam is used for all these 
purposes and for heating. The only use made of exhaust steam 
is the water heated by the exhaust of the A engine and about half 
of this water is used by the boiler feed. 

The tests comprised 2 boiler tests of 3 days' duration each on 
the A boiler plant, a 24-hr. boiler test on the B plant, tests on 
the C boiler plant. 

All the steam used for manufacturing purposes was metered by 
means of steam meter.s. Indicator cards were taken on all engines 
for several hours and the friction and live loads determined. As all 
engines were connected to jet condensers and two of the boiler 
plants supplied steam for manufacturing purposes, besides supply- 
ing the engines, it was necessary to approximate the steam con- 
suini)tion of the engines. This was done from the indicator cards 
and the measurements of steam sui)plied by the boilers and that 
accounted for by the steam meters. It was not possible to meter 
the steam used by the engines, as the meters are not accurate on 
a i)ulsatiiig flow of steam. In fact, the pulsations set up by the 
engines disturbed the readings of the meters on the pipe lines sup- 
plying steam for manufacturing purposes. It was, therefore, neces- 
sary to make approximate corrections in determining the amount of 
steam used at various points; while the total steam consumption 
of the plant was correct, this being determined from the boiler feed, 
there may have been individual errors of 5% in the distribution. 



STEAM POWER 461 

From the regular test results on the boilers and engines financial 
balance sheets were prepared on the operation of the plant. These 
give the reisults in dollars per yr., which will probably interest the 
mill owner more than figures of evaporation. Each balance sheet is 
prepared on the basis of charging the plant with the cost of all 
coal and labor, and then showing the distribution of this sum in the 
various operations of the power plant. All losses, both the neces- 
sary and the unnecessary, are shown and their amount. First, the 
cost of the coal burned is shown, then the cost of the steam gen- 
erated. From this the avoidable losses are deducted showing the 
net value, and this is aKso given per 1,000 lbs. of steam. Then the, 
distribution of the steam is given, on the basis of its net value. 
The amount of useful steam is determined and from this the net 
value of the useful steam. The useful steam is that which is used 
by the engines and for manufacturing purposes. Steam used for 
boiler feed pumps and other auxiliaries is not useful to the mill ; 
it is part of the power plant expense. 

This method of analysis shows the efficiency of operation and the 
efficiency of plant design. For instance, we burn $100,000 worth 
of coal, including the cost of firing; 75% of the heat of this coal 
should be utilized in generating steam, if the plant is operated as 
it should be, and 25% would be discharged in the flue gases. Now 
if the power plant were operated so that only 70.% were utilized 
in making steam^ the balance sheet would show $70,000 used to 
evai)orate water, $25,000 properly discharged into stack and $5,000 
wasted into stack. The waste of that $5,000 does not increase the 
value of the steam produced, it only increases the cost, so that the 
cost of the steam is shown as $100,000 and its net value as $95,000. 
Again, two power plants may produce steam at the same cost, but 
one may use 15% of this steam for its auxiliaries, while the other 
may use only 10%,, making the cost of steam furni.shed the mill 
quite different in the two cases. It is the power plant that de- 
livers steam and power to the mill at the lowest cost that is the 
most economical, and this is not always the one that is showing the 
highest evaporation per pound of coal and the lowest steam con- 
sumption per indicated horse-power. 

The balance sheets show the following losses due to the character 
of the plant, and which could only be avoided by different design : 
Combustible wasted by stoker grates, $1,130; steam used by jets 
under stoker, $6,555 ; steam used by jet blowers in A, $2,045 ; total, 
$9,730. 

The following losses were avoidable and are chargeable to faulty 
operation: Loss due excessive price paid for coal, $14,000; loss 
due excessive air used in combustion, $2,573 ; loss due leaky dampers 
on economizers, $1,595; loss due use of smoke consumers, $1,710; 
loss due leak m feed water heater, $1,110; loss due steam wasted 
by turbine. $5,500; total, $26,488. 

Proper purchasing of the coal would save $14,000. Improved 
opei-ation that eliminated all the other losses would not save the 
remaining $12,500 wasted, because only the coal involved would be 
saved, as the reduction of steam consumption would not be suffi- 



462 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cient to dispense with the services of a fireman. This would result 
in increasing the cost per 1,000 lbs. of the remainder of the steam, 
as the percentage of labor expense would be increased. The actual 
saving due to eliminating all the losses due to operation Is there- 
fore about $11,000 out of the $12,500 wasted. 

With regard to the possibility of effecting these savings, it should 
be noted that, with one exception, the losses are due to undetected 
defects of apparatus, and that their remedy does not put a con- 
tinuous strain on the operating force. The exception is the loss 
due excessive air going through the furnaces ; this was largely due 
to such things as carelessness in keeping the hoppers on the stokers 
filled and the ash pockets sealed. The opinion on what is attain- 
able in this respect is not based on what can be accomplished 
during a short test run, but on what the firemen have proved they 
could accomplish without undue strain. All three boiler plants 
were equipped with instruments for automatically making and 
recording an analysis of the flue gases every five minutes. The 
opinions are based on a series of records extending over 2 months, 
in which the men showed repeatedly that they could maintain the 
standard here adopted, without being specially urged at their work. 

The figures in Table XXIX, taken from the balance sheets, give 
a comparison of the economic value of the 3 power plants. They 
give the comparative costs of operation per unit of power and 
steam supplied, after deducting all costs due to a failure to operate 
that particular plant at its maximum efficiency. The differences in 
costs are therefore due to the difference in design of the plant. The 
costs are based on the use of Pocahontas coal at $4 per ton. 

TABLE XXIX. OPERATING EXPENSES OF THREE POWER 

PLANTS. AFTER DEDUCTING EXPENSP^S DUE TO 

FAILURE TO RUN AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY 

Plant A B C 

Coal as burned, including labor per ton $4.50 $4.72 $4.55 

Steam generated, per 1,000 lb 20.0 ct. 22.6 ct. 22.2 ct. 

Steam available for power, manufac- 
turing and heating, per 1,000 lb 25.9 ct. 25.2 ct. 25.35 ct. 

Power, per 1,000-b.hp $2.30 $4.40 $4.27 

These comparative costs disclose a curious condition. The A 
boiler plant is distinctlj; a modern plant and shows an economy 
over the other two plants of some 10% in the cost of generating 
steam, yet it is the most expensive plant for the mill to operate. 
This is due to the amount of steam the boiler plant itself con- 
sumes. The B plant, which is actually the most expensive to oper- 
ate from the standpoint of water evaporated, proving to be the 
most economical for the mill's use. The B boiler plant is the 
most efficient of the 3 plants as regards water evaporated per 
pound of coal, but becomes the most expensive on the basis of cost 
of evaporation, owing to the fact that it contains 7 boilers and 
requires 3 firemen, while the C plant has 6 boilers and runs them 
with 2 firemen. We have here a fixed Increase in operating ex- 



STEAM POWER 463 

pense due to nothing but the size of units selected. The same con- 
ditions are shown in the engine plants; A, which uses the most 
steam per h.p is the most economical because it returns a large 
part of the steam to the mill for manufacturing use. The C engine 
plant sliould show a greater economy than it does over the B, 
on account of its more efficient engines. The reason that it does 
not is due to the layout of the C plant being such that it requires 
thiee men on shift, while B has two men and generates about the 
same amount of power. 

The C power plant satisfies the requirements of location for a 
new station exceedingly well. It is located between the dye house, 
tentering machines and the scouring plant. This puts it as near 
the centfi of steam consumption as the construction of the mill 
permits. There is room in the present C engine and boiler rooms 
to contain the entire new plant, so no new buildings will be re- 
quired There is available ground for enlargement to a plant 3 
times the size, and this without interfering with the growth of 
any of the mill buildings. Ample coal storage can be provided and 
the railroad siding is now located at this point. 

The new plant will be equipped with turbines, from which steam 
will be drawn at 45 lbs. pressure for the tentering machines and 
carbonizing, and at 5 lbs. pressure for dye house, scouring, heating, 
etc The size of unit adopted for boilers and turbines is as large 
as possible consistent with having the units of such size that if 
any one unit breaks down the remaining units can carry its share 
of the load on their overload capacity. The size of the unit must 
also be selected with reference to the load at various times, so 
that the units in service shall operate as nearly as possible at their 
rated capacity in order to secure the highest economy. In this case 
we have a load of 2,200 kws. for 58 hrs. a week and a load of 344 
kws for 67.5 hrs. 

The plant recommended, in this instance, consists of 3 double- 
ended water-tube boilers of 1,000 h.p. each, combined forced and 
induced draft, hand-fired furnaces, this to give the greatest adapta- 
bility of the j)Iant to various grades of coal. Coal storage for about 
3,000 tons with coal-handling apjjaratus for unloading coal and 
handling it from stock piles to boiler room floor, and also for ash 
removal. The turbines recommended are 3 vertical turbo-generators 
of 750 kw. capacity each, with special modifications in construction 
to suit these conditions. As part of the plant is already electrified, 
the 2-phase, 60-cycle, 440-volt system would be continued, other- 
wise 3-phase, 60-cycle, 600 volts would have been recommended. 
The parts of the existing plant .that would be utilized are the build- 
ings of C boiler and engine house, the economizers, possibly some 
of the auxiliaries, some of the piping in the mill buildings, and the 
motors and wiring. The Westinghouse turbine would be retained 
for reserve and to provide for any moderate growth in the power 
demands. 

The engines in the filter plant will be replaced by motors with 
automatic control, and the arc machines will be eliminated and the 



4G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

arcs replaced with high efficiency incandescent lamps. This will 
dispense with the two attendants at these plants. The cost of this 
plant, including motors, would be about $150,000. 

The new plant with the auxiliary apparatus will do the work now 
performed by 3 power plants containing 23 boilers, 4 engines, 1 
turbine and the auxiliary apparatus in triplicate. The existing 
plant has no coal storage and all coal has to be teamed to the 
boiler rooms. The removal of the 2 power plants that would be 
abandoned will make available considerable ground for mill 
buildings. 

The present plants require 33 men to operate them, while the 
new plant, when running the same grade of coal, will require only 
13 men. and with No. 3 buckwheat 16 men, and if stokers are used, 
only 7 men for its operation. These figures do not include superin- 
tendence nor the machine shop and pipe fitters forces that are used 
when repairs are necessary. The new plant should show a decrease 
in these items. 

The coal consumption ff>r the new plant would be 18,740 tons of 
soft coal or 22,600 tons of No. 3 buckwheat coal, as against 27.200 
tons of soft coal for the present plant. Table XXX gives the oper- 
ating costs of the new ])lant under several conditions. In the cost 
of labor for the new plant the engineers are figured at a higher 
rate of pay than they are receiving in the present plant, but no 
higher efficiency has been counted ui)on. 

TABLE XXX. ANNUAL OPERATING CHARGES OP NEW 
PLANT 

Coal used, grade Soft No. 3 Buck. No. 3 Buck. 

Coal cost, per ton $4 $2.70 $2.70 

Coal, tons 18,740 22,600 22.600 

Firing Hand Hand Stokers 

Labor $10,250 $12,475 $5,980 

Removing ashes 610 1,415 1,415 

Total annual cost 85,860 74,890 68,395 

The operating costs of the present plant are given, about $150,000 
per year, not including repairs, superintendence, oil or supj)lies. 

In the operation of the mill large quantities of hot water are 
discharged to the sewer, at temperatures ranging from 100 degs. to 
200 degs. from dye kettles, scouring, etc. It is assumed that 20% 
of this waste heat can be recovered. The installation of the neces- 
sary ai)paratus to recover this heat might raise the cost of the plant 
to $200,000. If this 20% of the heat discharged to the sewers is 
recovered and at the same time the efficiency of operation of the 
plant be raised to the maximum possible, by means of bonus pay- 
ments to the men for excellence of operation, the operating costs 
would become, with the i)lant oi^erated on the No. 3 buckwheat coal 
at $2.70 per ton and the use of stokers: 19,150 tons coal, $51,700; 
labor, $5,980; removing ashes, $1,190; bonus paid men for high 
efficiency, $1,200; total, $60,070. 

It is now possible to figure the costs per unit for the new plant, 
to compare the economic value of its design with that of the three 



STEAM POIVER 465 

existing power plants at the mill, which were given in Table XXIX. 
They are given below : 

Operating txpen.ses of proposed power plant, wMth soft coal at $4, 
hand-fired, or No. 3 buckwheat coal at $2.70. stoker fired: 

Coal used Soft Buck. 

Coal as burned, including labor $4.42 $2.85 

Steam generated per 1,000 lb 19.7 ct. 15 5 ct. 

Steam, available for mill 20.8 ct. 16.35 ct. 

Power, per 1,000 b. hp 1.98 $1.60 

It should be particularly noted that the reductions in costs for 
the new plant are due entirely to the design of the plant, and are 
not based on any expectations of improved operation or of cheaper 
coal, in so far as the comparison of the plants when using soft 
coal is concerned. 

If we take the cost of the new plant as $150,000 and the saving 
in operating costs as that shown by operating with soft coal, hand 
fired, viz., $59,696 per year, we have: Depreciation, 10%, $15,000; 
interest 6% on average outstanding investment, $4,500; net saving 
due to new plant, $31,196; net return on investment. 20.8%. 

The mill possesses a record system that is about the same as to 
be found in most mills. It .'^hows the coal and water used each 
week and the power generated. It showed nothing at all of the 
various defects in the power plant nor gave any means of detecting 
them, yet that is the only reason for having a record system. If 
the recoi'ds had been of any value they would have called the atten- 
tion of the owners to every one of the $26,000 of losses going on in 
the power plant, including the high price being paid for coal. 

Mr. Sanders strongly believes in the use of recording instruments 
throughout the power plant, as it can then be run on a continuous 
test basis. If the records are not properly analyzed and if every 
defect of apparatus or of operation that they detect is not imme- 
diately remedied, the use of the recording instruments or a record 
system is a waste of money. If the results are utilized, the money 
invested in recording instruments will prove a paying investment. 

Cost of Steam and Electric Power for Operating Flour Mills 
Producing 54,000 Bbls. of Flour Per Yr. Charles A. Stanley gives 
the following notes for the plant using oil and coal, according as 
the prices thereof vary, in Oct., 1912, Proceedings of Kansas Gas, 
Water, Elec. Lt., & St. Ry. Ass'n. 

Investment — Fixed charges: 

Power plant buildings $2,000 

Engine ^ 900 

Boilers 1,200 

Miscellaneous ; 800 

$4,900 

Depreciation, 6% $294.00 

Interest, 5% , . 245 00 

Taxe.s 1% 49.00 

Insurance, 1 V^7o 73.50 

$661.50 



4G6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Fuel: 

Coal and oil, including handling $2,500.00 

Labor : 

Engineer 1,300.00 

Water : 

Pumped from well. Softener included in repairs. 

Superintendence : 

Time of miller and office help. V. hr. per day at 50 cts. 

per hr 75.00 

Loss of Production : 

% hr. per week ; time of 5 men at 25 ct 65.00 

Repairs and Supplies: 

Oil, waste, etc 100.00 

Total $4,701.50 

Cost per bbl of flour, 8.7 ct. 

The above mill is using a non-condensing engine, simple Corliss 
type, belt-driven to line shaft. The engine indication shows 85 
hp. on full load. This results in 2,040 hp.-hr. per .day for 250 bbl. 
output, or 6.1 kw.-hr. per bbl. 

Losses in present plant : 

Steam driven. 15% 11.75 h.p. 

Belt drive, 87o 6.80 h.p. 

Total 18.55 h.p. 

If this plant is equipped with a 100 h.p. motor, the power re- 
quired for operation will be about as follows ; 

Motor power 85 h.p. 

Less present losses 18.55 h.p. 

66.15 h.p. 

Plus motor loss, 10% 6.65 

Plus wiring loss, 2% 1.3 

Plus drive, loss, 3% 1.9 

9.85 h.p. 

Electrical power required 76.3 h.p. 

The above 76.3 h.p. equals 57 kws., which operated for 24 hrs. 
producing 250 bbl. of flour, results in 5Vij kw.-hr. per bbl. 

The cost of operating this mill from central station service per 
year will be about as follows : 

Investment : 

Motor building $ 250 

Boiler room 250 

Boiler for heating 280 

Motors .-. 1,200 

Installation 300 

Drive 285 

$2,565 



STEAM POWER 467 

Depreciation, 6% $153.90 

Interest, 5% 128.25 

Taxes, 1% 25.65 

Insurance, 1^^% 38.48 



$346.28 



Fuel: 

For heating and tempering 300.00 

Labor : 

Fireman and motor care 100.00 

Water : 

Pumped from well. 
Superintendence 25.00 

Loss of production : 

None. 
Repairs and supplies 100.00 

Electric energy: 

297,000 kw.-hrs. at 1.2 cts $3,564.00 



Total - $4,435.28 

The following data show several mills now operating from cen- 
tral station service — the cost of operation with their isolated plant, 
as previously equipped, also the cost at present, using central sta- 
tion service. 

Central station 

Isolated plant service 

Mill Capacity Cost per ct. Cost per bbl. 

ct ct 

No. 1 350 9 8 

No. 2 600 7.2 6.1 

No. 3 900 6.8 5.9 

No. 4 1,000 6.5 5.3 

BELT DRIVE 

Motor, 200 hp., slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 

Belt drive 300 

Installation " 250 



Investment $2,250 

Motor house or space 750 



Total investment $3,000 

Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13^^% 405 

Motor efficiency, 92% =12 kw. loss 
Belt drive, 87% = 19% kw. loss 

Total loss 21 1/^ kw. loss = 1,260 

Total fixed charges and losses $1,665 

Power factor — 88%. 

ROPE DRIVE 

Motor, 200 hp., slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 

Rope drive 600 

Installation 250 



Drive Investment $2,550 



468 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
Motor house or space , 1 ,000 



Total investment $3,550 

Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13i^% 479.25 

Motor etticiency, 9 27o rr 12 kw. loss 
Hope drive !)07o = 13 1^ kw. loss 

Total loss 25 1/2 kw. loss = 1,080.00 

Total fixed charges and losses $1,559.25 

Power factor — 887o. 

DIRECT CONNECTED 

Motor 200 hp. slip ring-, 180 rev per min $3,000 

Installation 250 

Drive investment 3,250 

Motor house or space 300 

Total investment $3,550 

Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, \ZV2% 479.25 

Motor efficiency, 867o, 21 kw. loss 840.00 



Total fixed charges and losses $1,319.25 

Power factor — 887o. 

DIRECT CONNECTED 

Motor 200 hp. slip ring, 180 rev. per min $3,000 

Installation 250 

Drive investment 3,250 

Motor house or space 300 

Total investment $3,550 

Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, 13i/<!7 479.25 

Motor efficiency, 867o, 21 kw. loss 840.00 



Total fixed charges and losses , $1,319.25 

Power factor — 857c. 

CHAIN DRIVE 

Motor 200 hp. slip ring, 600 rev. per min $1,700 

Chain drive 400 

Installation 250 



Drive investment $2,350 

Motor house or space 300 



Total investment . $2,650 

Interest, depi'eciation, taxes and insurance, 13%% 357.75 

Motor efficiency, 9 27o --""■ 12 kw. loss 
Chain efficiency, 9 8%.-=; 3 kw. loss 

Total loss 15 kw. loss - 600.00 



Total fixed charges and losses $ 9 57.75 

The efficiencies given were taken from tests coming under Mr. 
Stanley.'s observation. 

Loss of production is an item Mr. Stanley calls attention to in an 
Interesting way. 

Take a 250 bbl. mill, operating from a steam engine, in which 
repairs of a minor nature, such as renewing belts, changing pulleys, 
etc.. must be made, generally on Sunday, which involves waiting 
iintil Sunday morning wheri steariT. is on to try out the mill after 



STEAM POWER 469 

the changes have been made. This requires an average of 1 hr 
loss per week, and 5 men at $0.25 per hr. averages a yearly loss in 
labor of $75, added to which is the loss of production per week 
which means about 500 bbls. per yr. 

Poiver Required. The size of ]7iotor required in flour mills de- 
pends on the type of machinery, etc., and in general will average 
about as follows, and is for mill only and does not include elevator: 

Bbl. per 24 hr. Soft wheat, h.p. Hard wheat, h.p. 

100 40 50 

125 50 60 

150 60 75 

175 75 100 

250 100 125 

300 125 150 

500 175 200 

750 250 300 

1000 300 400 

Typical Solution of the Power Plant Problem for an Assumed 
Industrial Plant in Canada. Aldis Hibner of the Toronto Electric 
Light Coinijany i)resented a paper at a joint meeting of the A. S, 
M. E. and A. I. E. E. in March, 1911, of which the following is an 
abstract. 

In every industrial-power problem there are 3 main factors: 1, 
the investment charges; 2, operating charges; 3, the cost of lieating 
or the use of low pressure steam. The first covers interest, amor- 
tization, in.^urance, taxes and profit on the invested capital. The 
second covers coal, labor, repairs and supplies, and the third in- 
cludes investment and operating charges of the boiler plant neces- 
sary to heat the building, supplying steam for manufacturing 
processes. 

Assuming a typical case of a shoe company, intending to build 
a new factory having a floor area of 60,000 sq. ft, and a cubical 
content of 750.000 cu. ft., the first step in the solution is the de- 
termination of the cost of heating which is necessary, the condi- 
tions of manufacture being such that the temperature of the build- 
ing must be kept above 50 degs. during the winter months. 

The coal consumption is based on an evaporation of 7 lbs. of 
water per lb. of coal, one change of air per hr. in the factory and 
the supi^lying of radiation losses. For this, 90 h.p. will be required 
in zero weather. Table XXXI gives the necessary investment, with 
the fixed and operating costs of the plant, depreciation being pro- 
vided for by a sinking fund drawing 5% semi-annually. 

TABLE XXXI 

ITE.\TING PLANT INVfi^STMENT 

Boiler, piping and auxiliaries (A) $1,500 

Building and stack (B) 2,250 

Total investment $4,000 



470 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

FIXED COST 

Interest, 6% on $4000 $240.00 

Insurance and taxes, 2% on $4000 80.00 

Amortization on A, 4%%, 15 yr. life. 67.50 

Amortization on B, i^%, 50 yr. life 12.50 

$400.00 

OPERATING COST 

Coal, 475 tons at $3.00 $1,425.00 

Fireman at $15.00 per week 780.00 

Supplies and repairs 100.00 

$2,305.00 
Total cost $2,705,000 

Fireman's time was figured for the entire year, since high pres- 
sure steam is necessary for industrial purposes. 

The concern has a maximum capacity for 100 kws. of power, the 
average load is 80 kws., giving an 80% 10-hr. load factor. The 

TABLE XXXII 

COMPLETE POWER PLANT INVESTMENT 

Capacity, 100 kw. 

Engine, generator, switchboard, wiring (A) $ 5,500 

Boilers, steam piping, auxiliaries (B) 5,000 

Building, foundations, stack (C) 5,000 

$15,500 

Steam-heating plant ; 4,000 

Additional for power $11,500 

FIXED COST OF POWER PLANT 

Interest, 6% on $15,500 $930 

Profit, 5% on $11,500 575 

Insurance and taxes. 2% on $15,500 310 

Amortization on (A), 3% (20-yr. life) 165 

Amortization on (B), 4^^% (15-yr. life) 225 

Amortization on (C), 1/2% (50-yr. life) 25 

$2,230 

Fixed cost on heating plant 400 

Additional for power $1,830 

OPERATING COST OF POWER PLANT 

240,000 kw.-hr. 

Coal at 7.39 pounds, 887 tons at $3.00 $ 2,661 

Banking, 181 tons at $3.00 543 

Night heating, 202 tons at $3.00 606 

Engineer at $18 00 per week 936 

Fireman at $15.00 per week 780 

Water 100 

Oil, waste, supplies 150 

Repairs 200 

$5,976 
Operating cost of heating plant 2,305 

Additional for power $3,671 

Total additional for power , 5,501 

Co.st per kw.-hr 0.0229 

Cost per hp.-yr 51,40 



STEAM POWER 471 

eng-ine is of the Corliss non-condensing type, requiring 30 lbs. of 
steam per i.h.p.-hr. The evaporation at 7 lbs. of water per lb. of 
coal gives a coal consumption of 4.3 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr., and the 
efficiency from steam cylinder to switchboard is 78%, giving a coal 
consumption of 7.39 lbs. per kw.-hr. or 5.51 lbs. per h.p.-hr. at the 
switchboard, the factory running 300 days per yr. 

Table XXXll gives the investment cost, fixed cost and operating 
cost of the plant, allowance being made for the cost of heating, as 
calculated. 

Among the items of fixed co* is one covering profit on the addi- 
tional investment required ^for a power plant. A concern is not 
justified in investing in a power plant unless the capital so invested 
returns the same profit as if invested in the most profitable part 
of the business still capable of extension. Considering the added 
risk this can safely be raised to 10 or 15%, and hence, it is evident 
from the.se results that if power can be purchased for 2.3 cts. per 
kw.-hr, there is no advantage of installing a steam-i)ower plant. 

Mr. Hibner quotes the U. S. Geological Survey report on gas- 
producer plants as showing that a non-condensing steam plant 
requires 2.7 times as much coal per unit as a producer plant, giving 
a maximum attainable efficiency for the producer plant of 21.5% 
as against 10.3% for the steam plant; the Corliss non-condensing 
engine basis requiring 30 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr. The assumed 
requirements are for a shoe company with a floor area of 60,000 sq. 
ft. and cubical contents of 750,000 cu. ft., under which conditions 
there will be required a 175-h.p. engine and producer, and in addi- 

TABLE XXXIIL GAS PRODUCER PLANT 

INVESTMENT 

Engine and producer (A) $11,900 

Generator, switchboard, wiring (B) 2,500 

Building (C) 2,500 

$16,900 

FI.KED COST 

Interest, 6% on $16,900 $1,014.00 

Profit, 5% on $16,900 845.00 

Insurance and taxes, 2% on $16,900 338.00 

Amortization on A, 15-yr. life, 4 V^% 535.00 

Amortization on B, 20-yr. life, 3% 75.00 

Amortization on C, 50-yr. life, %% 12.50 

$2,819.50 

OPERATING COST 

240,000 kw.-hr. 

Coal, 3 lb. per kw.-hr. at $4.00 per ton, 360 tons. . $1,440.00 

Engineer at $18.00 per week 936.00 

Oil and waste 125.00 

Repairs 300.00 

Water 133.00 

Emergency service 300.00 

$3,234.00 

Total $6,053.50 

Cost per kw.-hr 0.025 

Cost per hp.-yr 56.20 



472 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tion a heating plant for heating the building-, but as the heating 
plant is required in any event the coyt of heating is eliminated as 
a comparative factor in the pioblem. The investment, fixed costs 
and operatmg costs of this plant are given in Table XXXIII. 

This gives a higher fixed cost than for the steam plant, while the 
operating costs are only about .5 that of the steam plant, but are 
counterbalanced by the cost of heating. The final result gives a 
slightly higher cost for the gas-producer plant. The ratio of the 
fixed cost to operating cost in the two cases produces a marked 
effect where the load factor is potior. The only items affected by 
the output of the plant are coal and w^ter, these rei)resenting only 
about 27% of the total cost, as against 50% with the steam plant, the 
result being a very much higher cost for the gas producer at low 
load factors, which effect would be further exaggerated by the poor 
fuel economy on light loads. 

Cost of Povr/er in Coal Mines. W. A. Thomas in the proceedings 
of the A. I. E. E. for January 9, 1912, gives the following figures as 
the result of careful tests on 4 typical plants in Ohio in which the 
average capacity was 250 kws. per station. 

Average cost of power 2.485 ct per kw-hr. 

Cost for substation equipment, less salvage... .124 

Common cost for either source .7 " " " " 

Central station rate to balance against present 

cost 1.661 ' " 

Average power consumption 47,700 kw.-hr. 

Average kw.-hr. per ton coal 2.49 

An analysis of several typical small mining plants shows that the 
average working days per month to be from 15 to 20, and the aver- 
age load factor during an 8-hr. day to be slightly over 50%, based 
on a ratio of average consumption to maximum duration, not 
taking into account the actual capacity of the genei-ators or the 
momentary swing of the ammeter. 

Heating and Power Costs in New York City Isolated Plants. 
Percival R. Mo.«-es gave the following figures, Proc. of the A. I. E. E., 
January 12, 1912. 

COST OF FUEL AND LABOR FOR HEATING IN TYPICAL 
BUILDINGS WITHOUT PRIVATE ELECTRIC PLANTS 

APARTMENT ilOTJSKS 

100 by 100 ft. 7 stories and basement — 21 apartments — one ele- 
vator. 
Steam for heating and hot water and pump. 
Fuel used No. 1 buckwheat at $3.25 per 

ton P'uel $1150 to $1250 

Labor $1200 to $1320 
200 by 100 ft. irregular — 8 stories and basement — 72 apartments 
— two elevators. 
Steam for heating and hot water, laundiy dryers 

and pumping. Fuel used costs $2.05 per ton. . . . Fuel $2350 

Labor $2276 
200 by 92 ft. — 11 stories and basem«?ht — block front — 77 apart- 
ments — el-^n'ators. 
Steam for heating and hot water, Coal for heat- 
ing. Coal for hot water amounted to 300 tons in 
a year. Stoves for dryers. Fuel used, pea coal Fuel $4317 

Labor ^280Q 



STEAM POWER 473 

(Corner) — 100 by 100 ft. — 12 stories. 

Steam for heating, hot water dryers, refrigerating 
plant and pump. Used 1050 tons No. 1 buck- 
wheat Fuel $3700 

Labor $2465 

HOTELS 

Apartment hotel. 50 by 100 ft. 10 stories Fuel $2700 

Labor 1920 
High class apartment hotel. 50 by 100 ft., and annex 
25 by 100 ft. — 4 stories. 
Heating hot water and refrigeration. Absorption 

system. Low pressure steam P""uel $2503 

Labor $jy20 

OFFICE BUILDINGS 

12 stories — corner building. 

Corner heating -and some hot water Fuel $1700 

Labor $2500 
Corner — office — 11 stories — 86 by 150 ft. 

Heatirig, steam for kitchen and refrigerating plant. 

Steam for hot water (25 h.p. and up) Fuel $3564.65 

Labor $3746.25 
50 and 30 by 197 ft. 

12 stories — protected on west Fuel $1047.50 

Labor $2020.00 

$3067.50 
Offices. 

Steam for heating. Plunger elevators. Pumping 

and hot water Fuel $4383.35 

Labor $5798.52 

$10,181.87 
Offices 45 by 85 ft. — 16 stories — corner — three elec- 
tric elevators Fuel $1,180 

Labor $ 810 

$ 1 990 
Loft building — 50 by 100 ft. — 12 stories, middle of 

block protected Fuel $800 

Labor $4 20 
100 by 100 ft. — Salesrooms — 12 stories. (Corner). Fuel $1,580 

Labor $5,798 
128 by 90 ft. and 173 by 90 ft. (52.7 by 27 m.) — Mail 
Older house — 1 1 stories and basement 
Steam for heating hot water. 4 plunger elevator 

pumps and house pumps Fuel $4,621 

Labor $4,100 
75 by 185 ft. — 12 stories and basement — middle of 

block but exposed above lower floors Fuel $1,280 

Labor $713 

10 stories — 123 by 143 ft. (Corner) Fuel $2700 

Labor $ 960 

DEPARTMENT STORES 

207 by 100 ft. and 25 by 104 ft. and 99 by 75 ft. 

Steam for heating refrigerating and pumps and hot 

water. Hydraulic elevators. 7000 kw.-hrs. ... Fuel $6,583 

Labor 6,084 
92 by 122 ft and 253 by 184 ft. — 7 and 10 stories ; yard 

(anthracite) screenings and soft coal Fuel $5,9 67 

Labor 5,000 
23,000 sq. ft. — seven stories — six passenger and three 
freight elevators (plunger type). No. 1 buck- 
wheat anthracite Fuel $4,000 

Labor 5,000 



474 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

200 by 200 ft. — 6 stories and basement. Use No. 2 

buckwheat coal Fuel $6,231 

Labor 4,056 
Factory and loft building — two buildings about 12,000 

sq. ft. per floor — 6 stories and basement Fuel $1,100 

Labor 936 

Mr. Moses says the figures given opposite the labor for each 
building are within 10% of the actual payroll. 

Cost of Power in a Large Apartment House. Table XXXIV, 
showing the operating charges of the plant of The Spencer Arms 
Apartments for the years 1910 and 1911, was made up from data 
In the September, 1912, issue of The Isolated Plant. 

The building is 160 by 112 ft., 12 stories high, each floor contain- 
ing 3 apartment.s. The service demanded of the plant consists of 
electricity for public and private lighting, electric power for 4 ele- 
vators, steam for heating the building and for laundry use ; also, 
refrigeration, Avhich is supplied direct to each apartment ice box 
by brine ciiculation. 

The princir)al features of the plant equipment are : 

3 horizontal return tubular boilers of 150 b.h.p. each. 

3 direct-connected generators of 65 kAV. capacity each. 

1 refrigerating machine of the compression type of 12 tons 
capacity. 

The basic co.st as shown is the cost of operating the plant with- 
out producing electricity. 

TABLE XXX IV. MONTHLY COST OF OPERATION, 
SPENCER ARMS APARTMENTS 

Jan.-Dec, 1910 Jan.-Dec.,1911 

Plant output, Min. Av. Max. Min. Av. Max. 

kw.-hrs 7,672 11,834 18,780 7.980 15,568 21,620 

Total co.st $l.o(;:^ $1,321 $1,679 $1,075 $1,248 $1,373 

Basic cost $710 $922 $1,154 $770 $871 $1,052 

C/ost of electricity . . $L'!U $399 $631 $269 $377 $488 

Co.«t per kw.-hr. ...$0.0197 $0.0269 $0.0389 $0.0141 $0.0243 $0.0490 

Fuel $329 $544 $834 $330 $483 $604 

Engine room labor . $447 $150 $453 $450 $461 $496 

Water (estimated) . $43 $136 $165 $67 $115 $147 

Oil . $18 $28 $38 $22 $31 $42 

Engine room sun- 
dries $8 $30 $10 $35 

Ash removal $40 $40 $40 $40 $40 $40 

Improvements and 

new installation . $8 $37 $12 $109 

Long time supplies . $2 $24 $85 $28 $85 

Extra repaii's $6 $40 $3 $16 

Repairs to plant ... $49 $169 $89 $476 

Building repairs ... $7 $35 $4 $19 

Elevator repairs ... $15 $61 $31 $157 

Fuel used No. 1 Buckwheat Nos. 1 & 2 Buckwheat 

Tons fuel used 105 167 249 111 151 202 

Cost of Power, Light, and Heat, from Steam for 19 Buildings. 
The following data for the operation of the Eberhard Faber Pencil 
Comiiany's Plant were publi.^hed in the July, 1912, issue of The 
Isolated Plant. This is a factory plant generating power, light and 



STEAM POWER 475 

heat for 19 buildings, with a total floor area of 241,200 sq. ft. and a 
cubical content of 2,432,700 ft. and with 22,000 sq. ft. of heating 
surface. The buildings have 3 elevators, 2 electric drum and 1 
electric traction type, with capacities of 1,000, 3,000 and 4,000 lbs. 

The plant consists of 1 Corliss engine, direct-connected to a 
2-wire, 24 0-volt d.c. dynamo of 350 kw. capacity. There are 4 
water-tube boilers of 1,100 rated h p. Heating is done by 2-pipe 
system, gravity type. The auxiliary api)aratus comprises 1 feed 
water heater of the open type and of 600 h.p. capacity, 1 duplex 
pump 6 by 4.5 by 10 ins., one 6 by 4 by 7 ins. and 1 10 by 8 by 
10 ins. 

Electricity is used by 30 arc lamps, 100 Mazda and 1,200 carbon 
lamps, and there is a total of 600 motor h.p. in use in addition to 
the power required for running blowers, fans and other accessories. 

The approximate cost of the engines and dynamos with their 
foundations, switchboard and connections required by private elec- 
tric plant was $16,600, The approximate cost of all other material, 
such as boilers, feed water heater, pumps, etc., was $10,400. 

The fuel used is No. 1 buckwheat, costing $3.25 a ton. 

The following are the fixed charges and operating cost for the 
year 1911: 

Interest on $27,000 at 6% $ 1,620 

Depreciation on $27,000 at 5% 1.350 

Rent 1,000 

Insurance 75 

Fuel 3,954 

Labor 3,780 

Ashes .* 314 

Water 400 

Repairs 400 

Oil and sundries 360 

Lamps 150 

$13,403 
Saving due to exhaust steam heating 1,511 

$11,892 

The kw.-hr. output for the year was 774,005, and the cost, 

$11,892 

, - 1.53 cts. per kw.-hr. 

774,005 

In these fixed charges and operating cost for the year 1911, the 
fuel, ash and labor items' represent 52.5% of the total operating 
expense. Water, oil, lamps and repairs represent the total and must 
be charged to power and light. The water used by engine and 
pumps was 52.5% of the total water evaporated. This water goes 
to wa.ste in the summer. The engine runs condensing and in the 
winter, after the exhaust steam goes through the heating coils, the 
returns and condensation all go to the sewer. The other 47.5% 
of the steam is used for manufacturing purposes and condensation 
from this is always returned to the boiler. 

Operating Records of a Large Loft Building. The following 
operating costs, prepared by S. Milton Clark, were abstracted from 
the August, 1912, issue of The Isolated Plant: 



476 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In the heart of the wholesale feather and dry goods district in 
lower New York is located the large loft building known as the 580 
Broadway building. It has a frontage on Broadway and Crosby 
Street of 150 ft. and 200 ft., respectively, and is 12 stories high. 

The cost of the electrical output from this plant averages $0.0234 
per kw.-hr. 

The plant equipment is as follows : 3 horizontal return tubular 
boilers, with total capacity of 375 h.p. ; 4 high speed engines direct 
connected to d.c. generators, 1 of 75 kw. and 3 of 100 kw. capacity 
each. 

The summary of operating expenses is shown in Table XXXV, 
and special attention is called to the " Basic Cost." This item is 
the amount it would require for heating, furnishing live steam to 
tenants, care of elevators, etc., without the electric plant, and the 
amount \vas obtained from the cost previous to the installation of 
the plant. 

If the 405,020 kw.-hrs. generated in 1911 had been purchased from 
the street at the present wholesale rates, it would have cost $15,- 
150,60. The cost from the plant was $9,448.02. The saving affected 
by the plant was $5,702.58. 

TABLE XXXV. MONTHLY COST OP OPERATION, LOFT 
BUILDING 

Jan. -Dec, 1911 

Min. Av. Max. 

Output, kw.-hrs 24.490 33.752 46,490 

Total cost $1,324 $1,571 $2,208 

Basic cost '. $650 $783 $950 

Cost of electricity $545 $787 $1,458 

Cost per kw.-hr $0.0162 $0.0234 $0.0395 

Fuel $416 $577 $725 

Engine room labor $790 $811 $844 

Water (estimated) $15 $30 $41 

Oil $14 $33 $52 

Engine room sundries $21 $73 

Improvements and new installations .... $6 $37 

Long time sui)i)lies $23 $52 

Repairs to plant $80 $595. 

Discounts $2 $9 $24 

Receii)ts from tenants $589 $909 $1,464 

Kind of fuel used Buckwheat and soft 

Tons fuel used 144 195 258 

' Power and Maintenance Costs of 12 Story Loft Building. The 
following data are also from Isolated Plant. The building covers 
a plot 100 by 100 ft., and is 12 stories high. Three floors are given 
up to printers and the others are occupied by manufacturers and 
wholesale supply companies. 

When the building was first erected, the electricity to operate its 
light and power apparatus was furnished by the " Blank " Com- 
pany, but 2 100-h.p. high pressure boilers were put in for heating 
purposes with the view of operating avpower plant should it seem 
advisable. 

Current is used to run 4 Otis electric elevators — 2 passenger and 
2 freight ; 30 motors ranging from 0.5 to 30 h.p., 1,000 incande.scent 
electric lights and 20 arcs and to operate motor driving a triplex 



STEAM POWER 477 

pump which supplies a 14,000 gal. tank on roof. Also, an elec- 
trically driven air compressor for pressure tanks as emergency for 
fire system. 

In 1908, the following generating equipment was installed in 
the basement : One Fi.shkill Corliss Engine, belt connected to a 
C. & C. generator of 125 kw., 240 volts capacity; also, a 17.5 kw., 
125 volts C. & C. motor driven balancer set. Forced draught was 
also provided in order to keep steam up to required pressure. 

Table XXXVl shows the operating cost Of this plant, the total 
amount. $7,757, including heat, light, power and maintenance 
charges. 

TABLE XXXVI. MONTHLY COST OF OPERATING LOFT 
BUILDING 

April, 1909 to March, 1910 

Miri. Av Max. 

Fuel $178 $251 $343 

Labor . = .. $240 $2t3 $254 

Water $29 $39 $63 

Sundries $5 $20 

Oil $15 $23 $59 

Repairs and new installations $27 $68 $93 

Heat and maintenance of building $300 $300 $300 

Light, kw.-hrs 1.840 4.097 6,370 

Power, kw.-hrs 7,490 10.188 12,950 

Cost of current, wholesale rate $4 67 $683 $903 

Total engme room ex])enses $7 757 

Less heat and maintenance of building 3,600 

$4,157 

Total kw.-hrs 171,420 

Cost per kw.-hr. $0.0242 

Wholesale cost of current $8,199 

Cost of private plant electricity $4,157 

Saving, private plant $4,042 

Cost of Power for a Large Semi-Public Building at Kansas City, 
Mo., as Compared with Cost if Purchased from the Central Station. 
The following data aie from Isolated Plant, May, 1913. 

For erection of part of building occupied by plant, figured 

at 25 ct.s. per cu. ft. . $5,250 

Engines and generators 4.800 

Boilers , 2,350 

Boiler settings , 796 

Pumps 152 

Switchboard 1,8 60 

Ice machine and freezing tank . , . 1 . U)0 

P'eed- water heater , . 2:") 5 

Oil burning system 850 

Return pump and tank . . . < 127 

Pipe work and installation , 2,500 

Total investment $20,340 

Cost of Service if Purchased from Central Station: 

Light, 123,704 kws. at 3.5 cts $ 1.. 329 64 

Power 31,824 kws at 3 cts 9 54 00 

Refrigeration, 1.2 tons per day at $2.70 a ton 1.182.00 



478 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Ice, 250 lbs. per day (313 days only) at 22 cts 172.15 

Lamps 144.00 

Salary of engineer to care for elevator.^, plumbing, steam 
fitting laundry machinery, electric wiring, etc., at 

$85 per mo 1,020.00 

Extra help for engineer at $15 per mo 180.00 

Heat for winter season, 6 mos. 

Average live steam per hr. • , . . . 2,069 lbs. 

Average live .steam per day . , 49,656 lbs. 

Cost per day at 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs $22.34 

Cost per season of 182 days . 4,065.88 

Water heating for winter season 

187.500 lbs. per day from 50 to 100 degs. F., 9,375,000 

heat units per day. 
9,375,000 heat units, condensation of 9.705 lbs. steam 

from and at 212 degs. F. 
Co.st of 9.705 lbs. steam at 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs. . . $4.36 

Cost per sea.son of 182 days at $4.46 783.52 

Water heating for sunnner season 

187.500 lbs. per day from 70 to 100 degs. F., 5,765,000 

heat units per day. 
5,765,000 heat units per day, condensation of 5,967 lbs. 

steam from and at 212. 
5,967 lbs. steam costing 45 cts. per 1,000 lbs. at $2.68 

per day. 
Cost for season, 182 days, at $2.68 per day 487.76 

Total cost $13,318.95 

Actual Cost of Heat, Light, Power and Engineer's Services : 

Labor $2,360.00 

Fuel oil 4,488.00 

Water 90.00 

Oil. waste and supplies 100.00 

Boiler compound 180.00 

Insurance 25.00 

Lamps 144.00 

Total paid out $7,387.00 

Cost, if purchased from central station $13,318.95 

Actual cost 7,387.00 

$5,931.95 

Depreciation on equipment $754.52 

Interest on entire investment at 5% 1,017.02 

$1,771.54 
Cash paid out " 7,387.00 

Total (including depreciation and interest on total in- 
vestment) $9,158.54 

Cost, if purchased from central station $13,318.95 

Total, including depreciation and interest 9,158.54 

Net saving $4,160.41 

A Comparison of Efficiencies and Costs of Steam, Water, Gas and 
Oil Power Generation. A study of power costs and efficiencies 
which is particularly valuable to the non-expert reader because of 
its simple language is contained in the Report of the Maine State 
Water Storage Commission. This discussion is by Seth A. Moulton 
of Sawyer & Moulton, consulting engineers, Portland, Me., and is 



STEAM POWER 



479 



based on the extensive practice of the writer in water power de- 
velopment and power plant design. The following are parts of the 
report which are of general interest, abstracted by Engineering and 
Contracting, Sept. 4, 1912. 

There are commercially available four distinct classes of power, 
steam, water, gas and oil, naming them in the order of their 
prestige. 

Efficiency defined in its broadest sense means not only the most 
complete utilization of the elements converted but also the most 
economical combination of appliances and labor to effect the con- 
version. To secure in power generation a maximum efficiency and 
economy does not imply that the last vestige of available energy 
must be extracted from the fuel or water element, with the un- 
warranted refinements of equipment and attention which such an 
impractical course would impose ; or that the other extreme should 



ToMochineFuUef 
rrom Engine 
from Piping 
From Boiler 
InFuel 
FromBoila- 
From Piping 
FnmEngine 
FramOirConGea 
From Wiring 
From Motor 
ToMachinePUlley 



;^ff~~_rmZ~in~ _j L^iss toMachme FUlley 
I^JPJ^pSs.^^'MSn'SQZZlZTnZjKCZ Loss to EngmeShoft 
l^l~j 1-'^ ^° Engine 
'JftZ Loss in Boilers, Flues 8i.Stock 
InFuel 




mn: 



1l9lZ Loss in filers. Flues 6LStacl< 
2 Loss to Eryine 
^Jnj^den5ingWoBrW~^2ZZr^3L2 Loss to EngineShoft 
'ZlZZZZJ^l-S-SZIirJZJISZZZll L'^ Io ^^ Terminals 
"ZZZIZZZMZZZZ'ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ Loss to Motor 
ZZZZZZZIl€ZZZZZZZZZZZSZZZZZZj Loss to Motor Belt 
r_~~_~~ggy"~~7"^ ; "! loss to Mac/ime Fhlfetj 



' ' ' I I ' ' I ' ' ' t ' I I i I I » I 



Fig. 



Per Cent Efficiency 
38. Power efficiencies — steam. 



be applied by using the cheapest apparatus and labor procurable in 
a vain attempt to economize ; but it is necessary to carefully bal- 
ance all of the factors involved, endeavoring always to deliver to 
the point of final application a maximum amount of the energy 
originally expended at a minimum cost. 

Physical Efficiency. Figures 38 to 41 inclusive show graphically 
the efficiencies which may be expected to obtain in the practical 
running of steam, producer gas, oil and water power plants, with 
first-class installations, supplying a service where a fairly constant 
loading exists and when operated by competent mechanics. It is 
true that the average power plant does not attain the heat ef- 
ficiencies indicated on the diagrams, but they are well within re- 
sults which have been excelled in a few plants and can be usually 
obtained in plants of 1,000 h.p. or more capacity. 

Fig. 38 shows the thermal efficiency obtained at the several stages 
of transportation in a steam plant from the 100% of heat value in 
the fuel, as placed under the boilers to the mechanical energy de- 



480 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

livered to the machines. The plottings on the diagram above the 
fuel line are for mechanical transmission and those below for local 
electrical distribution. To secure the operating economies indicated 
the plant must be equal to or in excess of 1,000 h.p. capacity. For 
smaller plants the efficiencies would be less, probably falling as low 
as 5 or 6% of the theoretical energy in the fuel when delivered as 
m.echanical energy to the machine or other point of use. It is also 
improbable that these efficiencies can be realized in central stations 
that distribute power for all classes of service, owing to the fluc- 
tuations of the demand. The average load in these stations does 
not ordinarily exceed 30% of the power required to maintain the 
maximum, or so-called " peak " load, which will exist only for a 
short period during each day. It is also very difficult to maintain 
the high boiler efficiency of 78%, as this requires constant cleaning 
and very careful operation, with the application of the most scien- 
tific methods for the manipulation of drafts and firing of the boilers. 
The average boiler efficiency will probably not exceed 75% in plants 
of the better class. 

Up to the engines all of the losses are thermal; at the engines 
the losses are both mechanical and thermal, and a general inspec- 
tion of the diagram would indicate that the steam turbine or engine 
is a very inefficient mechanism, as the total heat and mechanical 
efficiency drops from 76.4% to only 10.9%. This is not true, how- 
ever, for it must be remembered that the 60% noted on the diagram 
as lost in the condensing water should not be charged against the 
engine, as the heat energy so expended is latent or liquid heat, for 
the exhaust steam from an engine has practically the same pressure 
as the medium into which it is discharged and the temperature of 
the steam is controlled by this pressure. It is obvious that there 
will be no available potential energy from such exhaust steam, as 
this energy is neutralized by the opposing back pressure which may 
be either above, below or equal to the atmospheric pressure, de- 
pending upon the conditions at the exhaust outlet; but under all 
circumstances the full heat value of the steam remains unimpaired. 
Crediting the engine with this 60% by deducting it from the 76.4% 
(the thermal efficiency delivered from the piping) leaves 16.4% of 
heat energy actually delivered to the engine which may be converted 
into mechanical i)ower ; then the combined efficiency of the engine 
and its auxiliaries becomes (10.9% ~ 16.4%) X 100 -- 66%, An ap- 
preciation of this condition is most essential because it explains why 
the steam can never compete in heat efficiency with the internal 
combustion engine, either gas or oil. This condition is also of para- 
mount importance when selecting the type of apparatus or deter- 
mining the character of the -power to adopt for an industry that 
requires heat for manufacturing or process purposes. Referring to 
Fig. 38 it Avill be noted that 76.4%o of the heat in the fuel is ad- 
mitted to the engine throttle and that only 10.9% of the total heat 
in the fuel is converted to mechanical power; therefore, the waste 
heat rejected by the engine exhaust is 65.5% of the total in the fuel, 
and there remains in the exhaust steam 65.5%, -=- 76.4%, or 85%. of 
the heat that was delivered to the engine. It is conservative to 
state that there is available for process purposes at least 75% of 



STEAM POWER 



481 



the heat value in steam after all available potential energy has been 
extracted from it, and maximum economy demands that, this heat 
should be used as heat if possible, rather than dissipate it in the 
cooling water of a condenser to secure the comparatively small per- 
centage of mechanical energy thus acquired. 

To indicate the gain secured by utilizing exhaust steam for heating 
purposes, Table XXXVII is given : 



7 of exhaust steam 

used for heating 

purposes 



25 

50 

75 

100 



TABLE XXXVII 

Lbs. of coal per 

h.p. per hr. All 

coal charged to 

power 

1.75 

2.06 

2.38 

2.69 

3.00 



Net lbs. of coal per 
h.p. per hr. after 
deducting for ex- 
haust steam used 

1.75 

1.50 

1.25 

1.00 

0.75 



This table was compiled by (^harles T. Main, a prominent civil 
engineer, who has long advocated and made practical application of 
engine exhaust for industrial heating purposes. 



To Machine Pjiley 
From^ngine 
From Producer 
InRiel 

From'P-oducer 
From Engine 
From Dir Con Gen 
From Winng 
From Motor 
To Machine Fill ley 



Fig. 



Lo5i lo Machine Pulley 
1€C2 Loss tq Engine Shaft 
^3 Loss in Producer &Aux. 
InFuel 
ZJ^ZH LossinProducerdAuK. 
SLJ Loss toEngineShaft 
7££I"rSiZ~SSSJ Loss to Gen Jernvnob 
mji I f^a: 1 1I~ I " IIII Ifll" 1""-"Ij Loss to Motor 
MMZZ'SlZZZZZZZslIZZZZZZZZZ'SJ tossto Motor Belt 

ZTSSZIZlZLZZIZZZZZZZZj Loss to Machine Pulley . 




L . I I I 



j-j. 



I I I I I. 



do 

Per Cent Eff^ciencij 
39. Power efficiencies 



producer gas. 



Where all or a greater part of the exhaust can be utilized, simple 
non-condensing engines or turbines should be installed, and where 
lesser amounts, down to 2h% of the steam required for power pur- 
poses, the exhaust can be taken from the "bleeder turbines" or the 
intermediate receivers between the cylinders of a compound engine, 
operating either non-condensing or condensing, whichever proves the 
most economical. 

F'ig. 39 illustrates the efficiency of producer gas plants in the 
same general manner as that previously described for steam. The 
great advantage of the gas equipment lies in the fact that for all 
plant capacities there can be maintained practically the same effi- 
ciencies, making the smaller producer gas plant proi.>ortionately more 
efficient than the steam. In addition, cheap grades of fuel can be 



482 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

efficiently used in a gas producer wliich could not be burned with 
any degree of economy under a boiler, and the higher grades of 
fuel can be more efflciently used in a producer than in a boiler. 

What has been said in regard to the producer gas plant applies 
generally to the efficiency of oil engines, .with the exception that such 



To Mochins Pulley 
J^com Engine 
J n Fuel 
froir. Engine 
from Dir Con Oen 
from Wiring 
'from Motor 
To Machine RjUeu 



W>a^WM ' ' '~ ir JflV. ~"l"/_l~_~_V-"j l-o^ to Machine PuHeii 

^Ml^Sm~~ZZT.:"JilZ:ZZ'.~'.''S:Z Lo^toEngmedhaft 
'£r^i^/WFM':&M!^MM^&oD im^mmmmmrWA in Fuel 

•mi^&W^ 7lj ~— —yjl-.":] Lo^ioEngmeShan 

"iy!ibiWM''^ ~ns ]~~"_~-~-"] LoiitoGen TermnoH 

W?-'b^FJS^A ~744.:7"7""rr"J Lo^s to Motor 

'Mo^MZ ZZZS-ZSrZtSlIl ZlZ'JSZIZZj Loss to Motor Belt 

'ZIIZZZ ZZZMlZZZZZZIZIZZ^ Loss to Macfime FUtie(j 



c^§ 



oJ 



Fig. 



Percent Efficiency 
40. Power efficiencies — oil. 



an equipment is still more efficient than the gas, as is shown on 
Fig. 40. 

Figure 41, illustrating the efficiency of hydraulic or hydro-electric 
power plants, is self explanatory. It shows more stages than the 



foMacti/nePut/ey 
From Eur bines 
To Turbines 
In Wafer 
To Turbines 
From Turbines 
From Dir Con Cen. 
From Wiring 
From Motor 
To Machine Pulleij 

From Dir Con Cen 

From Step Up Trans. Sta 

From Transmission Line 

From 3tep Dov\/n Trans^tt^M. 

From Local Wiring 

From Motor 

To Machine Pulley^ 




'J, LosstoMachinePulley 



L055 to Euroine Shaft 
Loss In Waterwoij 
In Water 

L OSS In Waterway 
Loss to Turbine Shaft 
Loss toOenJermmals 
Loss to Motor 
Loss to Motor Belt 



Jii I 

'MZZZZZ2 Loss to Mach. Pulley, 



n 



163 ~1 LosstoCen.Terminah 
.Z^IZZZJ Loss to Trans Line 



'_16J_Z^ZZ1 Loss to Step Down 

, Trans Sta 

-■^5.? -> L OSS To Local Wiring 

'mZZZZl Loss to Motor 



, JO 



60 



ZL^I. Zl Lossto Motor Belt 

TQZZZZZZl LosstoMach.Pulley 

■ ■ ■ I 



C fc 
1^ 



'Ber Cent Efficiency 
Fig. 41. Power efficiencies' 



water. 



foregoing plates, because it includes long distance electrical trans- 
mission, as given on the lower sections of the diagram. If desired, 
this diagram can be used to obtain the losses or the net efficiency 
for long distance transmission in connection with any of the previ- 
ously described diagrams. 



STEAM POWER 



483 



Figure 42 forcibly depicts the superior efficiency of water power, 
indicating- tliat it is 604% more efficient than steam power at its 
best, 209% more efficient than producer gas power and 178% more 
efficient than oil power. In addition, nature continually replenishes 
the " white coal " for the water power, while man constantly de- 
pletes nature's storehouses to supply the fuel for the other classes. 

Although the comparisons indicated by this last diagram are 
startling and would make it appear that water power had an almost 
immeasurable value, it must be remembered that the cost of installa- 
tion is in most instances large and that the water supply must be 
utilized as it is afforded by nature, unless storage reservoirs are 
provided of ample capacity to impound the freshets at situations 
on the stream or river where a maximum amount of the runofC 
from a given watershed can be retained, with ample pondage facili- 



ffifater Mechanical Tram 
mterLoco^ fleet Trons 
mterionq DisT HighTenEI Irons 
Oil Mechanical Tran^ 
Oil Local Elect Tram 
Cos MechanicolTran^ 
6as Local EiedTram 
Steam Mechanical Trcf)3i 
Steam Local Elect Tnaru 




Fig. 42. 



^o 30 

Per Cent Efficiency 
Comparative efficiencies of various sources of power. 



ties at the plant to regulate daily fluctuations. All these facts 
tend to increase the cost of hydraulic power and decrease the value 
of power sites, except in sections especially favored by nature, 
remote from a fuel supply, where a demand exists for a volume of 
high grade power within reasonable transmission range. 

Investment Efficiency. All of the diagrams previously described 
show only what may be termed the " physical efficiency " of the 
several plants ; but there is another factor of greater importance, 
as indicated by the above statement in regard to the cost of water 
power, this has been called " investment efficiency." Physical effi- 
ciency applies only to the utilization of the elemental factors, in- 
vestment efficiency considers the cost necessary to control and apply 
these elements ; and the ideal power to be selected for a given situa- 
tion will be that which shows the greatest economy when both the 
" physical " and " investment " efficiencies are maximum. 

The " investment efficiency " has no definite base for unity, such 
as the heat value of a fuel or the potential energy of water, but 
is obtained by determining the ratio between one or more known 
capitalized costs ; the " capitalized cost " being the capital invested 
in the project plus the sum obtained by capitalizing the total annual 
expenditures at the rate of interest allowed on the capital invested. 



484 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

To illustrate: A steam power plant costs $100,000 and the rate of 
intei-est is ^%. The annual expendituie l(» oiieiate this plant is 
$50,000; then the "capitalized cost" will be $100,000+ ($50,000-^ 
0.05), or $100,000 -+- $1,000,000 - $1,100,000. A iiydraulic plant to 
sujtply the same service costs $150,000 and the annual operating 
exi)ense is $20,000. At the same rate of interest previously allowed, 
the '"capitalized cost" will be $150,000 X ($20,000 V 0.05) -$550,- 
000. The "capitalized cost" of the steam plant is $550,000 more 
than that for the hydraulic installation, and calling the hydraulic 
plant capitalization unity the steam plant has a 507f, " investment 
efficiency." 

The above method is the simi)lest way to determine the best in- 
vestment, and it can be ])roved to be accurate by making a more 
detailed analysis. For example : liach of the above plants has a 
rated capacity of 1,800 h.jx and delivers annually 6.000,000 h.]i. hrs. ; 
then the expenditure per h.j). hr. for the steam i)lant will be $50,000 
-^ 6,000,000 = $0.00833. or S'.fj mills, and the interest charges, $100,- 
000 X (0.05- 6.000,000) = $0.0008, making the total cost per h.p. hr. 
$0.00913. For the hydraulic plant the expenditure per h.p. hr. will 
be $20,000-=- 6.000,000 - $0 00333. or 3i/j milLs, and the interest 
charges. $1 50.000 X (0.05 ~ 6,000,000) - $.0012 1, making the total 
cost per h.p. hr. $0.00333 + $0.00124 -$0.00457. From the above it 
will be seen that the steam power costs twice as much as the 
hydraulic, and, accordingly, it has an ''investment elficiency " of 
only 50%. 

The manufacturer of power equipment usually presents to the 
pros]>ective purchaser the economies of his apparatus viewed from 
the standpoint of " physical efficiency," claiming that this is the 
most important factor to consider in securing low cost power. The 
central station managers purport to fix their charges for ])ower 
below the apparent cost of other forms of power, and they are dis- 
posed to exaggerate the cost of such power, placing particular em- 
phasis on the " investment efficiency," in order that they may 
secure a maximum return for their commodity. The consulting 
engineer is constantly confronted with inaccurate statements in 
regard to the cost of power that are devised to convey erroneous 
impressions, either through intent or otherwise, with every advan- 
tage taken of bookkeeping ambiguities. In this manner reports are 
circulated that are incomplete or coini)iled with the specific purpose 
of misleading, and it is almost impossible to dispel these influences 
and convince a client that the advanced claims cannot be substan- 
tiated in actual i)ractice. The greatest discrepancies are encoun- 
tered in the figures given for the cost of steam power, and within 
certain limits this is to be anticipated, on account of the many 
contro'lling factors later enumerated ; but with a fair comprehen- 
sion of the premises any competent engineer should be able to 
analyze given conditions and compile an estimate which will be 
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. Should two reliable 
engineers report on the same project, it is likely that their figures 
for the cost of power would not vary more than 5% and probably 
less, if the general conditions governing the layout were sufficiently 



STEAM POWER 



485 



well defined by the local surroundings to occasion the presentation 
of two similar designs. We do not mean by the above statement 
that the estimated cost of the installations would necessarily be 
within 5%. but that the cost for a unit of power for a given iJeriod of 
time would be within these limits. 

An engine salesman blandly informs the prospective purchaser 
that he can furnish an engine which will generate 1 h.p., meaning 
indicated h.p., using only 16 lbs. of steam per hi., and that with 
reasonably efficient boilers this would mean about 1.75 lbs. of coal 
per hr. per h.p. The central station rei>resentative disjjutes this 
claim, stating that it will require at least 23 lbs. of steam, or 2.5 lbs. 



7000 




10 40 50 60 ro 

Percent of time- 100% of ^irnc 
irear of 6760 Hours 

Fig. 43. Effect of storage and auxiliary power. 



of coal, per hr. per h.p. The latter had considered the mechanical 
losses in the engine, the losses in the auxiliarie.s, the generator 
losses, the wiring losses and the motor losses, figuring on the power 
delivered to the line shafting or machines where it was to be 
utilized. Somev.hat disturbed, the victim seeks the advice of a 
specialist, only to learn that both statements are correct. Then 
confusion becomes chaos and a task is set for the counselor if he 
tries to convince his client that each advi.^er has told him noihing 
but the truth, although both have deceived him. 

The prospective purchaser of power or power equipment will 
naturally question the reliability of information received from either 



486 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

equipment manufacturers or the central station agents, as he ap- 
preciates that the opinions advanced may be biased; accordingly, 
the influence of inaccurate statements from these sources is some- 
what restricted ; but when a company, generating power for its own 
use, becomes imbued with the idea that it has succeeded, by some 
special dispensation, in overthrowing the laws which regulate costs 
and thus has accomplished results that have not and cannot be 
attained, it is almost impossible to refute such statements or to 
convince the self-deceived party as to the error of its ways, and 
prevent the conversion of others into an acceptance of the false 
theories. Admitting the difficulties encountered in endeavoring to 
secure records and accurate information in regard to the cost of 
power, due to the many variables that affect such costs, it is absurd 
to assume that it is impossible to compute or predetermine with 
reasonable accuracy the cost of power for a given service or to 
claim that the secret of efficient and economical power generation 
is the special knowledge of an esoteric few. What has been once 
accomplished can be repeated; yet from the evidence which has 
been placed before us purporting to be accurate records of power 
costs, this logic seems to be refuted. 

Much of the difficulty encountered in refuting inaccurate costs 
can be attributed to a confusion of the technical terms used in con- 
nection with power measurement and a lack of understanding in 
regard to the units of power measurement. In most instances the 
difficulty of comparison would be removed if the point of power 
measurement was clearly defined. It has been an almost universal 
custom to compute and compare power costs on the basis of 1 h.p. 
per yr., using the term " cost per horsepower year," an absolutely 
meaningless expression having no significance unless it be specifi- 
cally defined by the number of hours' operation per year, the point 
of measuring the power and Avhether or not it be indicated, brake or 
electric horsepower, and if transmitted electric power whether it as 
metered on the high or low tension side of the consumers' trans- 
formers. The only true unit for the measurement of power or for 
comparison of cost is the kilo\vatt or horse-power hour, then it does 
not matter what the hours of the sei'vice may be, for at the same 
point of delivery any class of power can be compared without con- 
fusion or conveying false impressions. 

In view of the above noted conditions, the following definitions 
are inserted : 

Indicated Horsepower; Notation : i.h.p. — This is the power gen- 
erated in the cylinder, or cylinders, of a reciprocating or rotating 
engine and is the measure of the energy exerted by the steam or gas 
as determined by an indicating mechanism which does not record 
the mechanical or friction loss in the engine itself. 

Brake Horsepower; Notation : b.h.p. — This is the mechanical 
energy delivered by an engine, waterwheel, motor or at any other 
mechanical appliance, as determined by applying a friction brake or 
electrical resistance, thus weighing the power. For an engine the 
b.h.p. will be the i.h.p. minus the losses in the engine itself, and the 
h.h.p. is usually from 90 to 95% of the i.h.p. 



STEAM POWER 487 

Electrical Horsepower ; Notation : e.h.p. — This is the power in 
the electric current which is delivered at the terminals of the electric 
generator, at the switchboard or at the motors, and is the b.h.p, 
minus the mechanical and electrical losses in the generator ; or, 
if delivered to the motors, the above losses plus the losses in the 
wiring. For electric generators the efficiencies will be from 90 to 
96% of the b.h.p. of the driving element, if the generator is directly 
connected to the prime mover without intervening belts or gearing. 

Horsepower Hours; Notation: h.p.-hrs. — This is the number of 
horsepowers utilized in one hour, or the numbers of hours during 
which one hor.sepower is utilized. To illustrate : — A plant operates 
for 300 days of 10 hours each, or for a total of 3,000 hours, and 
generates continuously during this period 10 horsepower. This is 
equal to 10 X 3,000, or 30,000 h.p.-hrs. Another plant operates for 
1 day of 10 hours, or a total of 10 hours, and generates continuously 
during this period 3.000 h.p. ; then 3,000 X 10 = 30,000 h.p.-hrs. 

Kilowatt Hours; Notation: kw.-hrs. — Same as above, multiplied 
by the decimal 0.746. In other words, .75 of 1 kw. is approxi- 
mately equal to 1 h.p. or 1 kw. equals l^/f^ h.p. 

Rated Capacity; Notation; r. c. — The term rated capacity as 
herein used is the maximum normal capacity of the plant equip- 
ment, expressed as horsepower for the size of the plant, or as 
h.p.-hrs. for the load it will carry during a given period of time. 

Nominal Capacity ; Notation: n. c. — The nominal capacity of a 
plant is the output from the equipment when operating at its maxi- 
mum efficiency, or with the load for which it was designed. 

Capacity Factor ; Notation : c. f. — This is the ratio between the 
total output of the plant if run at its "rated capacity" for 365 days 
of 24 hrs., or for 8,760 hrs. per yr., and the actual output of the plant) 
in the same period. For example: — A i^lant with equii)ment to 
generate 100 h.p. "rated capacity" has sufficient capacity to deliver 
8,760 X 100 = 876,000 h.p.-hrs. per' yr., but it is in operation 300 
days of 10 hrs. each per yr. with an average load of 80 h.p. ; thus 
its total annual output is 300 XI X 80 - 240,000 h.p.-hrs., and the 
"capacity factor" will be (240,000-^876,000) X 100 = 27.4%. 

Load Factor ; Notation : 1. f. — This is the ratio between the aver- 
age output of the station and the maximum, or " peak " load which 
is imposed upon it. For example : — In the foregoing plant men- 
tioned under " Capacity Factor " there was an average load of 80 
h.p., but it was designed to carry continuously a load of 100 h.p.; 
therefore, the 1. f. is (80^100) x 100 = 80%. The 1. f. for central 
stations varies from 30 to 50%, seldom exceeding the latter figure 
in the best managed plants. For industrial plants the 1. f. will 
rary from 60 to 90%, averaging at least 75% and seldom falling 
below 60%. 

Power Factor; Notation: p. f. — This factor has no direct relation 
to the cost of power, except as it is an element which must be con- 
sidered in selecting the generator and motor equipment for a given 
service. It is a condition peculiar to alternating current apparatus, 
very difficult to define intelligibly except to tho.se familiar with the 
theory of alternating currents. The current in an alternating cir- 



488 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cuit may or may not be in phase (in step) with the electro-motive 
force, or the pressure wliich forces tlie current through the circuit. 
The volt is the unit of measure for the electro-motive force, and 
the ampere for the current. The amperage may either lead or fall 
behind the voltage. This condition is due to the magnetizing watt- 
less (that is powerless) current required by alternating apparatus. 
It will be noted that this magnetizing current is powerless, and it, 
accordingly, does not appreciably affect the capacity of the prime 
mover ; but it does have material effect upon the size of generator 
that is driven by the prime nriover, as the wattless current causes 
heating in the generator, and therefore the greater this wattless 
current the larger will be the generator required. 

The power factor is the ratio of the useful power in watts, as 
recorded by the wattmeter, to the apparent power in volt-amperes, 
determined by readings fi'om the volt and ammeters. 

(Hence if the kilovolt ampere, kva., capacity of generator is multi- 
plied by the power factor, the product is the kilowatt, kw., capac- 
ity). 

The power factor of a plant depends largely on the character of 
the motor installation, and to maintain a high p. f. it is important 
that the motors operate continuously at or near their full load capa- 
city. If the average " load factor " of a mill is 60% of the maxi- 
mum load, the motors should be installed with " nominal capacities " 
to carry this 60% load ; but they should have *' rated capacities " 
sufficient to temporarily withstand the overload which will be im- 
posed when the 1. f. becomes unity, or 100%; that is, motors had 
better be too small rather than too large. Conversely, the gener- 
ator must have ample surplus capacity, in order to avoid overheat- 
ing when delivering current to a system with a low average p. f. 

The p. f. can never be more than 100%, but with an incandescent 
lamp, or non-inductive load, it can attain this figure. A good 
average p. f. for a motor instalhttion is 80%; many plants do not 
exceed 75%, and 60% is considered a low p. f. (An ordinary power 
factor for electric generators is 85 to 90%.) 

Cost Factors. The general factors which control the cost of power 
are the investment required, the fixed charges necessary to main- 
tain the investment, the operating charges, the load factor and the 
capacity factor. These are sub-divided as follows : 



rCost of equipment. 

i C 



Capacity 
factor. 



Investment . . . .< Cost of buildings 
Lvalue of land. 

Fixed J^"axef* 

charges -^ In.surance, 

[Renewals — (Sinking fund.) 
TRepairs. 1 

Operating Labor. 

charges -^^ Supplies. J-Load 

Fuel. » factor. 

Iwater. J 

Both the capacity and the load factors have important influence 
on the cost of power, as will be noted by referring to the definitions 



STEAM POWER 489 

previously given for these terms. The c. f, affects more specifically 
the investment and fixed charges, while the 1. f. has more effect upon 
the operating charges. 

In addition to the above, there are specific factors which affect 
water power and power transmitted electrically from central sta- 
tions or water powers remote from the place of usage. These are 
as follows : 

Water power: 

Water rental. 
Storage charges. 

Transmitted power: 

Transmission charges : 
Patrol of lines. 
Repairs of lines. 

Distribution charges : 

Sub-station operation, including labor, repairs and supplies. 
Local Ime patrol and repairs. 

Overhead charges : 
Management. 
Clerical or office. 

General Consideration. The prospective power user may have 
three means of securing the desired power. First, by purchasing 
power from a public service or other distributing company ; second, 
if water power is available, by thus generating his own power ; or 
third, by installing a fuel operated plant. Ofttimes he must select 
fjom two only of^the above, and in many instances from the latter 
class only. 

It is obviously impossible to give any general rules or even ap- 
proximate average figures which will apply to the cost of a hydrau- 
lic installation, and, hence, the cost of the power generated thereby, 
as each project present.^ pioblems occasioned by the natural condi- 
tions which require special engineering study. The costs of hydraulic 
and hydro-electric developments constructed in the past have varied 
from ?30 to $300 per h.p. of rated capacity, a range of 1,00T)%, and 
the cost per h.p.-hr. varies accordingly. In a few instances con-- 
tracts have been made for the delivery of hydro-electric power at the 
switchboards in the generating stations for $9 per h.p.-yr. of 8,760 
hrs., or for slightly more than one mill per h.p.-hr. ; and a cost of 
5 mills per h.p.-hr. for 8.760 hrs. can be considered a reasonable 
figure. 

Fortunately the other commercial systems of power generation 
are not surrounded by any such uncertainties as exist in connection 
with h-ydraulic plants. Local conditions will have some effect on 
the cost of installation, such as unstable foundation materials, re- 
moteness from ba.'^e of supplies with insufficient transportation facili- 
ties, dearth or imi)urity of water for boiler feed, etc., and scarcity 
of competent labor ; but such obstructions will occur only in isolated 
instances. The cost of fuel, water and labor for a given location is 
usually readily predetermined, and the cost of installation under 



490 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ordinary circumstances will very closely approach an average for a 
plant of given size. 

The scope of this paper is limited to those power users who have 
the alternative of purchasing power from some commercial plant, 
or of generating their own power from fuel, and as an aid in 
determining which type of apparatus to adopt when fuel is to be 
employed. 

It is impossible in this article to enter into the technical details of 
analysis whereby the accompanying data are secured ; but the de- 
ductions herein recorded are all derived from the results of actual 
practice and not by theoretical computations. While this paper is 
abbreviated and does not include all of the data which it is pro- 
posed ultimately to issue in connection with this subject, it does 
contain the information that a mill owner or manufacturer might 
desire if he wished to determine with a reasonable degree of 
accuracy the approximate cost for a given class of power, in order 
to compare the same with any other class on which the price per 
h.p.-hr. is established. 

It appears advisable to touch upon a few of the salient features 
pertaining to the design of power plants in general and particularly 
to mention the advantages and disadvantages of the different types 
of installations herein discussed. 

There is a prevailing tendency towards the almost universal 
adoption of the electric drive by all industries of any magnitude ; 
accordingly, all of the accompanying diagrams for cost of installa- 
tion and labor are compiled on this basis. The convenience, cleanli- 
ness, flexibility and reliability of the electric drive, combined with 
its high efficiency, as noted on Figs. 38-41, fully justify its use. 
While the efficiencies given on the diagrams indicate that mechani- 
cal transmission is somewhat more efficient than electrical, it must 
be remembered that intermittent service, occasioning low load fac- 
tor, the segregation of equipment and other practical conditions may 
be such that the electric drive may equal the mechanical drive, or 
perhaps excel it in efficiency. 

The aim to be sought in designing any type of power plant is to 
secure as simple an arrangement of equipment and structures as 
can be obtained to produce the desired results without sacrificing 
efficiency, flexibility and reliability. To attain simplicity and 
economy of operation the equipment should consist of a few large 
units, the total power being so sub-divided by the apparatus em- 
ployed that a maximum of working efficiency can be obtained under 
the conditions imposed by the load factor. The units should be 
selected with the intention of operating them continuously at their 
"normal capacity," so far as practicable with a "rated capacity" 
sufficient to accommodate the " peak " load without excessive over- 
loading or falling off in efficiency. 

The merits of water power are almost self-evident, the principal 
expense of operation being confined to the investment and fixed 
charges, as the labor cost is very small and there is no fuel bill. 
The disadvantages of water power are the high cost of develop- 
ment ; restriction of application, due to limited radius of distribu- 



STEAM POWER 491 

tion ; and last, but not least, the intermittent stream flow which 
exists on most rivers, causing fluctuations in the available power. 
In many instances the last condition can be ameliorated to a large 
extent for a comparatively small expenditure, if the magnitude of 
the river is sufficient to warrant the construction of storage reser- 
voirs and the users on the stream are broad enough to combine 
forces for the attainment of a mutual benefit. 

The value of storage is not well understood ; if it were, much more 
active steps would be taken to derive the benefits which it affords. 
Properly controlled storage is utilized to augment the stream flow 
at periods of low water, and in most cases it keeps in operation 
equipment which would otherwise lie idle, or be partially operated 
only ; therefore, the only cost required to utilize storage water is 
the reservoir charges. 

One million cu. ft. of water falling 1 ft. will theoretically develop 
62,500.000 ft.-lbs., or 1,894 h.p. for one minute, which is equivalent 
to 31.56 h.p.-hrs. If this water is used in a hydro-electric installa- 
tion having eflSciencies, as shown by Fig. 41, there would be de- 
livered to the generator terminals, or the station switchboard, 31.56 
X (73.7^ 100) = 23.26 h.p.-hrs. On the basis of 1 mill per h.p.-hr. 
(the lowest price for power within the writer's knowledge, as pre- 
viously quoted), this amount of water would be worth 2\^ cts. if 
used with a fall of 1 ft. 

It can be proven easily that developed Maine water power is worth 
not less than 2 mills per e.h.p.-hr., or $17.52 per yr. of 8,760 hrs., 
and in most instances it is worth more than 3 mills, or $26.28 per 
yr. With the value of power at the latter figure and with storage 
basins costing not in excess of $125 per 1,000,000 cu. ft. of capacity, 
it will only be necessary to utilize the water on a head of 160 ft. 
to show a net return of at least 6% on the investment, in addition 
to an allowance of 3% for the cost of maintenance and operation ; 
and in many cases it will be found commercially profitable to 
develop extensive storage on streams where the total utilized fall 
does not exceed 100 ft. 

Next to storage in importance, if not of equal importance, is the 
securing of ample pondage at or near the hydraulic power station 
to compensate for the daily fluctuations of stream flow, in order that 
the full quantity of water which passes the plant during a given 
period may be used in varying quantities through the wheels to 
satisfy the irregular load factor, which is bound to exist, without 
permitting any of the water to be wasted over the dam, except in 
case of freshets. Certain industries, such as ground wood pulp- 
mills and electrochemical works, are not dependent to any extent 
upon pondage, as the output can be varied to suit the water con- 
ditions; but all industries are directly benefited by storage, because 
the stored water is that which would have been wasted during the 
high water seasons. 

The value of water power has been often overestimated, resulting 
in the consummation of developments that never could show a proper 
return on the investment. It has been, however, more often under- 
valued and unwisely abandoned or disregarded, particularly in 



492 MliCllAXlCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

connet tion with those milln that require steam for the partial 
l)iei)Hia.tion of their jiroduer. 

Probably the realization of the full benefits to be derived from 
water i)Ower is best secured when it is operated in conjunction with 
auxiliary power in soniw form , with steam power if there is a use 
for the exhaust, or when cheap fuel is available, and with gas or 
oil engines where fuel is high. 

Auxiliary power bears a relation to water power similar to that 
occupied by the storage reservoir, for it not only provides power 
during the periods of low water, but it increases the average amount 
of water poioer that can be economically utilized continuously. 
This latter feature was not mentioned in cannection with the fore- 
going comments on storage reservoirs, as at that time we were 
endeavoring to show only the value of the storage to existing or 
contemplated installations, without incurring any additional expense 
for increased i)lant capacity; but there is afforded by the creation 
of storage a still further power increase which is best illustrated 
by the diagram Fig. 4 3. This diagram shows the amount of h.p. 
that can be obtained from a typical river, with the natural stream 
flow arranged in order of its magnitude and not according to sea- 
sonal fluctuations. The vertical lines represent time, the total 100% 
being equal to the 8,760 hrs. in one yr. Any volume of power, as 
indicated by the figures on the lefthand margin of the diagram 
and the corresponding horizontal line, can be obtained for a period 
of time equivalent to that designated by the figures on the lower 
margin for all amounts below and to the left of the curve marked 
" natural stream flow." 

For example: Following up the line 10 from the lower margin 
until it intersects the upper solid line curve, then reading the figures 
horizontally opposite on the left margin, shows that 5,000 h.p. can 
be secured for 10% of one yr., or during 0.10X8,760=^876 hrs.; 
that is, there can be obtained a total of 876 X 5,000 = 4,380,000 h.p.- 
hrs. The total area of the diagram below the " stream flow " curve 
represents the total quantity of power which the water could de- 
velop in the year of 8,760 hrs. 

The horizontal line marked "average available power, complete 
storage." cuts the above " stream flow " curve at the point where the 
area of the enclosed space above the horizontal line between the 
left margin and the full line curve is equal to the area of the space 
below the horizontal line confined between the "stream flow" curve 
and the right margin of the diagram, and. therefore, shows the 
average amount of power in the water if it could be distributed 
uniformly throughout the year, or for the 100% time period. This 
shows that the average power is 2,600 h.p., or 43.5% of the maxi- 
mum 6,000 h.p. 

The whole rectangle below the horizontal line at 600 h.i)., which 
is the intersection of the flow curve with the 100% time factor line, 
shows the quantity of power that can be utilized continuously with- 
out the aid of storage or auxiliary power, and this is equal to only 
23% of the average power available and but 10% of the maximum 
power. The area of the above rectangle represents graphically the 



STEAM POWER 493 

h.p.-hrs., amounting in total to 600 X 8,760 - 5,256.000 h p.-hrs. per 
yr. Assume tliat a storage reservoir be constructed of sufficient 
capacity to impound the equivalent of 700,000 h. p.-hrs. ; this amount, 
if uniformly distributed thioughout the year, would make the total 
yield 5,956,000 h. p.-hrs., or would increase the available power 13.3%, 
making a total of 680 h.p. ; but this is not the actual increase. The 
storage volume in terms of h. p.-hrs. can be represented on the 
diagram in two ways, either by placing a rectangular area equiv- 
alent to the quantity of h. p.-hrs. above the rectangle which indi- 
cates the constant power available or by plotting an irregular figure 
of the same area to the right and above the "stream flow" curve, 
the end on the 100% time line with the top a horizontal line meeting 
the " stream flow " curve. It will be noted that the horizontal 
boundary line of the storage area terminates on the " stream flow " 
curve at the point of intersection between it and the 70% time 
factor vertical, and that for the balance or for 70% of the time that 
the vertical distance from the base or zero power line to the power 
curve is always greater than that at the above point of intersec- 
tion ; hence, there will always be a sufficient volume of water from 
the natural stream flow to develop continuously in conjunction with 
the storage or auxiliary power the amount determined by the alti- 
tude of the power scale at the previously described point of inter- 
section, or for 1,000 h.p., as shown on the diagram. If the hori- 
zontal boundary of the storage area be projected aci'oss the diagram, 
the area of that portion of the diagram below this line will repre- 
sent the total number of h.p.-hrs. available. This area is 1,000 X 
8,760 = 8.760,000 h.p.-hrs. ; therefore, the reservoir actually has in- 
creased the available power from 5,256,000 to the above amount, 
or by 66.5% instead of 13.5%, as was shown by the uniform distribu- 
tion of the conserved water employed for the previously given 
storage values. The existence of storage will alter the profile of 
the " stream flow " curve, increasing it at the minimum flow and 
decreasing it at the maximum, making it conform to the lower dotted 
curve shown on the diagram, the area between the two curves 
being equal to the area of the storage. 

As previously stated, auxiliary power in any form has the same 
effect as storage on the available power, and by considering the 
700,000 h.p.-hrs. on the diagram as derived from steam or other 
sovirce, the annual output will be the same. The capacity of the 
auxiliary plant can be determined readily from the diagram, for the 
maximum altitude of the storage area as measured by the power 
scale indicates the greatest amount of power that will be required, 
and by flnding the mean altitude of the storage area the average 
power is obtained ; these are for the case under discussion, respec- 
tively 400 h.p. and 266 X h.p. 

STEAM BOILERS AND ENGINES 

No attempt will be made to compare the relative merits of steam 
apparatus other than to state what modern engineering practice 
would indicate to be the best equijiment to select for a given service. 
Both water tube and fire tube boilers have practically the same 



494 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

efficiency when properly designed. Water tube boilers can be eco- 
nomically built for much larger unit capacities than the fire tube ; 
hence, they occupy less space and afford a simplicity in general 
design which is desirable for large installations. They are also 
more immune from the danger of explosion than other types. As a 
unit the water tube boiler and setting is more complicated than the 
horizontal return tubular or vertical "Manning" type of boiler; 
accordingly, for a small plant the latter types are generally more 
economical, both to install and operate. 

In most cases reciprocating steam engines will prove the most 
economical for small plants having from 1 to 3 units of not more 
than 500 h.p. each. For installations requiring units of from 500 to 
2,000 h.p. capacity, it is debatable whether or not the reciprocating 
engine or steam turbine should be adopted. In case the electric 
drive is not readily applicable, it is safe to assume that the re- 
ciprocating engine is the best ; but if the electric drive is applicable 
and particularly if the 1. f. is such that the equipment cannot be 
consistently operated at or near its " nominal capacity," then the 
steam turbine is the natural selection, on account of its ability to 
operate on fractional or overloads without sustaining the efficiency 
losses incident to operating steam engines under similar conditions. 

In addition to the advantage of working range afforded by the 
steam turbine, it occupies much less space than the reciprocating 
engine and with the present state of perfection it is a simpler ma- 
chine. On the other hand, the condensing equipment for the turbine 
must be more refined than that provided for an engine, on account 
of the high vacuum which must be maintained if the turbine is 
operated efficiently. This condition incurs additional upkeep and 
operation expenses, as well as first cost. 

For units of more than 2,000 h.p, capacity, the steam turbine 
will usually prove to be the most economical. 

The cost per h.p. for turbine and engine equipments with gener- 
ators will be approximately the same for the smaller sizes up to 
units of about 800 h.p. capacity; above this size the turbine will cost 
somewhat less than the engine, and as the unit size still further 
increases the proportionate cost will constantly change in favor of 
the turbine outfit. 

GAS ENGINES 

The gas engine has by no means received the recognition in this 
country which it deserves, while in Europe it has been accepted 
and utilized most successfully. The abundance of cheap high grade 
fuels available in what appeared until recently to be unlimited 
quantities has caused the consumer to be lethargic toward any at- 
tempt at economizing in its use. Further than this, to speak 
plainly, the American manufacturer, in spite of his boasted acumen, 
canny business deals and claims to progressiveness, is most loathe 
to adopt many of the so-called " new ideas " that have long since 
become ancient history to our more scientific competitors in both 
England and continental Europe. 



STEAM POWER 495 

Producers and gas engines are more efficient under working con- 
ditions ttian ttie corresponding steam equipment. Gas power plants 
require no high pressure piping and suffer no leak or condensation 
losses. As an auxiliary, the gas plant has no superior, for large 
quantities of gas can be stored in holders and be ready for service 
with the fires dead — the standby losses are less than for the steam 
plant and the smoke nuisance is eliminated ; no small factor when 
one considers the pall which now hangs over most of our cities. 

The waste heat from the gas engine exhaust can be utilized for 
heating purposes and from 2 to 3 lbs. of steam can be generated 
with any desired pressure up to 50 lbs. per each b.h.p.-hr. 

The disadvantages of the gas plant are its high cost of installa- 
tion and the fact that the engines must be operated at practically 
their " nominal capacity " with a " rated," or overload, capacity 
about 10% in excess of the " nominal." Reliability of service was at 
one time a formidable stumblmg block which checked the progress 
of gas power plants, but this obstacle has now become a myth that 
need not be seriously regarded. 

The producer gas plant should appeal particularly to all Maine 
power users, for many sections of the state are provided with an 
abundant sui)ply of peat in accessible bogs, and this low grade fuel 
can be utilized most efficiently in a properly designed producer. 

For a treatise on this subject see Bulletin 376, U. S. Geologi- 
cal Survey, Peat Deposits of Maine, by E. S. Bastin & C. A. Davis. 

The word " peat " undoubtedly has a discordant sound to some 
owing to the many fake schemes which have been exploited having 
the ostensible purpose of drying, preparing and distributing peat for 
commercial uses. But this impression we trust will be dispelled by 
stating that instead of transporting the peat the gas plant should 
be located at the bog or mine, and the power generated should be 
transmitted electrically to its destination, following the same prin- 
ciple applied when a water power station is constructed on a river 
at some favorable site. 

The peat for a producer requires no artificial preparation or 
manipulation other than that necessary to excavate, air dry and 
deliver to the furnace, because it can be fired when containing from 
30 to 50% of moisture, a feat now being successfully accomplished 
in Europe on a commercial scale. 

The cost for mining peat should not exceed $1 per ton, including 
delivering to the plant, and this cost can be entirely obliterated by 
the return from the by-products which can be derived if the installa- 
tion is of sufficient size to warrant the cost of constructing a re- 
covery plant for extracting the procurable sulphate of ammonia. 

There is from 2 to 3% of nitrogen in American peats ; as sulphate 
of aininonia, this material has a market price of 3 cts. per lb., cost- 
ing about 1 ct. per lb. for reclamation. In each short ton of peat 
there are from 180 to 280 lbs. of sulj^hate of ammonia, and not less 
than 90 lbs. per ton can be produced commercially, having a value 
of $2 70 and costing about $0.90, showing a gross profit of $1.80 
per ton of peat used as fuel. It is safe to state that the cost for 



496 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fuel in a peat gas plant would be nothing if it has 4,000 h.p. or 
more capacity, which is an amount sufficient to insure the economical 
production of ammonium sulphate. 

The ordinary grades of bituminous coals contain about 80 lbs. 
of available sulphate of ammonia per short ton, and its recovery 
shows a corresponding return. 

The writer feels certain that gas engine, peat or coal fired, aux- 
iliary power plants will be extensively utilized locally in connection 
with hydro-electric installations at no remote future date. 

OIL. ENGINES 

From a theoretical standpoint there is no fuel power so attractive 
as that afforded by the oil engine, and the ideal is now partially 
realized in actual practice, although the application of the oil 
engine has been much restricted on account of the exorbitant costs 
which have been maintained by the manufacturers holding the 
patent rights on the most successful types of oil engine equipment. 
Following the policy usually applied for determining the value of 
power, the cost of steam generated power has been taken as the 
base from which the sale price of oil engines was determined, estab- 
lishing the cost for the oil apparatus at a figure just low enough 
to show a small margin of saving by its adoption, but in reality 
absurdly high when compared with the true cost of the equipment 
required. Such a procedure is shortsighted in the writer's opinion 
and this conclusion is apparently sustained by the purchasing public 
if we take the slow growth of the oil engine field in this country as 
a criterion upon which to base our decision. 

The oil engine plant is very simple, comprising the engine proper, 
an air compressor and a fuel storage tank. It is ready for instant 
service without standby losses ; there is no smoke nuisance ; there 
is no dirt or dust such as accompanies the generating equipment of 
the steam and gas plants with their incumbent coal storage, and a 
minimum amount of operating labor is required. As against these 
advantages there exists the high cost of installation, with corre- 
spondingly excessive cost for repairs, and large single units have 
not yet been perfected in America. In all probability these two con- 
siderations will not long continue to offer obstructions against the 
more general application of this excellent prime mover, for the 
expiration of the " Diesel " patents already has created an under- 
current of activity on the part of the heavy machinery and engine 
builders which bids fair to cause brisk competition in the manufac- 
ture and sale of oil engine equipment, a condition that will of neces- 
sity incite perfection in design and reduce the initial cost. 

It has been claimed that the future of the oil engine was threat- 
ened by the uncertainty regarding the ultimate cost of its fuel, on 
the ground that its extensive introduction would so increase the 
demand for oil that the supply would prove inadequate. At this 
time no one can foretell how much oil is available, but it is certain 
that there exist vast oil beds still undiscovered and that with a 
perceptible increase in consumption there will be an incentive to 
locate " strikes " which will substantially augment the present 



STEAM POWER 



497 



supply, and no reason can be seen for anticipating any material 
increase in the cost of fuel oil. 

Cost of Installations. The average cost for complete electric 
power plants of known " rated " horsepower capacity are given on 
Fig. 44. To obtain the co^t for a contemplated plant it is necessary 
to determine the "load factor" which will establish the "nominal" 
and the " rated," or full, capacity required. 

To secure a uniformity of comparison in illustrating the applica- 
tion of the diagram.s which follow, 3 hypothetical operating con- 
ditions will ba assumed for a proposed installation having a "rated 
capacity" of 4,000 e.h.p. and a "load factor" of 80%, making the 
"nominal" or "working capacity" 3,200 e.h.p. In the first case, 




.' ^ J 4 i 6 r d 9 10 II /i 13 14 15 IS 17 li 

Rarea Copacity of Pionr m huncirec] H P 
Fig. 44. Cost of complete electric power plants. 



the plant operates for 300 days of 10 hrs. per day, or for a total of 
3,000 hrs., and produces 3,200X3,000 = 9,600,000 h.p.-hrs. per yr. 
The total full capacity of the plant is 4,000 X 8,760 = 35,040,000 
h.p.-hrs. per yr. ; hence the "capacity factor" is (9,600,000 -=- 35,040,- 
000) X 100 = 27.4%. In the second case the plant operates for 865 
days of 18 hrs., or for a total of 6,570 hrs., producing 6.570 X 3,200 
= 21,024,000 h.p -hrs. per annum, making the "capacity factor" 
607o. In the third case the plant operates at its full " nominal 
capacity for 365 days of 24 hrs., producing 28,032,000 h.p.-hrs. per 
annum and having a "capacity factor" of practically 80%; all of 
the foregoing powers being measured at the station switchboard. 
The " capacity factor " can never be maintained continuously at 



498 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

100% in any installation, because it would be impossible to design 
a plant which could be practically oper-ated at its full " rated " 
capacity. 

To obtain the costs of installation from Fig-. 44, select the rated 
h.p. capacity of the plant as designed on the right-hand vertical 
margin and trace the horizontal line opposite the desired capacity 
to the intersection of the curves, then follow down the vertical line 
at these intersections to the cost per h.p., which is given on the 
lower margin. For example: The 1,500 h.p. horizontal intersects 
the "steam electric" curve at $56, the "producer gas" at $70 and 
the " oil electric " at $100, while for a 500 h.p. plant the intersec- 
tions are at $63, $80 and $108, respectively. It will be noted that 
for " rated " capacities in excess of 1,500 h.p., the cost is practically 
constant, and, therefore, the cost for the 4,000 h.p. plant will be 
4,000 X $56 ^ $224,000 for steam; 4,000 X $70 = $280,000 for gas, 
and 4,000 X $100 = $400,000 for oil. 

Fuels. Fuel has a most important influence in affecting the cost 
of power and every effort should be made to reduce its consump- 
tion to the minimum amount consistent with the practical econom- 
ical operation of the given system ; but the necessity of utilizing fuel 
with a maximum economy has often been advocated when the ex- 
pense of so doing would increase the cost per h.p. hr. for the power, 
owing to the refined apparatus required, with the greater interest 
and repair charges thus incurred, in addition to an increased labor 
cost due to the skillful mechanics required to properly operate the 
more complicated equipment. 

It is lamentable to observe the painstaking efforts made by coal 
users to reduce the inroads into the coal pile by improving the 
mechanical conditions at their power stations, at the same time 
permitting the most slipshod methods to prevail when purchasing 
the commodity they so cherish. To purchase coal, or any form of 
fuel, by securing bids from reputable dealers for a certain trade 
grade shows an ignorance not encountered in the valuation of any 
other material. No buyer would pay for an ore except on the show- 
ing of its assay, which would be determined and certified by an 
expert. The merchant selects and pays for his cotton on the basis 
of its staple, not because it was grown in Alabama or Mississippi, 
but the manufacturer ordinarily makes his coal selection on name 
and price only, utterly disregarding the fact that he should en- 
deavor to obtain a heat value return for his expenditure, and that 
no specific name, such as "New River, West Virginia, coal," or a 
dealer's business integrity will be a guarantee that he is getting 
his money's worth. 

The measure of any fuel depends entirely on the number of avail- 
able heat units which it contains, and it should be ])aid for on this 
basis. A unit of heat value is the Briti.sh thermal unit (notation 
B.t.u.) and it is an inexpensive process to determine the quality 
of a fuel by making a " proximate analysis " that will show its 
B.t.u. content. 

Consumers receiving their coal in consignments of 300 tons or 
over should always purchase under contract specifications that state 



STEAM POWER 499 

the price to be paid for the B.t.u. content of the coal ; the actual 
price paid ter ton for the coal supplied to be established pro rata 
by test. It might be assumed that a single careful test of the coal 
for a given mine would be sufficient to insure a uniform quality, 
if it could be definitely proved that each shipment was made from 
the same mine ; but this is not true, because the method of handling 
coal at the mines, in addition to the variation of the physical and 
chemical properties of the coal strata from the same mine, will 
occasion variation in quality which can only be determined by 
indej)endent tests. The quality of the marketed coal depends in a 
large measure on the care taken in the preparation at the mines. 
Carelessness in picking slate or other impurities, or in jigging, or 
washing will produce a coal of inferior quality when compared with 
that secured from the same mine but carefully prepared ; also bi- 
tuminous coal, exposed to the atmosphere gradually depreciates in 
value and its moisture content has important bearing upon its 
available B.t.u. content. Buying coal by the ton in the ordinary 
manner often necessitates the purchasing of a large percentage of 
water and other impurities which are paid for and transported as 
coal, but which in reality have no fuel value. 

The accompanying Table XXXVIII gives the average composition 
and heat value of several general classifications of fuels, also the 
producer gas that can be obtained from certain fuels on which 
reliable tests have been made. 

The cost of coal has been constantly on the increase and it is 
most important tliat we consider its probable future cost by making 
a brief study of past conditions, for such study may occasion the 
selection of a power plant equipment that would otherwise be dis- 
regarded, if the present conditions alone are used in deducting the 
probable investment efficiency. 

From 1870 to 1910 the population of this country increased from 
38,000,000 to 92,000,000, or more than 142%, and the coal consump- 
tion increased per capita from 0.85 tons to 5.5 tons, or almpst 550%; 
hence, in 40 years the coal consumption has increased about 4 
times as fast as the population. During this interval the average 
value of coal property has increased from $100 to $2,000 per acre, 
or 1,900%, which is nearly 4 times the rate of consumption in- 
crease. When it is remembered that this phenomenal change in 
volume and value has been accompanied by a corresponding wage 
increase and more difficult engineering work in connection with the 
greater depth of the mines, it is a tribute to our application of 
scientific management in both mine working and transportation that 
we are not paying several hundred per cent, more for coal at this 
date than we are ; but " coming events cast their shadows before " 
and the abnormal rise in mine values, together with the continual 
labor agitation, makes it almost certain that within a short period 
the cost of coal at the mines will be increased from 25 to 50% and 
that a greater proportionate increment of cost will be added as the 
coal passes the several go-betweens in its transition from the mine 
to the ultimate consumer. 

Bituminous coal containing about 14,400 B.t.u. per lb. of fuel can 



500 MECHAXICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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STBAM POWER 



501 



now be purchased at the Maine coast for $3 per long ton and it 
can be delivered to the station bunkers in most of our inland cities 
for a total of about |4.60 per long ton. If this fuel is used under 
boilers of 78% efficiency, the lbs. of water evaporated, or the lbs. 
of steam generated, can be determined from the " boiler efficiency 
chart," Fig. 45, as follows: Locate on the lower margin of the 
diagram the vertical over the 14,400 B.t.u. and follow up on this 




7 d 9 W II 12 13 14 15 Id 17 Id 19 
Heat Value In B.tu Per Unit of Fuel 
Conturj^ible 

Fig. 45. Boiler efficiency chart. 



line to the intersection of the diagonal line representing 78% boiler 
efficiency and read on the left. margin the water evaporated, which 
is in this instance 11.5 lbs. 

Any reputable boiler manufacturer can guarantee the efficiency 
of a boiler if he knows the quality of cual that will be used for 
with this information the proper ratio of grate and heating surface 
area can be provided. 

The selection of a boiler, including its setting, must be made 



502. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

with the same care and application of the specialist's knowledge as 
is devoted to any other accessory in a power plant. In many in- 
stances it can be shown, upon making a careful study of a problem, 
that a cheap grade of fuel with a low boiler efficiency is more eco- 
nomical than an expensive fuel yielding a high boiler efficiency. 
To prove this we will take a semi-bituminous fuel containing 11,100 
B.t.u. per lb., costing $4.60 per ton at the bunkers, and a low grade 
bituminous, such as Western, containing 11,230 B.t.u. per lb. and 
costing $2.50 per ton delivered, using both in the same boiler fur- 
nace. The higher grade of coal will permit the practical operation 
of the boilers at an efficiency of 75% and the cheap grade with an 
ethciency of 60%. Referring to the diagram Pig. 45, it will be 
found that 11.2 lbs, of water can be evaporated with the good 
coal and 6.9 lbs. with the poor. This shows that the relative fuel 
value is as 6.9-4- 11.2 — 0.616, and it will be necessary to use 1.00 
-f- 0.616 -- 1,623 tons of the cheap fuel to generate the steam that can 
be produced with 1 ton of the higher grade: therefore. 1.623 X 
$2.50 = $4.06 will be the cost of an equivalent amount of the lower 
grade coal. This shows that the supposedly poor fuel will yield 
l($4.60 — $4.06) ^ $4.06] X 100 - 13.3% better return for the same 
expenditure than the good. With the cheaper fuel more coal and 
ashes must be handled, increasing the labor expense proportionately, 
but this will not ordinarily be a sufficient amount to off-set a sav- 
ing so great as that indicated above. 

Holding to the example cited under " Cost of InstallatioUvS," and 
the efficiencies given on the "Power Efficiency Diagram, Fig. 38," 
the cost for fuel can be derived from the diagram Fig. 46 as fol- 
lows : One B.t.u, is equivalent to 778 foot pounds of energy, and 
one theoretical h.p. requires 33,000 foot pounds of energy per minute, 
and 33,000 ^ 778 - 42.416 X B.t.u., or.2,545 B.t.u. per hour. From 
Fig. 38 the total efficiency at the generator terminals, which will be 
practically the same as that at the switchboard, is shown on the 
fourth reading from the bottom to be 10,4%; hence the heat re- 
quired to generate one e.h.p. at the switchboard will be (2.545 -f- 
10.4) X 100 = 24,471 B.t.u., which will necessitate the consumption 
of 24.471-4-14.400 = 1.7 lbs. of coal per e.h.p. -hr. It has already 
been found from Fig. 45 that 11.5 lbs. of steam can be derived from 
1 lb. of the above coal, and with this data from Fig, 46 can be de- 
termined the cost for fuel per e.h.p. -hr. and the pounds of steam 
generated per e.h.p.-hr. Locating on the lower margin the 1.7 lbs. 
of fuel per h.p.-hr. and following up this line until it meets the 
diagonal or the interpolated diagonal representing 11.5 lbs. evapora- 
tion, the steam consumption is found by following the horizontal 
lines to the left margin, reading in this instance 19.5 lbs. of steam 
per e.h.p. To obtain the cost of fuel per h.p.-hr., follow up the 
vertical corresponding to the required coal consumption until it 
meets the horizontal line corresponding to the cost per long ton of 
coal as given on the right-hand margin, reading on the curved lines, 
or interpolating between them if necessary, the cost per h.p.-hr. in 
cents and mills. With coal at $4.60 per ton the cost will be $0.0035 
per e.h.p.-hr. 



STEAM POWER 



503 



If the manufacturers of the boilers and engines state definite 
guarantee in specifications covering the operating conditions for 
their equi])raent, then Fig. 46 can be used directly for determining 
the cost of fuel. For example: The boilers are guaranteed to 
evaporate, with a given coal containing 14,400 B.t.u. and costing 
$4.60 per ton, 10 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel. The boiler efficiency- 
can be obtained from Fig. 45 by reading the nearest diagonal to the 
intersection of the vertical line corresponding to the 14,400 B.t.u. 
and the horizontal line reading 10 lbs. on the left margin, which 
will be 67.5%, The engine manufacturer guarantees that the engine 




1 2 3 4 5 6 7, 

Lbs fuel Per HP Hour 
Fig. 46. Steam power — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 



alone will require 16 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr., that the engine will 
have a mechanical efficiency of 95%, or that the steam per b.h.p.- 
hr. will be 16.84 lbs., and with a generator of 95% efficiency the 
steam consumption per e.h.p.-hr. will be 16.84 h- 0.95 = 17.73 lbs. 
To this steam must be added the amount lost in radiation, pipe fric- 
tion and auxiliaries, including the condenser, exciter, feed-water 
pumps, etc. ; an amount varying from 5 to 15% of the steam required 
for the engines, depending upon the size of plant and the character 
of the auxiliaries ; a fair average figure being about 9% ; hence the 
total steam consumption per e.h.p.-hr. will be 17.73 X 1.09 =: 19.33 
lbs. On Fig. 46, tracing horizontally from 19.33 lbs. reading on the 



504 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

left margin to the intersection of the diagonal corresponding to 10 
lbs. evaporation the coal consumption per e.h.p.-hr, is read from 
the lower margin and is 1.93 lbs. Following up vertically opposite 
the same point of intersection to the line corresponding to $4.60 on 
the right margin and reading the nearest curve cutting this last 
intersection, we find that the cost for fuel per e h r) -hr will be 
$0,004. 

It will be noted that in almost all cases it will be necessary to 
interpolate the readings between the verticals representing the 
pounds of fuel per h.p.-hr. which are sub-divided in divisions of 
0.25 lbs. each; and also the curves giving the cost for fuel per 



Cubic Ft of das Per Lb. Fuel 

90 50 40 30 25 20 15 


H mi iii'i\ i\i\A\ W ^ 7 / 


\V\k\\i\\\rJvVv\ \l 1 1 


nll'VWiviA \ \r / / / 


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• 1 1 n A \(\' \l\\ V\\\a. " / / 


I hAA n v\l\iY\ \iV\\ ' ' 


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In 'Ail \ AlW ) \\aI\ A\ / ■ / 


lliv! WWiY MK \ A V ' / 


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1 1 /V V ] \ m A\v\\v' / 


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1 A/WV A MW W\ v \. i ^\ / 


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will /I I / V 1 N ><^\^ "^ s^x"^ -N,"^^^^ --^^ -^ 






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-^^=:^^~]^^^^^ :-= = = — ; 



17 
16 
15 

13 ^ 

'^1 






Fig. 47. 



I 2 3 4 5 6 7 d 9 10 II 12 13 14 
Lbi Fuel Per H P Hour 
Producer gas — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 



h.p.-hr. which are subdivided into one-half mill divisions, and this 
condition holds for all of the fuel Diagrams, Figs. 46, 47 and 48. 
With a little care in reading the results should be accurate 
within 0.5%. 

The total annual cost for coal in the 3 hypothetical operating 
conditions for the 4,000 e.h.p. capacity steam plant previously de- 
scribed will be as follows: Case I — 9,600,000 e.h.p.-hrs X $0.0035 
=r $33,600 ; Case .11—21,024,000 e.h.p.-hr.s. X $0.0035 =r $73,584; and 
Case III — 28,032,000 e.h.p.-hrs. X $0.0035 =r $98,112. 

The fuel required in a gas plant of corresponding rated capacity 



STEAM POWER 505 

can be determined from Fig-s. 39 and 47. From Fig. 39 the net 
efficiency of the gas electric plant at the generator terminals, or 
the switchboards is 23.6%. Using the same grade of bituminous 
coal, as that employed in the steam plants, having 14,400 B.t.u. 
per lb. of fuel, the amount of coal required per e.h.p.-hr. will be 
(2,515-^0.236) H- 14,400 = .75 lbs. For one theoretical horse power 
requires 2,545 B.t.u. per hr., and with 23.6% efficiency, 2,545 -f- 0.236 
=r 10,783 B.t.u. will be required per e.h.p.-hr., or 10,783 ^ 14,400 ~ 
0.75 lbs. of coal per e.h.p. With coal costing $4.60 per ton, the 
cost per e.h.p.-hr. from Fig. 47 can be obtained as follow^s : Locate 
on the lower margin the pounds of fuel per h.p.-hr. and trace ver- 
tically to the intersection of the horizontal line corresponding to the 
price of $4.60 on the right margin. The point of intersection in this 
instance falls about midway between the curves $0,001 and $0,002, 
hence the cost for fuel per e.h.p.-hr. is $0.0015, or per year for Case 
r — 9,600,000 e.h.p. -hrs.X $0 0015 - $14,400; for Case II — 21.024,- 
000 X $0.0015 - $31,536, and for Case III — 28,032,000 X$0. 0015 = 
$42,048. 

• The producer manufacturer can give definite guarantees for the 
efficiency of his equipment with a stipulated quantity of fuel. This 
efficiency will range from 60 to 80% depending upon the grade of 
fuel. From coal containing 14,400 B.t.u. with a producer efficiency 
of 80% — 11,520 B.t.u. will be delivered in the gas. The volumetric 
quality of the gas must be determined by test, and with the high 
grade fuel under consideration, approximately 80 cu. ft. of gas can 
be generated from one lb. of coal and one cu. ft. of gas will contain 
11.520 ^80 = 144 B.t.u. 

It is customary to guarantee gas engines on the basis of the gas 
consumption per b.h.p.-hr. On Fig. 39 the efficiency at the engine 
shaft is given as 24.8%, hence the efficiency of the engine is (24.8 
-f- 80) X 100 = 31% and 2,545 -^ O.Sl B.t.u. will be required per b.h.p.- 
hr., or 8,210 -^ 144 — 57 -f- cu. ft. of gas containing 144 B.t.u. per 
lb. With electric generators of 95% efficiency the cu. ft. of gas per 
e.h.p. hour will be 57 -f- 0.95 — 60. This figure can be checked from 
Fig. 39 as follows : 23.6 ^ 0.80 = 29.5 and 2545 ^ 29.5 ^ 8627 B.t.u. 
required per e.h.p.-hr., or 8627 -=- 144 = 59.91- cu. ft. of gas which 
is practically 60 cu. ft. as previously determined. 

It must be remembered that the efficiencies given on Fig. 39 are 
for a gas electric power plant in perfect physical condition and 
skilfully operated. In ordinary practice it is to be expected that 
the figures would not obtain, particularly the engine efficiencies, as 
the manufacturers would be inclined to offer as a maximum guar- 
antee the equivalent of 10 cu. ft. of gas containing 1000 B.t.u. 
which is equivalent to an efficiency of 2545 -^ (10 X 1000) X 100 ::= 
25.45%, making the total efficiency to the switchboard 25.45 X .8 (the 
producer efficiency) X .95 fthe gen. efficiency) — 19.25% instead of 
23.6% as given on Fig. 39 and the coal consumption (2545-^0.1925) 
-^ 14,400 - 0.92 lbs. per e.h.p.-hr. instead of the 0.75 Ib.s. previously 
given. To apply the diagram Fig. 47 with a known engine guar- 
antee and quality of fuel the following example is cited : Given, a 
peat fuel from which 30.3 cu. ft. of gas containing 175.2 B.t.u. can 



506 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

be generated per pound of fuel (see Table XL), costing %2 per long 
ton; an engine which is guaranteed to develop 1 b.h.p-hr. with 
12,264 B.t.u. or with 12,264 -;- 175.2 =: 70 cu ft. of gas and an electric 
generator efficiency of 91% making the cubic feet of gas per e.h.p.- 
hr. 70^0.91 =: 77. Locate on the left hand margin the 77 cu ft. 
per h.p.. follow horizontally to the right hand until the line inter- 
sects the diagonal representing 30 3 cu. ft. of gas per lb. of fuel, 
as noted at the top of the diagram; from this point of intersection 
drop vertically to the horizontal line corresponding to the price for 




,0Z M £b 05 ID 12 14 IS Id 20 .22 24 .26 28 

eaUonsOilPdrHPHour 

Fig. 48. Oil — cost of fuel per horsepower hour. 



the fuel, as noted on the left margin, i.e. $2, and read from the 
curve the cost of fuel per h.p.-hr. which is in this case $0,002. 

Fuel oil can be purchased locally for somewhat less than 3 cts. 
per gal. and the oil engine manufacturers will guarantee a con- 
sumption of 0.0755 gals, per e.h.p.-hr., including the auxiliaries, 
when the engine is direct connected to a generator of 95% efficiency. 
Knowing the cost of oil and the engine economy the cost per e.h.p.- 
hr. for fuel can be obtained from Fig. 48 as follows: Locate the 
gallons of fuel per h.p.-hr. on the bottom of the diagram and trace 
up vertically to the intersection of the horizontal corresponding to 
the price per gal. for oil as given on the left hand margin, reading 
the cost per h.p.-hr. from the curved line at the above intersection 



STEAM POWER 



507 



which is with the foreg-oing conditions $0.0023. Then the fuel cost 
per year for a plant of 4,000 e.h.p. rated capacity will be: Case 
I _ 9.600,000 X $0.0023 = $22,080; Case II — $48,355, and Case III 
— $01,474. 

Labor. The operators, including all of the laborers employed in 
connection, with the operation of a plant, exclusive of those engaged 
on its repairs, are the sole influence which can make it produce 
power with efficiency and economy. No matter how carefully the 



Number of Men Required Per Shiff 
2 3 4 5 6 7 5 3 10 II 12 13 H 




Fig. 



20 49 60 do m no m m, i60 zoo 220 i4o 260 m 
Cost of Laboc Per Hour 
49. Cost of labor; steam electric plants. 



designing engineer selects the equipment and arranges the layout ; 
no matter how finely balanced and adjustable the entire scheme 
may be, to meet the requirements of a particular service, unless the 
controlling labor organization is trained to realize to the best ad- 
vantage all of the facilities afforded, no amount of perfected appli- 
ances can compensate for unskillful manipulation ! This statement 
does not mean that a power station must be manned by a crew of 
skilled mechanics, or power experts, or that it must be operated by 
a set of theoretical rules, that would, undoubtedly, defeat the very 
purpose for which they were created ; but it does mean that each 
department must be under the control of men who know what the 



508 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

apparatus la supposed to accomplish and who are fully conversant 
with the various combinations and adjustments that will yield the 
desired result. It is not even necessary and often inadvisable for 
the attendants to know v)ky certain conditions obtain with a given 
combination provided they are certain that they do accomplish 
certain results. 

It js imjiortant that one man should be thoroughly familiar with 
each and every detail of a given plant, and that he have full charge 



Number of Men required Per Shift 

4500 'l S 3 4 5 & 7 a 9 10 V Id 13 


. , 


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Q £0 40 60 dO 100 110 W 160 ISO iOO i£0 £40 iSi 

Cost of Labor Per Hour 
Fig. 50. Cost of labor; producer gas electric plants. 



of its operation. Beyond this single competent operator, or super- 
visor, the assistants need not be specialists except as they become 
trained to deftly perform the certain specific duties placed upon 
them. The proverb that " a little learning is a dangerous thing " 
api)Iies aptly to the station oi)erator who has acquired a suffifient 
insight into the mechanics of his work to incite his constant tinker- 
ing with the equipment, making minor adjustments and changes 
here and there, until he inadvertently oversteps his knowledge and 
causes a mixup which damages or demolishes thousands of df)Mars' 
worth of machinery. A skillful commander, with a corps of well 



STEAM POWER 



509 



trained privates, faithful in the performance of the duties consigned 
to them, forms a much more satisfactory and safe working crew 
for a power station than a contingent of petty officers each im- 
pressed with the importance of his position and ability. 

The labor required for a given plant depends upon the " rated " 
working capacity and the hours of operation per year. The rated 
or normal capacity of the 4000-h.p. plant under consideration is 
3,200 e.h.p. Figures 49. 50 and 51 show the number of men required 
per shift, and the average wages per shift per hour for steam, gas 



4500 










Number of Men Peouired Perdhift 






















I 










/ 






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1000 














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500 








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ZQ .40 60 dO ,00 l£0 140 i60 160 iOO iiO £40 m 

C05t of Labor Per Hour 
Fig. 51. Cost of labor; oil electric plants. 

and oil electric power plants. These diagrams do not include the 
repair crew, which may or may not compri.se part of the station 
organization depending on whether or not the plant is co-related 
to some industry, or is an isolated proposition. From. Fig. 4 9 the 
cost for labor per eh.p.-hr. in a steam electric plant of 3.200-h.p 
working capacity is found by locating on the left margin 3,200 
h.p.. and following this line horizontally to the right to the inter- 
section of the curve marked " Wages per hour for whole plant " 
and reading from the vertical at this intersection, on the lower 



510 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

margin the amount, which is $2.02. Then the cost per year for 
labor will be in Case I — 3,000 hrs. X $2.02 -. $6,060 ; Case II — 
6,570 hrs. X $2.02 - $13,271, and Case 111 — 8,760 hrs. X $2.02 ^ 
$17,695. 

The wages for gas and oil plant operation are similarly determined 
from Figs. 50 and 51, and are as follows: For gas, Case 1 — 3,000 
X $1.41 ::^ $4,230; Case II — 6,420 X $1.41 = $9,264, and Case 111 
— 8J60 X $1.41 = $12,352, and for oil, Case I — 3,000 X $1.12 = 
$3,360; Ca.se II — 6,570 X $1.12 =; $7,358, and Case III — 8,760 X 
$1.12 = $9,811. 

When the oil engine is constructed in larger units than the pres- 
ent standard, the operating labor cost will be reduced. 

Depreciation, Repairs and Improvements. There is a wide di- 
vergence of opinion as to the method of computing or allowing for 
depreciation in connection with power plants, and, in fact, as to the 
true meaning of the term " depreciation." Its literal definition is 
" the act of lessening the worth of " ; hence all factors which lessen 
the value of a plant mu.st be taken into consideration, including 
wear, inadequacy, age and obsolescence. It is claimed by many 
managers that the repairs and improvements made in the ordinary 
course of operation cover all that it is necessary to allow for de- 
preciation, reasoning on the theory that if a plant is kept in prime 
physical condition it appreciates. This logic may at first sound 
reasonable and it is practically true .so far as the immediate physical 
condition is concerned, but in time if this policy was pursued to 
its ultimate limit, it will be found that repairs will not longer keep 
the equipment in working order and renewals become imperative, 
hence age occasions an expenditure which is chargeable to the past 
operation. 

Should the growth of a power service be rapid, the demands upon 
the equipment and buildings may soon exceed their capacity, then 
the value Of a plant in perfect condition may be suddenly reduced, 
due to its inadequacy, and its compulsory abandonment incurs an 
expense which is chargeable to past operation. 

If improvements in apparatus are devised which make the equip- 
ment of a plant inefficient when comr)ared with the more recent 
developments, economy demands that the inferior outfit should be 
sui)i)lanted, and the discarding of apparatus mechanically in excel- 
lent preservation, occasions a depreciation in its value, due to 
obsoie.scence which is chargeable only to past operation. 

A depreciation allowance does not mean expenditure, but the 
setting aside of certain sums in anticipation of future losses from 
any or all of the above causes, thus making the project self-sus- 
taining from its inception. 

There is no definite basis or established standard for determining 
the amount of depreciation to be allowed per annum for the several 
component parts of a power plant, this condition is largely due to 
the contradictory decisions that have been rendered by the courts 
in relation to this subject, combined with the entirely different 
view-points which must be assumed when placing the depreciation 



STEAM POWER 511 

on a projected plant on a "going" proposition. In the first instance 
it becorneK necessary to assume a reasonable period of normal life, 
and to distribute the depreciation reservations in some equitable 
manner over this peiiod, so that at the end of the predetermined 
lime there will be available a sum sufficient to replace the property. 
In the case of a " going " proposition the theoretical de])reciation 
as previously outlined cannot be justly ajjplied, for a plant may have 
nearly reached its theoretical limit of life yet still be in such ex- 
cellent physical condition that it fully meets the requirements of 
the imposed service, and to deduct from its cost the theoretical de- 
preciation would make its present worth only the scrap value of 
the equipment, an appraisal which the actual conditions controverts. 

For buildings of a permanent character from 1 to 1.5% of the 
cost per annum has been found to be a sufficient allowance for 
depreciation ; for steam engines and turbines from 3 to 6% ; for 
electric generators, from 3 to 7% ; for boilers, from 5 to 10% , for 
steam pumps, from 5 to 7%; for switchboards, from 3 to 5%; for 
condensers, from 4 to 10%; for gas producers, from 3 to 8%; for 
gas and oil engines, from 4 to 1%, and for machinery foundations, 
the same as that allowed for the apparatus which they support. 

The average depreciation per annum for a comi)lete steam electric 
power plant will be about 4% of its total cost for a gas electric 
plant, 5%, and for an oil electric plant 5.5%; provided the property 
is kept in good physical condition by proper maintenance and 
rei^airs. 

On the basis of the above percentages, the annual depreciation 
for the hypothetical plants cited, will be as follows : for steam, 
$224,000 X 0.04 - $8,960 ; for gas, $280,000 X 0.05 - $14,000, and for 
oil, $400,000 X 0.055 = $22,000. 

The hours of operation have but slight bearing on the deprecia- 
tion of equipment, for if kept in proper repair, continuous operation 
does not cause much greater depreciation than that occasioned by 
intermittent service, in fact, power equipment operating for only 
a portion of the time is subjected to temperature strains that are 
more conducive to its destruction than the mechanical wear that is 
imposed upon it by continuous operation ; but the cost of main- 
tenance, repairs and supplies varies proportionally with the " capa- 
city " factor. 

The repairs and supplies, including labor and materials, for steam 
plants having from 80 to 100% "capacity" factor, will be about 
2% of the first cost; for from 50 to 8^% cap factor, 1.75% of cost, 
and for from 20 to 50% cap. factor, 15% of cost; and for oil and 
gas plants, with 80 to 100% cap. factor, 2 5%, from 50 to 80% cap. 
factor, 2%, and from 20 to 50% cap. factor, 1.75%. 

Then for the hypothetical plants, the annual repairs and supply 
cost will be : 

Case I — 

Steam $224,000X0 015 =$3,360 

Gas 280,000X0.0175= 4,900 

Oil 400,000X0.0175= 7,000 



512 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Case II — 

Steam $224,000 X 0.0175 = $3,920 

Gas 280,000X0.02 =r 5,600 

Oil 400,000X0.02 = 8,000 

Case III — 

Steam $224,000X0.02 =$4,480 

Gas 280,000X0.025 = 7,000 

Oil 400,000X0.025 r= 10,000 

Taxes, Insurance and Interest. The taxation charges depend en- 
tirely upon local conditions, but it is safe to assume that the valua- 
tion placed upon power plant property will not exceed 60% of its 
first cost, or the replacement cost, and that a fair average rate of 
taxation in Maine will be 2%. Insurance rates also depend upon 
local conditions, but 0.5% on 60% of the property cost is about a 
fair average allowance. Estimating on 2.5% of 60% of the cost for 
the plants under discussion, the annual charges for taxes and 
insurance will be as follows : 

Steam 0.60 X $224,000 X 0.025 - $3,360 

Gas 0.60 X 280,000X0 025= 4,200 

Oil 0.60 X 400,000X0.025= 6,000 

The interest charges are readily obtained for an independent power 
plant depending for its solvency on an income from the sale of 
power, as the capitalization and the accounting are not involved 
with other branches of industry ; but a power plant built and oper- 
ated in conjunction wath a mill offers a more difficult problem, as 
the separation of accounts will usually demand some abstruse dis- 
bursements of costs which may either favor or handicap its show- 
ing. The thoughtful business man will concede that the power 
plant should pay for itself, and that the power to adopt will be 
that which yields a maximum return on the total investment for 
the entire mill property. 

A shoe manufacturer would not entertain a proposition for the 
preparation of his own leather if by so doing he reduced the net 
per cent, of profit on the whole plant investment, even though the 
annual expenditure for leather was materially reduced, and the 
same process of reasoning should be applied to the generation of 
power. To illustrate this point more clearly ; we will take the 
specific case of an industry which has a total capitalization of 
$500,000 and yields a net profit of 15% on the investment, when 
run with purchased power. By making an additional investment 
of $100,000 the power can be produced on the mill premises for a 
cost sufficiently less than that paid for the purchased power to 
yield a return of 6% on the power plant investment. The total 
capitalization for the industry now becomes $600,000 and the net 
profit ($500,000 X 0.15) -f- ($100,000 XO. 06) = $81,000, or a return 
on the total investment of 13.5 per cent., and the relative earning 
power of the property has been reduced (15 — 13.5 -r- 15) X 100 = 
1 0%. 

It follows that while it is justifiable to use a uniform rate of 



STEAM POWER 513 

interest when comparing tlie cost for several different classes of 
power, in adopting a power to be used in connection with any 
industry-, it is important that it be selected on the basis of its 
intrinsic value to the entire project, and not on its relative power 
value. 

For the purposes of comparison, we have assumed an interest of 
5% on the cost of the projects, as follows : 

Steam $224,000.00 X 0.05 - $11,200.00 

Gas 280.000.00x0.05-- 14.000.00 

Oil 400,000.00 X 0.05 - 20,000.00 

Water, Land Rental and General Expenses. In the estimates for 
cost, no allowance has been made for water charges, land rental 
or general expense. These items will vary for each locality and 
are readily ascertained, with the exception of general expenses 
which will be regulated by the policy of the managers. Tf large 
quantities of fuel and supplies are con.^tantly maintained, the inter- 
est on the money thus invested should be charged to the plant 
operation ; and if a large volume of coal is stored for a considerable 
period, a deterioration of about 5% for each 6 months in storage 
should be added to the power cost ; as should also be the costs for 
clerical work devoted to the ordering and disbursing of supplies and 
materials, and employed in compiling the records of the plant 
operation. 

In most sections of Maine, water for boiler feed, condensing and 
cooling purposes can be secured without other cost than that re- 
quired to provide proper facilities for delivering it to the desired 
point of use. If the water must be purchased, or if it becomes an 
item of considerable expense, provision should be made for its 
economical utilization, and cooling towers, or pools, should be in- 
stalled to conserve the condensing water for steam plants and the 
cooling water for gas plants. The use of surface condensers will 
permit the return of all the condensed steam to the boiler with the 
exception of about 5% which will be lost mechanically while pass- 
ing through the system. Provision should be made for supplying 
the condensers with about 50 times the amount of water required 
for steam, and for supplying gas plants about 200 lbs. of water per 
e.h.p.-hr. 

The land rental is not ordinarily an important factor in local 
power costs except in congested cities where real estate is high ; 
and the proper amount to be added for this item is readily obtained 
for any specific case. 

Conclusions. Table XLI gives a resume and summation of the 
figures relating to the hypothetical plants, which are distributed 
through the preceding text, and it shows the lowest costs that can 
be realized when generating power in plants of the several types 
outlined, and operating under the most favorable conditions. The 
only items that can be reduced are the fuel charges. The writer 
wishes to place particular emphasis on the foregoing .statement and 
to impress upon the readers' attention the fact that the final figures, 
under items Nos. 35 and 36, for the cost per h.p. and kw.-hr., are 



514 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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516 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

minimum, and that the average cost for power as produced by 
plants running- in connection with an industry will be about 20% 
higher than those recorded in the tabulation. 

As intimated in the introductory remarks, this paper is prepared 
with the object in view of aiding in the education of the public in 
regard to the real value of Maine's water-powers, at the same time 
we hope its perusal will dispel any illusions that may exist as to 
the possibility' of generating steam power in Maine for $15 or $16 
per h.p.-yr. of 3,000 hrs., a falsity which we know has been occa- 
sionally credulously accepted ; but such an accomplishment is im- 
possible unless a portion of the power expenditure is eliminated by 
disbursing it with process accounts ; a procedure justified only when 
steam is required for process, or heating purposes. 

It is more than probable that the necessity of insuring continuous 
operation will compel the installation of reserve equipment in plants 
working under the conditions outlined for Cases II and III, al- 
though no allowance has been made for this contingency in the 
plants cited. The need for surplus apparatus is more urgent (be- 
coming almost imperative if power interruptions are to be avoided) 
in gas and oil plants, on account of the small overload capacity of 
the engines ; when compared with the steam engine or turbine that 
can carry as high as 50% overload in an emergency by sacrificing 
efficiency. To meet the requirements by installing surplus apparatus 
will add materially to the cost per h.p.-hr., as items Nos. 27 to 33 
inclusive will be increased. 

Fully appreciating all of the foregoing facts, the author deemed 
it advisable to adhere to the simple cases adopted rather than enter 
into the details of the more involved problem with the attendant 
discussion ; because the examples given quite clearly illustrate the 
application of the diagrams, with less opportunity for confusion in 
demonstrating their use than would exist if the problems were more 
complex. 

Obviously the data presented cannot be applied indiscriminately, 
for it is not to be expected that any stereotyped code of rules can 
be made which will eliminate the need of applying discerning judg- 
ment ; or that the information given will obviate the necessity and 
advisability of obtaining the counsel of an expert when a proposi- 
tion of importance is under consideration. 

Comparative Cost of Power by an Oil Engine and a Steam Engine 
in Small Units. E. H. Lockwood and F. P. Pfleghar gave the fol- 
lowing notes at the meeting of the A. S. M. E., November, 1912. 

The steam engine was a 100-h.p. horizontal Putnam with a Fitz- 
gibbons boiler of the same rated boiler h.p. The oil engine was a 
De La Vergne, horizontal, single-acting, center crank, 4-stroke cycle ; 
jacket, water-cooled ; fuel, petroleum fuel oil ; ignition, hot chamber, 
on the Hornsby-Akroyd system ; cylinder dimensions, diam. 27 ins., 
stroke 33 ins., rated h.p. 125, used to drive a direct-connected 220- 
volt generator, the current being used for light and power, and the 
average output being about 90 h.p. The engine was carefully tested 
for output and fuel consumption and found quite economical. The 
actual cost of operation of the oil engine follows : 



STEAM POWER 517 

Fuel oil, 14 gal. per day $3.78 

Labor, half-time of one man 1.50 

Oil, waste, water, repairs, per day l.U(j 

Total cost per day $6.L'8 

On a basis of 300 days per year, the above amounts to $20.93 
per h.p. per yr. 

The fixed charges for this engine were as follows: 

Cost of engine and generator, 10% of $6000 $600 

Cost of heating boiler. 107o of $1000 100 

Insurance, taxes, etc., per yr 250 

Fixed charges per yr. per h.p $10.55 

Combining these two costs, the total cost ijer h p. ]jer yr., in- 
cluding operation and fixed charges, was $30.48. 

Apparently the 10% given in the preceding table is intended to 
cover interest and depreciation, Avhich is the same basis assumed 
for the steam engine. 

In contrast with the preceding, the estimated cost of operating 
the steam engine was as follows : 

Fuel per day, 2^4 tons $ 8 21 

Labor, time of one man 3.00 

Oil, waste, etc., per day 50 

Total per day $11.71 

On a basis of 300 days, and divided by 90 h.p., the above cost 
amounts to $39.04 per h.p. per yr. 

The fixed charges for this engine were as follows : 

Cost of steam engine and generator, 10%. . $350 

Cost of boiler, 107o ■ -• ■ 200 

Repairs, insurance, and taxes 250 

Total fixed charges per yr $800 

Fixed charges per yr. per h.p $8.88 

The two costs combined giving a total of $47.92 per h.p. per yr. 
for operation and fixed chaiges. 

This showing is favoiable to the oil engine, if no account is taken 
of the useful by-product of exhaust steam which was utilized for 7 
months of the year when the factory was heated. The allowance 
that was made for this steam was arrived at by deducting the cost 
of coal required for heating, which was estimated as 1 ton per day 
for 7 months, or $766. With this correction the total cost of the 
steam engine was reduced to $39.38 per h.p. per yr. as compared 
to $30.48 for the oil engine, both of these being on the basis of 
1 h.p. per day of 10 hrs., 300 days per yr. 

In the discussion attention was called to the fact that the bad 
features of the oil engine are necessity for heating it for 20 minutes 
or so before it starts, the expense of frequent renewals of caps, 
irregular work of the generator when directly connected to the 
shafts and higher expenses for keeping up the engine than in the 



618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

case of the steiim engine. The oil engine generally gives more 
trouble and is less economical in winter. 

Cost of Power with Small Unit. Engineering and Contracting, 
April 3, iyi2. 

Cost at J,:j h.p. Producer Plant. The plant is installed in a wood- 
working shop of the Liampsen Lumber Co., New Haven, (.'onn., and 
the records were i)resented by Albert W. llonywell, Jr. The engine 
is rated at 45 h.p. at 160 rev. per min. and is of the 4-cycle hit-and- 
miss type, with poppet valves and jumi)-spark ignition. The pro- 
ducer is of the ordinary suction type, with stationary grates, and 
the quantity of gas delivered to the engine is varied by a hand- 
adjusted throttle valve in the delivery pipe. The plant is in opera- 
tion 9 hrs. a day, the engine kept running noon hour, and the load 
variable. 

The average coal consumption is approximately 467 lbs. of pea 
anthracite per day, or 46.7 lbs. per hr. Assuming an average load 
factor for the shop of approximately 407c/, this is equivalent to 2.5 
lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr. The cost of coal delivered is $4.50 per ton, 
which would give an average cost per b.h.p. per hr. of 0.56 cts. No 
account is taken of the cost of water, as the only cost is that of 
pumping. 

The first cost of the plant, including producer, engine, blower 
and motor to drive same, was, in round figures, $3,500. The operat- 
ing expenses per day were found to be: 

Coal. 467 lb at $4.50 per ton $1.05 

Labor 2.50 

Repairs and depreciation 1.16 

interest and taxes 0.70 

Oil and waste 0.14 

Total $5.55 

The ashes from the producer were, however, screened, and coal 
secured in this manner may be estimated at $2 per ton, which re- 
duces the real operating expenses to $5.08 per day. 

Comparative Figures for 500 h.p. Oil Burning Steam Plant Con- 
verted to a Diesel Engine Drive. Electrical World, May 25, 1912. 
Table XLII gives the figures from the record of a month's operation 
in liUO and one in 1911 of a plant in the Southwest. The first 
column is for all-steam operation, the second for all-Diesel operation. 

TABLE XLII 

Steam Diesel 

Kw.-hr. produced 38,402 63,780 

Kw.-hr. per lb. fuel oil 0.205 1.280 

Kw.-hr. per gal. fuel 1.54 9.49 

Total manufacturing cost $884.86 $6 16.08 

Operating (.-oyt ». 8 14.24 530.69 

Maintenance co.st 40.62 1 1 5.39 

Power i)lant wages 210.00 251.70 

Fuel for power 540.00 179.34 

Water for power 65.00 32.50 

Miscellaneous operating expense 16.95 25.12 



STEAM POWER 519 

Maintenance : 

Boilers $60.85 



Engines , 10.65 $95.67 

Electric plant 8.85 10.97 

Miscellaneous 12.75 8.75 

Buildings 7.25 

Comparative Cost of Electricity Generated by Gas and Steam 

Engines. Very interesting data comparing the cost of generating 
electricity at a small isolated plant near Boston are contained in the 
October, 1910, issue of The Isolated Plant, from which we have 
abstracted the following : 

The generating equipment is run in conjunction with the steam 
heating plant in an establishment combining the features of a hotel 
and boarding house. Due to the necessity of enlarging the plant 
and replacing a worn-out unit and to the fact that the economy 
of gas engine generating sets had been presented in an extremely 
favorable manner, this type of equipment was installed. 

The installation consisted of: 

1 85-h.p. gas engine, 262 rev. per min. direct connected to 50-kw. 

generator. 
1 40-h.p. gas engine, 300 rev. per min. direct connected to 25-kw. 

generator. 
5 panel switchboard and wired with duplicate balancer sets for 125 

volt lighting, and cost $8,100. 

With gas at 60 cts. per thousand cu. ft., the cost of fuel for the 
gas engine sets amounted to about $350 per month, making the 
total cost for fuel of steam and electric plant about $175 a month 
more than for the years 1904, '05 and '06, when the entire plant 
had been operated with steam. 

The boilers used were 2 125-h.p. horizontal tubular, which were 
retained from the first installation. 

The fact that operating costs outside of fuel were also increased, 
making a total increase in cost of about $2,000 per yr., convinced 
the management that in this case, steam operation was decidedly 
more economical, and the following equipment was installed : 

1 125-h.p. engine, 275 rev. per min. direct connected to 75-kw. gen- 
erator. 

1 40-h.]). engine, 300 rev. per min. direct connected to 25-kw. gen- 

erator. 
5 -panel switchboard. 

2 balancer sets. 

2 watt hour meters. 300 and 200 amp. 

All installed and wired complete for $5,100. 

The exhaust steam from the engines is utilized in heating during 
the winter; in summer after passing through the feed water heater, 
it is exhausted directly to atmosphere. 

Tables XLTII and XLIV show the comparative costs of operating 
the 2 systems : 

Labor is made up* of .5 the time of the chief engineer and full 
time for second and third assistant engineers. 



520 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XL.III. ANNUAL COSTS, GAS ENGINE PLANT 

Annual Per kw.- 

cost % hr. ct. 

Labor ?2,230 30.10 1.344 

Gas at 60 ct. per M 3,379 45.61 2.037 

Oil 255 3.14 0.154 

Miscellaneous supplies 75 1.01 0.045 

Electrodes 180 2.43 0.045 

Repairs 200 2.70 0.120 

Fixed charges (replacement, 5%, $405 ; in- 
terest, 5%, $405) 810 10.93 0.488 

Insurance (liability) 30 0.40 0.018 

Taxes 25 0.34 0.015 

Overhead 225 3.04 0.136 

Totals $7,409 100.00 4.465 

TABLE XLIV. ANNUAL COST STEAM ENGINE PLANT 

Annual Per kw.- 

cost % hr. ct. 

Labor $1,640 48.87 0.988 

Coal 591 17.61 0.357 

Water 120 3.58 0.072 

Oil 75 2.23 0.045 

Miscellaneous supplies -. 40 1.19 0.024 

Repairs 125 3.72 0.075 

Fixed charges (replacement, 5%, $255; in- 

teret^t, 57c, $255) 510 15.20 0.307 

Insurance (liability) 30 0.89 0.018 

Taxes 25 0.75 0.015 

Overhead 200 5.96 0.121 

Totals $3,356 100.00 2.022 

TABLE XLV. KW.-HR. COSTS 

Gas Steam 

ct. ct. 

Labor 1.314 0.988 

Fuel 2.037 0.357 

Incidentals 0.427 0.141 

Charges, etc 0.657 0.536 

Total 4.465 2.022 

Use of coal in each case may be shown as follows : 
Actual coal used, January to June inclusive. 1909, when 

running with gas engines 695 tons 

Annual use, 695 -^ .53, heating, etc 1,311 tons 

6 months' u.«:e of coal with steam engine in 1910 769 tons 

Annual use, all purposes 1,451 tons 

Deduct power use 140 tons 

1,311 tons 



TABLE XLVL TOTALS. HEATING AND POWER PLANT 

Electric light and power, 165.923 kw.-^r $ 7.409 $3,356 

Additional fuel, 1,311 tons at $4.25 5,572 5,572 

Add gas fuel 55 

$12,981 $8,983 



STEAM POWER 521 

Electrodes. The make and bieak method of sparking is used on 
the engines, and the electrodes proved rather an expensive item. 

Overhead is a proportionate charge for management and ofBce 
expense. 

Labor is made up of J^ the time of the chief engineer, .5 the time 
of first assistant engineer and full time of the second assistant 
engineer; after stopping the gas engines the third assistant engineer 
was no longer needed. 

Coal. The maximum quantity has been used, 140 tons at the 
prevailing price of $4 22. No reduction has been made for gieater 
efficiency of o])eration with 2 engines, although all fixed charges 
have been based on the investment required for 2 engines. 

Water, Full chnrge for the steam exhausted would be about 
$200. but as the exhaust is entirely used in winter for heating and 
is put through the feed water heater in the summer, this cost has 
been reduced 40%. Remarks under table on "charges" and "over- 
head " apply in this case also. 

The kw.-hr. costs, grouped for comparison, are shown in Table 
XLV. 

Costs of a Gas Engine and of a Combined Steam Plant. The fol- 
lowing is abstracted from an article by T. M. Chance in the 
Engineering Record, Sept. 4, 1909. In the many excellent articles 
upon the relative financial economy of steam and gas-driven sta- 
tions which have appeared in the technical press of the last few 
years the issues have been variously discussed and reliable data 
furnished from which somewhat definite conclusions may be drawn 
as to which of the two is preferable for any particular service. At 
or near full load the gas engine so far has shown a decided economic 
superiority and even in the lower ranges of load-factor is an im- 
portant rival of the engine or turbine-driven steam plant ; but the 
first cost of a gas engine, with its producer, scrubbers, and aux- 
iliaries, is high, and where cheap anthracite or coke cannot be had, 
the operation of the producer on soft coal requires more intelligent 
attendance and skill than the steam boiler. 

If a plant can be installed that will have the small first cost 
and low fixed charges of the steam plant and at the same time 
approach the gas engine in low operating costs, without, however, 
the necessity of a troublesome bituminous producer, it will go far 
toward a satisfactory solution of the power problem. In the past 
two years such a solution has been found in the adoption of the 
low-pressure turbine, utilizing the exhaust of high economy Corliss 
steam engines. 

P^'or the purpose of comparing the economy of this type of power 
plant with that of the gas engine, the total cost of operating and 
maintaining, under like conditions, a 1000-kw. plant of each type 
will be considered. It must be borne in mind, however, that the 
conclusions so reached apply with even greater force to larger 
sized stations, as the first cost per kw. of the combined steam plant 
decreases more rapidly as the power per unit increases than does 
that of the gas plant. We will assume the locality to be one in 
which good steam coal can be bought for $1 to $4 a ton, condensing 



522 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

water to be plentiful and at a fair mean temperature, and labor 
to be average in price. Both plants are to run 24 hrs. a day, 365 
days in the year, and are to carry at least 20% load-factor. Each 
plant will be assumed to have a reserve unit of .5 the total capacity 
of the plant. It will be understood that the term " load-factor " 
will here be used to mean the fraction (100% X total kws. per 24 
hrs. )-=- rated kws., assuming- continuous operation of the plant 
throughout the 24 hrs. Under these conditions a low load-factor 
denotes a high fuel consumption. 

The gas-driven plant requires 3 tandem, 4-cycle, double-acting 
500-kw. units, with generators, producers, and auxiliaries. In the 
case of the steam plant, we can assume the exhaust turbine to be 
capable of delivering 80% of the rating of the non-condensing engine 
serving it. Hence, a 550-kw. compound Corliss engine and gen- 
erator delivering all of its exhaust steam to a low-pressure turbo- 
generator of 450-kw. capacity meets the requirements of the 1000- 
kw. output. The turbine may be a balanced double-flow reaction 
machine, or, as the exhaust areas are comparatively small for this 
sized unit, it may be built single-flow and fitted with balancing 
pistons. The mixed-flow impulse type, being provided with high- 
pressure nozzles for admitting boiler steam when overloaded, is 
also well fitted for this class of work. The turbine may serve a 
separate circuit, in which case a governor and live steam connec- 
tion with the boiler are required, or it may run in electrical unison 
with the engine, obviating the necessity for independent govern- 
ing mechanism. At times of low load the engine can be connected 
directly to the condenser and the turbine cut out if both engine 
and turbine are on the same circuit, or if the circuit that the 
turbine serves does not require current at such times. A reserve 
duplicate Corliss unit is an ample safeguard against shut-downs, as 
in case of injury to the turbine the 2 engine units can carry the 
load, or, if either engine is out of commission, the other may be run 
in conjunction with the turbine. 

The producer equipment of the gas plant w^ill consist of 3 indi- 
vidual units, fitted with suitable scrubbers, superheaters, tar-ex- 
tractors, and such auxiliaries, and may be either of the up or down- 
draft type. No attempt has been made to consider a by-product 
recovery plant of the Mond type, as the total amount of coal 
burned at full load would be less than 21 tons per day, a tonnage 
entirely too small for economic operation by the Mond system. 

The maximum boiler capacity of the steam plant will be that 
required when the turbine and condenser are shut down and both 
engines operated non-condensing. Assuming a maximum water rate 
of 29 lbs. per kw.-hr. under these conditions, the plant output of 
1000 kw^s. will require 29,000 lbs. of steam per hr. of 900 b.h.p. As 
maximum economy is not a necessity when the plant is run by the 
engines only, 3 225-h.p. units, driven \^ above rating, will supply 
the required amount of steam. Hence, allowing one standby unit, 
the boiler equipment of the steam plant may consist of 4 225-h.p. 
horizontal front-fired water-tube units, with economizers, stokers, 
internal superheaters, feed pumps, and the usual equipment. The 



STEAM POWER 523 

advisability of superheat in a plant of this size may be questioned, 
but as it serves to deliver dry steam to the turbine and obviates 
the necessity of steam separators in the exhaust line of the engines, 
its use is perfectly rational and the efficiency of the plant will be 
improved by its employment. A centrifugal jet condenser with 
rotative dry-air pump or a barometric tube may be employed to 
produce the necessary turbine vacuum of 28 ins., either of these 
types of condenser being efficient and moderate in price. 

The 2 Corliss compound engines, 3 -phase generators, exciters, 
switchboard, boilers and auxiliaries will cost about $88,000, or $80 
per kw. The turbo-generator, with its condenser and auxiliaries, 
will cost about $22,500, or $50 per kw., making the total cost of 
the steam plant machinery $110,500. The cost of the 3 4-cycle gas 
engines with 3-phase generators, exciters, switchboard, air starting 
apparatus and gas generating plant will amount to about $142,500, 
or $95 per kw. The cost of buildings or foundations is not included 
in either of these estimates. 

A day engineer at $4 and a night engineer at $3, with two helpers 
at $2 and two firemen at $2, are required for either plant, making 
the total labor expense for the 24 hrs. $15. Oil, waste and supplies 
have been charged at $5 in each plant. 

TABLE XLVII. COSTS AND INTEREST OF STEAM AND GAS 
PLANTS 

Steam plant Gas plant 

Two 55-kw. engine units with generators, 
boilers and all steam and electric auxil- 
iaries $88,000.00 

One 450-kw. exhaust turbine with gener- 
ator, condenser and other auxiliaries.. 22,500.00 

Three 500-kw. engine units with generator, 
producers and all gas and electric aux- 
iliaries $142,500.00 

Total cost of plant . $110,500.00 $142,500.00 

Interest at 5% 5,525.00 7,125.00 

Depreciation, maintenance and repairs at 

10% 11,050.00 14,250.00 

Attendance of plant at $15 per 24-hr. day 

for yr. of 365 days 5,475.00 5,475.00 

Oil, waste, etc., at $5 per 24-hr. day for yr. 

of 365 days 1,825.00 1,825.00 

Total cost per yr., exclusive of fuel. . . . $23,875.00 $28,675.00 
" Plant charge," i.e., hourly cost, exclusive 

of fuel $2,725 $3,273 

In Table XLVII intere.st has been computed at 5%, and deprecia- 
tion, maintenance and repairs charged to both plants at the rate 
of 10%. This 10% charge includes an 11% charge for depreciation, 
maintenance and repairs of the engines and boiler plant and a 6 
per cent, charge for depreciation, maintenance and repairs of the 
turbine, the latter charge being relatively smaller because no 
boiler costs are entailed by its use, except when the live steam con- 
nection is employed in cases of emergency or severe overload. 

It will be seen from Table XLVII that there is a constant hourly 
charge of $2,725 against the steam plant and of $3,273 against the 



524 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

gas plant, whether the load-factor be high or low. This constant 
cost may be designated as the " plant charge " to differentiate it 
from the various items of fixed charges and from the total power 
cost. At low loads there would be a slight decrease in the cost 
of waste, lubricants, and such supplies, and consequently in the 
" plant charge," but as this would affect each plant equally it has 
not been considered. 

To determine the relative cost of fuel per kw.-hr. the two curves 
in Fig. 52 have been plotted, showing the coal consumption, in- 
cluding standby losses, of the two plants at different loads. The 
curve of coal consumption for the steam plant is based upon an 
actual evaporation in service of 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal 
burned, and on an assumption of 165 lbs. initial pressure expanding 
to 17 lbs. in the engine and to 28-in. vacuum in the turbine, allowing 
1-lb. pressure drop between the engine and turbine, as recommended 
by J. R. Bibbins, in his pajier before the Canadian Society of Civil 
Engineers, Nov. 26, 1908. An engine working through such a 

























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I.M 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.C0 3.60 t.tiO 
Pouoda o£ Coal yei Kilowaimour. 

Fig. 52. Cost of coal for the plants. 



pressure range may be expected to give good economy and the allow- 
ance of 1-lb. drop betvy^een engine and turbine obviates the injurious 
effects upon the engine of a variable back piessure due to the 
turbine. In plotting the curve of coal consumption for the gas plant, 
it has been assumed that the load carried is of a violently varying 
nature, with severe peaks, such as are met with in electric railway 
work or in rolling mills ; hence 2 units must be kept in use for the 
greater part of the time. Where the low load-factor is cau.'-ed by 
a steady light load, with a heavy peak of short duration, the coal 
consumption shown by this curve can be decreased by running one 
unit only when the load falls off. In large stations with a number 
of individual units, light loads would not cause the great increase 
in fuel per kw.-hr. indicated by these curves, as the load could be 
divided between a few machines and these driven at full load, so that 
the loss in economy would be small, being principally due to the 
banking of the extra, boilers or producers. 

The cost per kw.-hr., exclusive of the fuel charge, may be deter- 
mined for any particular load-factor by dividing the plant charges 
$2,725 and $3,273 by the load carried in kws. This quotient of 
plant charge divided by load, added to the cost of coal per kw.-hr. 
at the load-factor investigated gives the total expense of generating 



STEAM POWER 



625 



one kw.-hr., and a curve may be drawn showing- the relation of this 
total cost to the load-factor. In Fig-. 53 curves have been plotted 
for the two plants, showing the increase of cost per kw.-hr. with 
loads ranging from 1000 to 200 kws. The pounds of coal per kw.-hr. 
used in determining the fuel cost at various loads are those shown 
by the curves in Fig. 52. Coal is assumed to be "w^orth $3 per ton 
of 2000 lbs. ; plant charges to be $2,725 and $3,273 an hr. A glance 
at these two curves shows that with |3 coal the steam plant is the 
more economical at every stag-e of load above and including 200 

20.0 



17.5 



w 


15.0 


^ 


12.5 


w 




I 


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5 5.0 



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w 




















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Fig. 53. 



20 40 60 80 100 

Load Factor. Per Cent 

Increase in cost with different load factors. 



kws., the lowest load considered, and that the difference in cost per 
kw.-hour increases as the load-factor grows smaller. 

The curves of Fig. 54 illustrate the effect of the price of coal 
on the cost per kw.-hr., the load-factor being assumed to be con- 
stant for each pair of curves drawn. These curves are all straight 
lines and they show that the greatesi: difference in cost exists at 
the lowest price of coal, the steam plant curve approaching that Of 
the gas plant as this price increases. At the coal cost per ton 
corresponding to the intersection of these curves, both stations are 
of equal economy. At any price of coal greater than this "critical " 
price, the gas plant is the more economical ; at any price less, the 
steam plant. 

The cost of the foundations for the turbine and engines of the 
steam plant will be much less than the cost of those upon which 



526 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the 3 gas-engine units are erected, and will offset to some extent 
the increase in cost of the boiler foundations, settings, chimney, and 
such equipment, over that of the foundations required by the pro- 
ducers, scrubbers, and auxiliaries, of the gas-driven station. The 
total floor space occupied by the 2 Corliss engines, at 2.3 sq. ft. per 
k\v., will be about 2800 sq. ft., and, allowing 2.6 sq. ft. per b.h.p., 
the station area exclusive of turbine wall be about 5100 sq. ft. 
Assuming that the turbo-generator and electrical equipment do not 
require more than 900 sq. ft.*, the total area of the plant, without 
office or shop, will be in the neighborhood of 6000 sq. ft. The area 
of the engine-room of the gas plant, at 3 sq. ft. per kw., will be 

























£2.5 














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Cost ot CoQl per Ton 

Fig. 54. Effect of cost of coal on power cost. 

4500 sq. ft. and that of the producer, at 1.5, 2250, making the total 
plant area, exclusive of office or shop, approximately 6750 sq. ft. 
In Fig. 55 a layout of each plant is shown, planned without provi- 
sion for high-tension apparatus. The producer room of the gas 
plant contains a compressor and starting tanks, and a small fan 
for blowing up the producers when cold ; both auxiliaries are driven 
by a small oil engine. Steam is supplied to the jet blowers of the 
producers by a waste-heat boiler utilizing ' the engine exhaust. 
Duplicate exciters, driven by separate engines, are provided, one 
being held as a reserve. The engine-room of the steam plant is 
also equipped with exciters in duplicate, one being direct-connected 



STEAM POWER 



527 



to the turbine and used to excite both generator fields when the 
turbine is in use, and the other being engine-driven and used when 
the turbine is closed down. As there is little waste steam available 
for heating the feed-water, the condenser auxiliaries being elec- 
trically di'iven, tlie boilers are equipped with economizers. 




1 


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STEAM PLANT ' ' '"..i' ™ " GAS PLANT 

Fig. 55. Proposed arrangement of steam and gas plants. 

In Table XLVIII the total costs per yr. of 8760 hrs. have been 
computed for each plant, the price of coal being assumed to be $3 
a ton and fixed charges, insurance and taxes on buildings and land 
not considered. Although the difference in cost per kw.-hr. is 
greatest at 20% load-factor, it will be seen from this table that 
the greatest saving per year is at a factor of 40%. 

TABLE XLVTTT. TOTAL COSTS PER YEAR, EXCLUSIVE OF 
FIXED CHARGES, INSURANCE AND TAXES 

I^ond- 

factor Steam plant Oas plant Difference 

100% .$49,756.80 $51,009.48 $1,252 68 

80'7o 44>893.25 46.750.37 2.057.12 

60% 40.429.15 43.020.36 2.591.21 

40%o 36,749.95 39,497.09 2.747.14 

20% 33,412.39 35,504.28 2,091.89 



If cheap condensing water is not plentiful and cooling towers 
are employed, an increase of about $4,000 must be charged against 
the first cost of the .steam plant. The difference in the cost of 
buildings, foundations, and other structural features will not exceed 
$6,000, and this, with the cost of the cooling towers, will make a 
debit of $1.0,000 against the steam plant on which about 10%, or 



528 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

$1,000 a year, must be charg-ed. Thus, under unfavorable con- 
densing conditions, the steam plant still shows a saving- of $252.68 
at 100% load-factor, the most advantageous factor at which the gas 
plant can operate. 

It may be argued that the gas producer will show better relative 
economy compared to the steam boiler, when low-grade fuels are 
used, than the curves in Fig. 52, which were plotted for good 
steam coal, would indicate. At the Government fuel testing station 
in St. Louis it was found that the fuel consumption of a compara- 
tively small producer plant increased from 2 to 4.5 lbs. pei*kw.-hr. 
when the heat value of the fuel decreased from 14,000 B.t.u. to 
6500 B.t.u. It may reasonably be claimed that no coal-flred boiler 
plant could give such efficiency on fuels that are so low in thermal 
units; but if the boilers be fired with i)roducer gas this objection 
is no longer valid, as they will then deliver practically the same 
efficiency with fuels varying widely in thermal value. As Mr. 
Ernst Schmattolla observes in an article on Gas-Producers and 
Gas-Firing, in The Mining Journal, London, Feb. 6, 1909, a 
far more complete combustion may be attained with gas-firing than 
by either hand or automatic stoking, the smoke nuisance eliminated 
and an excess of air in the furnace avoided. A small thermal loss 
must inevitably occur when producer-gas is passed through scrub- 
bers for purification and cooling, preparatory to its use in an 
engine cylinder, for it is virtually impossible to utilize all of the 
sensible heat of the gas in superheaters or boilers, and that ab- 
stracted by the scrubbing apparatus is thrown away. This loss 
does not occur in the gas-fired boiler, since the gases are delivered 
directly to the combustion chamber through a short flue and in a 
highly heated state. Practically all the heat radiated from the 
combustion chamber is taken up by the incoming air, which forms 
an air-jacket about it. The cost of such a producer, having no 
scrubbers or tar extractors, would be largely offset by the cost of the 
automatic stoking apparatus required for firing the ordinary boiler 
furnace. 

No discussion of this subject would be complete without reference 
to the comprehensive paper of Mr, H. G. Stott, Notes on the 
Cost of Power (given later in this chapter), printed in the 
• April, 1909, Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. It is illustrated by more 
than 20 cost and load curves of representative power plants of 
various types. From these data it would seem that, aside from hy- 
draulic installations, the most economic type for ordinary load- 
factors is one in which gas engines are used to take the low load 
T)ortion of the curve, assisted by steam turbines in carrying the 
peak. It should be remembered, however, that Mr Stott deals with 
station capacities of not less than 30,000 kws. and the inferences 
drawn from plants of this size may not entirely be applicable to 
small installations consisting of a few relatively large units, for 
the latter must run at low load when the load-factor drops, with 
correspondingly high fuel consumption. Of course, it is obvious 
that in a majority of reciprocating engine plants running on bi- 
tuminous coal, the addition of exhaust turbines may be a better 



STEAM POWER 529 

method of improvang the station economy than the abandonment 
of steam and the installation of a producer-gas plant. 

Cost of Power in Gas Producer Plants versus Steam. Julius I. 
Wile gave Tables XLIX-LIII in a paper read before the Technology- 
Club of Syracuse, N. Y., which were afterward published in 
Power, April, 1906. 

The figures from Tables XLIX and L are from actual tests, with 
the exceptions that where these units in a pound of coal were not 
given in the reports they have been assumed, 12,500 and 13,600 
B.t.u, per pound respectively. 

The mam characteristic difference between the pressure producer 
and those of the suction type is that in the former the complete 
system is under pressure, supplied by a steam jet blower or a power 
driven fan, a gas holder being necessary for storing the gas and 
also an independent boiler necessary to raise the steam for satura- 
tion and for the blower. In the suction type the gas is pulled by 
the suction of the engine, both holder and independent steam boiler 
being eliminated, steam and atmospheric pressure necessary for 
saturation in the generator being raised by the passage to the 
cleaning apparatus of the hot gases from the generator. The space 
occupied by the suction type is less than the other and is also less 
than that required by a return tubular boiler of the same power. 
Advantage is also added by the fact that the attention required by 
the station force Is also considerably less than in the case of the 
pressure type. 

Pressure producers must be fed once every half hour unless 
automatic feeds are installed, since the level of the fuel must be 
fixed to obtain constant resistance, this being only necessary once 
in 3 hours at full load and once every 5 hours at half load in suc- 
tion producers which are fitted with large fuel reservoirs. For this 
latter type, Mr. Wile says that, the total attention otherwise re- 
quired for starting up in the morning is 15 mins. and 20 mins. 
at night. 

In the Dowson type of pressure plant, the best known example of 
which is the one at Walthanstow, London, England, an independent 
boiler supplies the pressure by a steam blast. The 3000-h.p. plant 
of this type, quoted in Table XLIX, comprised 8 Dowson gener- 
ators and 13 direct-coupled vertical engines. The generating costs 
given in Table LI include fuel, supplies, labor and repairs, in com- 
parison with an average of 11 steam plant.s, having about 3 times 
the output of the Dowson plant. Under the high costs of coal and 
water in the London district this Walthanstow plant shows a saving 
of 38% in fuel and 21% in operating cost. If the fuel costs for the 
compared plants were the same the Dowson type would show a, 
fuel saving of 51% and operating saving of 29%. 

In Table LII the.se figures are somewhat bettered, for compara- 
tive plants in Guernsey, England, where the gas is 58% in fuel 
and 48% in operating cost. 

The Taylor producer on which the U. S. Geological Survey tests 
at St. Louis were made in 1905 are mentioned in Table XLIX is 
here compared with the Wilson producer, which is of the Dowson 



530 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 






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STEAM POWER 531 

pressure type. Mr. Wile says that the main reason why the Taylor 
plant is not as efficient as the Wilson one is on account of the 
scrubbing device being of the rotary type requiring power, while 
Wilson uses the stationary type of scrubber. He gives the effi- 
ciency of these types of producer at from 60 to 65%. 

A radical difference in the character of the anthracite coal found 
In America and Europe accounts for the necessity of different dis- 
tinctive features between the successful suction gas producers in 
the two- countries. The American coal has not as great a heat 
value as the European, is not as free burning, has a larger per- 
centage of ash with a tendency to clinker, which combination makes 
it necessary for the fuel beds of American producers to be larger 
in area per unit of power than those employed abroad, and also 
necessitates the use of shaking grates and poke holes. 

Producer gas is the result of incomplete combustion of fuel, due 
to the absence of sufficient oxygen to support combustion, and for 
its formation a deep fuel bed is essential. An ordinary blast fur- 
nace is an ideal form of gas producer, as the body of coal or coke 
is subjected to a blast of air beneath the fuel bed and without any 
provision above for the product of combustion, carbon monoxide, 
to burn to carbonic acid gas (COa). The gas arising from a blast 
furnace has a heat value of approximately 90 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 

As an idea of the power which goes to waste in blast furnaces, 
it should be borne in mind that from every ton of pig produced 
before the waste gases have been used to heat the air blast, there 
is available in the waste gases the heat equivalent of 600 h.p.-hrs. 
For doing the work of the blast furnace about 240 h.p.-hrs. are 
necessary, which leaves 360 h.p.-hrs. available for other purposes. 
To make this gas suitable for use in a gas engine, it must be 
cleaned of all impurities, and a cleaning apparatus is common to 
all forms of gas producers for supplying engines. It has been 
found, however, that on account of the minute particles of dust 
and the different classes of iron as well as coke or coal which are 
used in the blast furnace, a cleaning apparatus suitable for one 
class of gas is not always suitable for another. 

Table LTII shows the various kinds of gases which are used in 
gas engines, showing their heat value and chemical composition 
by volume. 

TABLE LIII. ' COMPOSITION OF GASES 

Kind of Gas H 

Blast Furnace Gas 1 

Producer Gas from Anthra. . . 12 
Producer Gas from Bitum. . . 10 

Blue Water Gas 44.5 

Coke Oven Gas 39 

Coal Gas 45 

Natural Gas 2 

Another type of gas producer is the by-product coke oven. In 
coking one long ton of coking coal in a retort, there are generated 
8,000 to 10,000 cu. ft. of gas carrying from 60 to 100 lbs. of tar 



CH, C.H, 


O 


CO2 


N 


B.t.u. 




25 


12 


62 


90 


1.5 .. 


27 


3.5 


57 


140 


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15 


10 


58.5 


150 




42 


3.5 


10 


295 


40 5 


5 


3 


8 


660 


38 6 


6 


1 


4 


720 


95 






3 


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532 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and 10 to 20 lbs. of ammonium .sulphate. The sale of these products 
usually covers the cost of their extraction and the gas, which is 
approximately 600 B.t.u. per cu. ft., is required for carrying on the 
coking process, so that from one ton of coal there are available 
about 200 effective h.p.-hrs. 

Producer gas has a calorific value of approximately 140 B.t.u. 
per cu. ft. depending upon the type of producer. With different 
types of producers there are larger or smaller percentages of CO2. 
CO and hydrogen, but the general average of the gas is approxi- 
mately as stated. 

Comparative Costs of Power by Diesel Engine and Steam Turbine 
in Plants of 600 kw. Capacity. The following. Electrical World, 
Oct. 9, 1915, is from papers read by A. H. Goldingham and W. H. 
Adams, at the Panama-Pacific Exposition meeting of the A. S. M. E. 

TABLE LIV 

Assumptions: Load-factor, 25%; maximum load equal to rated 
output. (This gives turbines slight advantage in overload capacity.) 
Turbines operated condensing, using jet condenser and cooling tower. 
Oil fuel. Crude oil, 95 cts. per barrel; distilled oil, $1.50 per barrel. 
Turbine plant develops 140 kw.-hr. per barrel. Diesel plant develops 
447 kw.-hr. per barrel. 



FIRST COST 

Diesel-Engine plant 
1 200-kw., 1 400-kw., 
3 200-kw. units 

settings $6,200 Engines $51,000 

250 Erecting 5.000 

500 Piping 1,400 

2,95C Oil tanks 1,000 

500 Water-cooling apparatus 1,000 

Turbines 12.500 Generators 11,400 

Generators, etc 11.400 Building 6,000 

Condensers 2.400 

Cooling tower 3,500 

Building 10,000 



Turbine plant 
1 200-kw., 1 400-kw. 
units 
Boilers and 

Pumps 

Piping 

Stack and flues 
Heaters 



$47,500 


5,000 


1,400 


1,000 


1,000 


11.400 


6.000 



Total $50,200 Total $76,800 $73,300 



OPERATING COSTS (1,314,000 KWS. PER YEAR) 



Turbine plant 



Wages 


. $3,000 


Lubrication . . 


500 


Miscellaneous 


100 


Maintenance . 


400 


Water 


250 



$4,250 



Diesel-Engine plant 

Wages $3,000 

Lubrication 500 

Miscellaneous ... 100 
Maintenance .... 400 
Water 50 



$4,050 



Fuel, 95 cts. bbl. $8,910 
Fixed charges 

147o 7,030 



Total , .. . . .f20,190 



3 engines 2 engines 

Fuel, 95 ct. bbl. $2,790 $2,790 

Fixed charges, 147^.. 10,780 10,280 

Total ........... $17,620 $17,120 



STEAM POWER 



533 



The plants quoted are imaginary, but the cost figures are be- 
lieved to be approximately correct. 

According to these curves when the price of oil is about 53 cts. 
a barrel, the yearly cost will be the same for both of the plants 
considered. At this price the Diesel plant has the advantage. The 




0.30 a40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 090 1.00 I.IO L50 1.60 1.70 L80 130 
Cost of Oil per Barrel, Dollars . 

Fig. 56. Comparison of operating expenses of 600-kw. steam turbine 
and Diesel-Engine plants. 



output for a barrel of oil is based on reports from both Diesel and 
steam plants, the oil engine plant being in Texas and the steam 
plant in California. Operating expenses also are based on reports 
from these two plants. 

Cost of Power in a 700-kw. Gas Electric Plant and a Comparison 



534 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Between That and the Estimated Cost in a Steam Turbine Plant. 
The following data are abstracted from a paper by J. R. Bibbins, 
appearing in the July, 1908, Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. 



1.4 
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10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90 100 110 120 150 MO ISO 
Percent of Rated B.H.P 



Fig. 57. Unit and total fuel consumption for Diesel Engines at 
different percentages of rated load. 



COST OF POWKR, 700-KW. GAS POWER PLANT: 

Equipment cost: Building and machinery, $138 per kw., $96,600. 

Fixed charfjes: Int. 5%, taxes and insurance 1.5%, depreciation 
(sinking fund 15 yrs. 5%) 4.63%, running repairs 1.5% on in- 
vestment. Total 12.63% per yr., $12,220. 

Operation: 300 days, 7200 hrs. per yr., 5,040,000 kw.-hrs. Input 
to auxiliaries, 5.4% full, 10.8% half-load. Standby los.se.s, pro- 
ducer plant, 1600 Ib.s. per week, 2.1% full, 3.1% half-load. Fuel 
rate, full load, 1.59 lbs. + 2.17o - 1.62 lbs. per kw.-hr. ; half-load 
2.1 lbs. + 3.1%— 2.17 lbs. per kw.-hr. 

ESTIMATED COST OF POWER, WITH SAME CONDITIONS FOR A 
700-KW. TURBINE 

Equipment cost: Building and machinery, $100 per kw., $70,000 
Fixed charges: Int. 5%, taxes and insurance 1.5%, depreciation 

(sinking fund 16% yrs. at 5%) 4%; repairs 1%, total 11.5%, 

$8,050. 
Operation: 300-day yr., 7200 hrs. ; average water rate, full-load 

21.5 lbs. per kw.-hr., average water rate, half-load 25.5 lbs. 

per kw.-hr. ; gross evaporation, 7.5 to 8.0 lbs. ; standby, banking 

10 to 15%; gross coal consumption, full, 2.96 lbs. per kw.-hr., 

half, 3.9 lbs. per kw.-hr. 
Wages and supplies — Same as gas. 



STEAM POWER 535 

The following- figures were obtained as a result of tests made at 
the Richmond plant of the American Locomotive Company and de- 
scribed in the Proceedings of the A. I. E. E. for the 25th Annual 
Convention by J. R. Bibbins. The equipment comprised the main 
service plant of the Richmond Works and included a 23.5 by 33 in. 
horizontal, tandem gas engine, with direct connected d.c. generator, 
operating on producer gas g-enerated by a pair of 9 -ft. (shells) 
bituminous producers, a 15,000 cu. ft. holder serving to equalize its 
quality and to start the engine, of the double-acting type with two 
impulses per revolution, governed by a sensitive oil relay system 
designed to relieve the governor of all valve work. The gas was 
purified by means of wooden slat scrubbers and centrifugal tar 
extractor, motor-driven. The producer was designed for continuous 
operation, having a water-sealed bottom to permit the removal of 
ash at any time. It generated its own steam, the only auxiliaries 
required for the entire plant being a motor-driven fan, tar-extractor, 
and igniter set, these absorbing about 5% of the station capacity. 
The test was continued for about 4 weeks, part of the time on a 
full-load run, the remaining two weeks at .75 and .5 loads re- 
spectively, with a rate of gasification of .25 ton per hr. 

TABLE LV. TESTS OF A GAS -ELECTRIC PLANT 

Three- One- 
Nominal load Full quarters half 

Length of run, hrs 223 125 136 

Average load, kws 312.3 228.3 159.6 

Average load, computed boiler h.p. 455.0 333.0 238.0 

Load, %, engine rating 91.0 67.6 47.5 

Load, %, generator rating 104.0 77.2 53.2 

Coal gasified, lbs 115,289 54,143 47,775 

Coal gasified, per hr 517.0 433.0 351.0 

Output, kw. -hrs 69,650 28,540 21,710 

Lbs. coal per kw.-hr 1.654 1.697 2.20 

Lbs. coal per kw.-hr., guaranteed . 1.93 2.10 2.64 

Lbs. coal per b.h.p.-hr 1.14 1.31 1.56 

Avg. heat value of coal, B.t.u 14,392 14,392 14,392 

B.t.u. per kw.-hr 23,700 27,280 31,650 

B.t.u. per b.h.p.-hr 16,415 18,710 21,670 

% thermal efficiency, brake 15.51 13.6 11.75 

% thermal efficiency, elec 14.35 12.65 10.78 

Coal. — Pocahontas, run-of-mine ; avg. heat value ; dry sample, 
14,703; as fired, 14,392; volatile matter, 22.8%; ash, 4.5%; sulphur, 
1%. Test. — August 12, 7 a. m., to September 7, 12 m. 

These data are shown plotted in Fig. 58 in 3 curves as follows: 
(a) rate of gasification in lbs. per hr. ; (b) lbs. per unit of output 
per hr., and (c) corresponding thermal efficiency. This last is abso- 
lute or kinetic efficiency, and covers all losses between coal pile 
and switchboard. 

Operating Conditions. The plant normally operated at 24 hrs. 
per day at practically full load. It has sustained a load of 410 
kws. or 19% overload on the engines for 3 hrs., and higher over- 
loads than this for short periods. The electrical rating of the plant 
was figured at 700 kws., giving it an investment cost of about $138 



536 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

per kw. complete including' machinery, buildings, foundations, pip- 
ing-, erection, etc., except the value of the land occupied. 



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Fig. 58. Gas power plant economy at various loads. 



Coal 



at 



TABLE LVI. UNIT COST PER KW. AND H.P.-YR., FOR THE 
GAS PLANT 

Full load Half load 
Cts. per kw.-hr. 
0.081 0.109 

0.162 0.217 

0.324 0.434 

0.486 0.651 

0.121 0.242 

0.076 0.143 

0.242 0.484 



$1.00 
2.00 
4.00 
6.00 

Wages per year, $6,160 

Supplies " 3,850 

Fixed charges " 12,200 



Total costs — coal at 
Richmond coal .... 



$1.00, 
2.00, 

.2.70, 
4.00, 
6.00, 



0.520 


0.978 


0.601 


1.086 


0.658 


1.163 


0.763 


1.303 


0.925 


1.520 



Equivalent power rate: 
300-day year, coal at 



Dols. per electric h.p.-year 

$1.00 $27.90 $52.40 

2.00 32.30 58.20 

2.70 35.60 62.40 

4.00 41.00 69.90 

6.00 49.60 81.50 

Charges for auxiliaries if motor-driven 2.7% 7.4% 

Saving gas over steam, % : 

Coal at 



.1.00 — 3 loss —8.5 

2.00 +8 gain +0.9 

2.70 12.9 " 4.7 

4.00 19.6 " 12.4 

6.00 33.7 " 19.0 



gam 



STEAM POWER 



537 



This is based on 300-day operation, 7200 hrs. per yr., the fixed 
costs being- distributed over the operating- period, and unit prices 
being- figured for various prices for coal, which prices are based 
upon a net ton. 

The price of fuel at Richmond was $2.70, at which basis the power 
could be delivered at the switchboard of or % ct. per kw.-hr. at full 





























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Fig. 59. Graphical method of determining over-all efficiency 
producer plant. 



of 



load operating 7200 hrs. per yr., or about 1.25 cts. at half load, 
taking into account fixed charges which amount to about 40% of 
the total cost. 

Relative Cost of Gas and Steam Power. This is shown by Fig. 
60 showing the comparative cost for Richmond conditions. 

At the price of coal in Richmond, the gas plant showed 13% gain 
over steam at full load and 5% at half load. Thus with steam coal 
at $2.70, cost by steam power would be about the same as if 
bought by the gas plant if the gas plant paid $4.00 for gas coal. 
The gas plant is at a disadvantage, however, for light loads or 
fluctuating loads averaging a small fraction of the generating 
capacity. 

Comparative Costs of Installation and Operation of Gas, Oil and 
Steam Engines. R. E. Mathot gave the following data in I'ower, 



538 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

March 5, 1912, based on normal figures for labor, fuel consump- 
tion, etc., for Belgium in 1912. 




Fig. 60. Graphical method of determining comparative cost ef- 
ficiency, producer gas versus steam turbine plant for Richmond 
conditions. 



TABLE LVII. COMPARATIVE INSTALLATION COSTS FOR A 
POWER PLANT OF 3000 H.P. 

FOR A FACTORY UTILIZING AN AVERAGE OF 2000 H.P. AND A MINIMUM 
OF 800 H.P. DURING 300 DAYS PER YR., 24 HRS. PER DAY 

Diesel-type Engines 

4 800-h.p. engines at $29,000 $116,000 

Foundations, pipings and connections 4,000 

$120,000 
Suction Producers and Engines 

5 600-h.p. engines at $13,200 and 10 300-h.p. producers 

at $2,000 $86,000 

2 spare producers 4,000 

Foundations, pipings and connections 6,000 

$96,000 
Semi-portable Steam Engines 

5 600-h.p. engines at $17,000 $85,000 

Masonry, connections and stacks 3,000 



Turbo-alternators 

3 750-kw. units at $16,600 

Foundations and piping . . 

8 Lancashire boilers, 1300 sq. ft. of heating surface each 

Masonry for boilers 

Flues and stacks 

Automatic stokers 

Superheaters 



$88,000 

$49,800 
3,000 
16,000 
2,800 
1,400 
2,400 
3,200 



$78,600 



STEAM POWER 539 

Piston Steam Engines 

2 1,500-h.p. engines $30,000 

Foundations and connections 5,000 

7 boilers of 1,300 sq. ft. heating surface each 14,000 

Masonry for boilers 2,400 

Flues and stacks . '. 1,200 

Automatic stokers and heaters 4,800 

$57,400 

COMPARATIVE ANNUAL LABOR COSTS 
Crude-oil Engines 

Four engines require 2 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.26 

3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 

Total $0.44 

Per yr. : 300 days X 24 hrs. X $0.44 $3,168 

Fuel-gas Engines 

Five engines require 3 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.39 

5 stokers at 9 cts. per hr 0.45 

5 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.24 

Total $1.08 

Per yr. : 7,200 X $1.08 $7,776 

Semi-port able Engines 

Five engines require 3 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.39 

5 stokers at 10 cts. per hr 0.50 

5 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.30 

Total $1.19 

Per yr. : 7,200 X $1.19 $8,568 

Turho-Generators 
Three engines require 2 engineers at 15 cts. per hr $0.30 

2 stokers at 10 cts. per hr, (the boilers are provided with 

automatic stokers) 0.20 

3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 

Total $0.68 

Per yr. : 7,200 X $0.68 $4,896 

Piston Steam Engines 

Two engines require 2 engineers at 13 cts. per hr $0.26 

2 stokers at 15 cts. per hr. (automatic coal feeders) 0.20 

3 laborers at 6 cts. per hr 0.18 

Total $0.64 

Per yr. : 7,200 X $0.64 $4,608 

ANNUAL EXPENDITURE FOR FUEL 

AVERAGE LOAD, 2,000 H.P. DURING 300 DAYS OP 24 HRS. EACH, GIVING 

2,000 X 24 X 300 = 14,400,000 brake horse- 
power-hours PER ANNUM 

Per Year 
Diesel-type Engines 

Consuming about 200 gr. of crude oil per brake horse- 
power-hour. Russian or Texas oil costs $1.40 per 100 
kg., giving a cost of $.28 ct. per b.h.p.-hr. or $0.0028 
X 14,400,000 = $40,493 



640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Producer Gas Engines 

Consuming at variable load per b.h.p.-hr. 400 gr. of lean 

coal, which costs $3 a ton, or 12 cts. per b.hp.-hr.; ^ „ „„„ 
$0,012X14,400,000= $17,280 

Turbines 

At variable load consuming about 6 kg. of steam per 
b h p.-hr., which gives a consumption per b.h.p.-hr. of 
7.5 kg. of steam =: 1 kg. of coal at $3.20 a ton, or 
0.32 ct. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.0032 X 14,400,000 = $46,080 

iie mi-portable Steam Engines 

('on.suming per b.h.p.-hr. 520 grs. of semi-bituminous coal 
at $3.20 a ton or 16.64 cts. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.1664 X 
14,400,000 = $23,962 

Pislon Steam Engines 
(\)nsuming 4.5 kg. of steam per i.h. p.-hr. or 5 kg. steam 
per b.h.p.-hr. With a normal evaporation of 7.5 kg. 
of steam per kg. of semi-bituminous coal, one b.h.p.-hr. 
requires 0.665 kg. of coal, at $3.20 a ton, giving 21.28 
cts. per b.h.p.-hr. ; $0.2128 X 14,400,000 = $30,643 

COMPARISON OF THE PRINCIPAL ANNUAL OPERATING 

COSTS 

c 

O 4> 

— O 

Type of equipment .2 „ m ci ^ 



&C C 3, 



Diesel engines 15.5 $18,600 $40,493 $3,168 $62,261 

Producer gas 15.5 14,880 17,280 7,776 39.936 

Semi-portable steam 12.9 ^1,352 23,962 8,568 43,882 

Turbines, etc 12.9 10,139 46,080 4,896 61,115 

I'iston engines, etc 11.2 6,486 30,643 4,608 41,737 

1 Depreciation plus 5% interest on investment. 

Mr. Mathot took into account various factors derived from prac- 
tice, determining the number of units necessary for realizing the 
:3000-h.p. maximum under consideration. These factors include 
reliability, margin of power, load variations upon the fuel con- 
sumption, facility of attendance, etc. He considered 4 Diesel en- 
gines, 3 of which would be running while, owing to the facility of 
starting, the fourth engine would be at standstill but ready for 
service. The producer-engine plant allows 5 units of 600 h.p. each, 
the power being easily realized from single-acting, twin two-cylinder 
engines connected by couplings, with the flywheel in the middle, 
this engine being cheaper to build, economical in up-keep and the 
attendance simpler than the double-acting type. 

The figures were for suction producers rather than pressure ones, 
and Mr. Mathot allows 10 i)roducers of 300 h.p. each, plus 2 gen- 
erators which would constitute the spare apparatus. 

The engines were calculated for a margin in power of 10 to 20%, 
and should develop the estimated 600 h.p. with a mean effective 
pressure on pistons of 65 lbs. per sq. in. 



STEAM POWER 



541 



The figures on German semi-portable steam engines of the self- 
contained boiler and engine type, having a fuel consumption of less 
than 1 lb. of gross coal per b.h.p.-hr., with large power margin 
and without spare units. 

For the other steam plants he assumes the installation of 1 or 2 
additional boilers of the Lancashire type with 2 or 3 corrugated 
internal furnace tubes, and with evaporation rate of 3 to 3.5 lbs. 
of water evaporated per hr. per sq. ft. of heating surface or 8.5 lbs. 
of steam per lb. of good coal. 

In considering depreciation, the Diesel engine may be considered 
on the same basis as fuel-gas engines of good construction, allow- 
ing 10 yrs. for amortization, while 15 yrs. is allowable for semi- 
portable steam engines and 20 yrs. for stationary steam engines of 
the Corliss, Sulzer and piston-valve types. 

Repair costs are not considered. 

Comparative Cost of Power in Small Units of Gasoline, Gas, 
Steam and Electricity. William O. "^^eber published the following 
data in Engineering News, Aug. 15, 1907. 



COST OF GASOLINE POWER 

Size of plant, h.p 2 6 10 20 

Price of engine in place $150.00 $325.00 $500.00 $750.00 

Gasoline per b.h.p. per hr. ... \^ gal. i^ gal. % gal. % gal. 

Cost per gal $0.22 $0.20 $0.19 $018 

=r cost per 3,080 hrs $451.53 $924,00 $975.13 $1,386.00 

Attendance at $1 per day . . 308.00 308.00 308.00 308 00 

Interest, 57c 7.50 16.25 25.00 37.50 

Depreciation, 5% 7.50 16.25 25.00 37.50 

Repairs, 10% 15.00 32.50 50.00 75.00 

Supplies, 20% 30.00 65.00 100.00 150.00 

Insurance, 2% 3.00 6.50 10.00 15.00 

Taxes, 1% 1.50 3.25 5.00 7 50 

Pov.'er cost $824.03 $1,371.75 $1,498.13 $2,016.50 

To these figures should be added charges on space occupied, as 
follows : 

Value of space occupied .... $100.00 $150.00 $200.00 $300.00 

Interest, 5% $5.00 $7.50 $10.00 $15.00 

Repairs, 2% 2.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 

Insurance, 1% 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 

Taxes, 1% 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 

Total annual charge for 

space $9.00 $13.50 $18 00 $27.00 

Total cost per annum $833.03 $1,385.25 $1,516.13 $2,043.50 

Cost of 1 h.p. per annum 

10-hr. basis 416.51 239.87 151.61 102.17 

Cost of 1 h.p. per hr ' $0.1352 $0.0780 $0.0492 $0.0331 



542 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

COST OF ELECTRIC POWER 
Size of plant, h.p 2 6 10 20 



Cost of motor in place $83.00 $118.00 $216.00 $270.00 

With wiring, etc 100.00 130.00 240.00 300.00 



Cost of electricity 3,080 hrs. $529.56 $976.00 $1,425.00 $2,450.00 

Attendance 20.00 30.00 50.00 50.00 

Interest, 5% 5.00 6.50 12.00 15.00 

Depreciation 10% 10.00 13.00 24.00 30.00 

Repairs, 5% 5.00 6.50 12.00 15.00 

Supplies, 1% 1.00 1.30 2.40 3.00 

Insurance, 2% 2.00 2.60 4.80 6.00 

Taxes, 1% 1.00 1.30 2.40 3.00 



Total cost per annum $573.56 $1,037.20 $1,532.00 $2,572.00 

Cost of 1 h.p. per annum, 

10-hr. basis 286.78 172.86 153.20 128.60 

Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.0928 $0.0558 $0.0497 $0.0417 

COST OP GAS POWER 

$1.50 per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas less 20% if paid in 10 days = $1.20 net, 
gas 760 B.t.u. 

Size of plant in h.p 2 6 10 20 



Engine cost if in place $200.00 $375.00 $550.00 $1,050.00 

Gas per h.p.-hr. in ft 30 25 22 20 

Value of gas consumed, 3,080 

hrs 

Attendance, $1 per day .. 

Interest, 5% 

Depreciation, 5% 

Repairs, 10% 

Supplies, 20% 

Insurance, 2% 

Taxes, 1% , 



221.76 


$554.40 


$843.12 


$1,478.00 


308.00 


308.00 


308.00 


308.00 


10.00 


18.75 


27.50 


52.50 


10.00 


18.75 


27.50 


52.50 


20.00 


37.50 


55.00 


105.00 


40.00 


75.00 


110.00 


210.00 


4.00 


7.50 


11.00 


21.00 


2.00 


3.75 


5.50 


10.50 



Power cost $615.76 $1,023.65 $1,387.62 $2,237.50 

Annual charge for space . . . 9.00 13.50 18.00 27.00 



Total cost per annum $624.76 $1,037.15 $1,405.62 $2,264.50 

Cost of 1 h.p. per annum, 

10-hr. basis 312.38 172.86 140.56 113.22 

Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.1014 $0.0561 $0.0456 $0.0367 

COST OF STEAM POWER 
Size of plant, h.p 6 10 20 



Cost of plant per h.p $250.00 $220.00 $200.00 



Fixed charge, 14% $35.00 $30.80 $28.00 



Coal per h.p.-hr., in lbs 20 15 12 



Cost of coal at $5 per ton $154.00 $103.00 $82.50 

Attendance, 3,080 hrs 75.00 50.00 30.00 

Oil, waste and supplies 15.00 10.00 6.00 



Cost 1 h.p. per ann., 10-hr. basis = $279.00 $194.80 $146.50 

Cost of 1 h.p. per hr $0.0906 $0.0832 $0.0475 



STEAM POWER 



543 



ANNUAL COST OF POWER PER BRAKE-HORSE-POWER 

B.h.p. of unit Steam Electricity Gas Gasoline 

1 $600.00 $312.50 $380.00 $487.50 

2 500.00 282.00 312.50 416.00 

3 437.50 252.00 260.00 350.00 

4 375.00 227.50 220.00 300.00 

5 320.00 207.50 192.50 262.50 

6 280.00 192.00 172.50 240.00 

7 250.00 179.00 160.00 210.00 

8 . 230.00 168.00 152.50 182.50 

9 210.00 158.00 145.00 165.00 

10 195.00 152.00 140.00 152.00 

12 175.00 140.00 132.50 137.50 

14 165.00 133.00 126.00 122.00 

16 157.50 128.00 120.00 112.50 

18 • 150.00 126.00 116.50 107.50 

20 146.00 123.00 113.00, 102.00 

22 140.00 121.50 ' 110.00 98.00 

24 137.50 119.50 107.50 95.00 

26 133.00 117.50 105.00 92.50 

28 130.00 116.50 102.50 90.00 

30 127.50 115.00 102.00 87.50 

35 124.00 113.50 100.00 85.00 

40 120.00 112.00 98.00 82.50 

50 112.50 110.00 96.00 80.00 

60 105.00 108.00 94.00 78.00 

70 100.00 106.00 92.00 76.00 

80 95.00 104.00 90.00 74.00 

90 90.50 102.00 88.00 72.00 

100 86.40 100.00 86.00 70.00 

Unit costs = Coal, $5 per ton; electricity, $0,135 per kw.-hour; 
gas, $1.20 per 1,000 ft., at 760 B.t.u. ; gasoline, $0.20 per gal. 



The curves in Fig. 61 are averages for the 4 different kinds of 
power reported for the figures given in the table accompanying this 
paper. 

Comparative Fuel Costs for Steam, Gasoline and Gas Engines. 
Table LVIII was published by the Otto Gas Engine Works, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

The Cost of Power. The following is abstracted from a paper 
by H. G. Stott, presented at a meeting of the Toronto Section of 
the A. I. E. E.. Dec. 18, 1908. 

In engineering estimates there is probably no item which contains 
so many variables as that representing the cost of power. Conse- 
quently we frequently find a wide divergence of opinion as to the 
results which may be expected under different conditions. In all 
types of plants the influence of investment upon the cost of power 
is one which is apt to be slighted in the estimates, and if not 
slighted it seems to be subject to more errors than any other factor 
which enters into this cost. This is particularly the case with 
hydraulic plants, as of necessity water storage, flumes, racks, tail- 
race, etc., enter into the estirpate, with the result that the actual 
cost has sometimes been found to be 100% greater than the esti- 
mated cost. 

In the same way indeterminate items of cost, such as foundations, 
cost of labor, etc., enter into practically all the calculations, so that 



544 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

when we take into consideration the influence of location upon the 
cost of coal, labor and water, as well as upon the investment, it is 
readily seen that the actual cost of power is of necessity so variable 
as to make impossible anything like a standard cost per kw.-hr. 

With the above limitations in mind, the following notes on the 
cost of power have been compiled with the idea that they might 
form a guide to show at least the fundamental relations between 



500 
475 
450 
,425 
;400 
375 
;350 
I 325 



^590 
u275 
I 250 

a. 200 

D- 175 

150 

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^ 100 

I 75 
o 

O 50 
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f^ 4 6 8 K) 12 14 le 
Brake Horse 



18 20 22 24 26-28 30 
Power 



Fig. 61. Diagram showing comparative costs per brake, horse- 
power of steam, electricity, gas and gasoline in small powers. 



the various items going to make up the cost of power, and at the 
same time show what is actually being done to-day in large plants 
having a maximum load of over 30,000 kws. 

Table LIX, taken from a paper contributed to the A. I. E. E. in 
1906, has been expanded and revised so as to bring it up to 
the results obtained in practice in 1909. The principal changes 
made have been due to the better economy obtained in the 
steam turbine, and in the reduction of the total fixed charges from 
12% to 11% ; fixed charges composed of 5% interest, 1% taxes and 



STEAM POWER 



545 



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546 MECHAXICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

general administrative expenses, and 5% for amortization or obso- 
lescence in the steam and hydraulic plants. 

TABLE LIX. RELATIVE COSTS PER KW.-HR. DISTRIBU- 
TION OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION 

05 

c 

"" ^ '^ is 

rA a CO <U 

Maintenance : -^ 5 o -^ S.S „ S ^ 

o a 3 o ^ -D Tn bc-^ :s 

Engine room, mechanical.. 2.59 0.51 1.55 5.18 2.84 0.51 
Boiler or producer room.. 4.65 4.33 3.55 1.16 1.97 
Coal and ash-handling ap- 
paratus 0.58 0.54 0.44 0.29 0.29 

Electrical apparatus 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 

Operation : 

Coal 61.70 55.53 52.44 26.52 25.97 

Water 7.20 0.65 0.61 3.60 2.16 

Engine room, labor 6.75 1.36 4.06 6.76 4.06 1.36 

Boiler or producer room 

labor 7.20 6.74 5.50 1.81 3.05 

Coal and ash-handling labor 2.28 2.13 1.75 1.14 1.14 

Ash removal 1.07 0.95 0.81 0.54 0.54 

Electrical labor 2.54 2.54 2.5 i 2.54 2.54 2.54 

Engine room lubrication. . . 1.78 0.35 1.02 1.80 1.07 0.20 

Engine room waste, etc 0.^0 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.20 

Boiler room lubrication, etc. 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 

Relative operating cost,7c. .100.00 77.23 75.87 52.94 47.23 5.94 

Relative investment, % 100.00 75.00 80.00 110.00 96.20 100.00 

Probable average cost per 

kw 125.00 93.75 100.00 137.50 120.00 125.00 

Probable fixed charges, %. . 11 11 11 12 11.5 11 

For steam-turbine plants larger than 60,000 kw. the cost per kw. 
may be reduced to $75. 

In the other items will be found changes due to the reduced cost 
of steam turbines, and also due to the possibility of saving the 
water of condensation by separating out the oil between the re- 
ciprocating engine and the steam turbine. Under the heading of 
Coal, in the reciprocating engine and steam turbine plant, it will 
be found that this amount has been increased so as to cover the 
difference between the theoretical amount which had to be assumed 
in 1906, and the actual amount guaranteed by the manufacturer 
in 1909. 

In Figs. 62-83 the cost of delivered coal has been assumed at 
$3.00 per ton for a high grade coal having 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
and also at $1.50 per ton for a low-grade coal having 11,000 B.t.u. 
per lb. so as to illustrate the effect upon the cost of power. 

Figs. 62 to 67 inclusive show with various types of plants, the 
fixed charges upon the upper curve and the operating charges below 



STEAM POWER 



547 



the axis, so that the sum of the ordinates gives the total cost per 
kw.-hr. for any load factor on the plant. It will be noted that all 
the steam plants are assumed to have 50% overload capacity, suffi- 
cient to carry them over a peak-load of 2 hours, whilst the gas plant 
has no overload capacity. The combined gas-engine and steam- 








































































\ 


























' 


8 


\ 






























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6 






\ 


















, 












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OPERATING CHARGE 


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"PER CENT LOAD 
Fig. 62. Cost of power. Reciprocating steam-plant. 
Plant cost =: $125 per kw. 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 
Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 



turbine plant has 25% and the hydraulic plant 10% overload 
capacity. 

Figs. 68 to 75 inclusive show typical industrial, lighting (summer 
and winter), and railroad (summer and winter) load-curves. On 



548 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

these Figs, will be found straight lines drawn through points cor- 
responding to the necessary installed capacity of the various types 
of plants, and a second series of cost curves bringing out in a very 
suggestive manner the cost of furnishing power at every hour of 























































































































































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I 



PER CENT LOAD 
Fig. 63. Cost of power. Steam turbine plant. 
Plant cost = $93.75 per kw. — A. 
Plant cost = $75.00 per kw. — B. 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 



the day. As an illustration, refer to Fig. 72, which shows the cost 
of power on a summer lighting load. 

During the greater part of the day, No. 4, or the gas-engine 
plant, is the most expensive, owing to the necessarily high fixed 



STEAM POWER 



549 



charges. For the same reason, the reciprocating- steam-engine 
plant is also high. 

During: the light morning load the hydraulic plant is also handi- 



12 






























































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PER CENT LOAD 



120 



Fig. 64. Cost of power. Reciprocating engine and low-pressure 
turbine plant. 
Plant cost = $100 per kw. 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.= 11%. 
Solid lines = coal at .$3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 
Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 



capped by the fixed charges, but the low operating costs render it 
the more efficient upon the whole. 

Fig. 66, representing the plant in which .5 the installed capacity 



550 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

consists of gas engines and .5 of steam turbines, makes so excel- 
lent a showing on all the load-diagrams that we may expect to 
hear more of this type of plant in the future. 

In all these comparisons it must be remembered that the costs 



14 






































































































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PETTGENT LOAD 

Fig. 65. Cost of power. Gas-engine plant. 
Plant cost = $137.50 per kw. 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc. = 12%. 
Solid lines := coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B t.u. per lb. 
Dotted lines = coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 



are worked out to the generating plant bus-bars -only. In prac- 
tically all cases, therefore, the costs discriminate in favor of the 
hydraulic plant, which almost invariably has to assume as a part 
of its expenses, the fixed charges and operating expenses of the 
transmission lines. Obviously, it was inadvisable to bring such an 



STEAM POWER 



551 



unknown quantity into this comparison, but the fixed charges and 
operating expenses of a long-distance transmission line connecting 
to an hydraulic plant may be sufficient in many cases to decide 



































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100 



14^ 



PER CENT LOAD 



Fig. 66. Cost of power. Gas-engine and steam-turbine plant. 

Plant cost — $120 per kw. 

Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc. = 11.5%. 

Solid lines = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 

Dotted lines — coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 

the question of local steam or gas plant versus long-distance trans- 
mission from an hydraulic plant. 

Figs. 76 to 81 are calculated from Figs. 62 to 67 and show the 



552 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

power-plant costs per kw, per annum for various load-factors for 
each of the 6 types of plants. Attention is called to the fact that 
the result shown in Fig. 81 is for power at the bus-bars only, and 
that this must of necessity be increased by the fixed charges and 
maintenance costs of the transmission lines and transformers. 



16 


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=e:ra 


riNG 


DHAR 


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.« 































































20 40 60 80 100 WO 

PER CENT LOAD' 

Fig. 67. Cost of power. Hydraulic plant. 
Plant cost = $125 per kw. 
Interest, taxes, depreciation, etc.rr 11%. 



Comparative Power Station Costs for Steam, Gas and Diesel 
Engines. The following is from a paper by Charles Day, in Power, 
Oct. 3, 1911. The great difficulty most buyers of power-plant ma- 
chinery find is in securing reliable figures of power costs from 
people engaged in trade, except in the case of electric-supply 



STEAM POWER 



553 



stations. The figures published in the Electrical Times cover prac- 
tically almost all the supply stations in Great Britain, and this 
information combined with information obtained direct from sta- 
tion engineers has enabled the author to determine the average 































i 
GA^ PLANT 


^APAC 


TY 


















70 000 


CAPACITY OF ALL 


OTHE 


5^»>PLANTS 






,^ 














/ 






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\ 


X. 




60000 








/ 














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/ 


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^--. 


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gsoooo 

1 

^40000 












' 


































































30000 


















































20000 


















































10000 






























































MID 


DAY 












1 


Z i 


4 


e 


t 


1 


[1 1 


I i 


i 


i 


i 


1 


12 



TIME-HOURS 
Fig. 68. Typical industrial load. 



results obtained in such stations. With different types of plant 
these averages for stations having a plant capacity not exceeding 
1000 horsepower, are as stated in Table LX. 
The limit of 1000 h.p. was fixed owing to there being as yet no 



554 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE LX. PENCE PER KW.-HR. SOLD 



Type of 
engine 



Steam 
Gas . , 
Diesel 



Fuel 



0.45 
0.43 
0.23 



Lubricat- 
ing oil, 
waste, 
stores, 

and 
water 

0.06 

0.09 

0.04 



Wages 



0.25 
0.28 
0.19 



Repairs 
and 

mainte- 
nance 

0.26 
0.24 
0.07 



Total 

operating 

costs, 

pence 

1.02 
1.04 
0.53 



Load 
factor 



14.7 
15.3 
14.3 



large electricity-supply stations equipped solely with Diesel engine 
or gas engines. Of course, better results are obtained when driving 
machinery which gives a better load factor, but the causes which 
produce loss are, as a rule, the same, though modified in extent. 
The general conclusion formed from a study of electricity stations 
holds good for the great majority of power users, though perhaps 
not applicable to some special trades, where engines can be run 
continuously on almost uniform loads. It is also necessary to point 
out that the figures include some items which should not strictly 



tr 
?.n 




























i; 




























=r=^ 


' 


"""^ 




















1 


















a 


5 






=$^ 


-Tzr. 


— - 


3rrr 


— 


rzir: 







:::. 


'4 






^-- 




















« 




1 

1 






MID 


DAY 














1 


2 




4 




% 1 


1 


2 




\ 




1 


I 


t 



TlME-HOURS^ 

Fig. 69. Typical industrial load. Cost of power throughout the 

day. 

1 = Reciprocating steam plant. 

2 = Steam-turbine plant. 

3 = Reciprocating engine and low pressure turbine plant. 

4 = Gas-engine plant. 

5 = Gas engine and steam-turbine plant. 

6 = Hydraulic plant. 



be charged against the power plant. For instance, the wages items 
include figures for men working on cables, street lamps, and in sub- 
stations, and the repairs items include repairs to such parts. Also 
it is necessary to mention that the figures give the costs per unit 
of energy sold, not per unit generated. 

From the averages it is clear that a substantial gain is obtained 
by the adoption of Diesel engines as against either gas or steam 
engines, the figures being beyond doubt substantially accurate. It 
is also noticeable that the gain is not only on fuel consumption, 



STEAM POWER 



555 



but is practically in the same proportion on the other items of 
expenditure. 

The great saving- shown by these average figures is confirmed 
by repeated experiences of the author. In many cases, although 
the figures guaranteed with Diesel engines have been no better 
than figures previously guaranteed and obtained on tests, with 
existing steam and gas engines, the Diesel engines have shown over 





















' 


/ 




















/ 


A 


















/ 


/ 


°> 


lU 














/ 


/ 


y 




5. 












/ 


/ 


X 




^B 












/ 




X 


/ 


y 


X 


a 

3 








/ 


/ 


y 


/ 


y 


'y^ y 


'ix 


CO 

z 






Z 






/ 




^ 


y 




cc 

UJ 

a. 

^ on 




/- 






/ 




^ 




^ 


^ 


< 
-1 
-J 
O 




y 




^ 


^ 


(y" 


^ 


^ 


^ 




Q 




/ 


A 


^ 




^ 












4 




y\ 


■^ 
















# 


'^ 



















Fig. 



40 60 so 

PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
70. Typical lighting load. 



extended periods a saving of 50 and 60%, and in some cases an even 
greater percentage, the result being due to the fact that the Diesel 
engine's average working results were very much nearer to the 
guaranteed figures than with gas or steam engines, combined with 
the fact that the relatively high cost of working at light loads 
with gas or steam had not been sufficiently taken into account when 
considering the guaranteed figures. 



556 



MECHANICAL ASD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



! 




10 13 2 4 

TIME-HOURS 



Fig 71 Typical winter lighting load. Cost of power throughout 
the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 



TABLE LXl OPERATING COST. PENCE PER KW-HR. 
SOLD, FOR STEAM STATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 







Lubricat- 










Station 
capacity 
not exceed- 
ing, kw. 


Fuel 


ing oil, 
waste, 

water 
and 

stores 


Wages 


Repairs 
and main- 
tenance 


Total, 
pence 


Load 
factor 


250 


0.63 


0.09 


0.35 


0.36 


1.43 


13.2 


500 


0.56 


0.06 


0.27 


0.29 


1.18 


13.3 


750 


0.43 


0.05 


0.23 


0.24 


0.95 


15.4 


1,000 


0.40 


0.05 


0.23 


0.21 


0.89 


16.8 


1,500 


0.42 


0.04 


0.17 


0.18 


0.81 


16.9 


2 000 


0.37 


0.04 


0.16 


0.21 


0.78 


17.7 


3,000 
4,000 
5,000 


0.33 


0.04 


0.15 


0.17 


0.69 


17.4 


0.40 


0.03 


0.14 


0.20 


0.77 


18.8 


0.34 


0.03 


0.11 


0.16 


0.64 


18.7 


7,000 
10,000 


0.36 
0.26 


0.04 
0.03 


0.13 
0.09 


0.20 
0.13 


0.73 
0.51 


17.9 
22.6 


20,000 


0.30 


0.03 


0.11 


0.16 


0.60 


19.6 


50,000 


0.23 


0.02 


0.10 


0.11 


0.46 


20.56 



STEAM POWER 



557 



When going through cost records to prepare the average figures 
previously given, the author noticed very wide differences of cost 
per unit, particularly in the case of the steam plant. He therefore 
had the average cost calculated for steam stations of different capa- 
city, and as the results are interesting, they are given separately 
In Table LXI. 

It is to be noted that, even with the largest steam stations, the 



;?6 

84 






























A 

1 \ 
/ \ 
























/ 




















20 

3 
O IB 




/ 




\ 




















/ 

/ 


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1 
1 


















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1.. 




/ 


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/a' 






















A 


'/A 


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A 


1 


W 

)\'\\ 












/\ 






/ . 


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\ 








1 
1/ 


K 




// 








\N 


b 


J-N 


.-.=. 


^^ 


/ 


kS 


\^ 


/ 












\ VJ 




^brr: 




^ 


' ^ \ 


V-- 


K- 












V 


5' 






-'' 




v^' 


/' 






































MID 


OAV 














2 . 


I 


\ 


5 


8 1 


1 


2, 




1 


i 


} 1 


12 



TIME-HOURS 

Fig. 72. Typical summer lighting load. Cost of power throughout 
the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as Fig. 69. 



costs per unit generated are no better than for quite small stations 
using Diesel engines, and this in face of the improved load factor. 
This is a most important point, and shows that small Diesel stations 
can profitably supply current at prices hitherto thought to be ob- 
tainable only in densely populated centers having large power 
stations. 

In all cases the figures which have been given are operating 
costs and do not include anything for interest on capital or de- 
preciation. It is hardly possible to give a definite statement show- 



558 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ing the cost of constructing and equipping power houses of differ- 
ent types, as there are so many variable factors. However, the 
author's experiences of a considerable number of estimates indi- 
cates that up to a capacity of, say, 1000 kws. there is generally 
little difference between fhe gross capital expenditure required, 
whether steam, gas, or Diesel engines be adopted. 




10 12 
TIME-HOURS 

Fig. 73. Typical railway load. 



The heat efficiency of the Diesel engine, though far from perfect, 
is still much better than any other heat engine, as is readily seen 
from the fuel consumption, which is 0.44 pound of fuel oil per 
brake horsepower per hour. The fuel consumption is also low at 
partial loads; being 0.45 pound at three-quarters load, 0.47 pound 
at half load and 0.62 pound at quarter load. 

These are not " records " but everyday figures, and for engines 



STEAM POWER 



559 



of moderate size. With larger engines the fuel consumption is 
rather lower, but increase of size does not give anything like the 
improvement in fuel consumption that occurs with steam engines. 

Owing to the high economy at light loads it is often found dis- 
tinctly advantageous to run a Diesel engine in preference to using 
a storage battery. 

The oil generally used is residual petroleum; that is, the re- 





























26 
22 




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TIME-HOURS 

Fig. 74. Typical summer load. Cost of power throughout the day. 
Curves 1, 2, 3. 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 



siduum left from petroleum after the lighter oils have been distilled 
ofE. The increased demand for gasolene will certainly tend to 
increase the further supply of residuum, while the opening up of 
new oilwells in various parts of the world is steadily increasing 
the oil supply. 

The fuel oil used can be almost any of the fuel oils which are 
used for boiler firing, and a wide variety of oils can be used with 
no alteration of the engine, this being probably explained by the 



560 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fact that an atomizer which will sufficiently atomize a thick viscous 
oil can easily atomize the thinner oils. The use of oil fuel carries 
with it obvious advantages in the way of ease of handling and of 
cleanliness. 

The question may naturally be asked whether Diesel engines are 
suitable for long periods of continuous running. In reply to this 
the following instance may be quoted : 




10 12 
TIME-HOURS 

Fig 75 Typical winter railway load. Cost of power throughout 
the day. Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 same as in Fig. 69. 

At the Birkdale Electricity Works a Mirrlees-Diesel was installed 
a little over four years ago. The station engineer recently made a 
report which showed that the engine had, on the average, worked 
23.75 hours out of every 24 hours throughout the four years, or an 
average stoppage of about 1.75 hours each Sunday. 

Average Costs of Installing and Operating Coal-Burning Steam 
Power Plants. Reginald Trautschold gives the following in Lefax. 

The differentiated costs which together ordinarily make up the 
total cost of a steam power plant are : 



STEAM POWER 



661 



Land for engine and boiler rooms 

Engine and boiler room building 

Chimneys 

Boilers 

Feed pumps, boiler 

Engines 

brake h.p. capacity of plant 
Cost of plant per brake h.p. = 



Accessories 
Foundations 
Piping 
Installation 
Freight and cartage 



total cost of plant 



:= Item A. 























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PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 

Fig. 76. Cost of power per kw. per year. Reciprocating steam- 
plant. 
Plant cost $125 per kw. 
Fixed charges — 11%. 

A. B, C, D = coal at $3.00 — 14,500 B.t.u. per lb. 
A'. B'. C, D'.= coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
A = Coal and water. 

B = A + Mechanical maintenance and operation. 
C = B + Electrical maintenance and operation. 
D = C -f Fixed charges. 



562 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 















































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Fig. 77. 



PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
Cost of power per kw. per year. Steam-turbine plant. 



Plant cost $93.75 and $75 per kw. 

Fixed charges, 11%. 

A, B, C. and D same as in Fig. 76 = coal at, $3.00 
per lb. 

A'. B', C and D' same as in Fig. 76 = coal at $1.50 
per lb. 



14,000 B.tu. 
11,000 B.tu, 



Fixed charges per year (yearly burden) : 

Depreciation 

Repairs 

Interest 

Insurance 

Taxes, 2% or .75 cost = 

Total 
Fixed charges per brake h.p.-yr. 



5 % of total cost. 
2 % " " " 

6 % " " 

1 % " " 
1.5% " " 



15.5% " " 
15.5% of Item A. 



STEAM POWER 



563 



TABLE LXII 



A. COST OF PLANT PER 
BRAKE H.P. 



B. FIXED CHARGES PER 
BRAKE H.P. YEAR, TAKEN 
AS 15.5% OF COST PER 
BRAKE H.P. 



Size h.p. 


Cost 


Size h.p. 


Cost 


100 


1172 


100 


$ 26.66 


200 


146 


200 


22.63 


300 


126 


300 


19.53 


400 


110 


400 


17.05 


500 


96 


500 


14.88 


600 


84 


600 


13.02 


700 


76 


700 


11.78 


800 


68 


800 


10.54 


900 


64 


900 


9.92 


1000 


60 


1000 


9.30 


1500 


58 


1500 


8.99 


2000 


56.50 


2000 


8.76 


2500 


55 


2500 


8.53 


3000 


54 


3000 


8.37 


4000 


52 


4000 


8.06 


5000 


50 


5000 


7.75 



C. COST OF ATTENDANCE 
PER BRAKE H.P. YEAR 
(308 DAYS) 



Size 


Operative hours 


of plant 


per day 


h.p. 


10 


24 


100 


$12.00 


$24.00 


200 


10.00 


20.00 


300 


8.60 


17.20 


400 


7.25 


14.50 


500 


6.20 


12.40 


600 


5.40 


10.80 


700 


4.70 


9.40 


800 


4.15 


8.30 


900 


3.75 


7.50 


1000 


3.50 


7.00 


1500 


3.25 


6.50 


2000 


3.15 


6.30 


2500 


3.05 


6.10 


3000 


2.75 


5.50 


4000 


2.50 


5.00 


5000 


2.25 


4.50 



D. COST OF OIL, WASTE 

AND SUPPLIES PER 

BRAKE H.P. YEAR (308 
DAYS) 



Size 


Operative 


! hours 


of plant 


per day 


h.p. 


10 


24 


100 


$ 2.40 


% 5.76 


200 


2.00 


4.80 


300 


1.72 


4.13 


400 


1.45 


3.48 


500 


1.24 


2.88 


600 


1.08 


2.60 


700 


.94 


2.26 


800 


.83 


1.99 


900 


.75 


1.80 


1000 


.70 


1.68 


1500 


.65 


1.56 


2000 


.60 


1.44 


2500 


.55 


1.32 


3000 


.50 


1.20 


4000 


.40 


.96 


5000 


.35 


.84 



TABLE LXIII. 



COAL CONSUMPTION PER BRAKE H.P. 
(308 DAYS) 



YEAR 



Size Operative hours 


Size 


Operative hours 


of plant 


per day 


of plant 




per 


day 


h.p. 10 




24 


h.p. 


10 




24 


100 lO.OOtons 


20.00 tons 


900 


4.15 tons 


8.30 tons 


200 9.00 




18.00 


1000 


3.45 




6.90 


300 8.25 




16.50 


1500 


2.80 




5.60 


400 8.00 




16.00 


2000 


2.40 




4.80 


500 7.10 




14.20 


2500 


2.10 




4.20 


600 6.20 




12.40 


3000 


1.85 




3.70 


700 5.50 




11.00 


4000 


1.72 




3.44 


800 4.80 




9.60 


5000 


1.55 




3.10 



564 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE LXIV. TOTAL COST OF POWER PER BRAKE HP 
YEAR (308 DAYS) 

Cost of coal per ton 



Size 


$2.00 


$3.00 


$4.00 


$5.00 


plant 


Service 


Service 


Service 


Ser\ 


ice 


h.p. 


10 hr. 


24 hr. 


10 hr. 


24 hr. 


10 hr. 


24 hr. 


10 hr. 


24 hr. 


100 


$61.06 


$96.42 


$71.06 


$116.42 


$81.06 


$136.42 


$91.06 $156.42 


200 


52.63 


83.43 


61.63 


101.43 


70.63 


119.43 


79.63 


137.43 


300 


46.35 


73.86 


54.60 


90.36 


62.85 


106.86 


71.10 


123.36 


400 


41.75 


67.03 


49.75 


83.03 


57.75 


99.03 


65.75 


115.03 


500 


36.52 


58.56 


43.62 


72.76 


50.72 


86.98 


57.82 


101.16 


600 


31.90 


51.22 


38.10 


63.62 


44.30 


76.02 


50.50 


88.42 


700 


28.42 


45.44 


33.92 


56.44 


39.42 


67.44 


44.92 


78.44 


800 


25.22 


40.03 


30.02 


49.63 


34.82 


59.23 


39.62 


68.83 


900 


22.72 


35.82 


26.87 


44.12 


31.02 


52.43 


35.17 


60.72 


1000 


20.40 


31.78 


23.85 


38.68 


27.30 


45.58 


30.75 


52.48 


1500 


18.49 


28.25 


21.29 


33.85 


24.09 


39.45 


26.89 


45.05 


2000 


17.31 


26.10 


19.71 


30.90 


22.11 


35.70 


24.51 


40.50 


2500 


16.33 


24.35 


18.43 


28.55 


20.53 


32.75 


22.63 


36.95 


3000 


15.32 


"22.47 


17.17 


26.17 


19.02 


29.87 


20.87 


33.57 


4000 


14.40 


20.90 


16.12 


24.34 


17.84 


27.78 


19.56 


31.22 


5000 


13.45 


19.29 


15.00 


22.39 


16.55 


25.49 


18.10 


28.59 



Cost of power is at engine ; no transmission or conversion losses 
considered. 

EXAMPLE 

2500-brake h.p. plant, operated 10 hrs. per day, 308 days per yr., 
coal $4.00 per ton. 
Cost of plant (Table LXII-A) $137,500 

Yearly fixed charges (Table LXII-B) $ 21,325 

Yearly cost of attendance (Table LXII-C) 7,625 

Yearly cost of sujipHes (Table LXII-D) 1,375 

Yearly coal. 5.250 tons (Table LXIII) 21,000 

Total cost of power per year (Table LXIV) $ 51,325 

Total cost of power per brake h.p.-hr. (Table LXV) $.00667 or % ct. 

Steam Power Plant Costs. The following estimated costs were 
given in a report of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of the 
Province of Ontario, reprinted in Engineering News, Dec. 1907. 

CAPITAL COSTS OF STEAM POWER PLANTS AND ANNUAL 
COSTS OF POWER PER B.H.P. 



Capital cost of plant per h.p. 
i n st a 1 led '■ 



Total 



Size of Engines 

plant, boilers, etc., Buildings 

h.p. installed 
Engines. Simple, slide valve, non-condensing 

Boilers ; Return tubular. 

10 $66.00 $40,00 

20 56.00 37.00 

30 48.70 35.00 

40 44.75 33.50 

6Q 43.00 31.00 



Annual Annual 
cost of 10- cost of 24- 
hr. power hr. power 
per b. h.p. perb.h.p. 



$106.00 


$91.16 


$180.76 


93.00 


76.31 


151.48 


83.70 


66.46 


131.68 


78.25 


59.49 


117.74 


74.00 


53.95 


106.46 



STEAM POWER 



565 




40 60 fiO 

PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
Fig. 78. Cost of power per kw. per year. Reciprocating-engine and 
low-pressure turbine plant. 
Plant cost $100 per kw. 
Fixed charges 11%. 



Engines : 
Boilers : 

30 
40 
50 
60 
80 
100 

Engines 
Boilers : 

100 

150 

200 

300 



Simple, Corliss, non-condensing. 
Return tubular. 



70.70 
62.85 
59.00 
56.00 
50.00 
44.60 



35.00 
33.50 
31.00 
30.00 
27.50 
25.00 



105.70 
96.35 

90.00 
86.70 
77.50 
69.60 



61.14 
55.50 
50.70 
47.42 
43.86 
40.55 



Compound, Corliss, condensing. 
Return tubular, with reserve capacity. 
63.40 28.00 91.40 33.18 

53.70 24.00 77.70 29.83 

50.10 20.00 70.10 28.14 

45.90 18.00 63.90 26.27 



117.70 
107.10 
97.73 
91.34 
85.41 
79.19 



60.05 
54.63 
51.72 
48.83 



566 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



400 

500 

750 

1,000 


43.55 

41.25 
40.50 
39.00 


16.00 59.55 
14.00 55.25 
13.00 53.50 
12.00 51.00 


24.84 
23.73 
23.56 
23.26 


46.12 
44.21 
44.02 
43.71 


Engines : 
Boilers : 


Compound, 
Water-tube, 


Corliss, condensing, 
with reserve capacity. 






300 
400 
500 
750 
1,000 


55.20 
51.50 
49.40 
46.80 
44.30 


18.00 73.20 
16.00 67.50 
14.00 63.40 
13.00 59.70 
12.00 56.80 


25.77 
24.18 
23.19 

22.88 

22.47 


46.32 
43.61 
42.03 
41.56 
41.11 















































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PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 
Fig. 79. Cost of power per kw. per year. Gas-engine plant. 
Plant cost = $137.50 per kw. 
Fixed charges 12%. 
Solid lines 1 

Dotted lines \ same as Fig. 76. 
A, B, C, D J 



STEAM POWER 



567 















































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PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 



Fig, 80. Cost of power per kw. per year, 
turbine plant. 
Plant cost = $120 per kw. 
Fixed charges 11.5% per annum. 
Solid lines 1 

Dotted lines \ same as in Fig. 76. 
A, B, C, D J 



Gas-engine and steam- 



Boiler Room Equipment Costs Per Rated Boiler Horse-Power. 

The following, by O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. Stovel for plants 
using coal for fuel, was taken from Electric Journal, April, 1912. 

Dols per h.p. 

High Low 

Boilers exclusive of masonry setting $11.00 $ 8.00 

Superheaters 3.00 

Stokers 5 50 3 00 

Masonry settings for boilers • . 3.50 2 00 

Flues 1.50 0.75 



5C8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Dols. per h.p. 

High Low 

Stacks .,.. 4.00 2.00 

Economizers 4.00 

Mechanical Draft 3.00 

Feed-Pumps 1.50 0.50 

All Piping and Pipe Covering 10.00 6.00 

Feed-Heaters 1.00 0.40 

Coal Chutes and Ash Hoppers 1.25 

Various, such as Indicating and Recording Devices. 
Damr)er Regulator, Ladders and Runwaj-^s, 

Painting, etc 1.00 0.50 

Totals $50.25 $23.15 

Cost of a 10 h.p. Steam Plant as given by W. O. Webber, 
Engineering Magazine, Feb., 1907. 

10 h.p. boiler $ 300 

Boiler foundation and setting 160 

Blow-ofC tank 31 

Damper and regulator 75 

Injector tank 10 

Water meter 40 

Piping for same 20 

Pump and vacuum 122 

Feed-water heater 40 

Pipe covering 50 

$789 

Engine, 7 by 10 $ 184 

Foundation for same 60 

Steam separator 35 

Oil separator 25 

Piping 95 

Freight and cartage 30 

$429 

Land for engine and boiler room, 300 sq. ft. at $1.00 $ 300 

Boiler and engine-room bidg., 300 sq. ft. at $1.50 450 

Chimney, 18-in. by 40-ft 400 

$1,150 

Total $2,368 

Note. These figures of Mr. Webber's evidently include labor in 
each item. His allowance of $1.00 per sq. ft. for land would be 
high in some places because it amounts to over $43,000 per acre. 

Cost of a 60- h.p. Steam Plant. Mr. Webber is authority for the 
following, also. 

Land for engine and boiler room $ 2,500.00 

Buildings for engine and boiler room 2.500.00 

Chimney 1,200.00 

80-h.p. boiler 790.00 

Ash pan for boiler (below high-tide level) 120.00 

Boiler and engine settings 1,282.00 

Blow-off tank 31.00 

Damper regulator 75.00 

Injector tank 10.00 

Water meter 60.00 



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PER CENT LOAD-FACTOR 



100 



Fig. 81. Cost of power per kw. per year. Hydraulic plant. 

Plant cost = $125 per kw. 

Fixed charges, 11% per annum. 

A = Mechanical maintenance and operation. 

B = A + Electrical maintenance and operation. 

C = B + Fixed charges. 



Piping for same i f r in 

Pump and receiver 7n 4 

Feed-water heater ; 707^ 

Pipe covering 

$ 2,677.78 

Engine, 12 by 30 5 J.%«5.00 

Pan for engine fly wheel '^xy. 

Steam .separator ""•"" 



570 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 











































































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PER CENT LOAD 



Fig. 82. SummaiT of Figs. 1 to 4 inclusive. 
Curves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 same as Fig. 69. 



STEAM POWER 571 

Oil separator 41.00 

Piping, freig-ht and cartage 1,026.41 

$ 2,265.21 

Shafting in place $ 550.00 

Belting in place 285.00 

$ 835.00 

Total $11,977.99 























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Fig. 83. Summary of Figs. 76 to 81 inclusive. 
Curves 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 same as Fig. 69, 
Coal at $3.00 — 14.500 B.t.u. per lb. 



572 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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20 40 60 80 

PER CENT LOAD-FACTOa 

Fig-. 84. Summary of Figs. 76 to 81 inclusive. 
Curves 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. and 6 same as Fig. 69. 
Coal at $1.50 — 11,000 B.t.u. per lb. 



Note. These costs include labor and incidentals. The item for 
land is very hig-h except in cities of the first or second class. 

Average Cost of Compound Condensing Steam Plants. W. H. 
Weston has given the following-, Eng-ineering- Mag-azine, January, 
1912: 



H.P. Cost 

100 Without Economizers % 10,000 

200 " " 19,000 

300 " " 25,500 

400 " " 31,000 

500 With " 28,000 

600 " " 38,000 

800 " " 56,500 

1,000 " " 66,500 



574 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

H.P. Cost 

1,500 With Economizers 95,000 

2.000 " " 121,000 

4,000 " " 225,000 

The above figures do not include mechanical stokers or ash- or 
coal-handling equipments, but do include engine and boiler houses, 
engine foundations, condenser and pump foundations, chimney, 
boilers (including settings and fittings), economizers (except where 
noted), all piping, valves, feed pumps, heaters and separators; en- 
gines, condensers, air and circulating pumps, and also allowing $1 
or $2 per h.p. for miscellaneous costs. 

Mr. Weston says that for 1000 h.p. or more, ash -handling plants 
cost $0.50 to $3 per h.p., and coal-handling plants from $1 to $6 
per h.p. ; these being so dependent upon special conditions that they 



OMtofBoilw SSI^SS 
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Simple Nop-coodeosias: 



Total Coat 
I>»B.P. 






J.) 



Boiler St Eoi-loe Combined 



M M I I I ITTTT 



APPROXIMATE COSTS 

PER HORSE POWER 

OF STEAM POWER PLANTS COMPLETE 

SIMPLE CONDENSING 

Plotted .from DaU ocmpiled bf Wm.G.Saow 

——Indloatee simple Noo.oondeMing : Eofloe 

, I and Boiler Combined 





Total Coat per H.p. 


10 20 

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Horse Power 


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Fig. 85. Approximate cost per h.p. of steam power plants complete. 



should be calculated for each plant independently, rather than 
trusting to average figures which vary very widely between these 
limits and even exceed them. 

Approximate Cost Per h.p. of Steam Power Plants Complete. 
Simple Condensing. Fig. S5 was plotted from data compiled by 
Wm. E. Snow, as given in Tables LXVI-LXIX. 

The Estimated Cost per h.p. of Steam Power Plant Complete. 
After Wm. E. Snow, Engineering Magazine, May, 1908. Tables 
LXVI-LXIX were compiled from a large amount of data, obtained 
in many small power stations at various places, and are believed 
to be sufficiently accurate for any purpose of ordinary estimating. 
They are naturally general averages or approximations thereto. 



STEAM POWER 



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STEAM POWER 577 

Cost of a Steam Power Plant for a Textile Mill. F. B. Rhea, 
Southern Electrician, Feb., 1912, gives the following table for the 
cost of complete installation per h.p. of such a plant. 

Engine and condenser 113.67 

Piping, etc 3.70 

Fire tube boilers 5.00 

Fan and stack 1.82 

Installing fire tube boilers 1.21 

Foundation 1.26 

Boiler pumps 0.25 

Economizer 3.92 

Drive 1.00 

Piping in to boiler 0.90 

Pipe covering 0.50 

Total $33.23 

This is understood to represent a 2,500-h.p. plant with pump, hot- 
well and jet condenser and all piping between the condenser 
head and hot-well, the engine being delivered and er€Kited on pur- 
chaser's foundation at competitive point in the Carolinas. The 
plant is figured to drive a 55,000 spindle cotton mill, the engines 
being 32 and 64 by 60 ins., cross compound condensing, complete, 
including foundations, condenser, all necessary pumps, all piping, 
boilers, and stack or chimney for induced draft. 

Steam Boilers. We are indebted to L. P. Breckenridge, Professor 
of Mechanical Engineering at the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale 
University, for the following formulae of costs. 

Equation of 
Type Capacity cost in dollars 

Horizontal water tube Up to 500 hp. 400 + 8 X hp. 

Vertical water tube Up to 500 hp. 300 + 7 X hp. 

A. A. Potter, Professor of Steam and Gas Engineering, has given 
in Power, Dec, 1913, the following formulae of costs. 

Capacity, Equation 

Type boiler, h.p. of cost, dol. 

Vertical fire tube Under 20 hp. 49.2 + 6.66 k hp. 

Submerged tube.s, 100 lb. per sq. in. 20 to 50 hp. 116.4 + 3.35 X hp. 

Full length tubes, 100 lb. per sq. in. Up to 50 hp. 51.5 + 3.62 X hp. 

Horizontal fire-tube cylindrical Up to 50 hp. 64. -j- 4.14 X hp. 

From Bulletin No. 2 of Kansas State Agricultural College en- 
titled Boiler-Room Economics by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering 
we have taken the following : 

Portable locomotive type fire-tube boilers, C = 121 + 5.68 X hp., 
where C = cost in dollars and hp. — boiler horse-power. 

Horizontal fire-tube boilers — working pressure, 125 lb. gauge; 
for 100 hp. or less. C =i 5.8 X hp. — 20 from 100 to 225 hp., C — 
211 + 3.35 Xhp. 

Vertical water-tube boilers; upper limit, C = 1032 -}- 2.68 X hp. ; 
lower limit, C = 797 -|- 6.17 X hp. ; average cost, C - 912 +- 6.98 X hp. 

Horizontal water-tube boilers, C — 149 + 8.24 X hp. 

Tables LXX-LXXIV were compiled by A. A. Potter and S. L. 
Simmering from data furnished them by manufacturers. From 
these tables were deduced the formulae froni Bulletin No. 2, above. 



578 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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STEAM POWER 581 

Cost of Boilers. From the American Handbook for Electrical 
Engineers we take the following: The selling price of boilers per 
rated h.p. (10 sq. ft. of heating surface = 1 h.p.) ranges from about 
$8 to |25, depending upon the size, the pressure they are to sus- 
tain, the style and design, etc. The lowest prices named are for 
large-sized, ordinary, horizontal tubular boilers (fire tube) for low 
pressure. For power plants of 1000 h.p. and over the price will 
range usually between $10 and $15 for pressures not over 150 lbs. 
per sq. in. For higher pressures and for boilers provided with 
superheaters the prices will be higher. For boilers of less than 
100 h.p. the price per h.p. increases as the size decreases. The 
prices named are for the boilers with the usual fittings of grates, 
steam and water gauges, blowoff and stop valves, on board cars 
at the boiler works, and do not include the cost of erection nor of 
brickwork, fiues or chimneys. 

C. H. Benjamin (Eng. News, Nov. 15, 1902) gives the following 
rules for estimating the cost of boilers ; P = boiler horsepower ; 
the cost is in dollars. 

(1) Horizontal water-tube boilers, 125 lbs. pressure, 10 sq. ft. of 

heating surface per boiler hp. 
Cost of boiler = 500 + 9.20 P. 
" setting = 400 + 0.80 P. 

(2) Vertical water tube boiler as in (1). 

Cost of boiler = 500 + 8.50 P. 

(3) Horizontal return tubular boilers, 12 sq. ft. of heating surface 

per horse-power. 

Cost of boiler = 100 + 6.50 P. 
" " setting = 300 -f- 0.70 P. 

Boilers. The manager of a reputable boiler works has given us 
the following general d^ta : Cost of water tube boilers f.o.b. fac- 
tory varies from $8 per h.p. for larger size units to $12 for small 
size units. 

The cost of boiler installations varies widely according to specifi- 
cations. An average installation costs complete $15 to $20 per h.p.,. 
the smaller sizes costing more per h.p. than the large sizes. How- 
ever, with exceptionally fine fittings, etc., even large installations 
may run as high as from $20 to $25 per h.p. 

Boilers. The following information was taken from The Isolated 
Plant, Dec, 1909. Horizontal return tubular boilers cost from $9 
to $10, including the setting per h.p. ; the boiler itself costing be- 
tween $6 and $7 per h.p. This does not include fittings, valves or 
pipe connections. 

Water tube boilers cost from $14 to $16 per h.p., including setting, 
or about $10 per h.p. without setting. 

Water-tube Boilers. The following costs of water-tube boilers 
and settings are the average of prices for boilers and costs of 
settings obtained in connection 'with our appraisals throughout 
the United States. The prices are those of 6 standard manufac- 
turers of boilers and there is a variation of 15% above and below 
the average given. In the cost of settings there is a variation of 
20% above and 'below the average. 



582 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

WATER TUBE BOILERS 



Size, hp. 

100 

200 

250 

300 

400 

500 

600 

800 
1,000 



Size, hp. 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

60 

75 

100 

120 

150 

225 

275 

325 

380 

415 

HORIZONTAL RETURN TUBULAR BOILER 

Size, hp. Weight lb. Net price 

16 3.100 $270 

29 4,600 270 

48 6,600 470 

78 8.600 575 

99 12,000 745 

130 14,800 890 

171 19.700 1,130 

205 23,000 1,310 

249 29,000 1.600 

315 37,000 1.960 

355 42,000 2,180 

Average Cost of Horizontal Tubular Boilers, Accessories, Con- 
nections, Settings. Judson H. Boughton in Engineering Magazine, 
November, 1907, quotes Isherwood for the following figures reduced 
to a horse-power basis, in comparing the performances of the two- 
general types of boilers. 

Water-tube: 11 sq. ft. heating surface, 3.3 lbs. of coal; relative 
economy 100, relative rate of steaming 100. 



Net price Cost of 
of boiler, boiler and 
Weight, lb. f.o.b. works setting complete 
20,000 $1,125 $1,550 
40,000 2,000 2,600 
51,000 2,440 3,100 
62,000 2,830 3.500 
82,000 3,600 4,350 
103,000 4,350 5,150 
125,000 5,100 5,950 
168,000 6,450 7,400 
210.000 7.800 8,800 

r iVIANNING TUBULAR BOILER 

Net price 
Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 
1 500 S17!? 


1,950 


195 


3 500 


300 


4.500 


360 


5,000 


390 


5,300 


400 


6,000 


440 


.... 6 650 


480 


8,500 


560 


11 000 


690 


12 500 


770 


15,000 


900 


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1.200 
1,430 
2,180 
2,500 


26 000 


. . 41 OOO 


48,000 


55,000 


2,800 


. . . . 60 000 


3,000 


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584 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Horizontal Tubular: 16 sq. ft. of heating surface, 4.0 lbs. of 
coal; relative economy 91, relative rate of steaming 50. 

The average cost of different sizes of boilers of the horizontal 
tubular type, which type has been more generally used especially 
in smaller plants, including also cost of accessories and connections 
and of setting is given in Table LXXV ; 5 to 1% is a fair reduction 
to make from these figures for each boiler set in battery. 

Average Cost of Water-Tube Boilers, Including Setting and Fit- 
tings, but Without Mechanical Stokers or Economizers. W. H. 
Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the fol- 
lowing table. 



H.p. 
400 


Cost 
$ 5,500 


600 


, 7,500 


800 


9,500 


1000 


11.500 


1500 15,500 


2000 20,000 


4000 38.000 



He states that the average cost of inside-firebox boilers of 200 
h.p. and upward is $0.12 to $0.14 per lb. f.o.b. the boiler shop for 
boilers of standard construction. These figiires and those of the 
table are on a compound condensing basis. 

Floor Area Occupied by Fire-Tube and Water-Tube Boilers. 
The following data are from Bulletin No. 2, Boiler Room Economics, 
by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering of Kansas State Agricultural 
College. The space occupied by any given boiler, or the cost of its 
setting, will not be altei'ed by driving the boiler above its rated 
capacity. Operating a boiler at an overload results in a decreased 
cost per sq. ft. of floor area per h.p. Where real estate, foundations, 
and buildings are expensive, these items sometimes exceed the cost 
of the bare boilers. 

C. R. D. Meier, in comparing the costs of various plants, in a 
paper read before the Associated Engineering Societies of St. Paul, 
gives the following : 

Real estate, cost per sq. ft $0.25 to $10.00 

Foundations," " " " 1.25" 4.00 

Buildings, " " " " ' 2.00 " 8.00 

This gives a minimum cost of $3.50 and a maximum cost of $22 
per sq. ft. of floor area. 

To determine the floor area occupied by various types of fire- 
tube boilers, including settings, the rated horsepowers and floor 
areas were plotted and Table LXXVI deduced from these plots. 

The average dimensions for a number of standard fire-tube boiler 
settings are : 

45 h.p 7 ft. 7 in. by 16 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 2 in. high 

80 " 8 " 10 " • " 21 " 3" •' 9 •' 2 " 

100 " 9 " 6 " " 21 " 3 " " 10 " 2 " 

150 " 10 " 2 " " 23 " 8 " " 10 " 8 " 

200 " 11 " " " 25 " 10 " " 11 " " 

240 " 11 " 3 " " 25 " 10 " " 11 " 2 " 



STEAM POWER 585 

The space occupied by a given area of water-tube surface will 
be determined by the size and length of tubes, the spacing and ar- 
rangement of tubes, and the general design of the boiler. With 
vertical baffles, three- and four-pass boilers, the tubes are usually 
4 ins. in diam., staggered with centers about 8 ins. apart in the 
horizontal rows and 10 ins. on the vertical rows. With horizontal 
baffles, the tubes are usually 3.5 ins. in diam. and arranged on 
equal centers horizontally and vertically. Comparing a number of 
water-tube boilers the floor space occupied varied from 1.62 sq. ft. 
for a 150-h.p. boiler to 0.55 sq. ft. for a 625-h.p. boiler. The total 
floor space per b.h.p. occupied by any boiler decreases as the rated 
h.p, of the unit increases. 

Settings For Fire-Tube Boilers. From Bulletin No. 2, Kansas 
State Ag. College, we have also taken the following. The approxi- 
mate number of fire brick and common brick required for various 
sizes of fire-tube boilers will be found in Table LXXVI. 

TABLE LXXVI. FLOOR SPACE OCCUPIED BY FIRE-TUBE 
BOILER SETTINGS 

Rated h.p. Sq. ft. floor space per rated h.p. 

50 2.73 

75 2.36 

100 2.01 

125 1.77 

ISO 1.60 

175 1.48 

200 1.38 

225 1.30 

250 1.22 

When two or more boilers are set in a battery the number of 
brick required will depend largely upon the method of constructing 
the inner walls, also whether the boilers are suspended from over- 
head steel framework or are supported by the walls. 

Experiments by the U. S. Bureau of Mines (Bulletin No. 8) 
show that for boiler settings a solid brick wall is preferable to the 
hollow wall, especially if the air space in the hollow wall is near 
the furnace side. If the wall must be built in two parts, the space 
should be fllled with ash, crushed brick or sand, as loose material 
reduces air leakage. 

The cost of brick boiler settings exclusive of the foundation may 
be estimated at about $25 per 1000 brick laid (see Gillette's Hand- 
book of Cost Data for details as to cost of brick masonry). 

TABLE LXXVIL BRICK REQUIRED FOR FIRE-TUBE 
BOILER SETTINGS 

Approximate no. brick 

Size of boiler Fire brick Common brick 

48 in. by 12 ft. 880 10,640 

54 " •♦ 14 •• 1,540 13,500 

60 " " 16 " 1,700 17,300 

66 " " 16 " 1,880 19,200 

72 " " 18 " 2,270 21,850 



:. lbs. per ft. 


Net price per ft. 


1.679 


$0,099 


1.932 


0.09 


2.186 


0.099 


2.783 


0.112 


3.074 


0.1085 


3.365 


0.119 


4.011 


0.14 


1.331 


0.14 


4.652 


0.153 


5.532 


0.179 


6.248 


0.201 



586 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Boiler Tubes. The following prices are for tubes up to 20 ft. in 
length. 

Diam. ins. W' 

1% 
2 

2V2 

2% 

3 

3% 

31/2 

3% 

4 

Flue Cleaners. 

THE " INGALLS " SELF ADJUSTING TUBE SCRAPER 
Diam., ins. Net price per in. 

$0.60 

THE COMBINATION SCRAPER AND BRUSH 
Diam., ins. Net price per in. 

iy2-4% $0.75 

LiAGONDA THRUST BEARING TUBE CLEANER MACHINES 
Diam., ins. Net price 

2, 2y2 $50 

334 . 60 

3y2-4 75 

LAGONDA AIR AND STEAM CLEANERS 

Diam., ins. Net price 

2, 2y2, 314 $60 

3y2-4 75 

SPECIAL HOSE FOR OPERATING FLUE CLEANERS 
Diam., ins. Net price per ft. 



1 $0.30 
1% 0.40 

iy2 0.50 




steel Cooling Towers with Fans Complete. W. H. 


Weston, 


Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the 


following 


table. 




H.p. Approximate cost 




500 $1,700 
1,000 3,000 
2,000 5,000 
4.000 9,000 





Natural-draft towers may cost a little less than these, which 
represent a fair average for well constructed and efficient towers. 
The h.p. is figured on compound condensing basis. 



STEAM POWER 587 

Condensers. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the follow- 
ing formulae of costs. 

Type Capacity 

A Barometric (28-in. vacuum) Up to 30,000 lbs. of steam per hr. 
B Jet condensers (28-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " '* *' 
C Jet condensers ( 2 6-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " " " 
D Surface con- 
densers (28-in. vacuum) " " 35,000 lbs. per hr. 
E Surface con- 
densers (2 6-in. vacuum) " " 30,000 " " " 

Type Equation of cost in dollars 

A 1055 + 0.112 X (lb. cond. steam) 

B 1176 + 0.1138 X ( " " " ) 

C 116 + 0.0591 X ( " " " ) 

D 1630 + 0.2038 X ( " " " ) 

E 413 + 0.1015 X ( " " " ) 

An approximate formula that is sometimes used for determining 
the cost of jet condensers is. 

Cost in dollars = 500 + 1.0 X h.p. 

Cost of Economizers. A. A. Potter, in Power, Dec. 30, 1913, 
gives the following as a guide in estimating the cost of apparatus 
and erection. Number of tubes, 32 to 10,000 ; heating surface per 
tube, 12 to 13 sq. ft.; capacity in lbs. of water per tube, 60 to 70; 
cost of economizer, f.o.b. factory, |8 to $10 per tube; cost, erected, 
$12 to $15 per tube. 

J. F. C. Snell gives for the cost of economizers $1.40 per kw., 
including brick work, or $70 per 1000 lbs. of normal evaporation 
of the boilers. 

The Cost of Fuel Economizers. The following data were fur- 
nished by the Green Fuel Economizer Co. Economizers cost on the 
average from $4 to $6 installed per h.p. of boilers, $6 being the 
maximum, but under favorable conditions the cost is considerably 
less and installations have been made for less than $3. The price 
of economizers f.o.b. the factory, for plants of 600 h.p. would be 
about $2,400 and for 1,800 h.p. $6,500. 

The cost of installing the smaller plant, under average condi- 
tions, is about $500, and the larger, $1,000. 

Economizers. W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, 
says that for 500 h.'p. or more, the average cost of economizers, 
figured on compound condensing basis and including settings and 
scraping equipment, is about $4 per h.p. 

Cost of Duplicate Induced IVlechanical- Draft Equipment Installed. 
W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given the 
following table, figured on compound-condensing basis. 

H.p. Cost 

800 $1,600 

1,000 . 1,800 

1,500 2,250 

2,000 2,275 

4,000 5,000 

Cost Formulae for Reciprocating Steam Engines. A. A. Potter 
gives the formulae in Table LXXVIII (Power, Dec. 30, 1913). 



588 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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20% above and below the average. 



590 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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STEAM POWER 



591 



Prices and Cost of Setting up Corliss Single-Cylinder Engines, 
Set-up and Connected. Tables LXXIX-LXXXII are after J. H. 
Bougrhton, Engineering- Magazine, November, 1907. 

Mr. Boughton considers that the investment represented by the 
Corliss engine with the necessary shafting, pulleys, and belting may 
ordinarily be taken as double that of the high-speed engine. 

The Corliss requires 3 lbs. of coal per h.p. as against from 4 to 
5 lbs. by the high-speed type. 

This includes condensers and the prices given apply to both 
tandem and cross-compound engines, the price of the former being 
less than 10% lower in smaller sizes and sometimes greater in large 

SiZBS. 

Average Cost of Engines, Including Surface Condensers, Air and 
Circulating Pumps. W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, Janu- 
ary, 1912, has given the following table. 



H.p. 

400 

500 

600 

800 

1,000 

1.500 

2,000 

4,000 



Cost 
$9,500 
11,500 
13,500 
18,000 
22,000 
32,000 
42,000 
80,000 



Prices and Weights of Miscellaneous Accessories. 

prices were in effect prior to the war. 



The following 



SCOTCH GAUGE GLASSES 



Length, in. 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 

15 
16 
17 

18 



The above are net prices per dozen. 



External diam., in. 



V2 & % 


% 


% 


1 


$0.45 
0.49 
0.54 
0.58 
0.63 


$0.54 
0.59 
0.65 
0.72 
0.78 


$0.76 
0.86 
0.92 
0.99 
1.06 


$0.92 
1.01 
1.10 
1.19 
1.28 


0.68 
0.72 
0.75 
0.81 


0.83 
0.88 
0.94 
0.99 


1.13 
1.23 
1.29 
1.37 


1.37 
1.46 
1.55 
1.64 



THE FISHER REGULAR GOVERNOR 

SCREWED CONNECTIONS 

Size, in. Shipping wt., lb. Net price 

% 15 $15.50 

% 16 19.00 

1 35 21.00 
1^ • 37 25.00 
iy2 56 30.00 

2 60 35.00 
2% 75 40.00 

3 100 49.00 



692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Size, ins. 
2 

3 

4 
5 

6 



FLANGED CONNECTIONS 

Shipping wt, lbs. Net price 

75 $33 

87 36 

120 44 

130 55 

150 63 

178 74 

200 91 

225 110 

300 160 



CAST IRON EXHAUST HEADS 

Size of exhaust 

pipe, in. Weight, lb. Net price 

1 30 $10.50 

IVa 30 10.50 

2 35 13.20 

21/2 35 13.20 

3 50 13.50 

Zy2 50 13.50 

4 70 18.00 

4^2 70 18.00 

5 80 22.20 

6 135 27.00 

7 140 31.20 

8 160 40.50 

9 175 45.00 

10 250 63.00 

12 300 72.00 

14 400 99.00 

16 500 120.00 

18 600 150.00 

20 700 180.00 

22 950 210.00 

24 1,050 225.00 

26 1,150 240.00 

30 1,700 330.00 

36 2,300 435.00 

Feed -Water Heaters. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives 
the following formulae for determining costs. 

Type Capacity Equation of cost, dollars 

Open Up to 1500 boiler hp. 114.5 + 0.3787 X hp. 

Open 1500 to 3000 boiler hp. 326 + 0.237 X hp. 

Closed Up to 3000 boiler hp. 40 + 0.72 X hp. 

These formulae were deduced from the manufacturers' selling 

prices. The following tables are from Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State 

Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and 
S. L. Simmering, 



TABLE LXXXI. COST DATA FOR OPEN FEED-WATER 







HEATERS 






liler hp. 


Cost 


Per hp. 


Boiler hp. 


Cost 


Per hp. 


50 


$75 


$1.50 


800 


$430 


$0.54 


100 


92 


0.92 


900 


500 


0.56 


200 


158 


0.79 


1,000 


478 


0.47 


300 


229 


0.76 


L200 
f!500 


510 


0.43 


400 


255 


0.64 


680 


0.45 


500 


313 


0.63 


2.000 


800 


0.40 


600 


339 


0.56 


2.500 


920 


0.37 


700 


410 


0.57 


3,000 


1,000 


0.33 



STEAM POWER 



593 



TABLE LXXXII. 



COST DATA FOR CLOSED FEED-WATER 
HEATERS 



iler hp. 


Total 


Per hp. 


Boiler hp. 


Total 


Per hp. 


5 


$10 


$2.00 


300 


250 


0.83 


10 


12 


1.18 


400 


310 


0.78 


20 


25 


1.25 


250 


210 


0.84 


25 


27 


1.08 


500 


360 


0.72 


30 


37 


1.23 


700 


511 


0.73 


40 


48 


1.20 


800 


650 


0.81 


50 


51 


1.02 


1,000 


730 


0.73 


60 


64 


1.07 


1,500 


1,050 


0.70 


80 


68 


0.85 


2,000 


1.325 


0.66 


100 


87 


0.87 


2,500 


1,825 


0.73 


125 


99 


0.79 


3,000 


2,000 


0.67 


150 


122 


0.81 


4,000 


2,520 


0.63 


200 


$170 


$0.85 


5.000 


3,155 


0.63 



Average Cost of Feed-Water Heaters. W. H. Weston has given 
the following- data in The Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, for 
compound-condensing plants. 



Cost of 
Hp. feed-water heaters 

of plant completely installed 

400 $800 

500 875 

600 900 

800 1,000 



Cost of 
Hp. feed-water heaters 

of plant completely installed 

1,000 $1,100 

1,500 1,400 

2,000 1,800 

4,000 3,000 



Hp. 

50 

75 

100 

200 

300 

400 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,100 



OPEN FEED-WATER HEATERS 
From data furnished by a manufacturer. 



Net price 
. . $75 
80 
95 
.. 160 
.. 220 
. . 270 
. . 360 
.. 400 
. . 425 
. . 460 
. . 490 
. . 530 



Hp. Net price 

1,200 $550 

1,400 620 

1,500 645 

1,600 675 

1,800 740 

2,000 800 



2,200 
2,400 
2,600 
2,800 
3,000 
3,200 



840 
890 
940 
980 
1,025 
1,060 



CLOSED FEED-WATER HEATERS 

Hp. Weight, lb. Net price 

5 35 $9 

10 65 12 

15 80 16 

20 180 23 

25 270 27 

30 350 35 

40 390 41 

50 420 50 

60 475 60 

80 515 22 

100 800 82 

125 850 95 

150 1,150 113 



594 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Hp. Weight, lb. Net price 

200 1,300 150 

250 1,450 180 

300 1,650 230 

400 1,900 270 

500 2,200 340 

600 2,800 410 

700 3,000 475 

800 3,200 540 

1,000 5,100 675 

1,250 5,600 810 

1,500 5,900 950 

2,000 9,400 1,260 

2,500 10,500 1,575 

3,000 11,500 1,890 

4,000 13,500 2,510 

5,000 15,500 ■ 3,150 

Cost of Injectors. From Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State Agricul- 
tural College, Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and S. L. 
Simmering we have taken the following. Tables LXXXIII- 
LiXXXVI give the cost of injectors based upon their capacity in 
gallons per minute, and also the boiler h.p. for which the injector 
is intended. Injectors are classified as follows: (a) single-tube 
injectors; (b) double-tube injectors; (c) restarting injectors. 
Table LXXXVII shows the relative costs of the 4 types of injectors 
for various capacities. 

The following are equations deduced from Tables LXXXIII- 
LXXXVI. G represents the capacity in gallons per minute and C 
the cost in dollars. 

For a single-tube injector C = 2.62 -|- 0.79 X G. 

For a double-tube injector C = 4 -|- 0.8 X G. 

For a restarting tube injector, capacities less 

than 10 gal. per min C =: 3.4 +1.26 X G. 

Capacities from 10 to 75 gal. per min C := 11.5 + 0.65 X G. 

For an ejector, capacities up to 10 gal. per 

min C= 0.72 + 0.338 X G. 

Capacities from 10 to 125 gal. per min C r= 3.56 + 0.1345 X G. 

TABLE LXXXIII. COST DATA FOR SINGLE-TUBE INJECTORS 

Capacity, 

gal. per min. Boiler hp. Cost, dol. 

1 8 2.70 

1 6 4.50 

1.3 11 4.80 

1.3 8 4.00 

2 15 3.25 

2 19 5.40 

3 22 5.00 

3 22 6.00 

3.5 30 4.50 

4 34 7.50 

4.3 32 7.50 

6 45 7.50 

7.5 65 7.20 

8 64 12.00 

8.3 65 13.50 

10 80 11.25 

12.7 120 9.90 



STEAM POWER 



595 



Capacity, 
gal. per min. Boiler hp. 

13.3 106 

13.3 100 

23.3 181 

*23.3 180 

23.3 180 

40 320 

40 320 

40 320 

60 480 

70 600 

75 600 



Cost, dol. 
16.50 
13.75 
22.50 
18.75 
22.50 
33.00 
27.50 
37.50 
45.00 
60.00 
60.00 



TABLE LXXXIV. COST DATA FOR DOUBLE-TUBE 
INJECTORS 



Capacity, 
gal. per min. 

1.3 

2 

2.3 

3.7 

4.3 

7 

8 
12 
21 
37 
40 
58 
60 
60 
66.7 
75 



Boiler hp. 


Steam pressure 


11 




15 


80 


19 




25 


80 


34 




50 


80 


64 




95 


80 


165 


80 


295 


80 


320 




460 


80 


4.80 




500 


80 


600 


80 


600 





Cost, dol. 

4.80 

6.00 

5.40 

7.50 

7.50 

12.00 

12.00 

16.50 

22.50 

33.00 

33.00 

45.00 

45.00 

52.50 

60.00 

60.00 



TABLE LXXXV. COST DATA FOR RESTARTING INJECTORS 



Capacity, 






Steam 




'al. per min. 


Boiler hp. 


Lift, ft. 


pressure 


Cost, dol 


0.5 


4 


3 


75 


3.90 


1 


8 


3 


75 


4.20 


1 


6 






5.40 


1.5 


12 


'3 


75 


4.80 


1.5 


10 






6.30 


2 


20 


'3 


75 


5.40 


3 


20 






7.95 


4 


45 


*3 


75 


7.50 


6.4 


45 






11.85 


8 


80 


'3 


75 


12.00 


10 


90 






17.70 


13.3 


135 


'3 


75 


16.50 


22.5 


175 




. 


28.50 


23.3 


235 


■3 


75 


22.50 


37 


300 






42.00 


40 


380 


'3 


75 


33.00 


57.5 


950 






54.00 


60 


550 


'3 n 


75 


45.00 


75 


750 


3 * 


75 


60.00 



596 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE LXXXVI. COST DATA FOR EJECTORS 



Capacity, Cost, 

gal. per min. dol. 

1.3 1.35 

2 , . . 1.80 

3 2.03 

4 2.25 

5 2.40 

10.8 4.50 

12.5 4.50 

13.3 4.50 

23.3 7.88 

29.1 7.85 

33.3 7.50 



Capacity, Cost, 

gal. per min. dol. 

37.5 9.00 

62.5 11.25 

79.1 15.75 

83.3 14.63 

83.3 15.00 

108.3 18.00 

113.3 23.80 

125 20.35 

153.3 32.60 

250 21.00 

750 52.50 



TABLE LXXXVII. EFFECT OF INJECTOR TYPE ON COST 



Gal. per min. 

. 20 
40 
60 
80 



, Cost of injector, dol. ^ 

Single-tube Double-tube Restarting Ejector 
$18 $20 $24 $6.50 

36 37 9.00 



34 
50 
65 



11.75 
14.50 



INJECTORS 



METROPOLITAN AUTOMATIC INJECTOR 



Size, in. 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 



10 
11 
12 
13 
14 



Hp. 

4- 6 

6- 8 

8- 15 

15- 20 

20- 30 

30- 45 

45- 65 

65- 80 

80-100 

100-130 

130-170 

170-230 

230-300 

300-375 



Net price 

$4.50 

4.80 

5.40 

6.00 

7.50 

9.00 

12.00 

13.50 

16.50 

18.00 

22.50 

27.00 

33.00 

37.50 



METROPOLITAN DOUBLE-TUBE INJECTOR 



Size, in. 

Vi 

51/2 

6 1/2 

7y2 
71/2 
9y2 

11 y2 

12 y2 
i3y2 
i4y2 
isya 
leya 
i7y2 



Hp. 

8- 15 

15- 20 

20- 30 

30- 45 

45- 65 

65- 80 

80-100 

100-130 

130-170 

170-230 

230-300 

300-375 

375--500 

500^650 

650-775 

775-950 



Net price 

$11.70 

13.00 

16.50 

19.50 

26.00 

29.30 

35.70 

39.00 

48.80 

58.50 

71.50 

81.20 

97.50 

130.00 

162.00 

195.00 



STEAM POWER 597 

Price of Pipe Covering. The following- table gives the net price 
of sectional pipe covering, 85% magnesia. 

Inside diam., in. Weight, lb. per ft. Net price per ft. 

01/2 0.75 $0.09 

0% 0.85 0.095 

1 0.94 0.11 
1^ 1.12 0.12 
11/2 1.40 0.13 

2 1.50 0.14 
2% 1.88 0.16 

3 2.25 0.18 
SVa 2.45 0.20 

4 2.80 0.24 
4% 3.55 0.26 

5 4.10 0.28 

6 4.50 0.32 

7 5.20 0.40 

8 6.00 0.44 

9 7.00 0.48 
10 8.00 0.52 
12 11.20 0.74 

Asbestos Air-cell pipe covering- costs about 35 to 40% less than 
85% magnesia coverings listed above. 

Labor Cost of Lagging Steam Pipe with standard magnesia pipe 
covering is given by Mr. R, K. Stockwell in Engineering and Min- 
ing Journal, Mar. 22, 1913. The work comprised the covering of 
2,400 ft. of high pressure steam heating line running from the 
power house to the concentrator, and the steam and feed water 
lines of two 450-boiler-hp. reverberatory-furnace waste-heat boilers, 
at McGill, Nevada, in October, 1909. The men who did the work 
were pipe fitters rated at 50 ct. per hr., each with two helpers at 
37.5 ct. per hr. The high pressure covering was 1.5 in. thick, held 
away from the pipe by bands of magnesia 1 in. thick, 18 in. apart. 
The covering for 10-in. and larger pipe came in keystone-shaped 
strips, and was placed on the bands, the cracks plastered with 
magnesia, mud and cement, the whole covered with canvas, clamped 
with brass bands 30 in. apart, and painted with tar and gasoline. 
The high pressure pipe covering for pipes 8 in. and less in diam. 
came in half cylinders 1.5 in. thick, and the low pressure pipe 
covering for pipes of less than 8 -in. diam. in half cylinders 1 in. 
thick. The finish was the same as for the large high pressure pipes. 
The magnesia coverings for fittings, valves, etc., had to be sawed 
and fitted to the work by hand, which was slow and expensive. In 
the labor costs which follow all flanges are figured as part of 
flange unions. 

Labor costs of applying magnesia covering to pipes and fittings 
were : 

High prei?sure covering Cost per lin. ft. 

4-in. pipe $ .17 

8-in. pipe ■ 38 

10-in pipe 79 

12-in. pipe 1.25 

8-in. pipe bends 1.03 



598 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



High pressure covering Cost each 

1.5-in. elbows $1.30 

8-in. elbows 3.30 

10-in. elbows 3.58 

12-in. elbows 4.90 

4-in. expansion joints 2.60 

10-in. expansion joints 5.63 

12-in. expansion joints 6.15 

1.5-in. flange unions 1.03 

4-in. flange unions . , 1.19 

8-in. flange unions 3.19 

10-in. flange unions 3.40 

12-in. flange unions 5.49 

1.5-in. valve bodies 1.60 

8-in valve bodies 3.28 

10-in. valve bodies 3.60 

12-in. valve bodies 4.90 

S-in. valve bonnets 3.25 

10-in. valve bonnets 3.60 

12-in. valve bonnets 3.70 

Low pressure covering Cost per lin. ft. 

2.5-in. pipe $ .10 

4-in. pipe 12 

Cost each 

2.5-in. flange unions $1.15 

2.5-in. tees 1.30 

4-in. tees 1.75 

2.5-in. elbows 1.30 

2.5-in. valve bonnets 1.98 

Average Cost of Steam and Water Piping, Valves and Separators. 
W. H. Weston, Engineering Magazine, January, 1912, has given 
the following table for compound condensing plants. 

Hp. Costs 

400 - $3,600 

500 4,000 

600 4.500 

800 5,200 

1,000 6,200 

1,500 9,000 

2,000 11.000 

4,000 20,000 

The Cost of Piping. The following is from a paper by E. Hor- 
ton in the July, 1914, Bulletin of the A. I. M. E. The cost of piping 
at the Arizona Copper Company's New Smeltery, at Clifton, Arizona, 
was $122,389. The various items of cost are given herewith and 
include excavation, cost of material at Clifton and all labor of 
erection. The cost of engineering and superintendence amounts to 
5.40% extra and the cost of indirect expense amounts to 7.53% extra. 

Blast Pipe frovx Fans to Roasters in Roasting Plant. This pipe 
was made of No. 10 and No. 12 plate and varied in diam. from 18 
ins. to 36 ins. The inlet pipe to each roaster was 18 ins. diam. 
Installation of this pipe included in the cost given herewith con- 
sisted of connecting up and riveting the pipe in place in the field 
only. This piping amounted to 240 ft. and cost of material, fabri- 



STEAM POWER 599 

cation and installation was: Labor, $1569.62; material, $656.62; 
total, $2,226.24. Cost per ft., $9.28. 

Piping in Reverberatory Plant. Miscellaneous piping, boilers and 
reverberatory building ; the sizes were various and amount of piping 
installed was not given. Costs were : Labor, $524.15 ; material, 
$1409.85; total, $1934.00. 

Feed piiiing from heating plant to feed pumps: Excavating 1296 
cu. yd. of trench from hot-water heating plant to boiler feed pumps 
through red clay filled with boulders, sand and gravel. The work 
was performed with picks and shovels and handled 300 ft. with 
wheel barrows and slips. Much of the dirt had to be handled 3 
times in removing it from the trench; 200 ft. of the trench was 
cribbed and lagged 20 ft. high. Cost: Labor, $1039.91; material, 
$51.51; total, $1091.42. Cost per cu. yd., 84 ets. 

In installing this pipe ordinary vitrified 15-in. sewer pipe cut in 
half was used for conduit. The first half was laid in the trench 
and the joints cemented, following by laying an 8-in. standard 
wrought-iron pipe. About this pipe an asbestos filler was packed, 
and after each section of conduit top was laid, the filler was stuffed 
in over the pipe to thoroughly cover it. The cost of labor was 
$386.25. Cost of supplies follows: 557 ft, of 15-in. J.-M. sectional 
conduit, $2273.47; 557 ft. of 8-in. wrought-iron pipe, $374.49; asbes- 
tos filler and miscellaneous, $109.83; total supplies, $2757.79. Total 
pipe work amounted to 557 ft. Total cost, $3144.04. Cost per ft. 
of pipe, $5.64. Total cost of feed piping from heating plant to feed 
pumps, including trenching, $4325.46. Total cost per ft., $7.60. 

Feed piping from putnps to boilers: This represents pipe fittings, 
pipe covering, paint and labor in erecting, covering some of the 
pipe with insulation and painting all the pipe. The piping was 
about 1 steam and 2 electric feed pumps at the boilers. It also 
covered a hot-water*line the length of the boiler building and a cold- 
water line of the same length. Each is connected to the boilers. 
The 2 main lines are 6 in. Connections to the boilers are 3 in. 
The hot-water lines are covered throughout. Labor cost was 
$1060.53. Materials cost: Standard pipe, $416.39; extra heavy 
fittings, $2408.89 ; pipe covering, $137.26 ; hangers and miscellaneous, 
$78.46; total material cost, $3041. Total amount of piping, 1093 ft. 
Total cost, $4101.53. Cost per foot of pipe, $3.75. Total cost of 
piping for reverberatory plant of 1200 ton capacity in 24 hrs., 
$10,370.99. 

Piping in Converter Plant. Air pipe from power house : Exca- 
vating 331 cu. yd. of trench through sand, gravel and boulders with 
pick and shovel, and backfilling same, $224.06 ; Cost per cu. yd., 
68 cts. The pipe ran from the power house to connect with all the 
converters, and was built to carry air under 12 lbs. pressure of 
No. 8 U. S. gage plate riveted, tested for 25-lb. pressure and painted 
with asphaltum paint. It was made in 30 ft. sections and fastened 
together with forge-steel flanges. Labor cost was $674.62. Material 
cost was: 400 ft. 24-in. pipe, 10-in. cast-iron nozzles, tees and ells, 
$1332.70; 22 ft. 10-in. pipe and two 10-in. flanges, $27.54; two 24-in. 
cast-iron gate valves, $138.55; miscellaneous, $127.85; total ma- 



600 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

terials, $2941.89. Total cost, $2716.51. Total piping, 422 ft. at 
$6.43. Total cost of air pipe from power house, including excavat- 
ing, $2940.57. Total cost per ft., $6.97. 

Sewer System. Excavating 2967 ft. of trench and tunnel. 
Trenches varied from 18 to 60 ins. wide and 2 to 20 ft. deep through 
various kinds of soil. Costs were: Labor, $2122.84; material, 
$65.20 ; total, $2188.04. Cost per lin. ft., 74 cts. Concrete work 
amounting to 53.8 ft. of manholes, etc., was performed. The mix 
was 7 of sand and gravel to 1 of cement. This work cost : Labor, 
$168.18; material, $184.08; total, $352.26. Laying and cost of pipe, 
which consisted of 2967 ft. of vitrified sewer pipe, ranging from 6 
to 15 ins. in diam. and laid at an average depth of 4 ft. below 
surface. Cost, $778.83 for labor and $1224.72 for supplies; total, 
$2003.55. Cost per ft. of pipe, 68 cts. Total cost of sewer pipe, 
including excavation, $4543.85. Total cost per ft., $1.53. 

Water Pipe Line. Excavating 4253 ft. of trench through various 
kinds of ground from 8 to 15 ft. in depth. Labor, $868.11. Cost 
per ft., 20 cts. Concrete work, 2.3 cu. yd., to anchor 6-in. line at 
foot of hill. Labor, $17.37; material, $17.86; total $35.23. Cost 
per cu. yd., $15.32. Pipes and laying; all water lines about smelter 
consist of 2052 ft. of 6-in. pipe, 1058 ft. of 4-in. pipe, 200 ft. of 
2.5-in. pipe, 268 ft. of 2-in. pipe, 115 ft. of 1.5-in. pipe and 50 ft. 
of 1-in. pipe; total, 4253 ft. of pipe, and all necessary fittings, 
valves and Are hydrants. Cost of labor, $2863.32 ; material, 
$2062.07; total, $4925.39. Cost per ft. of pipe, $1.16. A 6-in. pip'e 
line from Clifton, distance 8988 ft. ; cost, including excavation, lay- 
ing, material, painting and back-filling, labor, $1474.71 ; material, 
$6914.95; total, $8389.66. Cost per ft. of pipe, 93 cts. Total cost 
of all water pipes, $14,218.39. Total cost per ft., 51-08. 

Air Line. Excavating trenches amounting to 401 cu.yd. through 
various kinds of soil and ranging from 18 ins. to 6 ft. in depth and 
1 to 3 ft. in width. Cost, including back-filling: labor, $267.50. 
Cost per cu. yd., 67 cts. The air lines together were 2316 ft. long 
and were made up of the following quantities of pipe: 526 ft. of 
1-in. pipe, 36 ft. of 1.25-in. pipe, 80 ft. of 1.5-in., 656 ft. of 2-in., 
838 ft. of 3-in. and 180 ft. of 4-in. pipe. Cost was as follows: 
Labor, $432.37; material, $623.08; total, $1055.45. Cost per ft., 
46 cts. Total cost of air line, including excavation, $1322.95. Cost 
per ft., 57 cts. 

Steam-Heating System. Excavating 225 cu. yds. of shallow 
trench through red clay and backfilling. Labor cost, $166.36. Cost 
per cu. yd., 73 cts. This pipe was covered with double standard 
magnesia covering, 260 ft. of 2-in., and 236 ft. of 2.5-in. steam 
pipe were laid in a 2-in. lumber box. Total pipe, 49 6 ft. Cost: 
Labor, $240.78; material, $305.37; total, $546.15. Cost per ft. of 
pipe, $1.10. Total cost of steam-heating pipe system, $712.51. 
Cost per ft. of pipe, $1.43. 

Power-house piping. Air pipes or ducts for turbines. This pipe 
was made in the shop of No. 16 steel with 2.5 by 2.5 by .25 angles. 
Total length, 103 ft. Cost of labor, $547.68 ; materials, $200.75 ; 
total, $748.43. Cost per ft., $7.27. 



STEAM POWER 601 

In erecting this pipe, cloth insertion packing, rivets, hangers, 
anchors, etc., were used. Cost of labor, $232.57; material, $64.24; 
total, $296.81. Cost per ft, $2.88. Total cost of air ducts for tur- 
bines, $1045.24. Cost per ft., $10.15. 

Erecting compressor : All piping, except steam, used in erecting 
Ingersoll-Rand two-stage compressor. Cost of labor, $298.46; ma- 
terial, $160.65; total, $459.11. 

Steam pipe for north and south mains: Excavating 279 cu. yd. 
for numerous piers done with pick and shovel and cast to one side. 
Labor cost, $240.65. Cost per cu. yd., 89 cts. 

Foundations: These are concrete piers which support the long 
structural steam-pipe supports. Part of the concrete was mixed 
by machine and part by hand in proportions of 6 sand and gravel 
to 1 cement. There were 194.5 cu. yds. and about 50% of the 
vertical surface was formed. Cost of labor, $578.24; material, 
$945.97; total, $1524.21. Cost per cu. yd., $7.84. 

Steel support structures for these mains consist of 11.8 tons of 
corrugated iron and 75.01 tons of structural steel. Cost, including 
labor, $7894.58. Cost per ton, $88.64. 

Hangers and anchors used for steam piping between boilers and 
the machines in the power house were made of .75-in. rods and .5 
by 2.5-in. iron. Cost of labor, $1030.68; materials, $337.26; total, 
$1367.94. Total, 153 rods at $8.94. 

Cost and erection of pipe: the pipes run from the boilers to the 
power house in duplicate, making a complete loop about 1120 ft. 
around. The main lines are 10 ins., branches from boilers 8 ins., 
and all branches to engines of suitable sizes ranging from 4 to 8 
ins. The line is required to stand 180 lbs. pressure with 100 deg. F. 
superheat. All joints are Van Stone, all valves and fittings are of 
cast steel. Corrugated bronze gaskets were used. The 10-in. lines 
are fitted with six 10-in. Labor cost was $2286.31. The following 
gives some details of materials and cost : 

6 10-in. Harter expansion joints $ 1,684.77 

1 6-in. cast-iron separator 126.55 

2 10-in. cast-steel vertical separators 843.47 

1 10-in. cast-steel horizontal separator 372.48 

2 6-in. separators and receivers 591.77 

1 5-in. cast-steel separator and receiver 261.40 

3 4-in. cast-steel separators and receivers 687.43 

2 4-in. cast-steel separators and receivers 476.28 

Corrugated bronze gaskets 251.93 

10 8-in. Lagonda valves 1,315.52 

12 10-in. gate valves 2,079.00 

2 34-in. and 1 33-in. Crane tilt traps 143.69 

Best Mfg. Co. pipe and fittings 8,738.89 

Extra pipe and fittings 526.18 

Miscellaneous 522.89 



Total cost of materials $18,622.25 

Total cost of labor and materials, $20,908.56. Total pipe work, 
3401 ft. at $6.15 per ft. The steam pipes and all fittings were cov- 
ered with 85% magnesia blocks of double standard thickness, 
wrapped, with 6 oz. duck. All the lines were then painted with two 



602 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

coats. Cost, $6079.94. Cost per ft., $1.79. Total cost of steam 
lines, north and south mains, $37,824.88. Cost per ft., $11.10. 

Exhaust pipe: Some of the piping used was cast-iron, designed 
for a vacuum of 14 lbs. per sq. in. The rest of the pipe used was 
lap-welded wrought steel and cast-iron fittings. The installation 
covers the 3 20-in. atmospheric exhausts from the turbines, as well 
as the exhausts from the blowers, compressors, exciters, engines and 
circulating pump engines, to the jet condenser. It covers likewise 
the connections between the exhaust of the dry-vacuum pumps, 
exciters, engines, surface condenser, circulating pumps and heater 
house. The pipe ranges from 3-in. to 42-in. There were 1541 ft. 
of pipe. The labor cost for installation was $1745.71. The supply 
cost was $8715.66, made up as follows: Wainwright turbine ex- 
pansion joints, $656.70; 3 20-in. atmospheric relief valves, $804.50; 
3 42-in. low-pressure flanged base elbows, $1428.61 ; 3 special 8-in. 
emergency-stop valves, $234.36; 1 14-in. automatic atmospheric- 
exhaust relief valve, $123.27; pipe and fittings, $4585.74; miscel- 
laneous, $882.48. Total cost of labor- and material, $10,461.37. 
Cost per ft., $6.79. 

All exhaust pipe was given one coat of green silica graphite 
paint. Cost of labor, $85.05; material, $51.19; total, $136.24. Cost 
per ft., 9 cts. 

The exhaust pipes from the engines in the power house to the 
heater house were all covered with 85% magnesia single standard 
thickness, wrapped in 6-oz. duck. Where the magnesia is exposed 
to the weather, it is wrapped with No. 28 galvanized iron. Total 
pipe covered, 746 ft. Labor cost, $318.25; material, $830.56; total 
cost, $1148.81. Cost per ft, $1.54. 

Other costs, including air pipe and erection, painting, exhaust- 
pipe foundations, supporting structure excavation. Labor cost was 
$675.93; material, $733.56; total, $1409.49.- 

Water pipe about poxoer house: Excavating a trench about 3 ft. 
deep through red clay and boulders for a 16-in. wood stave pipe, 
2406 cu. yd. of earth removed. Cost, including back-filling: Labor, 
$1485.10; material, $0.24; total, $1485.34. Cost per cu. yd., 62 cts. 

The following covers all the water pipe about the power house, 
the 30-in. cast-iron suction line from the cooling tower to the 
pumps; the 20-in. wooden lines from the pumps to the equalizing 
tank; the 16-in. wooden lines from the jet condenser to the cooling 
tower, and the 12-in. cast-iron lines from the circulating pumps to 
the jet condenser ; the 8-in. line from the condenser to the condensed 
water pump house ; the 6-in. line from the condensed pump house 
to heater ho\ise, etc. Labor cost for erection was $3747.79. The 
following gives details of materials and their cost : 

19 98.7 ft. 4-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 

(not used at new smelter) , $ 397.74 

354.6 ft. 20-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 365.24 

1104.2 ft. 16-in. machine banded redwood pipe with collars 861.28 

22 flange couplings 590.00 

Freight on the above items 632.00 

2 12-in. check valves 97.00 

4 12-in. gate valves 172.00 



STEAM POWER 603 

3 20-in. g-ate valves 283.50 

Freight on above items 176.38 

3 20-in. flanged iron body, bronze-mounted double gate 

valves 403.49 

5 No. 20 gage copper plates 36.28 

2 cast-iron bell-and-flange fittings, 6 bell bends 81.11 

Freight and patterns on above 78.00 

220 lbs. cloth insertion packing 91.50 

Best Mfg-. Co. pipe 9,668.92 

Pipe, fittings, miscellaneous material 2,503.44 

Total cost of material $16,437.88 

Total cost of labor and materials, $20,185.67. 

All this pipe above ground was painted at a cost of : Labor, 
$230.59; material, $25.54; total, $256.13. 

Sewer pipe for feed water heating plant: Excavating and back- 
filling a trench about 3 ft. deep through red clay and boulders, 266 
cu. yd. Labor cost, at 59 cts. cu. yd., $157.19. 

Sewer pipe and laying- 100 ft. of 24-in. vitrified pipe. Cost of 
labor, $71.88; material, $203; total, $274.88. Cost per ft., $2.75. 
Total cost of sewer, $432.07. Total cost per ft., $4.32. Total cost 
of power house-piping (except possibly a few small items connected 
with pumps, etc.), $74,844.35. 

Oil-Supply Sump and Pump House. Inlet piping, oil sump : The 
following is for installing and cost of this pipe between the unload- 
ing tracks and oil sump: Labor, $44.77; 6 10-in. wrought pipe 18 
ft. long, $85.54; 6 10-in. cast-iron cells, $38.64; miscellaneous, 
$2.37; total, $171.32. 108 ft. of piping at $1.59. 

Oil piping: Excavating trenches from 500,000 gal. oil tank to 
small 163-bbl. tanks. Trenches were 2 ft. wide and about 3 ft. 
deep. Total earth removed, 1150 cu. yd. Cost of labor, $990.73 ; 
material, $1.39 ; total, $992.12. Cost per cu. yd., 86 cts. 

Pipe and laying: there were 1888 ft. of pipe, consisting of 172 
ft. of 12-in. wrought-iron pipe, 270 ft. of 16-in., 850 ft. of 8-in. 
and 596 ft, of 2.5-in, wrought-iron pipe. A 16-in. line runs from 
the oil sump to the pump house, also from pump house to storage 
tanks. The 8-in. line runs from the pump house to the 163-bbl. 
tanks. The 2.5-in. line runs from the Wilgus oil pumps to each of 
the reverberatories. Cost of labor, $3156.14; material, $5654.50; 
total, $8810.64. Cost per ft. of pipe, $4.67. 

Heating installation for oil piping: a 2.5-in. steam line is tapped 
off the steam line at power house and runs underground through 
a conduit and is packed in asbestos fiber. At the other end, the 
pipe connects with a cast-iron oil heater. Labor cost for installing 
was, $167.37. Materials cost $1068.04 and consisted of a cast-iron 
heater, $303.82; No. 33 Crane tilt trap, $35.91; 280 ft. 8-in. conduit, 
$547.49; asbestos, $29; 2.5-in. pipe and fittings, $151.82. Total cost 
of labor and material, $1235.41. Total piping, 360 ft. at $3.43 per 
ft. Total cost of piping at smelter as given in details of cost, 
$11,389.34. 

Pipe Line Leakage. Trans. A. 1. M. E. Vol. 30. At No. 6 Col- 
liery, Glen Lyon, Pa., the main pipe line is 4380 ft. long, of 5 ins. 
jiiam., and has a cubic capacity of 608 cu. ft., with a branch line 



604 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

3100 ft. long, of 3 ins, diam., and a capacity of 159 cu. ft. The 
gauge pretjsure is 600 lbs., which gives an equivalent capacity of 
32, 500 cu. ft. of free air. The loss per hr. from leaks is 974 cu. ft. 
of free air or 4.18% of the total air compressed. 

Average Cost of Boiler Feed Pumps. W. H. Weston has given 
the following data in The Engineering Magazine, Jan., 1912, for 
compound condensing plants. 

Cost of 
Feed pumps, 
Hp. of plant completely installed 

400 $160 

500 175 

600 190 

800 220 

1,000 250 

1,500 325 

2.000 380 

4,000 700 

Cost of Pumps. The following equations, taken from Bulletin 
No. 2, Kansas State Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by 
A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering, give the cost, C, in dollars for 
various types of reciprocating pumps in terms of capacity, G, 
expressed in gallons per hour. 

Boiler feed pumps, piston pattern, single cylinder: 

For capacities of 6000 gals, per hr. or less, C = 17.8 + 0.0259 X G; 
6000 to 27,000 gals, per hr., C = 107 + 0.011 X G. 

For a duplex pump of the same type, and capacities from 2,500 
to 30,000 gals, per hr., C = 58.5 + 0.0115 X G. 

Boiler feed pumps, single cylinder, outside-packed plunger type: 
C — 0.034 X G — 20. For a duplex pump of the same type, C = 
0.0421 X G — 221. 

Geared power pumps, single cylinder: C = 90 + 0.0316XG. 

Geared poiver piimps, single acting triplex type: C = 56 + 0.0388 
X G. For a double acting pump of the same type, C = 195'+ 0.0148 
XG. 

Rotary force pumps: C = 8 + 0.0117 X G. 

Wet vacuum pumps: For capacities up to 10,000 gals, per hr., 
C = 18 + 0.0143 X G. From 10,000 to 50,000 gals, per hr., C = 14 + 
0.00863 X G. 

The following equations give the cost, C, in dollars for centrif- 
ugal pumps when the capacities are expressed in gallons per 
minute, G. 

Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, low pressure, single stage type: 
C = 52 + 0.0552 X G. 

Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, high pressure, single stage type: 
For capacities up to 5,000 gals, per min., C = 61 + 0.0868 X G. 
From 5,000 to 20,000 gals, per min., C = 210 + 0.0567 X G. 

Centrifugal pumps, horizontal, high pressxire, multi-stage type: 
C = 117 + 0.233 X G. 

Centrifugal pumps, vertical, low pi'essure, single-stage type: C ~ 
60 + 0.0657 X G. 



STEAM POWER 



605 



single-stage tyiie: 
multi-stage type: 



Centrifugal pumps, vertical, high pressure, 
C = 50 + 0.0865 X G. 

Centrifugal putnps, vertical, high pressure, 
C - 125.7 + 0.27 X G. 

The cost of a duplex-geared pump is stated by different manu- 
facturers as twice that of a single-cylinder pump plus 10%. 

For further data on pumps and costs thereof, see Chapter XVII. 

Cost of Water Purification Plants. We have abstracted the fol- 
lowing from Bulletin No. 2, Kansas State Agricultural College, 
Boiler Room Economics, by A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering. 
Table LXXXVIII gives the capacities of water-purification plants 
in gallons per hour, the cost of equipment and also the cost of 
erection. It is evident that the cost of erection rises much more 
rapidly for increased capacities above 7000 gals, per hr. than from 
to 7000 gals, per hr., whereas the cost of the equipment rises 
uniformly for the total range of capacities quoted. From the table 
the following equations were derived, giving the cost, C, in dollars 
expressed in terms of the capacity in thousands of gallons, G, 
per hour. 



TABLE LXXXVIII. 



COST DATA FOR WATER-PURIFICATION 
PLANTS 



:ity, gal. per 


hr. Cost, dol. Cost of erectior 


1,000 


$900 


$225 


1,000 


1,000 


150 


1,500 


1,150 


235 


2,000 


1,300 


245 


2,000 


1,500 


200 


3,000 


1,500 


250 


3,000 


1,900 


220 


4,000 


1,750 


250 


5.000 


2,000 


260 


5,000 


2.300 


500 


6,000 


2,250 


275 


7,000 


2,600 


300 


8,000 


2,600 


500 


10.000 


3,000 


600 


10,000 


3,300 


700 


12,000 


3,500 


800 


15,000 


4,000 


875 


15,000 


4,000 


900 


20,000 


5.000 


1.000 


20.000 


4,400 
OIL SEPARATORS 


1,100 




STANDARD HORIZONTAL TYPE 


Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


2 


80 


$8.00 


3 


150 


15.40 


4 


200 


17.60 


5 


230 


20.00 


6 


260 


24.00 


8 


450 


36.00 


10 


580 


46.00 


12 


725 


60.00 


14 


875 


76.00 


16 


1,200 


102.00 



606 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Size, ins. 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 



ICAL RECEIVER TYPE 




Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


140 


$13.60 


225 


17.60 


325 


26.00 


500 


37.60 


625 


45.60 


850 


62.00 



RECEIVER TYPE STEAM SEPARATORS 





VERTICAL CLASS 




Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


300 
425 
650 
850 
1,200 

HORIZONTAL CLASS 


$36.00 
47.20 
67.50 
85.50 

112.50 


Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


475 

650 

825 

1,000 

1,300 


$49.50 
63.00 
76.50 
90.00 

112.50 



The above separators are used for 200 lb. working pressure. 



STANDARD STEAM SEPARATORS 





VERTICAL CLASS 




Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 


200 

300 

425 

650 

825 
1,125 
1,350 

HORIZONTAL CLASS 


$18.40 
25.60 
36.80 
50.00 
61.50 
69.50 
88.00 


Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Net price 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 


100 
175 
250 
350 
450 
775 


$12.00 
14.40 
20.00 
28.00 
32.00 
52.00 



The above separators are used for 150 lb. working pressure. 



Cost of equipment, C = 1000 + 0.2 X G. 

Cost of erection, C - 160 + 0.02 X G for capacities from to 7000 
gals, per hr., and C = 211 + 0.0444 X G for capacities from 8,000 to 
20,000 gals, per hr. 

Operation of Mechanical Stokers. R. J. S. Pigott gave the fol- 
lowing data in the Proc. Am. Elec. Ry. Assn., ,1914, abstracted by 
Lefax. 



STEAM POWER 607 

Mechanical stokers are practically limited to the firing of bi- 
tuminous coal. Anthracite fuel has been handled successfully only 
with mechanical shovelers, which require almost as much attention 
as hand firing-. Lignite has been generally unsuccessful on stokers 
up to the present time. The principal requirements of a stoker are 
to coke the green coal, mix air with the volatile matter where it 
can be ignited, burn the fixed carbon, dispose of the ash and 
clinker, and prevent sifting and clinker adherence to the brickwork 
and stoker parts. 

In all overhead stokers the coal is fed in at the top and allowed 
to coke as it is gradually forced downward by gravity and rocking 
of the bars. As the green coal packs closely, air must be supplied 
through the lower part of the grate or through the openings in the 
arch. The length of flame for a semi-bituminous coal contaming 
17 to 25% volatile matter is over 30 ft. with these stokers The dis- 
tance from the grates to the tubes varies from 5 ft. to 9 ft. Ac- 
cumulation of clinker must be prevented by slicing and periodic 
dumping. Too frequent dumping will prevent the complete combus- 
tion of carbon in the clinker, while the other extreme will cause 
the clinker to become large and hard to dislodge ; 5 to 8% of the 
fuel will sift through overfeed grates, depending on the amount 
of air space and the condition of the grates. At the present time 
it is considered good practice to provide a stoker which is capable 
of operating the boiler at 200% of its rating continuously. 

On chain grates coking occurs at the entrance to the stokers, 
but as the coking arch is much longer than for slope grates, the 
air and volatile matter are mixed more effectively and less loss due 
to incomplete combustion results. Clinker troubles are reduced as 
the grates are entirely cleared of ash and clinker and cooled by 
returning on the under side once every revolution. Chain grates 
weigh more per b.h.p. than other types, sometimes over twice as 
much as slope or underfeed grates. For instance, a chain grate 
stoker for a 600 h.p. boiler with a furnace width of 12 ft. 6 ins. 
weighs from 60,000 to 80,000 lbs., as compared with 30,000 lbs. for 
an inclined stoker, either over or underfed. Having larger areas 
than other overfeed grates, however, chain grates can be forced 
much higher if the proper quality of coal suited to the stoker is 
used. With low ash coals at high rates of driving, the grates 
become overheated. Chain grates at all ratings are suitable for 
high volatile (30-40%) and high ash (10-20%) coals. 

Underfeed stokers have the following principal advantages: The 
tuyeres are covered with green or only partly coked coal so the 
grates are not liable to be burned ; practically the entire furnace 
area is utilized to di.still volatile matter ; all of the air supplied to 
the furnace is immediately and intimately mixed with the volatile 
matter while it is still in the coal bed ; the combustible gases pass 
through the hotte.st zone pf the fire before reaching the furnace, 
and no arches are required. These stokers necessarily operate with 
forced draft as the air openings are restricted and the fuel bed is 
deep, from 1 to 4 ft. As no arches are required, considerable ex- 
pense is eliminated in repairing brick-work. Underfeed stokers 



608 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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c^ ho 
t H "^ i^ 

Sh rt c 
o) fl q o 



STEAM POWER 



609 



have great forcing capacity ; 300% of rating- can be maintained con- 
tinuously at 60 to 65 lbs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate. 

The efficiencies of modern stoker installations are shown by the 
curves in Fig. 86. These indicate boiler efficiency alone and do not 
allow for steam consumed by auxiliaries such as blowers, stokers 
and boiler-feed pumps. In general the best efficiency is shown 
when the boiler is operated at less than 100% rating. Curves A 
and B indicate an exception to this statement. As the net output 
of steam for a given coal input is affected relatively more at low 
loads than at high loads by the steam consumed by the auxiliaries, 
it is advisable to operate the boilers at about 25% higher than their 
most efficient rating as shown by the curves to obtain the best plant 
efficiency. The principal factor influencing the load to be carried 
by a boiler is the relation between fixed and operating costs. 



m 


COmiNE[> EFFIQEHCY. BOilZB AtiO FURNACE 
'A -ZJeSKP Boikr, Taylor Stoker D. f. Sfirliry 
B-23CSH.P Boiler, Raney Stoker D.L Stirling 
C' S20H.P. Boiler. Taylor Stoker B.SW. 








D- 75dH.R Boiler. Taylor Stoker B.OW.ffbrt e'Tvbe^ 
t-fOO MR Boiler. Qreen Chain Crore. B.8M 








so 








'F' S?0 H.P Boiler Weitinghouse-fbney Stt^ter 
6' 1000 tip Boiler, Tq/hr Stoker BSW 


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Cost of Maintaining Four Stokers and Furnaces for Six Years. 
The data in the accompanying table from Electrical World, Dec. 
16, 1916, show what it has cost a Middle West central station 
exclusive of labor charges to maintain four 10-ft. by 10-ft. chain- 
grate stokers and their furnaces during the 6 years they have been 
in service. It will be noted that the total expense for material has 
been $2,735.75 or an average of $114.99 per stoker per year. Of 
this amount $2,354.87 has been spent for tile and fireclay, while 
$400.88 has been spent for stoker parts, and steel and iron parts of 
arches and feed gates. The cost per stoker per year for tile and 
fireclay was $97.29, and the cost per stoker per year for all cast- 
ings and steel parts was $16.70. In other words, the cost of the 
tile and fireclay represented 85% of the total material maintenance 
cost. 



610 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XCA. COST OP STOKER AND FURNACE REPAIRS 
FOR SIX YEARS 

Stoker parts 

and iron parts Tile 

of arch and and 

feed gate fireclay Total 

1910 $60.00 $60.00 

1911 14.00 $142.25 156.25 

1912 61.12 823.17 884.29 

1913 40.50 67.50 10100 

1914 3.00 217.00 220.00 

1915 33.25 190.25 223 50 

1916 189.01 894.70 1.083.71 

$400.88 $2,334.87 $2,735.75 

Total per stoker per year $16.70 $97.29 $114.99 

A more detailed analysis of the cost of maintaining metal parts 
shows that the cost of replacing operating parts of the four stokers 
was but $8.77 per stoker per year, which is a very small percent- 
age of $1800, the present cost of such a unit without firebrick. 
Further study of data concerning the cost of the tile also shows 
that in 1912, when the maintenance cost was high, one complete 
9.5-ft. by 6.5-ft. arch, and 50 large 4-in. by 12-in. by 24-in. bridge 
wall tile were purchased at a total cost of $498.22, which helped 
appreciably to increase the total for the year. 

Cost of Stokers. The following data are from Bulletin No. 2, 
Kansas State Agricultural College, Boiler Room Economics, by 
A. A. Potter and S. L Simmering. It is difficult to express by a 
single equation the cost of a stoker equipment, as the numbei of 
stokers required, the draft necessary, the kind of fufel and other 
conditions all tend to cause a variation in price. For example, the 
cost of an underfeed stoker of a certain make is $1055 for 1 125-h p. 
boiler, $1793 for 2 125-h.p. boilers and $6,300 for 8 boilers of the 
same capacity. One manufacturer of front-feed stokers quoted 
$975 for a single boiler equipment and $1680 for a 2-boiler equip- 
ment. Tables XC-XCII give the costs of various types of 
stokers. The following equations apply very nearly to equipments 
for not more than 4 boilers. The cost, C, in dollars is expressed 
in terms of the boiler horsepower, h.p. served by the stokers. 

Chain-grate .stokers: for boiler capacity of 300 h.p. or less. C - 
86 + 4.28 X h.p. ; for capacities from 300 h.p. to 500 h.p. C = 434 + 
3.1 X h.p. 

Mechanical underfeed stokers: C = 379 -f 2.785 X h p. 

Mechanical front feed stokers: C = 312 -|- 3.015 X h.p. 

TABLE XC. COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL CHAIN 
GRATE STOKERS 

Cost, dollars 
Boiler h.p. Total Per h.p. 

125 $750 $6.00 

200 1,150 5.75 

300 1,350 4.50 



Total 


Per h.p. 


1,380 


4.60 


1,600 


4.00 


1.760 


- 4.40 


1,800 


3.60 




4.00 



Cost, 


dollars 


Total 


Per h.p. 


$850 


$6.80 


1,115 


8.92 


1,055 


7.03 


897 


5.97 


765 


3.82 


1,075 


3.58 


1,250 


4.17 


1,669 


4.76 


1,350 


3.37 


1,600 


3.20 


1,800 


3.00 


2,300 


3.83 



STEAM POWER 611 

Boiler h.p. 

300 

400 

400 

500 
Large sizes 

TABLE XCL COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL UNDERFEED 
STOKERS 

Boiler h.p. 
125 
125 

150 
150 
200 
300 
300 
350 
400 
500 
600 
600 

TABLE XCII. COST DATA FOR MECHANICAL FRONT FEED 
STOKERS 

Boiler h.p. 
100 
125 
137 
150 
175 
200 
250 
275 
300 
330 
375 
400 
450 
500 
550 
610 
660 

Mechanical Stokers, Installed. W. H, Weston, Engineering Maga- 
zine, January, 1912, has given the following table, the horsepower 
being figured on compound condensing basis. 

H.p. Cost 

800 $2,600 

1,000 3,000 

1,500 4,300 

2,000 5,500 

4.000 10,000 

Cost of Superheaters. The, following data are from Bulletin No, 
2, Kansas State Agricultural College. Boiler Room Economics, by 



Co.st. 


dollars 


Total 


Per h.p. 


$550 


$5.50 


825 


6.60 


665 


4.85 


690 


4.60 


750 


4.28 


925 


4.63 


940 


3.61 


965 


3.50 


1,140 


3.80 


1,225 


3.71 


1,375 


3.67 


1,500 


3.75 


1.700 


3.78 


1,880 


3.76 


2,000 


3.63 


2.100 


3.44 


2.300 


3.48 



612 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

A. A. Potter and S. L. Simmering. The prices in Table XClll apply 
to attached or built-in super-heaters. These prices vary with the 
general shape, size and construction, as well as with the degree of 
superheat to be maintained. This latter variation is shown by the 
equations for 100, 200 and 300 degs. of superheat. 

C, in dollars, is expressed in terms of the boiler horsepower, h.p. 

For 100 deg. of superheat: C =: 165 + 2.578 X hp. 
" 200 •• ♦' " C =: 52 -j- 3.4 66 Xhp. 

" 300 " " " C = 40 + 4.28 X hp. 

TABLE XCIII. COST DATA FOR ATTACHED OR BUILT-IN 
SUPERHEATERS 

Cost, 
Boiler h.p. Total Per b h.p Erection 



200 

250 700 3.50 $75 

300 

400 

500 

500 1,380 2.76 145 

750 2,025 2.70 225 



250 915 3 66 85 

500 1,800 3 60 190 

750 2,650 3 53 275 

300 deg. superheat 

250 1.110 4.44 100 

500 2,220 4.40 200 

750 3,250 4.33 300 

Steam Turbines. A. A. Potter, Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the 
following formulae of cost in Table XCIV. 

Dimensions, Weights and Costs of Steam Turbines. The follow- 
ing, taken from Power, June 1, 1915, is by A. A. Potter and S. L, 
Simmering, Kansas State Agricultural College. Tables XCV and 
XCVI were compiled from data supplied by manufacturers and 
should prove of value in connection with preliminary estimates. 
The dimensions, weights and cost data are for condensing units 
and include the turbines and alternating-current generators. 

The values in Table XCVII were plotted and the following equa- 
tions were deduced, giving the cost in dollars (C) of the turbine 
and generator, in terms of the capacity in kilowatts. 

Impulse types C — 50J,0 4 9.2 kws. (Dollars) 
Reaction types C = 7^00 -i 8.26 kws. (Dollars) 



Total 


Cost, dollars 
Per b h.p 


100 deg. 


superheat 


$750 
700 
975 
1,200 
1,880 
1,380 
2,025 


$3.75 
3.50 
3.25 
3.00 
3.76 
2.76 
2.70 


200 deg. 


superheat 


915 
1,800 
2,650 


3 66 
3 60 
3 53 



STEAM POWER 



613 



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614 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XCVI. COST OP CONDENSING STEAM TURBINES 
AND GENERATORS 



Size, 


Impulse 


type 


Reaction type 


kw. 


Rev. per min. 


Cost 


Rev. per min. 


Cost 


300 


3,600 


$8,000 


3,600 


$7,650 


500 


3,600 


9,600 


3,600 


9,550 


1,000 


3,600 


14,000 


3,600 


13,750 


2,000 


3,600 


23,000 


3,600 


22.800 


5,000 


1,800 


55,000 


3,600 


48,700 


10,000 


1,800 


95,000 


1,800 


90,000 



Prices of Steam Valves. 

valves before the war. 



The following wei*e the net prices of 



FISHER REDUCING VALVE 





SCREWED CONNECTIONS 






Net 


prices 


Size, in. 


Angle pattern 


Globe pattern 


1 


$21 


$23 


ly* 


25 


26 


iy2 


30 


32 


2 


35 


37 


2V2 


40 


42 


3 


49 
FLANGED CONNECTIONS 


51 




Net 


prices 


Size, in. 


Angle pattern Globe pattern 


2 


$35 


$38 


2y2 


42 


45 


3 


52 


56 


3y2 


61 


63 


4 


70 


' 77 


5 


88 


95 



AUTOMATIC EXHAUST RELIEF VALVE 



Size, in. 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
10 



Size, in. 
2 

2y2 
3 

3y2 

4 

4y2 

5 

sya 

6 



Approx. weight, lb. 


Net price 


50 


$14.00 


75 


16.50 


100 


21.00 


125 


25.00 


175 


27.50 


250 


35.00 


300 


38.00 


350 


50.00 


SAl^'ETY VALVES 




Diam. of flange, in. 


Net price 


7 


$15.00 


7 


20.00 


9 


22.00 


10 


32.00 


10 


35.00 


12 


40.00 


12 


42.50 


14 » 


62.50 


14 


62.50 



The above 
boilers. 



safety valves are for large stationary and portable 



STEAM POWER 615 

POP SAFETY VALVES 







Net price 




Size, in. 


"Without cap or 


lever 


With cap 


1% 


$2.25 




$2.50 


1 


3.25 




3.50 


1% 


4.25 




4.50 


IV2 


5.00 




5.25 


2 


10.00 




10.25 


21/2 


16.00 




16.50 


3 


20.00 




20.50 



For small stationary and portable boilers 
SQUIRES IMPROVED STEAM TRAP 

FITTED WITH REGULAR VALVE AND SEAT 







Capacity 




Size pipe 


sq. ft. ^ 


of Lb. of 




connections, in. 


radiation water per h 


r. Net price 


1/2 


1,300 


400 


$15 


% 


2,000 


600 


17 


1 


2,800 


850 


21 


1% 


5,200 


1,600 


26 


11/2 


8,100 


2,500 


38 


2 


12,900 


4,000 


53 


2y2 


32,700 


10,100 


75 


FITTED WITH 


UNLIMITED PRESSURE VALVE 


MECHANISM 


Size pipe 




Capacity 




connections, in. 


Lb. 


of water per hr. 


Net price 


1 




2,700 


$25 


1% 




3,800 


30 


iy2 




5,500 


45 • 


2 




10,000 


63 


2y2 




20,000 


90 



CHAPTER VIII 
INTERNAL, COMBUSTION ENGINES AND GAS PRODUCERS 

Principal Economic Factors of Gas Power. These are: 1, the 
nature of available fuel ; 2, the cost of installation ; 3, the operat- 
ing labor, water, oil and waste, etc. 

Fuel differs in very great degree according to locality from which 
it is taken. Natural gas, containing a small percentage of highly 
inflammable constituents, mostly hydrogen, is generally clean, pos- 




n = COgTFT- Non-Combustibles 

■=CHHf« il = CH4 E=H 

llluminants Methane- Hydrogen 

Carbon- Monoxide 



Fig. 1. 



Composition and heat value of fuel gases. 
D. Dreyfus, Power.) 



(After Edwin 



sesses high heat values, and is obtained mostly in Western Penn- 
sylvania, New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Kansas and 
Louisiana. 

The gases obtained as distillate from oil refineries and from by- 
product coke and blast furnaces are available wherever such in- 
dustrial plants exist, but on account of the impurities ordinarily 
encountered, such as ore dust, oily papers, lamp black, sulphuric 
compounds, it must be cleaned before delivery to the engine. 

616 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



617 



Illuminating- gas is available in nearly all large cities and con- 
tains a high percentag-e of hydrogen, is of high heat value and 
generally is fairly clean. It is subject to the objections of rather 
high cost and its liability to pre-ignition. Gas made from coal or 
crude oil possesses the same limitations as illuminating gas, and 
water gas is even less satisfactory on account of its still lower 
heat value. 

Producer gas is available wherever there is a supply of an- 
thracite or bituminous coal, and presents the proper factor for com- 
paring the operating costs of this type of equipment with those 
of tlfe steam engine. 

Thermal Efficiency is high in gas engines of all sizes, whereas it 
is not high in a steam engine except for the very large sizes. 
Fig. 2 gives the heat economy of turbines and gas engines ranging 
from 500 to 10,000 kw. units, together with a typical gas-engine 
curve applying to all sizes. 




20 
Fig. 2. Heat economy of turbines and gas engines. 



40 60 80 100 120 
Per Cent of Foil Load 



Cost of Installation. Edwin D. Dreyfus, from whose excellent 
paper in Power for January 31, 1911, we have taken three illustra- 
tions under this caption, places the composite cost of the gas plant 
about 30% higher than that of a high grade steam plant because 
of the larger quantity of metal in the gas engine that must with- 
stand higher combustion pressures and temperatures up to 3,000 
degs. F., while a steam turbine undergoes pressures of 200 lbs. per 
sq. in. and under and temperatures not more than 500 degs. F. 
Another reason for the extra weight of the gas engine is that a 
turbine, for example, can operate at much higher speeds than 
could possibly be the case with gas engines. The element of 
metal, therefore, produces more power per unit of its weight. 

Labor. This will not vary materially in small gas and steam 
plants and in large plants it may differ in favor of the steam 
turbine, but it will not differ much between a large reciprocating 
steam engine and a gas engine of the same power. 



618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Fixed Charges. In Fig. 3 Mr. Dreyfus assumes 117c of the first 
cost as the proper fixed charges for both the gas and the steam 
plants. He considers that the real difference in ob.solescence be- 
tween the two types of plant is more or less intangible, and he 
has therefore ignored it in order to avoid complication. 




'0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 
Load Factor Per Cent 



90 100 



Fig. 3. Comparative operating expenses. 



Mechanical and Thermal Efficiency of Internal Combustion En- 
gines. T. C. Ulbricht and C. E. Torrance in Power give the fol- 
lowing: Mechanical Efficiency. From a large number of values 
obtained from American maimfacturers and operators, the follow- 
ing average table was derived for the mechanical efficiencres of 
engines operating on various fuels : 

Per cent. 

Producer gas 82.0 

Natural gas 84.0 

Illuminating gas , , . . 84.2 

Gasoline 87.7 

Oils 84.8 

These averages are on the basis of fuel used, instead of the 
engine type and in the case of gasoline and oils, are somewhat 
above the values usually obtained. However, the averages for the 
three gases are just what might be expected on any commercial test. 

Thermal Efficiency. The thermal efficiency of a gas engine is 
rather indefinite, unles.r> it is stated whether it is based on the 
work developed in the cylinder, or on that delivered at the brake. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 619 

In this investigation all thermal efficiencies have been referred to 
the brake h.p. per cylinder per end, so that a builder or purchaser 
may know just what per cent of the total heat units put into an 
engine is obtained at the brake as useful work. 

To obtain data for determining the average thermal efficiencies 
of American engines, letters were sent to about 90 of the largest 
manufacturers in the United States, requesting guarantees on the 
brake horsepower, thermal efficiency on this basis, kind and calorific 
value of fuel upon which the guarantee was based, and variation 
of guarantee, if any, with the size of engine. 

The thermal efficiencies were mostly calculated from the guaran- 
teed fuel consumption at full load, by the formula. 

2545 

Thermal efficiency = 

B.t.u. per brake h.p. 

the numerator being the B.t.u. equivalent of one h.p.-hr. 

The curves, Figs. 4 to 11, show the results as obtained in most 
cases from actual guarantees given by the manufacturers, and 
since the tendency seems to be to under-rate the engines, or place 
the guarantee on the safe side, it would seem that these average 
curves represent good practice and are too low rather than too 
high. 

Fig. 4 shows the average thermal efficiency curve for engines 
using kerosene. Where possible, Guldner's values for German 
practice, have been plotted on the same sheet with those represent- 
ing American practice. For kerosene, Guldner's curve is found to 
be below the average for American practice. This discrepancy 
is probably due to the fact that when Guldner wrote, some 10 
years ago, very few*oil engines had been developed, and the thermal 
efficiency was consequently low. 

The thermal efficiency is seen to increase with an increasing 
brake-h.p., approaching 18.4% above 40 brake h.p. Fig. 5 shows 
the average thermal efficiencies for gasoline, which is lower than 
Guldner's curve for German practice. This would indicate either 
a higher development of the German gasoline engine, or a too con- 
servative guarantee by the American builder. The efficiency is 
low for small horsepowers, but increases until above 23 brake h.p. 
where it reaches a maximum value of 20.4%. Guldner's value at 
25 brake h.p. is 23%. 

Fig. 6 also shows that for illuminating gas, Guldner's curve lies 
above that for American engines. At 100 brake h.p., American prac- 
tice shows 25%, while German practice shows 27%. For producer 
gas, American practice in general gives results higher than the 
German, as will be seen from Fig. 7. 

As may be expected, due to the great variation in the anlysis of 
natural gas, there is a wide range in the thermal efficiencies of 
engines using this fuel. (Fig. 8.) Therefore the average maxi- 
mum and minimum curves are given. German practice does not 
include this gas. The average curve reaches a maximum of 27.3% 



620 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

at about 120 brake h.p. Very few values were obtainable for 
blast-furnace gas, but the curve, Fig. 9, is what might be expected 
from good practice, showing a maximum of about 26% above 400 
brake h.p. 

Special efforts were made to obtain values for the Diesel engine, 
and the result (Pig, 10) shows the German values of thermal effi- 




g iQi r I I I. I I I I I J,, I I D IP 

I 5 10 15 20 25 10 55 40 45 5Q.55feO § 
^ b.hp per Cylinder per End ^ 



'0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32' 
b.hp per C/tinder per End 



1^22 

:q20 



E 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 ^0 lOOl 
^ b.hp per (Cylinder per End 







■ 


^ 


' 


- 


■^ 


.. 


L.-. 


"(Vo, 






_ 


_ 




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10 20 50 40 50 feO 70 80 30 HO 130 
b.hp. per Cylinder per End 




10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 lOO 120 
bhp per Cylinder per End 



^28 

£24 
.^22 
£20 

5 18 



£ 100 200 500 400 
*~ b.hp per Cylinder per End 



■ I 


lli 














1 


1 




1 


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DIESEL J 





























10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 100 120 140 
b hp per Cylinder per End 




10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO 110 140 160 
b hp per Cylinder per End . v;,,!" 



Figs. 4-11. 



ciency to be highest, the English somewhat lower and the Ameri- 
can still lower. This may be accounted for both by the longer 
period of development of this engine abroad and the higher quality 
of workmanship in Germany than in other countries. 

Fig. 11 shows all the preceding average curves, for American 
practice only, reduced to the same scale for comparison. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



621 



Cost Formula for Internal Combustion Engines. A. A. Potter in 
Power, Dec. 30, 1913, gives the following formulae: 

Type Capacity Equation of cost 

in dollars 

Gas engines Up to 300 h.p. 33.6 X h.p. — 115 

Gasoline engines, hit-and-miss gov- 63.8 X h.p. — 316 

nor Up to 100 h.p. 

Gasoline engines, throttling gov- 141 -{- 24.8 X h.p. 

ernor Up to 75 h.p. 

Oil engines Up to 400 h.p. 309 -|- 36.1 X h.p. 

Producer gas engines, American 

mfg Up to 300 h.p. 400 + 33.5 X h.p. 

Effect of Elevation upon the Power of a Gas Motor. R. E. 

Mathot in Engineering Magazine, Feb., 1907, states that each 
100 meters (328.1 ft.) of additional elevation causes a loss of 
I'/c. in the power output of the gas motor. 

Economic Limits Between which Prime IVlovers of the Various 
Types may be Advantageously Used. We quote Table I after 
R. E. Mathot in Engineering Magazine, 1907. 



TABLE I. ECONOMIC LIMITS FOR- PRIME MOVERS 

* Power limits Normal consump- 
withfn which tion per horse- 
Type of engine or motor. the type may power hour at 
be practically full load, 
employed, h.p. Steam, Fuel, 
lbs. lbs. 
Stationary steam engines 

Slide-valve non-condensing 15 to 50 37.5 5.5 

Slide-valve, coudc-n.smg 30 to 100 22 3.3 

Corliss or Sulzer, simple con- 
densing 50 to 200 17.5 2.5 

Idem, compound 80 to 1000 

and upwards 13 1.85 

Sena-portable steam engines 

Simple, non-condensing 20 to 50 16.5 2.4 

Simple, cond ;nsing 40 to 80 13. 1.9 

Compound, condensing 60 to 300 9.5 1.35 

Triple-expansion, condensing with 

superheat 300 to 500 7.6 1.1 

Steatn turbines 

Condeiwing 500 to 1000 

and upwards 

Internal-co)nbustion motors 

Illuminating gas 1 to 30 17.50 cu. ft. of gas 

Oil 1 to 20 0.75 lbs. oil 

Producer gas, suction 15 to 30U 0.88 •• coal 

Producer gas, pressure 100 to 1000 1.00 " coal 

(and over). 

Diesel 50 to 500 0.42 " oil 

The limits indicated above of course are not absolute. Many 

small steam engines with vertical boilers are in use, for example, 
in units of very few horse-power each. 

Prime Movers for Central Stations. Edwin E. Dreyfus read the 
following notes in a paper before the annual convention of the 



622 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers in New York, 
Sept. 28, 1911. 

The curves, Figs. 12 and 13, were presented to show the superior 
efficiency of the internal combustion engine within certain ranges, 
and also the increased uniformity in efficiency above other types. Oil 
engines led with an efficiency of 30% to 33%, referred to the shaft 
h.p., whereas gas engines ordinarily showed about 23% to 2G%, on 



















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heat 



Ordinary thermal efficiencies of main units based on total 
value per brake h.p., with no allowance for auxiliaries. 



the same basis. Steam piston engines and turbines had a wide 
range of thermal efficiency between less than 5% and 21% on brake 
h.p. tests. 

Mr. Dreyfus pointed out as a characteristic feature of the gas 
plant that the cost steadily decreased until two or more 2,000 
k,w. units are run, whereupon the investment begins to increase 
directly with the installed capacity. Conversely the k.w. cost on 
the steam turbine station constantly diminishes with increase in 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



623 



size. Therefore the ratio cost of steam and gas stations must 
constantly grow in favor of the former. 

Cost of Power for Pumping with Internal Combustion Engines 
Using Various Fuels. The report of committee on Water Supply 
of American Railway Bridge and Building Association, abstracted 
in Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 26, 1913, states that a series 
of tests were made pumping from an 8-in. well, 190 ft. deep, lift- 
ing water against 15 ins. of vacuum, with a total head of 61ft. 
An 8 by 10-in. single cylinder double acting pump was used, direct 



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Fig. 13. 



Plant instalment costs of normal rated units, including 
buildings and foundations. 



connected to a 6 h. p. four cylinder horizontal gasoline engine 
equipped to run on kerosene and distillate as well as gasoline, 
controlled by a throttling governor. The fuels used and the results 
of the fuel tests are given in Table lA. 

Comparative Costs with Various Fuels. The following tables 
were rearranged from data given in Isolated Plant, May and 
June, 1913: 

Internal combustion engines are naturally divided into two gen- 
eral groups: (1) those that depend upon instantaneous combustion 
of the charge, or explosive engines, and (2) those in which the 
combustion is more gradual and in which the burning of the fuel 
occurs during a considerable portion of the expansion stroke. It 
is to the first group that internal combustion engines operating 



624 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 625 

on gases and gasoline, or other easily volatized liquids belong and, 
as little difference in design or equipment exists in engines par- 
ticularly adapted to such fuels, the economic value of an installa- 
tion depends almost entirely upon the price of the dynamic agent 
in any given locality. 

The engine room operating cost of all explosive engines operat- 
ing on gases and easily volatized liquids is very nearly the same — 
estimate based on a plant of 250 h. p. — and conservative figures 
are given in Tables II and III. These fixed charges will vary to 

TABLE II. OPERATING COSTS OF GAS ENGINES BASED ON 
A PLANT OF 250 H.P. 

Cost of vlant: Per h.p. 

Building $10 

Engine, fipundations, piping, etc 28 

Miscellaneous 2 

Total $40 

Cost of Power: 

Depreciation, 5% of total cost $ 2.00 

Repairs 0.80 

Interest 2.40 

Insurance 0.60 

Taxes 0.60 

Total fixed charges per year $6.40 

Fixed charges per hr. 3000 hrs. per year 0.00213 

Attendance per h.p.-hr 0.00125 

Supplies, oil waste, etc., per h.p.-hr 0.00029 

Fuel, distillate gas, at 10 M. cu. ft 0.0015 

Total cost of power per h.p.-hr $0,00517 

TABLE ill. OPERATING COSTS OF GAS ENGINES BASED 
ON A PLANT OF 250 H.P., USING PRODUCER GAS 

Cost of Plant: Per h.p. 

Producer building $ 5 

Producer, scrubber, piping, etc 32 

Miscellaneous 3 

Engine room building 8 

Engines, foundations, piping, etc 40 

Miscellaneous 2 

Total 190 

Cost of Power: 

Depreciation at 5% I 4.50 

Repairs at 2% 1.80 

Interest at 6% 5.40 

Insurance at li/4% 1-55 

Taxes at 11/2% • 1-13 

$14.48 
Fixed charges per h.p.-hr., 3000 hrs. per year. . . $0.004827 

Attendance, producer, per h.p.-hr 00107 

. Supplies, etc., producer, per h.p.-hr 00015 

Attendance engine room aaaoo 

Supplies, etc '. 00028 

Fuel, anthracite coal at $5 per ton 0025 

Total cost of power per h.p.-hr $.010077 



626 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

a certain extent, but, as they represent but a part of the " cost 
of power " that decreases in proportion as the cost of fuel in- 
creases, may be safely considered as constant for all practical 
purposes. The consumption of fuel is very nearly inversely pro- 
portional to the heating values of the various fuels, which will be 
considered not in order of their caloric value, but in order of their 
value as economic agents in " cost of power " production. 

Cost of Power Generation in Small Plants. Engineering Maga- 
zine beginning October, 1911, published a series of articles by 
Robert L. Streeter on the Internal Combustion Engine in Modern 
Practice. From the fourth article of the series appearing in the 
Jan.. 1912, issue we have abstracted the following cost data: 

In the following discussion it is assumed that the question of 
which power to install hinges entirely on the cost of the power, 
there being no restrictions as to convenience or space required 
or any other condition which will make either steam, gas, or oil 
engines more desirable than either of the other two. The discus- 
sion that follows, then, will deal simply with the cost of power 
generated in an isolated plant for a specific purpose. Three types 
of engines will be taken up, steam, producer-gas, and liquid-fuel. 

The difference in location of plants results in difference in the 
cost of fuel, and this difference is often large enough to make an 
appreciable change in the cost of power which must be accounted 
for. Hence the discussion, to be of value, must be on plants of 
various powers and for fuels at different prices. 

The form of power that is to be generated is of importance. In 
this paper, in order to have uniformity, it is assumed that in each 
case the engine is direct-connected to a direct-current dynamo, the 
current to be used for lighting and power in a manufacturing 
plant, during a working day of 10 hrs., 6 days per week, or 300 
days per year. The sizes of the plants selected will be 20, 100, 
250 and 500 k.ws. output of the generator. In no case will the 
cost of the land or building be included, as it is impossible to get 
even an approximate figure that would be of value for those items. 

In general, the costs of the machines included in the following 
discussion were secured from manufacturers. The prices in each 
case represent a mean of those submitted, in some cases 5 or 6, 
in other cases only 2. The cost of the foundation in each case 
was based on the floor space required, and of piping on the cost 
of piping in similar plants. The cost of the machines in each 
case includes erecting, freight for three or four hundred miles, 
cartage, etc. 

The fixed charges were apportioned for the steam and producer 
gas plants as follows : 

Per cent. 

Interest on investment 5 

Depreciation 5 

Repairs 2 

Taxes 1 

Insurance 1 

Total 14 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 627 

The depreciation will probably not be the same on all parts of 
the plant, nor will the cost of repairs be uniform over the whole 
plant, but such figures as were selected represent the average 
depreciation and repairs on the whole plant. For the high-pres- 
Hure oil plants the depreciation was assumed to be 5%% and the 
repairs 2i^%, for it has been the experience that these plants do 
cost more to keep in repair than plants where working pressures 
are not so high. 

Since no plant can be expected to run at full power all the time, 
a load factor must be chosen. Since the assumption has been 
made that the plants under discussion will be used to run a manu- 
facturing plants a high load factor may be used, at least 75%. If 
these plants were to sell power for motors and lighting, we might 
expect a much lower factor. 

The wage of a first-class engineer for the larger plants was 
assumed at $4 per day, firemen $2.50 per day, and for second- 
class engineers for the smaller plants, $2.50 per day. In the 
smaller plants and in all the oil-engine plants there was no allow- 
ance made for a night man. 

The coal is based on a heating value of 13,000 B. t, u. per lb., 
oil on 19,000 per lb. The price of water was assumed to be 10 cts. 
per 1,000 gals., lubricating oil 22 cts. a gal., and cylinder oil 30 
cts. per gal. 

The comparative costs appear as follows : 

20-KW. STEAM PLANT 

Brake h.p 32 

Indicated h.p 35 

Cost 

Engine and foundation $800 

Generator and switchboard 600 

Vertical boiler, foundation and piping 450 

Total , $1,850 

Cost per year 

Coal, 220 tons at $4 $880 

Labor 750 

Fixed charges at 14% 260 

Oil, waste and supplies 125 

Water 50 

Total $2,065 

The cost per k.w.-hr. at 75% load would be 4.6 cts. 

For the engine of this plant the assumption is of the high-speed 
horizontal type to be run non-condensing. The type of boiler se- 
lected was the vertical fire-tube on account of the low cost, being 
$125 less than the return-tubular horizontal type. 

The coal consumption was based on, first, efficiency of boiler 
60%, and second, steam consumption of engine 35 lbs. per 1 h. p. 
per hr. An additional 15% .was allowed on the coal for banking, 
and losses. 

The water cost was found by the assumption of 35 lbs. per X 
h. p. hr. at 75% load, allowing 15%o for leakage, blow-off, etc, 



C28 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

20-KW. PRODUCER-GAS ENGINE PLANT 

Brake h.p. of engine 32 

Cost 
Engine and foundation, and air compressor .... $1,200 

Producer and gas 735 

Generator and switchboard 600 

Total $2,535 

Cost per year 

Coal, 75 tons at $4 $300 

Labor 300 

Fixed charg-es. 14% on cost 355 

Oil, waste and supplies . 135 

Water 110 

Total $1,200 

At 15 kw. or 75%, the total cost per kw.-hr. would be 2.68 cts. 

For the producer plant an anthracite suction producer was 
chosen because they are more applicable to small powers than the 
bituminous producer, although bituminous producers are made as 
small as 50 h. p. 

The coal for this installation was based on 2 lbs. per h. p., in- 
cluding' standby losses. The care of a plant of this size will not 
take the full time of one man ; in fact, less than half of it ; hence 
the lAbor cost of $300. The cost of water was based on 2 cu. ft. 
per kw.-hr. for the entire plant, fresh water to be used continu- 
ously. 

KW. LOW PRESSURE OlL-ENGlNE PLANT 

Cost 

Engine, foundation and oil tank $1,600 

Generator and switchboard 600 

Total $2,200 

Cost per year 

Fuel oil, at 3 cts per gal $300 

Labor 200 

Fixed charges, 14% of cost 308 

Oil, waste and supplies 125 

Water 40 

Total $973 

At 15 kw. or 75% load, the cost per kw.-hr. will be 2.1 cts. 

For the 20-kw. oil-engine plant a low-pressure oil engine was 
used because high-pressure oil engines are not made in that size 
in the United States. In the low-pressure oil engine the charge is 
compressed to about 60 or 70 lbs., when it is exploded by coming 
in contact with the heated combustion chamber. In the high- 
pressure engine, air alone is compressed to from 300 to 600 lbs. 
per sq. in. and oil is injected into this highly compressed air at 
about the end of the stroke. At the higher compression, 500 to 600 
pounds, the temperature due to the work of compression is suffi- 
cient to ignite the oil as it enters the cylinder. Where the lower 
limit of compression is used. 300 to 400 lbs,, the heat of com- 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



620 



pression is not relied on to ignite the oil, but a vaporizer remains 
heated from the previous explosions. The efficiency of the high- 
pressure engine is approximately twice that of the low-pressure 
engine. 







































































































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Con OF Fue L. Coal DoLLAti I'en Tom 

Oil C£f\ITS ptn Gali-oh 

Fig. 14. Cost of power from steam, oil, and producer-gas engines 
in 20 kilowatt units. 

The fuel for the 20-kw. low-pressure engine is based on 1 lb. 
per h.p.-hr. at 75% rating. The water was based on 5V^ gals, 
per h.p.-hr. 

100-KW. STEAM PLANT. 

Output in kw., 100. 
Indicated h.p. of engine, 160. 

Cost 

Engine and foundation $3,000 

Boiler and pump (erected) and piping 4,400 

Generator and switchboard 1,600 

Steel stack and foundation 500 

Total $9,500 

Cost per year 

Coal, 800 tons at $4 $3,200 

Labor 1,650 

Fixed charges. 14% of cost 1,330 

Oil, waste and supplies 175 

Water 150 

Total • $6,505 

At 75 kw. or 75% load, the kw-hr. cost is 2.89 cts. 

For this plant a high-speed non-condensing engine was assumed, 



630 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

as it would hardly be practical to put in a condensing engine of 
that size. The reason is that the condensing plant would cost 
much more. The fixed charges on this cost, together with the 
cost of steam for auxiliaries and the cost of condensing water, 
would outweigh the saving in coal. 

The boiler in this case was assumed to be a standard water- 
tube. The -coal and water cost were based on boiler efficiency of 
60%, engine to take 30 lbs. steam per indicated h.p.-hr. at 75% 
load factor, allowing 15% for standby losses. 

100-KW. SUCTION-PRODUCER PLANT. 

Brake h.p. of engine, 150. 

Cost 
Engine and foundation and air compressor ....$5,700 

Producer and piping 2,200 

Generator and switchboard 1,600 

Total $9,500 

Cost per year 

Coal, 275 tons at $4 $1,100 

Attendance 750 

Fixed charges at 14% 1,330 

Oil, waste and supplies 175 

Water 500 

Total $3,855 

At 75 kw. or 75% load, the cost per kw.-hr. is 1.71 cts. For 
this plant, a suction producer operating on anthracite coal was 
assumed, as the most convenient and the cheapest. A bituminous 
producer of this size would cost about $3,000 to install, compared 
with $2,200 for the anthracite producer. 

The type of engine assumed for this installation is the three- 
cylinder vertical. The coal for the engine was based on 1 1/> lbs. 
per brake h.p. hr. at 75% load factor, 10% being added for standby 
losses. The water was based on 15 gals, per h.p. hr., 5 for engine 
and 10 for producer and scrubber, using the water only once. 

100-KW. HIGH PRESSURE OIL ENGINE. 

Brake h.p., 150. 

Cost 

Engine and foundation $11,500 

Generator and switchboard 1,600 

Total $13,100 

Cost per year 

Fuel oil, 25,000 gals, at .03 $ 750 

Labor 750 

Fixed charges at 15% 1,965 

Oil, waste and supplies 175 

Water 170 

Total $3,810 

Kw.-hrs. per year, 225.000. Cost per kw.-hr.. oil at .03 per gal., 
1.69 cts. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 631 

The term " high-pressure oil engine," in the discussion, has been 
applied to the type of engine in which air alone is compressed 
during the second stroke of the cycle and the liquid fuel is sprayed 
into the cylinder with the help of highly compressed air during 
the first part of the expanaion stroke. The item of engine cost 
includes all auxiliaries, tanks, oil pump, air compressor, etc. The 
fuel cost is based on .55 lbs. per brake h.p. hr. 

If a low-pressure oil engine had been assumed instead of a 
high-pressure, the first cost would have been about $4,000 less for 
the entire plant. In that case the fixed charges per year would 
have been 14% of $9,1*00, about $1,275. The saving on this item 
would thus be $685 per year. The oil consumption for the low- 
pressure engine would be about 46,000 gals, per year, cost $1,380, 
against $750 for the high-pressure. Hence, the net cost per year 
for the low-pressure engine would be about $55 less than for the 
high-pressure engine if the above assumptions of fixed cost and 
fuel consumption are correct. If the fuel costs 3^ cts. per gal., 
the difference in yearly cost of the two engines would be $75 in 
favor of the high-pressure engine. 

250-KW. STEAM PLANT. 

Indicated h.p., 385. 

Cost 

Engine and foundation % 5,850 

Boilers, pumps and piping 5,600 

Steel stack and flues 600 

Generator, switchboard and wiring 4,000 

Total $15,650 

Cost per year 

Coal, 1,500 tons at $4 $ 6,000 

Labor 2,000 

Fixed charges at 14% 2,240 

Oil waste and supplies 225 

Water 335 

Total $10,800 

At 75% load, 187.5 kw., the cost per kw. hr. at the conditions 
assumed above would be 1.92 cts. 

For this size steam plant a non-condensing tandem-compound 
Corliss engine was assumed. The steam consumption of the engine 
would be about 22 lbs. per 6 h.p. hr. This figure was used to get 
the size of the boilers and the coal consumption. In working out 
the coal consumption 10% was allowed for auxiliaries and 10% for 
standby losses. 

250-KW. ANTHRACITE SUCTION-PRODUCER PLANT — ONE UNIT. 

Brake h. p. 365. 

Cost 
Engine and foundation, and air compressor. .. .$13,000 

Producer and piping .■ 5,125 

Generator, switchboard and wiring 4,000 

Total 5-^2,125 



632 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRIC AL COST DATA 











































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engines. 100-l\ilo\vatt units. 











































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Fig. 16. Comparative generating costs, steam, oil, and producer 
gas engines, 250 kilowatt units. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 633 

Cost pel- year 

Coal. 625 tons at $4 $2,500 

Labor 1,500 

Fixed charges at 14';^; 3,100 

Oil. waste and supplies 225 

Water 600 

Total ?T,925 

Kw. hrs, per year at 75Tt per load factor, 562,000. Cost per 
k\v. hr., 1.40 cts. 

The engine assumed for^this plant is a 4-cylinder vertical, gas 
furnished by one anthracite producer. The coal cost was based 
on 1.5 lbs, per brake h.p. hr.. including standby losses, at 73^0 
load. The water is based on 7 1^ gals, per brake h.p. hr., using 
the scrubbing water over and over. 

250-K-W. OIL-ENGINE PLANT 

Brake h.p. 365. 

Cost 
Engine foundation and piping, oil tanks, pump, 

etc $26,700 

Generator, wiring and switchboard 4,000 

Total $30,700 

Cost per year 

Fuel oil 57,000 gals., at ,03 $1,710 

Labor 900 

Fixed charges at 15% 4,600 

Oil, waste and supplies 225 

Water , 400 

Total $7,S35 

Kw.-hrs. per year at 75% load factor, 562,000. Cost per kw.-hr., 
1.4 cts. 

The cost of fuel for this plant is based on one-half lb. of oil per 
brake-h.p.-hr. at 75% load. 

500-KW. STEAM UNIT, COMPOUND-CONDENSING ENGINE 

Brake h.p., 750. 

Cost 

Engine and foundation $ 9,300 

Boilers and pumps 10,000 

Stacks and tiues 1,200 

Condenser 2.000 

Generator, switchboard and wiring 9.500 

Total $32,000 

Cost per year 

Coal, 2.500 tons at $4 $10,000 

Labor — 3 men : 2 days, 1 night 2,600 

Fixed charges at 14% 4,4S0 

Oil, waste and supplies 400 

Water 420 

Total $17,900 

Cost per kw, hr. at 75% rating = 1.59 cts. 



634 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

For the 500-kw. steam plant a compound-condensing Corliss 
engine was assumed. The steam consumption was figured on 18 
ibs. per 1 h.p.-hr. for the main engine at 75% load, with 20% added 
for auxiliaries and stand-by losses. It was also assumed that 
condensing water could be had for no cost except pumping, which 
is allowed for in the cost of the plant and steam for auxiliaries. 



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ra rtft 



Fig. 17. Comparative costs of power generations, steam, oil, and 
producer-gas engines, in 500-kw. units. Includes all costs 
except land or buildings. 



PRESSURE-PRODUCER PLANT. 

Brake h.p., 725 

Cost 
Engine, piping, foundation and air compressor. $25,000 

Producers and auxiliaries 13,000 

Generator, switchboard and wiring 9,500 

Total $47,500 

Cost per year 

Coal, 1,020 tons at $4 $4,080 

Labor 2,600 

Fixed charges at 14% 6.640 

Oil, waste and supplies 400 

Water \M^ 

Total $14,720 

Cost per kw.-hr. at 75% rating = 1.31 cts. 

For this producer plant a bituminous producer was assumed for 
several reasons, one of which is that the size is large for one suc- 
tion producer, and in this discussion we are limited to one unit 
in each case for sake of uniformity. The bituminous producer is 
well adapted to this size of unit and it is well to know the pos- 
sibilities of such an installation. The cost is more than for a plain 
suction producer, but efficiency is probably higher; certainly this 
type of producer is more flexible. 

The coal cost is based on 1.25 lbs. per h.p. hr. at 75% load, in- 
cluding all stand-by losses. The water is based on ly-i gals, for 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 635 

the engine, producer and scrubber. In this case the water for the 
scrubber will have to be used over and over. If this is not done 
the water consumption will be doubled. In order to make it pos- 
sible to use this water continuously it should be cooled by spray 
nozzles after being run into a settling tank where the dust from 
the scrubber is deposited. This cost of the tank, nozzles, etc., has 
been taken care of in the cost of producers and auxiliaries. 



HIGH-PRESSURE OIL ENGINE. ONE UNIT. 

Brake h.p., 725. 

Cost 
Engine, foundation and piping, oil tanks, pumps, 

etc 150,500 

Generator and switchboard 9,500 

Total $60,000 

Cost per year 

Fuel oil, 112,000 gals, at .03 $ 3,360 

Labor 1,200 

Fixed charges at 15% 9,000 

Oil, waste and supplies 400 

Water 840 

Total $14,800 

Cost per kw. hr. at above conditions, 1.32 cts. 

The cost of fuel oil for this engine is based on % lb. per brake 
h. p. hr., the water on 5 gals, per h.p. hr. at 75% load. 

In the foregoing tables the cost of power per kw. hr. given in 
each case is based on coal at $4 per ton, or oil at 3 cts. per gal. 
To show the variation in the cost of power for different costs of 
fuels, the diagrams shown in Figs. 14 to 17 have been worked out 
for plants of 20-, 100-, 250-, and 500-kw. capacity respectively. 
The cost of power as shown by the diagrams represents the same 
conditions as given in the text except for the costs of fuel. Land 
and building are not included in any case. 

While the foregoing tables and diagrams cover the cost of power 
generated by engines burning the fuels that are generally found 
in use, in some cases other fuels may be used for special reasons. 
Among these fuels are natural gas, illuminating gas and gasoline. 
It w'Ould make this discussion too long to take up these fuels in 
the same way that the steam, producer and oil-engine plants were 
treated, but in order to give some idea of the cost of power as 
generated from these fuels, a specific plant, 100-kws., will be taken 
up for each one. 

NATURAL-GAS PLANT 

Brake h.p. of engine, 150 

Cost 

Engine, foundation and piping $6,000 

Generator and switchboard 1,600 

Total $7,600 



636 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost per year 

Gas, 3,810,000 cu. ft. at 20 cts $762 

Labor 750 

Fixed (3harges at 14% 1,064 

Oil, waste and supplies , 175 

Water 170 

Total . . $2,921 

At 75% load factor the cost per kw. hr. would be 1.30 cts. 



ILLUMlNATING-GAS PLANT 

Brake h.p. of engine, 150 



Cost 



Engine, foundation and piping $6,000 

Generator and switchboard 1.600 

Total $7,600 

Cost per year 

Ga.s, 5,740,000 cu. ft. at 60 cts $3,444 

Labor 750 

Fixed charges at 14% 1,064 

Oil, waste and supplies 175 

Water 170 

Total $5,603 

At 75% load factor the cost per kw. hr. would be 2.49 cts. 

The cost of gas for the two preceding plants was based on an 
efficiency of 25% at 75% load. For the natural-gas plant this 
means a consumption of 11.3 cu. ft. per brake h.p. hr. with gas 
having a heating value of 900 B. t. u. per cu. ft. For the illuminat- 
ing gas the figures are 17 cu. ft. per brake h.p. hr. when the gas 
has a heating value of 600 B. t. u. per cu. ft. The diagrams 
shown in Figs. 18 and 19 represent the cost of power generated! 
by the above plants with varying prices of fuel. The conditions 
assumed here are the same as for the previous diagrams ; that is, 
the cost includes everything except land and building. 

Comparison of Fuel Cost. The following tables showing (1) the 
cost per h.p. of oil engines with the fuel consumption for various 
load factors as guaranteed by the maker of one of the latest and 
most improved oil engines on the market; and (2), a comparison 
of fuel cost for different types of power plants based on a size 
of 80 h.p. and a load factor of three-quarters full load, were ab- 
stracted from The Isolated Plant, June, 1909. 



Load factor 


Oil per 
brake, 
h.p. hr. 


Brake, h.p. 
hrs. per gal. 


Fuel cost per 

brake, h.p. hr. 

Oil at 2.8 cts. 

per gal., cts. 


Full load 

% ■" , , , , , 


0.6 
0.6 
0.65 
1.05 


12.5 

12.5 

11.5 

7.1 


0.22 
0.22 
0.24 
0.39 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



637 



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Co»T Of 6e» Cen-rtrtH 1000 Cuaic Ftci> 

Fig. 18. Cost of power generation, natural-gas engines in 20-, 100- 
250- and 500-kw. units. Cost of land and buildings not included. 













Cost 


of land and building not included 




















































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CtN-rj fcK 1000 C uaic FkcT 

Fig. 19. Cost of power generation from illuminating-gas engines 
in 20-, 100-, 250- and 500-kw. units. Cost of land and building 
not included. 



638 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 









Cost per 


Type of engine 


s Fuel. 


Consumption per 


brake, 






brake h.p. hr. 


h.p. hr. 


* Simple slide 


Bituminous coal, 


6 lbs. 


$8.25 


valve steam 


$2.75 per ton. 






engine. 








Gasoline en- 


Gasoline, 12 cts. 


Vio gal. 


12.00 


gine. 


per gal. 






Gas engine. 


Illuminating gas, 


At 12,000 B.t.u.— N. 






80 cts. per 1,000 


Y. gas about 565 






cu. ft. 


effective B.t.u.=: 21 








cu. ft. 


16.80 


Electric mo- 


Current, 5 cts. 


0.85 k.w.-hr. 


42.50 


tor. 


per kw. hr. 






* Producer 


Pea, antliracite, 


1.4 lbs. 


2.45 


gas engine. 


$3.50 per ton. 






Most im- 


Fuel oil, 2.8 cts. 


0.6 lb. (71/2 lbs. per 




proved oil 


per gal. tank 


gal.) 


2.24 


engine. 


car lots. 







* standby losses of 108 hrs. per week. There were no standby 
losses for the other engines. 

An interesting fact is that the consumption is nearly the same 
whether kei'osene, fuel oil or crude oil be used. 

Fuel Consumption Tests of Small Oil and Gasoline Engines. 
W. E. Donner obtained the following figures at the tests conducted 
at Clarks, Nebr., which were published in the Electrical World 
for April 12, 1913. An effort was made to determine the output 
for a consumption of 1 gal. of fuel at various loadings of the 
engine and generator. Tests were made on an Alamo 35-h.p. en- 
gine using 39 deg. B. distillate for fuel (which cost 10 cts. per gal.), 
and a Fairbanks-Morse commercial gasoline engine set. The oil 
engine carried an overload of 220 amperes at 120 volts for an 
hour, the gasoline unit refused to carry any oveiload. In making 
the calculations 5% was allowed for belt loss^ and 85% for gen- 
erator efficiency. 



TABLE IV. TESTS OP SMALL ALAMO AND FAIRBANKS- 
MORSE ENGINES AT CLARKS, NEB. 



(One gal. of fuel oil used on each te.st. ) 



Kw.-hr. 



Cost per 



Oil consumed H.p. delivered 



delivered 

at 

switchboard 


kw.-hr. 

at 

switchboard 


per kw.-hr. 

of engine, 

pints 


by engine, 

allowing for 

losses 




Alamo Sr, 


h.p. Engine 




21.6 
21.6 
20.87 
10.37 
5.12 
5.25 


$0.0214 
0.0214 
0.0192 
0.0386 
0.0404 
0.0347 


1.28 

1.28 

1.237 

1.5 

2.615 

2.237 


35.84 
35.84 
34.62 
17.20 
8.49 
8.71 




Fairbanks-Morse 25 h.p. Engine 




12.00 


$0.0313 


1.405 


19.91 



Fuel Economy of Small Gasoline Engines. The figures in Table 
V were derived under the direction of A. A. Potter, from tests of 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



639 





ad-; 

Gal. 

0.327 

0.342 

0.242. 

0.264 










6 








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sumpti 

oad — ^ 

Gal. 

0.i69 
0.133 
0.174 


O c-^ 




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5 


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i 


Gal 
0.16 
0.15 
0.13 
0.14 
0.13 


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ylinde 

Lam., i 

3.5 

5.0 
5.5 
6.5 

7.25 






QxJ 



640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the Kansas State Agricultural College, on 5 gasoline engines of 
different makes, and varying in power from 1% to 10 h.p. 

All the engines tested were of the 4-stroke-cycle type, water 
cooled, governed by the hit-and-miss method and provided with 
a make-and-break ignition system. They are loaded by Prony 
brakes and the fuel accurately weighed, and 3 to 6 checks runs 
were made at each load, each run lasting 30 mins. 

The gasoline used was 62 deg. B. and had a specific gravity of 
0.731 at 60 deg. F., making the weight 6.09 lbs. per gal. The 
heat of combustion of the gasoline, as determined by a Junkers 
constant-pressure calorimeter was 19,411 B.t.u. per lb. (high), or 
18,415 B.t.u. per lb. net. - 

The average results of the tests are given in the table, from 
which it is evident that 1.3 to 1.69 gal. of gasoline will be required 
to run the average small engine 10 hrs. at full load. 

Cost of Producer Gas Power Plants. Prof. R. H. Fernald in 
Bulletin 55 of the Bureau of Mines gives the cost of gas engines 
and producers in sizes up to 3000 h.p. inclusive in Tables VI to VIII. 

Prof. Fernald says considerable variation will be noticed in the 
prices quoted by different manufacturers for plants of the same 
rated capacity. In some cases this difference is warranted by a 
difference in the quality. In others it is due to a difference in the 
number of units installed to make up the total required horse- 
power or to different requirements for auxiliary equipment. 

The following statements show the views of manufacturers in 
1912: 

1. The excessive cost will be reduced when increased demand 
cuts down the overhead expense of manufacture. 

2. The excessive cost of plants, especially in the smaller sizes, 
seem to be a great drawback. 

TABLE VI. COST OF GAS PRODUCERS (1912) 

H.p. 

15 

15 

25 

25 ; 

35 

50 

50 

50 

50 

75 

75 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

150 

150 

150 

150 3,300 



Cost 


Cost erected, 


f. o. b. 


including 


factory 


foundation 


$396 




450 


$500 


455 




560 


625 


560 





700 




730 


820 


900 


1.035 


1,400 


1,800 


910 




940 


1,050 


1,050 




1.100 


1,230 


1.200 


1,380 


1,450 


1,850 




2,400 


1^95 




1.530 


1,710 


1,600 


1,840 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



641 



Cost 
H.p. f.o.b. 

factory 

200 1.725 

200 2,050 

200 2.200 

200 2.800 

200 3,000 

200 

250 2,100 

250 2.600 

250 3,500 

250 

300 2,700 

300 3,200 

300 3,400 

300 

500 6.000 

500 8.500 

500 .... 

1,000 12,000 

♦1,000 14,500 

1.000 

t 3.000 40,000 



Cost erected, 
including 
foundation 



2,300 
2.750 
3;220 
3,700 
4,000 

'2.966 

4.300 

4.750 

3.500 

3,600 

3.910 

5,700 

7.000 

10,000 

9,400 

13.500 

17.000 

18.700 

44.000 



* 2 times 500. 



t 5 times 600. 



TABLE VII. COST OF PRODUCER-GAS ENGINES (1912) 

Cost of 
engine 
erected, 
including 
foundation 
$2,400 
2,500 
2,500 
2,700 
3,850 
4,475 
4,400 
4,600 
5,150 
6,670 
7,550 
7,500 
9,250 



H.p. Cost f.o.b; 
factory 

45 $1,950 

50 2.000 

50 2.200 

55 2,250 

75 .- . 3.300 

100 3.850 

100 4.000 

100 4,000 

125 4,500 

150 5,800 

165 6,800 

180 6.500 

190 8.500 

200 7,000 

200 7,800 

200 8,500 

200 

250 8,500 

250 9.200 

250 10.600 

300 10,200 

300 11,500 

300 11,800 

300 12,500 

500 16,000 

500 17,000 

500 '. 20.000 

1,000 31,000 

1,000 34.000 

1.000 35,000 

3,000 90,000 



8,970 
9,500 
9,700 

10,566 
11,600 

13.125 
12,900 
13,500 
18,000 

22',566 
35,000 

39*.666 
101,500 



G42 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE VJIL 



COST OF PRODUCER-GAS INSTALLATIONS 

(1912) 



H.p. 



Cost of gas 

producer 

and engine 

erected. 

including 

foundations 



100 


6,250 


200 


12,400 


200 

250 


13.200 

14,800 


300 


17.000 


500 


25 000 


500 

1,000 


32,500 

48.500 


1 000 


56 000 


3,000 


145,500 



Cost of 
complete 
plant, in- 
cluding 
buildings * 



$9,100 
17,500 



23,800 



Cost of 

complete 

plant, ex- 

clu.'^ive of 

buildings * 

$5,300 
7.800 
15,800 
16.200 
18.200 
22.000 

29.500 

47,500 

57,500 

84.000 

202,000 

* Includes producer, engine, electric generator, piping, switch- 
board, and auxiliaries, all erected with suitable foundations. 

3. We believe that the cost of plants has been coming down in 
the past two or three years, but it is still rather high and future 
improvements will probably bring the figures down. 

4. A good producer-gas power plant can be installed for just 
about the same money that would be required for a first-class 
condensing steam plant, and would show a material fuel economy 
over the latter. However, in the majority of small plants where 
producers would otherwise logically be used, the purchaser objects 
seriously to spending more money for a gas plant than would be 
required for an ordinary type of steam equipment. The large dif- 
ference in fuel consumption does not seein to be important as 
compared with the additional investment required. We believe, 
however, that this handicap will soon be overcome. 

Cost of Gas Engines. The costs of 300 and 400 h. p. 4-cylinder, 
double opposed type of well known heavy-duty gas engines of 
moderate speed are given in Table IX. Engines of this make are 
also to be had in 4 sizes in 2-cylinder type 75, 100, 150 and 190 
h.p. and 2 sizes in single cylinder 35 and 50 h.p. 

These engines are high tension ignition, 4-cycle type and are 
rated by actual brake h.p. tests. 

The following prices are net, f.o.b. factory and cover engines 
for belted work only: 



TABLE IX. 


COST OF 


GAS 


ENGINES 




Size 


Type 






Price 


35 h.p 


. . Single cylinder 




$1,100 


50 h.p 


" 






1,500 


75 h.p 


. . Double 






2.000 


100 h.p. 








2,500 


150 h.p 


" 






3,500 


190 h.p 


<< 






4.500 


300 h.p 


, . Four 






6.500 


400 h.p 


" 






8.500 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 643 

Another engine works builds gas engines of the 4-stroke cycle 
type in several designs as follows 

I. Single-cylinder — 1. Single acting. 

— 2. Double acting. 
11. Two-cylinder (tandem) — 1. Single acting. 
— 2. Double acting. 

These engines are to be had in sizes of from 50 to 2,000 h.p. 

The costs are f.o.b. factory for engine complete. An average 
cost of these engines is very close to $35 per h.p. with only slight 
variation in accordance to size, because of refinements which are 
necessary in the large units. 

TABLE X. VERTICAL, SELF-CONTAINED TYPE, GAS EN- 
GINES, FOUR CYCLE 

H.p. R.p.m. No. of cylinders Cost f.o.b. works 

6 350 1 $ 405 

20 300 2 765 

50 275 3 1,800 

100 250 3 2,925 

150 250 3 4,050 

Larger sizes made to order — the average price of which is 
$29.25 to $31.50 per h.p. for engines run on natural or city gas, 
and $36 to $41.50 per h.p. for producer gas operation. 

The reason for the above variation, in prices for natural or city 
gas and producer gas engines, is the fact that when run on pro- 
ducer gas an engine must be about Vg larger size (gas engine 
rating) to develop an equivalent amount of power. That is, a 
150 h.p. gas engine would only develop 100 h.p. if operated on 
producer gas. 

The cost of gas producers averages about as follows: 

Cost per h.p.. 
Type f.o.b., factory 

Hard coal suction $14 

" pressure 18 

Soft " Suction 25 

" " pressure 30 

Producer Power Plant Costs. The estimated costs in Table XI 
were given in a report of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission 
of the Province of Ontario, Canada. 

Formula for Cost of Gas Producers. A. A. Potter in Power, Dec. 
30, 1913, gives the following formulae of costs: 

Equation of cost 
Type Capacity in dollars 

Suction Up to 300 h.p. 252 -|- 14.2 X h.p. 

Pressure Up to 300 h.p. 860 -f 15.15 X h.p. 

Approximate Costs of Gas Power Installations. M. P. Cleghorn 
in Power, March 31, 1908, estimates the cost of complete gas power 



644 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XL PRODUCER-GAS POWER, SHOWING CAPITAL 
COSTS OF PRODUCER-GAS PLANTS INSTALLED, AND 
ANNUAL COSTS OF POWER PER BRAKE, H.P. 





Capital cost of plant per 


h.p. 


Size of 


f 










plant, 


Machin- 






h.p. 


ery, etc. 


Buildings 


Total 


10 


$137 


$40 


$177 


20 


110 


36 


146 


30 


93 


33 


126 


40 


84 


29 


113 


50 


80 


26 


106 


60 


79 


24 


103 


80 


78 


'><> 


100 


100 


77 


20 


97 


150 


76 


19 


95 


200 


74 


17 


91 


300 


73 


16 


89 


400 


71 


14 


85 


500 


70 


12 


82 


750 


67 


10 


77 


1,000 


65 


8 


73 



Annual 
co.st of 10- 
hr. power 
per brake 
h.p. 
$53.48 
44.47 
38.73 
35.05 
32.27 
30:49 
28.70 
27.05 
25.87 
24.95 
24.24 
23.41 
22.54 
21.55 
20.46 



Annual 
cost of 24- 
hr. power 
per brake 
h.p. 
$90.02 
75.22 
65.99 
59.85 
55.22 
52.03 
48.95 
45.40 
43.17 
41.78 
40.40 
39.03 
37.54 
35.99 
34.66 





I 


='Ga9 Engine 


PrcxU. 


rGas. 
































111= Simple High Speed. Nqu - Condensing. 
IV= Curtis Steam Turbine 500 K W. 






































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40 so 60 70 

Percent o* Rat43d Load B.H.P 



Fig. 



20. Curves showing efficiency at full load and at less than 
full load. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



645 



plants, suction and pressure of capacities ranging from 50 to 1,500 
brake h.p. for suction plants and from 100 to 3,000 brake h.p. 
for pressure plants. An extra unit is provided in each case, which 
allows for cleaning and repairs without interruption in the service. 
Each estimate includes gas producers, engines, direct-current en- 
gine-type generators, all necessary piping, air compressor, build- 
ings and land, but does not include the station heating system. 
The waste heat from the engine could be utilized at a small outlay 
of capital for heating a large part of the building during working 
hours. 































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zou 

B.H.P. Capacitj 



Fig. 21. Cost of gas producers, including cost of installing. 



Kind and number of units. Vertical engines have been con- 
sidered exclusively for the suction plants and in pressure plants 
up to 1,500 h.p., while in pressure plants of from 1,500 to 3,000 
h.p.. horizontal engines have been assumed. Since suction pro- 
ducers are not built larger than 350 h.p., the size of plant has 
been limited to 1,500 h.p., to prevent complexity. Each engine is 
connected to its own producer, but a system of cross-pipes allows 
any engine to draw gas from the producer next to it, by the 
manipulation of the necessary valves. Since there are as many 
suction producers as engines the suction plant's have been con- 
sidered as a whole, while in the pressure plants the producers 
have been considered apart from the engines. At least two com- 
binations as regard the num^^r of units have been assumed and 



646 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the cheaper one taken. The cost of piping in the suction plants 
has been assumed at $3 per h.p. and in the pressure plants at 
$5 per h.p. 

Pressure producers of the steam blower type have been chosen, 



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Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 

Fig. 22. Cost of gas-regulating tanks, allowing 10 cu. ft. per h.p. 

Fig. 23. Cost of vertical four-cycle single-acting gas engines for 

direct-connecting. 

therefore each pressure plant contains a steam boiler. The size 
of boiler necessary for a given producer was computed for the 
amount of steam necessary for the producer. A pressure pro- 
ducer uses about 0.8 lb. of steam per lb. of coal gasified; conse- 







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Fig. 24. Cost of horizontal gas engines for direct-connecting to 
generator. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



647 



quently if a producer generates one h.p. on 1% lbs, of coal it will 
require IM; X 0.8 — 1.2 lbs. of steam per h.p. This value was used 
therefore in computing- the size of the boiler. 

The cost of land for buildings, etc., was assumed at 50 cts. per 
sq. ft, and cost of buildings at 11 cts. per cu. ft. The size of 
gas-holders for pressure plants was determined by allowing 10 
cu. ft. per h.p., which would be sufficient to run the entire plant 
for 8 or 10 mins. These holder.'' were assumed to be placed out 
doors. 









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200 
Br.iliL' Horse Power 



Fig. 25. Space required for suction gas producers. 



In Tables XII to XV may be found the number of units chosen 
for each size of plant and the total cost of both suction and 
pressure plants complete and ready to run. The total cost in- 
cludes everything found in the plant as well as the cost of the 
land and buildings. The number of units given in the tables for 
each size of plant is the number that was found to be most eco- 
nomical to install. 

Electric Railway Gas Power Plant Costs. R. S. Manning in 
Power, Dec. 16, 1910, describes a large gas-driven station sup- 
plying power for an electric-railway on the Wisconsin shore of 
Lake Michigan. The line supplied is about 112 miles long and 
the service is chiefly interurban. 



648 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XII. 


CHOK 


Size of plant, 
brake h.p. 


No. of 
units 


50 
100 
200 
400 
600 
750 
1.000 


2 
2 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 



CHOICE OF UNITS FOR SUCTION-GAS POWER 
PLANTS 







Cost 


Size of 


Complete initial 


per rated 


units 


cost of plant 


brake h.p. 


50 


$12,468 


$249 


100 


18,225 


182 


100 


27.082 


135 


200 


44.154 


110 


300 


56.587 


94 


250 


67.270 


89 


350 


82.204 


82 



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200 300 400 

B.H.P. Capacity 




Fig. 
Fig. 2\ 



Fig. 26. 

>6. Space for pressure producers, without tank or boiler. 
Floor space required for vertical gas engines direct con- 
nected to generator. 



TABLE XIII. CHOICE OF PRESSURE PRODUCERS COMPLETE 



Size of plant 
brake h.p. 

100 

200 

400 

750 
1,000 
1.500 
2,000 
3,000 



WITH AUXILIARIES 



No. of 
units 
2 
3 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 







Cost 


Size of 


Initial cost 


per rated 


units 


of producers 


brake h.p 


100 


$8,505 


$85.00 


100 


12.179 


60.90 


100 


18.597 


46.50 


250 


28.067 


37.40 


330 


33.325 


33.30 


500 


48.217 




500 


59.566 


29.70 



1,500 



89,210 



29.70 



TABLE XIV. 



Size of 

plant. 

brake h.p. 

100 

200 

400 

750 

1000 

1500 



CHOICE OF ENGINE GENERATOR UNITS FOR 
PRESSURE-PRODUCER PLANTS 



\t:rtical engines 



No. of 
units 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

6 



Size of 
units 
100 
100 
200 
250 
350 
300 



Initial 
. cost 
$13,690 
20.370 
32,211 
49.061 
60,427 
82.265 



Cost per 
brake h.p. 

rating 
of plant 
$136.90 
101.80 

80.50 

65.40 

60.40 

54.80 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



649 



HORIZONTAL ENGINES 



Size of 
plant, 
rake h.p. 


No. of 
units 


Size of 
units 


Initial 
cost 


1000 
1500 
2000 
3000 


3 

4 
5 
5 


500 
500 

500 
750 


$96,385 
129,040 
146,195 
242,147 



Cost per 

brake h.p, 

rating- 

of plant 

$96.40 

86.00 

82.10 

80.70 



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500 1000 ItCO 

B.H.P. CnpBClt? 

Fig. 28. Floor space required for horizontal double-acting \ 
engines, twin tandem type, direct-connected to generators. 



TABLE 


XV. COSTS 


OF COMPLETE 
PRODUCERS 

VERTICAL ENGINES 


PLANTS, 


PRESSURE 


Size 








Cost per 


of plant 


Initial cost 


Initial cost 


Total 


rated 


brake, h.p 


engine room 


producer 


cost 


brake h.p. 


100 


$13,690 


$8,505 


$22,195 


$221.90 


200 


20.370 


12,179 


32,549 


162.70 


400 


32.211 


18,597 


50,808 


127.00 


750 


49,061 


28,067 


77,128 


102.80 


1,000 


60,427 


33,325 


93,752 


93,70 


1,500 


82,265 


48,217 


130,482 


87.00 






HORIZONTAL ENGINES 




1,000 


$96,385 


$33,325 


$129,710 


$129.00 


1,500 


129,040 


48,217 


177,257 


118.00 


2,000 


164,195 


59,566 


223,761 


111.80 


3,000 


242,147 


89,210 


331,357 


110.40 



The station equipment consists of two twin-tandem, double- 
acting, horizontal Allis-Chalmers gas engines supplied from Loomis- 
Pettibone bituminous producers and direct connected to Allis- 
Chalmers alternators rated at 1.000 kw. each. 



650 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Both the engines and the alternators were designed to carry 
large overloads and have actually carried in service 1,650 kv/, for 
a considerable length of time. 

The alternators generate three-phase currents at 25 cycles and 
405 volts pressure, which is stepped up to 22,000 volts by a bank 
of seven 500-kw. transformers. Fo^ supplying nearby sections of 
the line, two 300-kw. rotary converters are used. Exciting cur- 
rent is furnished by two 50-kw. dynamos direct connected to three- 
cylinder vertical gas engines with cylinders 11 ins. in diameter 
and a stroke of 11 ins. The usual switchboard equipment is 
provided. 

Two double-generator sets of down-draft producers make the gas 
from bituminous coal. The generators are 11 ft. in diameter and 
18 ft. high, the economizer boilers are 6 ft. 6 ins. in diameter, the 
wet scrubbers are 9 ft. in diameter and the dry scrubbers are 
12 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. high. Each double-generator set is 
rated at 2,000 h.p., but is capable of considerable overload. 

Outside the building is a gas holder having a maximum capacity 
of 30,000 cu. ft., and this is provided with a 20-in. bypass pipe, 
with suitable valves. 

The entire plant was erected by a firm of engineers whose fee 
was 10% of the aggregate cost of machinery, materials and con- 
struction, so that the final costs given in the accompanying table 
are 110% of the net co.sts of the installed plant 

The plant was arranged for the installation of a third engine 
unit of the same capacity and it was estimated that the cost of 
this unit, including foundation, piping and electric generator, de- 
livered and erected, will not exceed $75,000. The whole station 
will then have cost $396, 673.89 and have a rated capacity of 3,000 
kws. The cost per kw. on rated capacity will therefore be about 
$132, but the cost per kw. on the maximum capacity of at least 
1,650 kws. per unit or 4,950 kws. total will be about $80. 

INSTALLATION COSTS 

Buildings, both producer and engine: 

Material $ 24,415.64 

Labor 12,353.15 

Superintendence 370.00 

$37,138.79 

Engineering fee '. 3.713.88 

Total $40,852.67 

Machinery in engine house : 

Apparatus and material $195,421.01 

Labor 2,133.45 

$197,554.46 
Engineering fee 19,755.44 

Total $217,309.90 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 651 

Machinery in producer house : 

Apparatus and material $ 65,993.07 

Labor 352.24 

$66,345.31 
Engineering fee 6,634.53 

Total % 72,979.84 

Machinery foundations : 

Material $ 4,680.43 

Labor 3,890.16 

$8,570.59 
Engineering fee 857.06 

Total $ 9,427.65 

Piping complete, by contract, including labor... $ 15,654.76 
Engineering fee 1,565.47 

Total $ 17,220.23 

Contingent costs 5,666.91 

Engineering fee 566.69 

Total $ 6.233.60 

Grand total $364,023.89 

Of the above, the rotary converters, substation 
switchboard, substation cables, substation step- 
down transformers mainline step-up transform- 
ers, material and labor cost $ 38,500.00 

Engineering fee 3,850.00 

Total $ 42.350.00 

Total cost of generating plant $321,673.89 

Manufacturing Plant Gas Engine and Producer Power Costs. 
P. R. Moses in Engineering Magazine, Dec. 1909, states that to 
obtain a definite idea as to comparative cost, an establishment is 
assumed consisting of buildings spread over several acres of 
ground, located close to water available for condensing purposes 
or other purposes. It is assumed that the heating requirements 
and the other uses of low-temperature heat will not amount to 
more than 15% of the power required for manufacturing purposes. 
All the machinery is electrically driven, either by group drive or 
Individual drive. The character of the work is similar to that 
of a large foundry or machine shop — i. e., a heavy, more or less 
fluctuating, load. The plant operates 10 hrs. a day steadily 
throughout the year, with the exception of Sundays and holidays, 
and it is necessary to provide for night work, but for only a small 
portion of the plant. 

The number of kw.-hrs, delivered per year is 1,000,000. Motors 
of 750 h.p. are installed and the lighting, using tungsten and 
other efficiency lights, amounts to 50 kws. in addition to the power 
load. The maximum load is .figured at 400 kws. and the average 
load, for a 10-hr. period, at 300 kws. 



652 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The cost of the several types of plants would be, exclusive of 
the power house : 

Cost per k.w. 

Steam equipment , $100 

Gas engine and producer equipment 115 

Oil engine equipment 132 

The cost is subdivided as follows : 

Steam: Cost per k.w. 

Compound condensing steam engine $25 

Boilers . 20 

Steam piping and condensers 20 

Smoke stack and breeching $4.00 to 5 

Auxiliary apparatus (feed-water heater, grease ex- 
tractor, steam separator) 3 

If an economizer were to be installed $6.00 per kw. should be 
added. This would depend, of course, upon the cost of coal and 
the extent to which economizing might be resorted to. 

Gas: Cost per k.w. 

Gas engine $70 

Producer equipment, including scrubber, etc 15 

Gas piping, exhaust heater, engine conns. . .$10.00 to 15 

Oil: 

Oil engine $100 

Exhaust heater piping, etc $7 to 10 

Electric (to be added to separate items in each type of plant) : 

Dynamos $15 to $20 

Switchboard 5 to 10 

Wiring connections 5 to 10 

Power House: 

The cost of the power house would vary from $10 to $20 
per k.w. 

The prices are given per kw. of dynamo capacity, because the 
ratings of gas engines and turbines or steam engines are not on 
the same basis. The steam engine and steam turbine have over- 
load capacities of 50% above their rated capacity, while the gas 
engine is rated at within 10% of full capacity, and the same is 
true of the oil engine. Hence, a 300-h.p. steam engine will be 
able to generate the full capacity of a 200-kw. dynamo, but a 
gas engine of the same maximum output for peak-load period 
should be rated at at least 400 h.p. The plant under considera- 
tion, allowing for one spare unit, for maximum load of 400 kws., 
could be made up of either four 135-kw. sets or three 200-kw. sets. 
For gas-engine or oil-engine plants, four sets would prove most 
economical, as the cost per kw. does not decrease as the sizes 
grow larger. For a steam plant, division into three or even two 
units would be more advisable. 

The total cost of the plant would be about as follows, the 
steam plant being figured without superheaters or economizers : 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 653 

Gas engine and producer $70,000 

Oil engine 78,000 

Steam engine 60,000 

The cost of operation of the three different types — 1. e., the cost 
of fuel, labor, oil and repairs — would be : 

Gas-Engine and Gas-Producer Plant: Annual cost. 

Coal, including stand-by charges, 1,000 tons at $2.50. . . . $2,500 
Labor, one machinist, one helper and one producer man 2,500 

Oil 400 

Repairs, averaged for a number of years 750 

Total $6,150 

Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost 7,000 

Total annual cost $13,150 

Oil-Engine Equipment: 

Oil at 3 cents per gal. (for fuel), 7 kw.-hr. per gal $4,300 

Labor, one machinist, one helper 1,800 

Oil (for lubrication) 600 

Repairs, averaged through a number of years 900 

Total $7,600 

Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost 7,800 

Total annual co.st $15,400 

Stearn-Enyine Plant: 

Coal, 5 lbs. per kw.-hr. plus 20% for stand-by losses 3,000 

tons at $2.00 $6,000 

Labor, engineer, assistant and fireman 2,670 

Oil 300 

Repairs, averaged through a number of years 1,000 

Total $9,970 

Fixed charges, 10% of installation cost . . . ; 6,000 

Total annual cost . $15,970 

None of these figures includes any coal required for other pur- 
poses, and in making comparison this need not be considered 
unless the comparison is between a non-condensing engine and 
any other type of plant. 

The comparative cost per kw. would be as follows: 

Cost per k.w., cts. 

Gas engine and gas producer 1.31 

Oil engine plant 1.54 

Steam engine plant 1.59 

It is evident from these figures that the gas producer and gas 
engine plant is about 18% more efficient than the other plants. 
Given equal reliability and perfection of operating results, this 
type of plant should have the preference, because, coincident with 
the reduction in cost of operation go reduction in the quantity of 
material to be handled, such as fuel and ashes, the absolute doing 
away with smoke, greater cleanliness around the plant, no steam 



654 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

gaskets to blow out or packing to leak, no boiler linings to be re- 
paired — as the producer lining lasts indefinitely, with proper 
care — etc. 

Cost of Generating Current with Producer Gas Engines at 
Charlotte, N. C. Abstracted from a paper read before the Amer- 
ican Institute of Electrical Engineers by E. D. Latta, Jr., March 
30, 1910. 

The engine room equipment consists of two 810-brake-h.p. hori- 
zontal twin-tandem, double-acting four-stroke cycle gas engines and 
one 60-h.p. single tandem exciter engine, in general similar to the 
large engines. The 540-kw., three-phase, 60-cycle, 2300-volt al- 
ternators, are direct and rigidly connected to the crank shafts 
of the main engines, and a 40-kw, direct-current generator is di- 
rect connected to the exciter engine. In addition to this appa- 
ratus there is an induction motor-driven exciter set of the same 
capacity as the engine exciter, a 300-kw. and a 500-kw. rotary 
converter, and the usual switchboard equipment. 

The producer apparatus is contained in a building about one 
hundred feet from the power house, and consists of two 1000-h.p. 
units of twin generator down-draught producers, having a con- 
tinuous overload capacity of 50%. Each unit consists of two 9 -ft. 
generators, 16 ft. high, having a fuel space 7 ft. in diameter by 
8 ft. high above the grate bars, which are of arched fire-clay 
tile. The generators are connected at the bottom by openings, 
lined with fire brick, containing water-cooled gate valves, to an 
economizer or vertical boiler of 100 h.p. rating. From the top 
of the boilers a 16-in. pipe leads to the bottom of the wet scrub- 
ber and from the top of the wet scrubber to the exhauster, or 
through a by-pass around the exhauster to the dry scrubber. 
A 60,000-cu. ft. holder receives the gas from the producers and 
delivers it to the engines. 

OPERATING FIGURES FOR ONE YEAR 

Engine hours • 12.403 

Kw. hours 3,355.907 

Coal, lbs 6,444.281 

Coal per kw.-hr 1.97 

Average engine hours 34.0 

Load factor 0.45 

Output 

Load factor = ■■ 

Engine hours X capacity of one engine 

In addition to the coal, 260,292 lbs. of coke were used in starting 
producers, of which amount 122,371 lbs. were reclaimed, leaving 
the total net amount used 137,921 lbs., equal in cost to 192,000 lbs., 
of coal. 

We have, therefore, for the total coal consumption 6,444,281 lbs. 
-f- 192,000 = 6,636,281 lbs. 

6,636,281 

= 1.97 = lbs. of coal per. kw.-hr. 

3,355,907 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 655 

Assuming 85% efRciency for alternators at 45% load we have 
197 

X 85 = 1.275 lbs. of coal per brake h.p.-hr, 

133 

Cost of Current: Cost per kw.-hr., cts. 

Coal per kw.-hr 0.349 

Power house labor per kw.-hr 0.170 

Producer labor per kw.-hr 0.131 

Oil for power house 0.065 

Oil for producer 0.005 

Waste and sundries, power house 0.012 

Waste and sundries, producer house 0.003 

Repair parts for engines 0.046 

Repair parts for producers 0.007 

Machine shop work, engines 0.016 

Machine shop work, producers 0.007 

Excelsior for producers 0.003 

Water, both departments 0.071 

Total cost of current at switch board per 

kw.-hr 0.885 

Power Coyisumed hy Auxiliaries: 

Cooling water pump, kilowatts per kw.-hr 0.0095 

Station lighting " •' " 0.0116 

Motor driven exciter " " " . . . . 0.0688 

Total kilowatts per kw.-hr 0.0909 

The items of interest, depreciation, taxes, etc., are not included, 
for the reason that they would be quite unfair to the plant, on 
account of the fact that it was designed for three 810 h.p. units, 
while only two have been installed. 

Buildings, producers, gas holders, piping, etc., are all installed 
complete for the full ultimate capacity. Therefore a relatively 
small additional expenditure for one engine generator and founda- 
tion would increase the capacity of the plant by 50%, while the 
foregoing items of interest, depreciation, etc., would be increased 
but 18% per unit of capacity installed. 

Costs of Power from Four Producer Gas Plants. The following 
data, published in The Isolated Plant Oct., 1911, were abstracted 
from the Journal of the American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
neers : 

The plants on which the Plant Operations Committee is able 
to make a report are described in some detail in the following 
pages and following each description is a summation of their 
operating costs. In some instances, these cost records cover a 
few months and, in one instance, a considerably longer period of 
operation. 

For the purpose of identification, but without disclosing the 
name or location, the plants are designed by letters. 

It should be distinctly understood that the cost figures are pre- 
sented as they are furnished by the operators. 

Costs for Plant "A." The following are the costs and details 
of the plant. 



656 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Producers. There are two 250-h.p. pressure producers, 7 ft. in. 
inside diam., with water seal bottoms and 9 in. fire-brick linings, 
also 2 wet scrubbers, 7 ft. 6 ins. in diam. by 18 ft. in. high, 
filled with wooden lattice work. There are 2 dry scrubbers, 7 ft. 
in. square by 3 ft. 6 ins. high filled with coarse .shavings. 

Gas Engines. There is one 500-h.p. horizontal, double-acting, 
4-stroke-cycle engine with two cylinders, 23*4 ins. by 33 ins,, 
arranged tandem. The engine has three bearings rigidly in line. 
It runs at 150 r. p. m. and is direct connected to an electric gen- 
erator. It is started by compressed air at 100 lbs. pressure and 
has an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source 
of supply being a 110-volt, direct-current lighting circuit and a 
motor generator set. 

Auxiliaries. There are two tar extractors and one blower. 

Details of Operation. The data received covered 2 complete 
months. The plant is run 24 hrs. per day from 6 a. m. Monday 
until 12 p. m. Saturday night, and current generated is utilized 
for light and power. During the 2 months, a total of 308,410 
kw.-hrs. was generated and 35,190 kw.-hrs. was used in the plant, 
leaving a net output of 273,220 kw.-hrs. 

The fuel used is bituminous coal. The cooling water from the 
engine is utilized for other purposes and is not, therefore, charged 
to the plant. The cooling and cleaning water for the scrubbers 
is not given. 

The following was the cost of operation: 

Cost per kw.-hr. 

Fuel $0.002576 

Water 0.000000 

Supplies: 

Oil 0.000141 

Waste, etc 0.000024 

Total $0.000165 

Superintendence $0.000000 

Lahor: 

Producer room 0.001585 

Engine room 0.000555 

Electrical 0.000000 

Total $0.002140 

Repairs: • 

Producer :. $0.000127 

Engines 0.000040 

Electrical 0.000000 

Total $0.000167 

Total cost $0.005048 

Cost of Plant " B." The following are the costs and details for 
the plant. 

Producers. There is one set of producers of the Loomis-Petti- 
bone type. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 657 

Gas Engines. There is one 500 h.p. horizontal, double-acting, 
4-stroke-cycle engine with two cylinders, 23 1/^ by 33 ins., arranged 
tandem. The engine has two bearings rigidly in line. It runs 
at 150 r. p. m. and is direct connected to an electric generator. 
It is started by compressed air at 240 lbs. pressure, and has an 
electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source of supply 
being a 110 volt lighting circuit. 

Details of Operation. The data received are for 15 complete 
months. The plant is run 10 hrs. per day. 

The following is the cost of operation : 

COST OF OPERATION PER KW.-HR. 

Fuel $0.004460 

Water 0.000879 

Siipplies: 

Oil ■ 0.000465 

Waste, etc 0.000335 

Total $0.000800 

Superintendence $0.000000 

Labor: 

Producer room 0.001603 

Engine room 0.002050 

Electrical 0.000000 

Total 0.003653 

Repairs: 

Producer $0.000243 

Engines 0.002375 

Electrical 0.000000 

Total $0.002618 

Total cost $0.012410 

Cost of Plant "C." The following are the costs and details for 
the plant. 

Producers. There are two sets of producers of the Loomis- 
Pettibone type and of 2000 h.p. capacity each. 

Gas Engines. There are two 1500 h.p. horizontal, double acting, 
4-stroke-cycle engines each with four cylinders, 32 by 42 ins., 
arranged two in tandem. Each engine has two bearings rigidly 
in line. They run at 107 r.p.m. and are direct connected to 
electric generators. They are started by compressed air and have 
an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, the source of 
supply being a motor generator set supplying current at 60 volts. 

The following is the cost of operation : 

COST OF OPERATION PER KW.-HR. FOR 2 TEARS 

1909 1910 

Fuel $0.00439 $0.00422 

Water 0.00000 0.00003 



658 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Supplies: 

Oil and waste 0.00029 0.00024 

Miscellaneous 0.00016 0.00015 



Total $0.00045 $0.00039 

Superintendence 0.00023 0.00026 

Labor: 

Producer room 0.00109 0.00102 

Engine room 0.00066 0.00063 

Electrical 0.00000 0.00000 

Total $0.00175 $0.00165 

Repairs: 

Producer $0.00020 $0.00024 

Engine 0.00006 0.00004 

Electrical 0.00002 0.00005 



Total $0.00028 $0.00033 

Total cost $0.00710 $0.00688 

Cost of Plant " D." The following are the costs and details 
for the plant. 

Producers. There are two 400 h.p. pressure producers, 8 ft. 
in. inside diameter with water seal bottoms and with 9 in. 
flre-brick linings, and two wet scrubbers, 8 ft. in. in diameter 
by 20 ft. in. high, filled with coke. There are two dry scrub- 
bers, 6 ft. in. square by 3 ft. 6 ins. high. 

Gas Engines. There are three 250 h.p. vertical, single-acting, 
4-stroke-cycle engines each with three cylinders, 20 by 19 Ins., 
arranged side by side. Each engine has five bearings rigidly in 
line. 

They run at 230 r.p.m. and are direct connected to electric 
generators. They are started by compres.sed air at 200 lbs. pres- 
sure and have an electric ignition of the make-and-break type, 
the sources of supply being a primary battery and a direct-driven 
magneto. 

Details of Operation. The data received are for three complete 
months. The plant was in operation 1,4 39 hrs. during the 3 
months and generated a total of 309,300 kw.-hrs. The fuel used 
was No. 1 anthracite buckwheat. 

The following is the cost of operation : 

Cost of operation 
per kw. hr. 

Fuel $0 002828 

Water 0.000000 

Supi)lies, oil. waste, etc 0.000572 

Superintendence 0,000000 

Labor: 

Producer room 0.001135 

Engine room 0.002640 

Electrical * 000000 

Total $0.003775 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 659 

Cost of operation 
per kw. hr. 

Repairs, producer $0.00249 

Repairs, engines, electrical 0.001745 

Total cost $0.008920 

Cost of Coal at the plant given was $2.55 per ton at Plant "A"; 
$4.53 per ton at Plant "B"; unknown at Plant "C"; and $2.33 
per ton at Plant " D." Reducing the cost of coal at Plant " B " 
to $2.50 per ton, the costs of operation compare as follows: 

Cost per kw.-hr. 

Plant "A" $0.00505 

Plant "B" 0.01041 

Plant "C" 0.00745 

Plant "D" , '. .. 0.00892 

Average $0.00796 

Cost of Power Generated by 50 Brake h. p. Suction Producer- 
Gas Plant. J. C. Miller has given in Power, May 26, 1908, the 
results of the year's operation in a suction gas-power plant. 
The engine was of the single-cylinder horizontal hit-and-miss type, 
belted to a line shaft and a 50 brake h.p., drawing gas from a 
suction producer in which pea anthracite was used. The plant 
was of English manufacture, well designed, and built with ample 
weight to withstand all stresses. The producer was equipped with 
the usual vaporizing apparatus for supplying steam to the blast 
and the usual coke scrubber and expansion box. 

Cost of plant installed $3300 

Fixed charges: 

Interest at 6% $ 198 

Depreciation, repairs, taxes, insurance, 12%. . 396 

$594 
Operating charges: 

Engineer at $2 daily, 300 days $ 600 

67% tons coal at $4,50 304 

Oil and waste 48 

Scrubber water 12 

$964 

Total yearly charge $1558 

Cost per h.p. -year of 3000 hours, assuming an 

average rate of 50 h.p. , $31.16 

The repairs consisted of new grate-bars in the producer, new 
coke in the scrubber, and small repairs in the connecting-rod and 
ignition equipment ; the total being less than ten dollars for the 
year. 

For repairs, depreciation, insurance and taxes 12% was allowed. 
The cooling water was re-used so no charge was made for this 
item. The entire salary of the engineer was charged up to at- 
tendance although he had time for other work, not much of it 
being needed for the producer and engine after the plant was in 



660 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

operation. The coal came from the Scranton district and cost 
$4.50 per ton in the bin. Brake tests of the engine were made 
showing over 50 h.p. and it" is believed that the engine was ahvays 
overloaded while worlcing. The coal consumption averaged 441 
lbs. per working day, including stand-by losses, which were low, 
so Mr. Miller puts the coal consumption at one lb. of coal per 
brake h.p. 

Fuel Consumption of 75 h. p. Gas Engine and Producer. A re- 
port quoted by Professor Fernald, Bulletin 416 of U. S. Geo- 
logical Survey, gave 1.05 lbs. of coal per hr. for a 10 days' test of 
a plant of this kind in 1909, the owner of which states that he 
found the operation entirely reliable. He believes that an aver- 
aged practise of the fuel would be slightly higher, but not in 
excess of 1.15 lbs. per h.p. hr. 

Operating Costs for a Producer Gas Plant. The following costs 
were given in a letter to Prof. R. H. Fernald and used by him in 
Bulletin 55 of the Bureau of Mines: 

" In January, 1907. Co. installed for us a pro- 
ducer-gas-power plant consisting of three 50 h.p. horizontal gas 
engines, two of which are direct connected, making a unit of 100 
h.p., and attached direct to a generator. The other engine is a 
separate unit with its own generator attached. We have two 
gas producers, one of 100-h.p. capacity and the other of 50-h.p. 
capacity. 

" We have used this plant continuously since its installation 
and with satisfaction, furnishing to our plant current which is 
distributed throughout the works to many motors, besides fur- 
ni.'Jhing light and power for one large freight and one passenger 
elevator. 

" We do not use the full capacity of the plant, holding at all 
times the separate unit of 50 h.p. in reserve. 

"The cost for the calendar year 1908 was as follows: 

Coal $ 538.25 

Oil 49 20 

Waste 11.52 

Removal of ashes 18.00 

Water 168.00 

Gas 50 06 

Attendance 5S1.92 

Maintenance repairs 492.78 

Insurance 148.68 

Lamp renewals 66.70 

$2,125.11 

"Our kw.-hrs. used during the entire period amounted to 134.063, 
making net cost to us 1.585 cts. per kw -hr. 

" Previous to the installation of the plant we employed a fire- 
man to take care of the steam-heating plant, and oui- charge for 
attendance in the foregoing statement is the amount paid in ex- 
cess of what we had previouslj' paid for attendance on our steam- 
heating plant. We are obliged to keep steam up the year around, 
as we use it for several purposes in our factory, and the charge 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 661 

under attendance, therefore, is proper but less than would follow 
under other conditions." 

Operating Cost of a Small Producer Gas Power Plant. A. W. 
Honywill, Jr., gave the following data at the meeting of the 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers for November, 1911. 

This plant drove the machinery for a wood-working shop in 
New Haven and the first cost of the plant, including producer, 
engine, blower and motor to drive it, was, in round figures, $3,5U0. 
The operating expenses per day were as follows : 

Coal. 467 lbs. at $5 per ton $1.05 

Labor 2.50 

Repairs and depreciation 1.16 

Interest and taxes 0.70 

Oil and waste 0.14 

Total daily expense $5.55 

Oil engine, of the 4-cycle, hit-and-miss type, with poppet valves 
and jump-spark ignition, was rated at 45 h.p. and the producer 
was of the ordinary suction type with stationary grates, and the 
quantity of gas delivered to the engine being varied by a hand- 
adjusted throttle valve in the delivery pipe. The load was variable 
and the plant was in operation 9 hrs. per day, the engine being 
kept running during the noon hr. 

The average coal consumption was approximately 467 lbs. of 
pea anthracite per day, or 46.7 lbs. per hr., which is equivalent 
to 21/^ lbs. of coal per h.p.-hr., assuming an average load factor 
for the shop of about 40%. The cost of coal delivered was $4.50 
per ton, giving an average cost per brake h.p. per hr. of 0.56 
cts. No account was taken of the cost of water. The ashes from 
the producer were screened and the coal secured in this manner 
was valued at $2 per ton, reducing the actual operating expenses 
to $5.08 per day instead of the $5.55 in the above table. 

First Cost and Annual Operating Cost of Four Small Producer 
Gas Power Plants. Extract from a paper by Godfrey M. S. Tait, 
before the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, April 
12-13, 1911. 

The following are actual records of operation of small producer 
gas power plants : 

Plant No. J: . 

35 h.p. anthracite producer, 

28 h.p. two cylinder engine, 

18 kw. electric generator (belted). 

Cost installed $ 3,000 

Interest and depreciation at 10% 300 

Supplies and repairs 150 

Labor per year 500 

Total $ 950 

Fuel charge per kw. with coal at $4 0.30 cts. 

Operating charges per kw 0.61 cts. 

Total cost per kw.-hr 0.91 cts. 



062 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Plant No. 2 (24 hours a day service) : 

150 h.p. lignite producer, 

150 li.p. gas engine, 

100 kvv. electric generator (d. c. ), 

Cost installed $ 960 

Interest and depreciation 960 

Supplies and repairs 480 

Labor per year 1,700 

$ 3.140 

Cost of fuel per kw.-hr 0.17 cts. 

Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.43 cts. 

Total cost per kw.-hr 0.60 cts. 

Plant No. 3 (24 hour a day service) : 

300 h.p. anthracite producer, 

Two 150 h.p. gas engines. 

Two 100 kw. a. c. generators operating in parallel. 

Cost installed $22,000 

Interest and depreciation 2,200 

Supplies and repairs 1,100 

Labor per year 2,400 

$ 5 700 

Cost of fuel per kw.-hr 0.30 cts. 

Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.40 cts. 

Total cost per kw.-hr 0.70 cts. 

Plant No. 1,: 

400 h.p. bituminous producer (suction type, 24 hour 

day). 
400 h.p. tandem double-acting engine, 
200 ton ammonia compressor (direct connected), 

Cost installed (without compressor) $ 4,400 

Interest and depreciation 4,400 

Sui)plies and repairs 2.200 

Labor (three .'shifts) 6,353 

Fuel at Wi lbs. per h.p 2.916 

$15,869 
Total cost .459 cts. per hp.-hr. 

This last plant was operating on Illinois slack of 10,300 B. t. u. 
per lb. and containing 4% sulphur and 38% volatile matter. 

Annual Costs of Two 400-k. w. Producer Gas Plant Units. F. J. 
Rode in Mining and Engineering World, Feb. 21, 1914, states that 
two 400 kw. units driven by 24 by 36 in. gas engines were in- 
stalled, one in 1910 and the other in 1911. The gas plant includes 
two producers made by R. D. Wood & Company, each of 400 h.p. 
rating and two producers made by the Smith Gas Power Com- 
pany, rated at 350 h.p. The coal used was Hocking Valley Nut, 
the heat value of the gas averaging 160 B. t. u. per cu. ft. 

Originally (in 1912) the plant was operated on hard coal of both 
buckwheat and pea sizes. By changing from anthracite to soft 
coal a saving in cost of operation of 0.3 ct. per kw.-hr. was ef- 
fected. To change from hard to soft coal envolved installing 
Smith static tar extractors. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 663 

ANNUAL. COST OF OPERATION 

Best Poorest Average 

month month month 

Hours of plant running 568 205 333.3 

Tons of coal consumed 267.7 110 187 

Cost of coal consumed $930.00 $396.00 $669.33 

Cost of attendance $767.75 $396.25 $500.54 

Cost of supplies $109.75 $26.10 $53.73 

Output kw.-hr 325,400 98,200 191,480 

Cost of operation per kw.-hr 0.556 0.836 0.634 

Cost of fixed charges per kw.-hr... 0.279 0.916 0.470 

Total costs cents per kw-hr 0.835 1.752 1.104 

Cost of operating including fixed 

charges , $2,707.50 $1,718.35 $2,122.00 

Load factor during time of opera- 
tion : 0.715 0.60 0.71 

The table gives the annual cost of operation at the plant of 
A. O. Smith Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

The tar is burned under steam boilers, which are used for drop 
forging and heating puri»oses, and no credit was allowed to the 
gas plant, although Mr. Rode explains that 914 lbs. of water were 
evaporated per pound of tar burned at the boilers. The accumu- 
lation of tar varies somewhat with the volatile matter in the fuel. 
The coal now being used runs from 80 to 100 lbs. per ton in the 
femith producers. Waste water is used for scrubbing and no 
charge is made in the record for the water. The waste heat of the 
gas engine exhaust is utilized, the boiler plant being supplied with 
the jacket water, which is pumped through gas engine exhaust 
heaters, and all the excess water is sprayed and cooled for re- 
use. Repair costs are included in the items of the cost of oper- 
ating attendance and the cost of supplies. Mr. Rode feels that 
the only drawback to an otherwise eminently satisfactory equip- 
ment is the load factor, which varied to such an extent that 
probably better results could have obtained had it remained nearer 
0.80 instead of 0.71 average. 

Cost of Power by Burning Wood In Gas Producers In Mexico. 
E. B. Rothwell gives the following figures in Power, Nov. 9, *1909, 
of his exi)eriences while in charge of gas and power plants at the 
Montezuma Copper Company, at Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico, in 1908. 

FUEL PER H.P.-HR, AT SWITCHBOARD 

July Aug. Sept. 

Fuel per h.p.-hr., lbs 1.9137 1.893 2 178 

Coke, lbs 0.044 0.0356 0358 

Oil cost per h.p.-hr $0.00087 0.001047 0.00085 

Waste cost per h.p.-hr $0.000019 0.0000143 0.0000103 

HORSEPOWER DEVELOPED AND GAS CONSUMPTION 

July Augu.st Sept. 

Electrical h.p 593.9 590.8 573 

No. of days fires run Mostly 4 One 6-day Five 5-day 

days each and five 5- and one 4- 

day runs day runs 
Approximate average gas per 

min., cu. ft. 1,300 1,294 1,275 



664 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Gas Engine Costs in Electric Railway Service in England. 

J. R. Bibbins in Electrical Journal, Nov., 1905, states that one 
of the finest gas power central stations now in service in England 
contains 13 direct connected Westinghouse engines and eight Dow- 
son anthracite producers, totaling 2,000 kw. capacity. It supplies 
light and power to the London borough district of Walthamstow 
and power for the borough tramways. Data from this plant cov- 
ering 12 days' continuous operation show that with an average 
load factor of 35% the plant consumed less than 1.8 lbs. of coal 
per kw. hr., including fuel for all purposes. Throughout the year 
the coal consumption averages about 2 lbs. per kw. hr. 

Table XVI shows the results of two years' operation of this 
plant and compares these costs with costs of similarly situated 
steam plants. 

TABLE XVL OPERATING COSTS — GAS POWER STATION 

1904 1903 

Kw.-hrs. generated 1,019,326 659,796 

Kw.-hrs. sold 814,187 542,423 

Gross efficiency of system, per cent 80 82.25 

Load factor 15.45 15.25 

Operating costs Cents per kw.-hr. generated 

Coal* and other fuel, delivered 0.745 89 

Oil, waste, water** and general supplies 0.306 0.37 

Wages of workmen 0.590 0.67 

Repairs and maintenances^t total 0.065 0.19 

Total operating cost 1,706 1.925 

• Cost of coal averaged $6.50 per ton in 1902-3 ; $6.75 in 1903-4. 
** Artesian well not yet in service; water purchased, 
t Including buildings, mechanical and electrical equipments, 
storage batteries and distribution system. 



TABLE XVII. ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS, LONDON 
METROPOLITAN BOROUGHS (1904) 

Average of 1 1 Gas Savings % 

steam plants plants favor gas 

Plant capacity, kw 2.799 810 

Output sold 2,997,500 1,019,326 

Ratio sold to generated, % 83.9 80 

Load factor, % 17.25 15.45 

Fuel cost cts. per kw.-hr 1.19 0.74 +38.4 

Supplies cts. per kw.-hr 0.12 0.30 

Labor, cts. per kw.-h. .r 0.43 0.48 —13.5 

Repairs, cts. per kw.-hr 0.4 1 0.10 +78.0 

Operating costs, total cts. per 

kw.-hr 2.18 1.71 +21.5 

It will be noted that Walthamstow gas plant shows a saving of 
38% in fuel and 22% in operating costs. Its working costs aver- 
aged about 40% of the revenue from current. 

Maintenance of Gas Engines. A 500 kw. belted gas engine plant 
at Bradford, Pa., gives a striking illustration of the efficiency 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 665 

of gas engines when the equipment is properly operated and taken 
care of. The plant is in its seventh year of service ; yet the 
repairs and cost of maintenance during the last two years have 
only been $92.70 per year, or 11.6 cts. per h.p. year. Table XVIII 
shows the complete operating cost of this plant for the last two 
years, averaging eight and one-half mills per kw.-hr. on a load 
factor of less than 2i)%, and this with antiquated electrical appa- 
ratus. 

TABLE XVIII. OPERATING COSTS 500 H.P. GAS POWER 
STATION, BRADFORD, PA. 

1904 1903 

Annual output, kw.-hr 804,092 780,300* 

Station load factor, % 19.54 

Gas consumption, cu. ft 20,056,000 18,162.000 

Plant duty (including heating) cu. ft., 

per kw.-hr 24.9 22.4 

Average price of gas, cts. per 1000 cu. ft. 12.32 16.5 

Operating costs Cents per kw.-hr. generated 

Fuel (including heating) 0.307 0.384 

Labor, power station only 0.380 0.392 

Supplies , 0.059 0.072 

Repairs, engine and electrical equipment 0.079 0.050 

Repairs, gas engines only 0.010 0.013 

Total works or operating costs 0.825 0.898 

* Estimated from 9 months' metered output. 

Cost of Power in a Small Plant Using Illuminating Gas for 
Operating Gas Engine. This plant carries a motor load of about 
40 h.p., and about 200 incandescent lamps for lighting, the motors 
driving various lathes, drill presses, buffing wheels, etc., for the 
manufacturing of band instruments. The outfit consists of a 
Crocker-Wheeler 220 volt d.-c. dynamo of 25 kw. rated capacity 
driven by a 40 hp. Nash gas engine. 

FUEL CONSUMPTION AND ELECTRICAL OUTPUT FOR NOVEMBER, 1911 

Gas consumed, cu. ft 121,100 

Output, kw.-hr 4,542 

Fuel cost per kw.-hr., cts 2.13 

The engine is of the 2-cylinder, 4-stroke type, equipped with a 
throttling governor, and running at 275 r.p.m., ignition current 
being supplied from a small storage battery charged by a special 
igniter generator, mounted on the frame of the engine and driven 
by a belt from the main shaft. Fuel is illuminating gas. The 
engine starts by compressed air at 180 lbs. pressure, stored in 
two small steel tanks, by a small motor single-cylinder vertical 
compressor. Cooling water,' after passing through the cylinder 
jackets, is run through a transverse-current water heater, which 
utilizes the heat of the engine exhaust to raise the temperature 



666 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of some 200 gals, of water per hour from about 140 to 180 degs. F. 

Besides looking after the generating equipment, the engineer 
runs the heating plant and takes care of all the motors, shafting, 
wiring, piping, plumbing, etc.. throughout the building. In esti- 
mating the cost of power, 25% of his salary of $100 per month 
is prorated of this item. The cost of water is not charged against 
the engine as all of it is used throughout the factory. The aver- 
age consumption of lubricating oil is 0.9 gal. per day at 36 cts. 
per gal. There were no charges against the power equipment for 
one year after installation. 

Cost of Plant and Power. The cost of the plant with all ac- 
cessories and complete was as follows : 

25 kw, unit (installed 1911) $3250, equals $130 per kw. 
15 kw. unit (installed 1907). $1775, or $118 per kw, 

A. R. Maujer published the above figures in Power, July 2, 1912, 
and states that the following is a fairly accurate estimate for the 
cost of power for November, 1911. 

Fuel (121,100 cu. ft. of gas at 80 cts. per 1000 cu ft.) $96.88 

Labor (25% of engineer's time) 25.00 

Oil 8.10 

Interest, depreciation, etc. (12% per annum on $5025). 50.25 



$180.23 
$180.23 
Cost per kw.-hr.— ::: 3.97 cts. 

4542 

Amount of Power Available from Furnaces. A rule for esti- 
mating the amount of power available for external use from 
gases generated at blast furnaces and by-product coke ovens 
is gven by L. Greiner in 1907: 

With blast furnaces, the continuous available h.p. is equal to 
the number of tons of iron made per month. 

With by-product recovery ovens, the continuously available h.p. 
is equal to the number of tons of colve made per week. 

Operating Costs of Small Gas Engine Plant for Electric Light 
Service at Minster, Ohio. The following data are from the records 
of the Municipal Electric Light Plant reported by M. W. Utz in 
Power, Feb. 18, 1913. 

The plant comprises two 3-cylinder vertical 4-stroke-cycle gas 
engines of 12 by 12 ins. and 11 by 12 ins. respectivelj% direct con- 
nected with 62.5 and 50 kw.. 250 volt d. c. generators. Both 
engines have make-and-break ignition, the first being supplied 
by a magneto bolted to the engine frame and driven by a friction 
pulley from the flywheel ; the other is supplied by a % kw. gen- 
erator belted to the engine shaft. Both are equipped with bat- 
teries for starting or for use in case of a breakdown of the mag- 
neto or generator. 

On a typical day the gas consumption was 10,725 cu. ft. per 
hr. and the output was 723 kw.-hrs. The average gas consump- 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



667 



tion per kw.-hr. was therefore 14.8 cu. ft. The average amount 
of oil consumed was 4 gals, per kw.-hr. 

In a typical month (April, 1912) the gas consumption was 
283,250 cu. ft. and the output was 17,608 kw.-hrs. The average 
fuel cost for the month was 0.048 cts. per kw.-hr. 

In this month the total operating and overhead costs were as 
follows : 

283,250 cu. ft. of gas at 30 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft $84.97 

2 engineers at $55 each 110.00 

120 gal. at 19 cts. per gal 22.80 

Interest, depreciation, etc., 15% per annum on .$9,000 112.50 

$330.27 
The total cost per kw.-hr. was therefore 1.87 cts. 

Cost of Diesel Engine Operation in England. Chas. Day in 
Power, Oct. 3, 1911, gives figures published in the Electrical 
Times covering practically almost all the supply stations in Great 
Britain, and from this information combined with information ob- 
tained direct from station engineers the author determined the aver- 
age results obtained in such stations. 



TABLE XIX. COST PER KW.-HR. SOLD 



Type of 
engine 
Steam 

Oas 

Diesel . . . . 



Repairs 

Lubricating and Total 

oil, waste, mainte- oper- 

Fuel, stores, and Wages, nance, costs. Load 

cts. water, cts. cts. cts. cts. factor 

0.90 0.12 0.50 0.52 2.04 14.7 

.86 .18 .56 .48 2.08 15.3 

.46 .08 .38 .14 1.06 14.3 



The limit of 1000 h.p. was fixed owing to there being as yet no 
large electricity-supply stations equipped solely with Diesel engine 
or gas engines. Of course, better results are obtained with 
driving machinery which gives a better load factor, but the causes 
which produce loss are, as a rule, the same, though modified in 
extent The general conclusion formed from a study of electricity 
stations holds good for the great majority of power users, though 
perhaps not applicable to some special trades, where engines can 
be run continuously on almost uniform loads. It Is also neces- 
sary to point out that the figures include some items which should 
not strictly be charged against the power plant. For instance, 
the wages items include figures for men working on cables, street 
lamps, and in substations, and the repair items include repairs 
to such parts. Also it is necessary to mention that the figures 
give the costs per unit of energy sold, not per unit generated. 

From the averages it is clear that a substantial gain is ob- 
tained by the adoption of Diesel engines as against either gas 
or steam engines, the figures being beyond doubt substantially 
accurate. It is also noticeable that the gain is not only on fuel 
consumption, but is practically in the same proportion on the 
other items of expenditure. 



C6S MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The great saving shown by these average figures is confirmed 
by repeated experiences of the author. In many cases, although 
the figures guaranteed with Diesel engines have been no better 
than figures previously guaranteed and obtained on tests, with 
existing steam and gas engines, the Diesel engines have shown 
over extended periods a saving of 50 and 60%, and in some cases 
an even greater percentage, the result being due to the fact that 
the Diesel engine's average working results were very much nearer 
to the guaranteed figures than with gas or steam engines, com- 
bined with the fact that the relatively high cost of working at 
light loads with gas or steam had not been sufficiently taken into 
account when considering the guaranteed figures. 

When going through cost records to prepare the average figures 
previously given, the author noticed very wide differences of cost 
per unit, particularly in the case of the steam plant. He there- 
fore had the average cost calculated for steam stations of differ- 
ent capacity, and as the results are interesting, they are given 
separately in Table XX. 



TABLE XX. OPERATING COST PER KW.-HR. SOLD, FOR 
STEAM STATIONS OF DIFFERENT SIZES 



Station 




oil, waste. 




and main- 






capacity, 


Fuel, 


water and 


Wages, 


tenance. 


Total 


Load 


kw. 


cts. 


stores, cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


cts. 


factor 


250 


1.26 


0.18 


0.70 


0.72 


2.86 


13.2 


500 


1.12 


.12 


.54 


.58 


2.36 


13.3 


750 


.86 


.10 


.46 


.48 


1.90 


15.4 


1.000 


.80 


.10 


.46 


.42 


1.78 


16.8 


1.500 


.84 


.08 


.34 


.36 


1:6 2 


16.9 


2.000 


.74 


.08 


.32 


.42 


1.56 


17.7 


3,000 


.66 


.08 


.30 


.34 


1.38 


17.4 


4.000 


.80 


.06 


.28 


.40 


1.54 


18.8 


5,000 


.68 


.06 


.22 


.32 


1.38 


18.7 


7.000 


79 


.08 


.26 


.40 


1.46 


17.9 


10.000 


.52 


.06 


.18 


.26 


1.12 


22.6 


20,000 


.60 


.06 


99 


.32 


1.20 


19.6 


50,000 


.46 


.04 


iio 


.22 


0.92 


20.56 



It is to be noted that, even with the largest steam stations, 
the costs per unit generated are no better than for quite small 
stations using Diesel engines, and this in face of the improved 
load factor. This is a most important point, and shows that 
small Diesel stations can profitably supply current at prices 
hitherto thought to be obtainable only in densely populated centers 
having large power stations. 

In all cases the figures which have been given are operating 
costs and do not include anything for interest on capital or de- 
preciation. It is hardly possible to give a definite statement show- 
ing the cost of constructing and equipping power* houses of dif- 
ferent types, as there are so many variable factors. However, 
the author's experience of a considerable number of estimates 
indicates that up to a capacity of, say, 1000 kws., there is gen- 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



669 



erally little difference between the gross capital expenditure re- 
quired, whether steam, gas, or Diesel engines be adopted. 

Oil-Engine Costs and Operating Expenses for Different Types 
in Small Plants. A. H. Goldingham and W. H. Adams presented 
the following table and diagrams at the Panama Pacific Expo- 
sition meeting of the A. S. M. E. and Electrical World, Oct. 9, 
1915, gives a reprint of their article. 



TABLE XXI. APPROXIMATE COST OF OIL ENGINES PER 
BRAKE H.P, AND FUEL, DATA 



Type of 
engine 



Specific Approxi- 



gravity 

of oil 

(deg. 

Baume) 



Distillates 48-51 

Tops-distillates 38-42 
Semi-Diesel .. . 24-28 
Hot -surface high 

efficiency ... 16 
Die.sel 18 



mate Thermal Brake Approximate cost 
price of efficiency hp.-hr. of engines per 
oil per at full per gal. brake-h.p. 

gal., load of fuel Horsepower 

cts, 

50 100 150 250 



5 

2.75 

2.14 

2.14 
2.14 



20 
20 
18 

27 
28.4 



10 $25 $30 $30 $30 
10 25 30 30 30 

10 60 55 50 50 



75 



65 

70 



60 
65 



The curves are based on interest at 6%, taxes and insurance 
1%, repairs 3%, depreciation 10% and fuels and cost of engines 
at prices given in Table No. XXI, allowance being made for 
labor. 

The horizontal lines have been added to each set of curves to 
facilitate estimating the total operating cost when the average 
load on a machine is less than the rated full load. To make 
such an estimate the procedure is as follows : Measure the or- 
dinate corresponding to the hours the machine is operated between 
the inclined and horizontal line for the particular engine and by 
laying off an equal distance on the scale at the left obtain the 
number of dollars representing the cost fuel which would be re- 
quired with the engine operating at full load. Then multiply this 
amount by the average i)ercentage of rated load carried and also 
by the ratio of the fuel economy at the particular load to the 
economy at full load. By adding the result so obtained to the 
ordinate of the fixed-charge line the approximate yearly operat- 
ing cost at that average load will be obtained. 

This arrangement of curves also permits a comparison of fuel 
costs for different engines' and periods of operation It is inter- 
esting to note that 50-h.p. tops distillates engines are cheaper to 
operate than any of the other types of the same rating up to 



670 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

7200 hrs. a year. In 100 h.p, sizes hot-surface, high economy- 
engines are cheapest to operate when used more than 5000 hrs. a 
year. Below this tops-distillates engines show an advantage. 
With higher rated engines tops-distillates and hot surface, high- 
economy engines remain the least expensive to operate, the point 





































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1200 2400 3600 4800 CjQOO 
Hours Operated perYecjr 



7200 



84.«0 



Fig. 29. Annual cost of operating 50-h.p. oil engine at full load. 
Horizontal lines indicate the fixed charges. 



at which it is best to change from one to another changing with 
the rating needed. In practically all cases it can be seen that 
distillates engines are practically out of the question because of 
their high cost of operation. 

Cost of Diesel Engine Power for a Textile Factory. R. S. 
Streeter in Engineering Magazine describes a Diesel engine at 
the MacLaren Knitting Company's mill at West Sand Lake, New 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



671 



in April, 1910, and used to run knitting ma- 



York, installed 
chinery. 

The air compressor is belted to the main shaft of the engine 
and is placed so that the same belt can be used to drive the 
compressor from the line shaft and in this way pump up the air 
pressure with the water wheel when it is necessary. 



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iZOa 2400 



3600 4800 ecoo 

Hours Operated per Year 



7200 



mo 



Fig. 30. Annual cost of operating 100 h.p. oil engines at full load 
Horizontal lines indicate the fixed charges. 



The fuel used in this engine is a heavy fuel oil and is trans- 
ported by horse and wagoh from Albany, N. Y., a distance of 9 
miles. The oil costs about 5 cts. a gal. delivered at the engine 
room, but if it were possible to get it in tank cars it could be 
had for 3 cts. a gal. 



672 MECHAmCAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

This engine on the 8-hr. acceptance test at full load or at an 
average h.p. of 75.8, showed an oil consumption of .512 lb. per 
brake h.p.-hr. The 2-hr. acceptance test at three-quarter load 
showed a consumption of .515 lbs. per brake h.p., the one-half- 
load consumption was .612 lbs. and the one-quarter-load .890 lbs. 
per brake h.p.-hr. 

There is a central station at Westerly, R. I., which contains 
four Diesel three-cylinder 16 by 24-in. engines running at 164 
r.p.m. This station supplies electricity for lighting and for small 
motors for Westerly, Richmond, Ashaway, Watch Hill, Stoning- 
ton, Pawcatuck, Mystic, and Noank, which towns have a popu- 
lation of about 25,000. The maximum load on the station is 640 
^ws. For a period of eight months ending August 31, 1909, the 
operating expenses of the plant were as shown in- Table XXII. 

TABLE XXII. OPERATING COSTS, DIESEL-ENGINE DRIVEN 
CENTRAL STATION 

Total kw.-hrs 1,233,590 

Energy for compressors, pumps and exciters 312,880 

Total energy for distribution 920,710 

Gals, fuel oil 115,708 

" per available kw.-hr 0.12 

Cost fuel oil, lubricating oil and water $3,632.22 

Cost fuel oil, per kw.-hr. available $0.0039 

Cost of generating energy per available kw.-hr $.009 

The above figures include fuel oil, lubricating oil, water, labor 
and maintenance but do not include interest, taxes or deprecia- 
tion. The analysis of the cost is as follows : 

Fuel oil $3,356.10 

Lubricating oil 236.75 

Water ; . . 39.37 

Labor 3,685.43 

Miscellaneous 68.52 

Maintenance : 

Engines and compressors $ 905.34* 

Electrical equipment 58.96 

Miscellaneous 25.15 

• Includes general yearly overhauling. 

In the Bellefontaine, Ohio, municipal electric plant there are 
two 225 h.p. Diesel engines, each direct connected to a 150-kw. 
2,300-volt 60-cycle generator. It has been the experience there 
that these engines work well in parallel operation. At three- 
quarters load these engines use 9.75 gals, of crude oil per 100 kw. 
hr. generated. For the three years from May, 1906, to May, 
1909, the average load factor on this plant was 46.7%. The cost 
per kw.-hr. was, for that time, $0.0062. This included fuel, lubri- 
cating oil, repairs and attendance. 

Cost of Power by Diesel Engine, Using Retort Tar as Fuel, was 
described by W. Allner, Jour, ftir Gashel, Apr. 8, 1911, and re- 
printed by Progressive Age, June 1, 1911. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



673 



Tests on a 100 h.p. Diesel engine made by Korting Co., were 
made using an auxiliary fuel in the shape of paraffin oil. Tar 
and paraffin oil are conveyed to the nozzle by 2 separate small 
pumps, which are driven by the engine. The engine is direct 
coupled with a direct current dynamo and works in parallel with 




"""m 



2400 3600 4600 6000 . 7200 moa 
Hours Operated per Hour 



Fig. 31. Annual cost of operating oil engines of 150 h.p. at full load. 
Horizontal lines indicate fixed charges. 

a number of suction gas engines on the power and lighting supply 
of the factory. The tests were made at full, % and % load. 
The fuel supply was weighed and tested. The engine is arranged 
so that the supply of ignition oil varies with the load. The rela- 
tion between paraffin oil and tar can also be varied. The engine 



674 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

has also a chang-e gear, which permits changing the tar pump to 
paraffin oil, so that in starting, the engine can work with paraffin 
oil till the engine is in a satisfactory, warm condition for the tar 
fuel. The tests prove that the total consumption of heat of the 
engine when fed with tar and ignition oil is with all loads as great 



T<fAOD 



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10,000 



^ £^000 



8^000 



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Fig. 3: 



1,000 

1200 2400 3600 4&00 &^Q0 7200 6400i 

Hours- Operci+ed per Year 

Annual cost of operating oil engines of 250 h.p. at full load. 



as when driven with pure paraffin oil. The consumption of igni- 
tion oil, moreover, is very small. On the average it is : 

With full load, 2%. 
With % load, 7.5%. 
With 1/2 load, 13%. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



675 



With full load the ignition oil could have been omitted with 
safety, although it is advisable to allow this pump to work con- 
stantly so as to have it always in working order. The following 
results were obtained in regard to fuel consumption, with a 100 
h.p. Diesel engine, requiring about 1,850 cal. (4,306 B. t. u.) per 




Fig. 33. 



0.30 Q40 0.50 0.60 0.70 O80 090 LOO 1.10 L50 1.60 1.70 l£0 L90 
Cost of Oil per Barrel, Dollars . 

Comparison of operating expenses of 600-kw. steam tur- 
bine and Diesel-Engine plants. 



h.p.-hr. With full load per h.p.-hr., 63 ozs. tar and 0.1 oz. 
paraffin oil. With % load per h.p.-hr., 60 ozs. tar and 0.5 oz. 
paraffin oil. With l^ load per h.p.-hr., 57 ozs. tar and 0.7 oz. paraffin 
oil. The net calorific power of the paraffin oil is taken as 
10,000 cals. (39,683 B. t. u.) ; that of tar as 8,500 cals. (33,730 
B. t. u.) per 2.2 lbs. The engine was fed with vertical re- 



67G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tort tar from more than six gas plants, so that the matter of 
tar composition in the fuel is out of the question. After the 
66-hr.-test the engine was stopped, and valves, combustion 
chamber and all inner parts thoroughly examined. It was 
found that the engine had no residues, that no deposit had 
formed, and that the entire operation had been almost smokeless. 
The engine was also subjected to severe conditions, as, for ex- 
ample, changing suddenly from full load to half load. Here also 



c I 



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10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 
Percent of Rated BH.P 



Fig. 34. 



Unit and total fuel consumptions for Diesel Engines at 
different percentages of rated load. 



the results were satisfactory. Further arrangements were made 
to teat horizontal retort tar. But no definite results have yet 
been established. An ordinary Dessau vertical retort uses about 
22,000 lbs. coal per day, and yields about 1.100 lbs. tar, which 
would be sufficient to run a 200 h.p. engine for 12 hrs. per day 
with full load. If we estimate the tar at $7.50 per 2,200 lbs., 
we get operating costs. 



Consumption of tar per h.p.-hr. for medium-size engine. . . . 0.16 cts. 
Consumption of ignition oil i)er h.p.-hr. at a cost of 22 cts. 

per 2.200 lbs 0.01 cts. 



Total cost of fuel 0.17 cts. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 677 

With use of pure paraffin oil about 5.5 ozs. per h.p.-hr, would 
be needed. With a 100 h.p. engine and 3,000 working hours per 
year, this would be : 

Cost of tar $480 

Cost of ignition oil 23 

Cost of ignition oil to start engine 30 

Total cost with tar $533 

Oppose to this paraffin oil drive, which would cost $1,178, and 
tar oil fuel, with the lowest 

Cost of $9.50 per 2,200 lbs $599 

Cost for ignition oil 23 

Cost for Ignition oil to start engine 30 

$652 

This shows that tar fuel is the least expensive for Diesel engine 
fuel. The necessary change in the construction of the engine is 
only about 5% of the original cost, and this is soon balanced by 
the greater saving in fuel cost. 

Co%ts of Power for Two American 225 h. p. Diesel Engines, with 
triple 16 by 24 in. cylinders, direct-connected to alternators run- 
ning 164 r. p. m. were given in Power and The Kngineer, Jan. 26, 
1909. as follows: 

The total cost of the station was about $105,000, or $234 per 
h.p. of normal rating. The manufacturing cost in the plant was 
made up of the following items: Fuel oil, $3400; water, $88; oil 
and waste, $347; wages, $3613; station repairs, $5; oil-plant 
repairs, $663; electric-plant repairs, $13; total, $8129. The 
energy delivered at the switchboard was 817,000 kw.-hrs. The 
operating cost was thus about 1 cent per kw.-hr. The total 
cost of the power, however, included the interest on the initial 
cost of. the plant, assumed as 6% ; depreciation, taken at 17c ', 
taxes, 1%; insurance 1%; total fixed charges, 15%. The plant 
cost was made up of: Building, $39,288; real estate, $17,957; 
oil plant, $38,500 ($85.50 per h.p.) ; electric plant, $9500. The 
total fixed charges were, therefore, 15% of $105,000, or about 
$15,700 per year. The manufacturing cost at the station per 
kw.-hr. figures about half the fixed charges per kw.-hr., the latter 
-coming to about 1.92 cts. Thus the total cost of producing power 
In this plant is not far from 2.92 cts. per unit generated. 

Cost of Operating Two Oil Engine Plants. The following data 
on co.«t of operation of oil engines were abstracted from The Iso- 
lated Plant, June, 1909 : 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Eddyston, Pa., has operated 
for 4 years ten 125-h.p. Hornsby-Akroyd oil engines (manufac- 
tured by De La Vergne Machine Co., New York). Six are direct 
connected to direct current generators and 4 are coui)led to air 
compressors. These engines operate regularly 24 hrs. per day, 
6 days and often 7 days per week. 



678 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

We are indebted to C. K. Goodell, superintendent of motive 
power, for the following output figures for the year of 1908: 

Kilowatt hours at switchboard 997,124 

Electrical h.p.-hrs. (equivalent to above) 1,336,622 

Compressor output at receivers (computed) 482,375 

Total output at switchboard and receivers , 1,818,997 

Equivalent brake h.p.-hrs. assuming the efficiency of gen- 
erators and compressors at 85% 2,139,996 

Load factor, compared with full load 24% 

Cost of above power : 

Fuel oil $7,894.79 

Lubricating oil waste and supplies 1,196.40 

Repairs 1,320.00 

Wages for attendance 3,61 5.82 

Total cost exclusive of fixed charges $14,021.01 

While the guaranteed oil consumption for these engines per 
brake h.p.-hr. was one lb. at three-quarters to full load, carefully 
conducted tests showed the consumption at full load to be as low 
as 0.66 lb. per brake h.p.-hr. 

The above figures apply to the whole power plant. If we as- 
sume the engines to be chargeable with 80% of the lubricating oil 
and repairs we can arrive at two important figures : 

Cts. 

Lubricating oil, per 1,000 b. h.p.-hrs 56 

Repairs, per 1,000 b. h.p, hrs 62 

The wages for attendance for the entire power plant were less 
than 50 cts. per hr. This brings out strongly the low attendance 
cost of the oil engine. The cost per electrical h.p.-hr., exclusive 
of fixed charges, was 0.77 .ct. Cost per brake h.p.-hr., 0.66 ct. 

Assuming cost of plant at $120,000 fixed charges for interest 
and depreciation at 11% = $13,200. 

This brings the total cost of power up to $27,221. Cost per 
brake h.p.-hr. including fixed charges was 1.27 cts. Cost per 
kw.-hr. including fixed charges was 2 cts. 

These two figures are not representative, as during 1908 the 
plant was running greatly below normal. The load factor was 
24%. Under conditions other than those existing in a panic year, 
the load factor would be at least 60%, and this would make the 
cost per brake h.p.-hr. 0.8 ct. and per kw.-hr. 1.26 cts. 

Mr. Goodell informed the writer that in the 4 years the engines 
had been in operation, they have not yet " ground in " a valve. 
He considers the oil engines to be fully as reliable as a steam 
equipment would be. Overloads up to 25% have been carried 
successfully. 

The Atlantic Hotel & Supply Co., 676 Hudson Street, New York, 
have one 35 h.p. Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine, belt connected to a 
15-ton refrigerating machine and circulating pump. We are in- 
debted to Mr. Colter, the engineer of the plant, for the following 
figures : 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 679 

Average load (determined from indicator assuming mechanical 
efficiency from previous tests), 25 h.p., which is practically con- 
stant. 

Fuel and lubricating oil consumption for one year and the 
power output is given below : 

Fuel oil, gals 14,988 

Cylinder oil, gals 185 

Engine oil, gals 91 

Hours operated 6,024 

Average hours per day 16.5 

Lbs. fuel oil per brake h.p.-hr 0.75 

COST OF POWER 

Fuel oil, 14.988 gals, at 4i/i cts. (tank wagon lots) $ 637.00 

Cylinder oil, 185 gals, at 50 cts 92.50 

Engine oil, 91 gals, at 35 cts 31.85 

Waste and supplies, about 15.00 

Total for oil and supplies $ 776.35 

Attendance, about $2 per day, should be charged 730.00 

Fixed charges, 121/2% on about $2,500 312.00 

$1,818.35 
Total output, 6,024 hrs. X 25 h.p. — 150,600 brake h.p.-hrs. 

Cost per brake h.p.-hr 1.2 cts. 

Guaranteed oil consumption, three-quarters to full load per 

brake h.p.-hr 1 lb. 

Actual oil consumption per brake h.p.-hr 0.75 lbs. 

Actual cost of lubricating oil per 1,000 brake h.p.-hrs 83 cts. 

Note. — It is questionable what attendance charge should be 
made, for the same wages would be paid whether the plant were 
operated by an oil engine or by a motor, but in the latter case the 
attendant would have more spare time. The repairs to this plant 
during the 3 years it has been running are practically negligible. 
One continuous run of 820 hrs. was made recently. The engine 
has been absolutely reliable. 

Cost of Power with Diesel Oil Engine. Plant of the Prairie 
Pebble Phosphate Co., Mulberry, Fla., April, 1911. Rated capacity 
was 2,400 kws. The costs are for one week. 

Total kilowatt-hours 294.600 

Fuel oil, gallons 24,528 

Fuel oil, gallons per 100 kw.-hrs 8.33 

Engine oil, gallons 447 

Dynamo oil, gallons 1 % 

Cost for 7 days 

Cost of fuel oil $525.60 

Cost of lubricating oils 121.51 

Supplies and repairs 44.32 

Operating labor 335.25 

Total v/eekly expense ' $1,026.68 

Aggregate kilowatt-hours for 4 weeks 1,169,800 

Aggregate expenses for 4 weeks $4,123.25 

Cost of operation per kw.-hr., average 3.525 mills 

Performance of Diesel-Engine Plants in Texas. R. H. Burdick in 
Electrical World, March 11, 1916, describes eight Diesel-engine 



680 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

installations in small electrical generating stations in Texas oper- 
ated by the Texas Power & Light Company. Tests have been 
conducted at these plants and operating records kept which show 
results of performance and operatmg practice in modern plants 
of this type. In what follows data are presented in considerable 
detail, giving performance for a recent installation at Paris. Tex. 
The Paris installation consists of an initial equipment of three 
Mcintosh & Seymour Diesel engines rated at 500 h.p. each. These 
units are of the four-cylinder, four-stroke-cycle design operating 
at 164 r.p.m. and directly connected to three 437-kva., 2300-volt, 
three-phase, sixty-cycle alternators. Two 35-kw. induction motor- 
driven sets and one 35-kw. belt-driven exciter set are provided, 
the latter being driven from the generating unit. Compressors 
and water-circulating pumps are integral with engines. 

TABLE XXIII. DIESEL-ENGINE STATIONS OPERATED BY 
TEXAS POWER & LIGHT COMPANY 

Location Number of units Total h.p. 

Paris 3 of 500 h.p. each 1.500 

Palestine 1 of 500 h.p. 500 

Tyler 4 of 225 h.p. each 900 

Taylor 1 of 225 h.p. 225 

Brownw^ood 3 of 225 h p. each 675 

Gainesville 3 of 225 h.p. each 675 

Sweetwater 2 of 225 h.p. each 620 

1 of 170 h.p. 

Big Springs 2 of 225 h.p. each 450 

Total 20 averaging 277 h.p. each 5.545 

Note. — Mclnto.'^h & Seymour engines are used at Paris and Pal- 
estine, Busch-Sulzer in all other stations. 

The approximate cost of another representative Diesel station 
erected by the Texas Power & Light Company in the latter part 
of 1914 at 'Tyler. Tex., is given in Table XXV. This plant in- 
cludes an initial installation of two second -hand Busch-Sulzer 
Diesel-engine sets built in 1907-1909, each consisting of two three- 
cylinder, four-stroke-cycle, 225-h.p. engines directly connected to 
one 300-kw., 164 r.p.m. three-phase, sixty-cycle, 2300-volt gen- 
erator. One 17-kw. induction motor-driven exciter set and one 
20-kw. exciter belt-driven set operated from one of the engines 
were also provided. The necessary auxiliaries such as air com- 
pressors, water and oil pump, cooling tower and the like were 
included. The apparatus at this station is housed in a steel- 
frame plastered building 74 ft. 5 ins. by 48 ft. by 21 ft. 6 ins. to 
bottom truss and similar in construction to the Paris plant build- 
ing. The feeder arrangement at this station provides service at 
2200-volt. three-phase alternating current for power and lighting; 
550-volt to 250-volt d.-c. power, and 550-volt d.-c. for railway 
service. An oil-storage tank of 360 barrels capacity and a cool- 
ing tower of the atmospheric type containing 4700 sq. ft. of cooling 
surface are provided. 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 



681 



TABLE XXIV. ACTUAL UNIT PRODUCTION COSTS, PARIS 

AND TYLER DIESEL STATIONS, SEPT, 1 TO DEC. 31. 1915 

Paris Tyler 

Station output (m. kw.-hr.) 1.565 499 

Rating of plant (kw.) 1,050 600 

Station factor, % 51 28% 

Total fuel oil (gal. ) 149,072 78,455 

Pounds oil per kw.-hr. output , 0.672 1.100 

B.t.u. per kw.-hr. output 13,100 21,400 

Production costs (mills per kw.-hr.) : 

All labor 1.44 2.24 

Fuel oil 3.07 5.18 

Water 0.09 0.19 

Lubricants and waste 0.04 0.56 

Miscellaneous .supplies and expense 0.10 0.29 

Maintenance of engines 0.04 4.48 

Maintenance of buildings 0.05 0.05 

All other maintenance 0.15 0.61 

Total production cost, mills 4.98 13.60 



TABLE XXV. 



f 

Article 



APPROXIMATE COST 
STATION 



Quantity 
Station building, cu. ft.. .100.000 
Engine and generator 

equipment, e.-h.p 

Electrical equipment, kw. 
General station equip- 
ment for entire job . . . 
Improvements to grounds 
Construction plant . 

% of cost 
Overhead expenses* ....$71,439 
% of cost 

Total cost, kw. . 600 

Total cost, e.-h.p 900 



900 
600 



.$70,'039 



Unit 
cost 
$0,111 

50.00 
$13.90 



2% 

23.2 

$146.66 
$97.78 



OF TYLER DIESEL 

Cost Per 

per cent, of 
kw. total Total ^ 
$18.50 12.6 $11,146 



74.95 
13.90 

8.64 
0.67 
2.34 



51.1 44,968 
9.5 8,340 



5.9 
0.5 
1.6 



5,185 

400 

1,400 



27.60 18.8 16,561 



100 $88,000 



Overhead expenses consist of the following cumulative percent- 
(A) General expense, 5%; (B) contingencies, 5%; (C) en- 
gineering, 10%; (D) interest during construction, 1.5%. 



Labor Item in Diesel-Engine Plants. The question of labor has 
frequently been considered the " bugbear " of Diesel-engine opera- 
tion. It has been the writer's experience, however, that any care- 
ful mechanic well versed in the theory, of internal-combustion- 
engine operation can handle any Diesel engine satisfactorily with 
a minimum of difficulty. 

At the Paris plant the force consisted of 1 engineer at $150 
per month, one assistant engineer at $85, two assistant engineers 
at $75, one oiler at $60 and one switchboard attendant $75. All 
were white men. At Tyler there were two white engineers at 
$85 and $75 and two colored, assistant engineers at $4 5. 

Engine Maintenance. The wide diversity of maintenance costs 
between the stations is accounted for by the facts that the Paris 
engines are of more modern design than the Tyler engines, the 



682 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

former having been operated but eight months, while the latter 
have done miscellaneous severe intermittent shop duty over a 
period of six to seven years prior to the installation at Tyler, 
and that during the period covered the Tyler equipment was sub- 
jected to certain extensive repairs and overhauling as a result 
of neglect prior to and at the time of its first trial in central- 
station service. 

In this connection it will be of interest to note that upon close 
investigation of numerous accidents to Diesel engines practically 
all of them have been traceable to one or two causes — the ne- 
glect of mechanical features and faulty mechanical design. The 
chief cause of troubles seems to have been the former, which is the 
direct outcome of carelessness on the part of operators and which 
if practiced in the operation of steam or other type of equipment 
would have been fully as serious. 

The length of life of the Diesel-engine parts has been estimated 
by those familiar with their operation as follows : Bed and frame, 
20 years; crank shaft and governor, 10 years; cylinder linings, 6 
years ; wrist-pin brasses, 5 years ; cylinder heads, 4 years ; pistons, 
piston pins, valves and gears, 3 years ; piston rings, 1 year. 

Summarized, this information shows a life equivalent to 20 years 
.with one-third of the original cost expended on maintenance dur- 
ing that period, which estimate may be considered conservative. 

Operating Expenses of a Hot-Surface Oil Engine Plant in New 
Mexico. The following is from papers read by A. H. Goldingham 

TABLE XXVI. OPERATING EXPENSES IN A NEW MEXICO 
HOT-SURFACE OIL ENGINE PLANT 

Estimated output at switchboard, kw-hr 2,469,293 

Estimated output at engine, h.p.-hr 3,996,196 

Oil consumed, gals 278,595 

Oil consumed, lbs 2,061,602 

Oil consumed, gal., per kw.-hr. switchboard 0.113 

Oil con.sumed gal., per h.p.-hr. engine 0.083 

Labor cost operating $7,907.31 

Labor cost operating per kw.-hr 0.0032 

Labor cost operating per h.p.-hr 0.0019 

Labor cost maintenance $2,211.76 

Labor cost maintenance, per kw.-hr 0.0009 

Labor cost maintenance per h.p.-hr 0.0006 

Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal $46,603.62 

Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. per kw.-hr 0.0189 

Cost of fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. per h.p.-hr 0.0116 

Cost of lubricating oil at 71 cts. per 1,000 h.p.-hrs. . . $2,838.82 

Cost of lubricating oil per kw.-hr 0.0011 

Cost of lubricating oil per h.p.-hr. . 0.0007 

Cost of repair parts $1,659.50 

Cost of repair parts per kw.-hr 0.0007 

Cost of repair parts per h.p.-hr 0.0004 

Cost of belts $1,792.92 

Co.st of belts per kw.-hr 0.0007 

Cost of belts per h.p.-hr. 0.0005 

Cost of miscellaneous, supplies $1,044.64 

Cost of miscellaneous supplies per kw.-hr 0.0004 

Cost of miscellaneous supplies, per h.p.-hr 0.0003 

Total cost $64,052.57 

Total cost per kw.-hr 0259 

Total- cost per h.p.-hr 0.0160 



INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 683 

and W. H, Adams, at the Panama-Pacific Exposition meeting of 
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

The equipment' described includes four hot-surface, high-economy 
engines, two of 180 brake h.p., one 250 h.p. and the other at 280 
h.p., belted or directly connected to the electric generators, operat- 
ing at an altitude of 7,000 ft. and 90 miles from a railroad station, 
continuously for 24 hrs. per day. 

The cost of hauling 90 miles is about 1 ct. per lb. The equiva- 
lent cost with fuel oil at 2y^ cts. per gal. and lubricant at 35 cts. per 
1000 h.p.-hr. would be $45.70 per h.p. year at the engines and $74.50 
per kw. year at the switchboard, instead of $136.51 per h.p. year with 
fuel oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. and lubricant at 71 cts. per 1000 h.p. hr. 
The figures do not include fixed charges of interest, taxes and insur- 
ance, and depreciation. 

TABLE XXVII. RELATION OF ITEMS OF EXPENSE TO 
TOTAL OPERATING COSTS 

Under actual condi- With oil at 2 1-7 cts. 

tions (oil at 16.5 cts. per gal. and lubricant 

Item per gal. and lubricant at 35 cts. per 1000 

at 71 cts. per 1000 brake-h.p.-hr. 
f brake-h.p.-hr.) Percent. 

Per cent 

Operating labor 12 36 

Maintenance labor 3 10 

Fuel 73 27 

Lubricant 4 6 

Repair parts 3 8 

Belt renewals 3 8 

Miscellaneous supplies. .2 5 

In this comparison interest was assumed at 6%, depreciation at 
6%, and insurance and taxes at 2%, the first cost being only ap- 
proximately correct. 

TABLE XXVTTI. ECONOMY TEST OF 300 H.P. ATLAS ENGINE 
(After C. E. Sargent, consulting engineer). 



R. p. m 174.7 


174.1 


173.1 


173.1 


172.9 


171.9 


171.0 


Brake h.p. 














developed 74.0 


X00.4 


171.4 


229.2 


261.7 


269.4 


331.7 


Fuel, lbs. per • 














hr 50.0 


61.3 


81.0 


108.0 


120.4 


128.0 


167.0 


Fuel, lbs. per 














b. hp.-hr. 0.67 


0.61 


0.472 


0.47 


0.46 


0.476 


0.503 


Fuel, lbs. per 














kw.-hr. . . 1.04 


0.93 


0.71 


0.7 


0.68 


0.7 


0.74 


B.t.u. per b. 














h.p. per 














minute* .214 


194 


151 


150 


147 


152 


160 


Therm. efC. 














of enginef 19.8% 


21.7% 


28.1% 


28.3% 


28.9% 


28.0% 


26.4% 


Cost of fuel 














per kw.-hr. 














at 2 cts. per 














gal., cts.. 0.284 


0.254 


0.194 


0.192 


0.185 


0.191 


0.203 



* Calorific value of fuel, 19,150 b.t.u. per lb. 
t Therm, eff. =2545 H- b.t.u. per b. h.p.-hr. 



CHAPTER IX 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 

Unit Basis for First Cost Estimates of Hydro- Electric Plants. 

Parley Gannett (Engineering Record, Aug. 9, 1911) states that 
in the case of storage propositions, where a continuous power output 
is available, and when each unit could, if the demand were uni- 
form, be worked to its best capacity, uniformly throughout the 
year, the cost per horse-power installed naturally works out larger 
than in the case of most uncontrolled river powers, where provision 
is made for utilizing the average flow of the 7 or 8 months of 
large discharge, involving the disuse for 4 or 5 months of a con- 
siderable part of the machinery. Recent examinations of certain 
large storage propositions have brought this point forcibly to notice, 
through the large unit first cost as computed on the usual basis. 
But even in this class of propositions such a basis is misleading 
on account of the load factor to be considered. 

For example, take a proposed 8.000-h.p. proposition recently re-- 
ported on, with storage sufficient to maintain this output through- 
out 24 hours every day of the year. If this plant were to be used 
to supply power day and night with a load factor approaching 
100%, the installation would be say 10,000 h.p., and at an assumed 
cost of $1,500,000 the cost per h.p. installed would be $150, which, 
according to usual standards, would not indicate an exceptionally 
good proposition if it involved the use of a variable river. If, how- 
ever, this plant were to operate the trolley system of a large city, 
with a load factor of less than 507^, the installation would be, say 
20,000 h.p. and the corresponding unit cost per horse-power would 
become about $85, allowing for cost of additional machinery, larger 
penstocks, etc., which, according to accepted standards, would be 
quite feasible. As a matter of fact, the proposition is.no better, its 
output of power no more, and its cost would necessarily be some- 
what greater on account of the additional machinery, while the 
interest, maintenance and depreciation charges would be increased. 
The selling price of the power Avould be greater, however, under the 
latter conditions, but presumably not in proportion to the reduced 
unit first cost per h.p. installed. 

What is required of the first-cost unit price is that it shall in- 
dicate directly the actual cost of something which yields a definite 
annual income ; something which the whim of the designer cannot 
greatly alter, something which, in the case of uncontrolled streams, 
involves the variations of flow and shows conditions at their worst 
from the income standpoint ; something which will show up a con- 

684 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 685 

stant-power storage proposition in its true worth as against a 
variable-power, and above all else will require as a prerequisite a 
fairly definite knowledge of the seasonal variations of flow of the 
stream to be used. The first cost per installed horse-power has 
been in some instances misused in connection with large river 
powers and by reason of large machinery installations this figure 
has been so reduced as to bring discredit on water power proposi- 
tions of great -Value. In order to protect good water powers and 
to prevent poor ones from enticing the money of investors, a more 
trustworthy unit of first cost would seem advisable, and it is sug- 
gested that the first cost per kilowatt-hour, as determined from 
the division of the entire cost by the total number of kilowatt- 
hours that can be produced in the dryest years, based on actual 
daily discharge records where available, is to be preferred over the 
present unit. Thus in the case of a variable river power, this unit 
cost would represent conditions at their worst and therefore the 
safest for the intending investor. It would take into account the 
installation for utilizing secondary power and would also involve 
the minimum output of constant power. 

For example, consider a proposition examined a few years ago 
on an uncontrolled river, where a head of 28 ft. is available and 
4,000 h.p. of turbines was installed at a total cost of something 
like $700,000. On the present basis this would represent a cost of 
.$175 per h.p. During the dry season the flow in this river is de- 
pleted to about 100 sec. -ft. and the available flow for 6 months 
in the dryest year averages about 200 sec. -ft., giving an available 
power of about 500 h.p. Assuming the full 4,000 h.p. for 6 months 
and 500 h.p. for the other 6 months, the total yield of power if, 
as in this case, the pondage can take care of the load factor varia- 
tions in a dry season, would be practically 14,500,000 kw.-hrs. 
Dividing this figure into the $700,000 first cost gives 4.8 cts. per 
kw.-hr. In other words, it costs 4.8 cts. to install the necessary 
machinery to produce the average kw.-hr. 

Consider on the other hand the 8,000-h.p. storage proposition 
above referred to, at a cost of $1,500,000. In this case the power 
is uniform throughout the year, and the installed machinery is 
regulated by the probable load factor. The output of this plant is 
52,500,000 kw.-hr. and the cost per kw.-hr. output in the minimum 
year is therefore 2.9 cts. 

The above computations indicate that on the horse-power in- 
stallation basis the variable river power costs $175 per h.p. and 
the storage proposition costs $150 per h.p. for a 10,000 h.p. in- 
stallation, or about 90% as much, while on the unit basis herein 
suggested the former costs 4.8 cts. per kw.-hr. of output and the 
latter only 2.9 cts. or 607c as much, and evidently represents far 
more accurately the relative merit of the two propositions. 

Another advantage of this .method of determining the unit first 
cost is the facility which it affords in determining the relation 
between revenue and cost. The cost per kv.^-hr. divided into the 
kw.-hr. price at which power will be or is sold, gives immediately 
the percentage of gross return on the investment. For example, 



686 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in the case of the plant costing 4.8 cts. per kw,-hr. output, at 1 ct. 
per kw.-hr. selling price, the gross return on the investment would 
be, in the worst year, with all the power contracted for, 1/4.8, or 
approximately 20%, and similarly for whatever average price it is 
anticipated the power can bring. 

Cost of Hydro- Electric Power Plants. W. H. Weston in Engi- 
neering Magazine, Jan., 1912, says that costs range from $50 to 
$500 per h.p., many of the larger plants costing more than $150 
per h.p. The first cost naturally is much more than for steam 
plants, generally on account of the following items : The water 
wheels and connections, a small item ; water privileges, which are 
very expensive, either directly or indirectly ; one or more dams 
with head- and tail-races, which may in themselves often amount 
from $25 to $50 per h.p. and more. Foundations for hydro-electric 
plants generally cost more than for steam plants ; there are also, 
consequential damages from the flooding of the land above the dam. 

From Mr. Weston's experience, depreciation in water-power plants 
will range from 1^^ to 2^4% per year, with 2% for a general 
average and repairs about 1% per year. Considering the hydro- 
electric power on an economical basis, he calls attention to the 
following very interesting points where such a plant is to compete 
against a steam design : 

1. How is the raw material located with reference to the power ; 
what is the distance to a market, and what are the transportation 
facilities? 

2. How much power can be obtained? 

3. Will this amount of power be continuous, regular, and re- 
liable? 

4. What will be the total cost of developing the water power 
and building the business plant which it is to operate? And what 
will interest, insurance, taxes, deterioration and repairs amount to? 

5. Is steam necessary for use in the process of manufacture, and 
to what extent? 

6. Is water power capable of giving sufficient regularity in opera- 
tion of the machinery? 

7. What will be the cost of transportation of products and of 
supplies? 

8. What would be the total cost of operating the water power 
plant at a given place, compared to that of a steam plant erected 
at a location that would be advantageous? 

9. What are the opportunities for obtaining good employees? 
Mr. Weston also gives — interest 5%, taxes and insurance 1%, 

depreciation 2%, repairs 1%, making a total of 9% for a water 
power, as against 13% as a fair figure for the same items in a 
steam plant. 

Cost of Hydro-Electric Power per Horsepower. In a series of 
articles in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, October, November, 
December, 1901, C. D. Gray gives an extended discussion of the 
cost of power under various conditions, and from these papers the 
following abstract is made : 

The costs of hydro-electric power plants 9,re widely different, 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



687 



depending upon the location, size, and extent of the hydraulic 
works needed, length of penstock and flume, and many other things 
that differ in the various localities. Below are given some figures 
in regard to the costs of plants. These are low-head plants fitted 
with turbine wheels, and are used principally for mill or factory 
purposes. The costs do not include costs of dam unless so specified, 
but include everything else in the plant. The horse-power basis 

TABLE I. HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANT COSTS PER HORSE- 
POWER 

Cost per h.-p. Authoritv 

Place delivered Autnority 

Lawrence, Maspsachusetts $ 68.67 1 Manning, A.S.M.C, Vol. 

Manchester, New Hampshire 66.00 1 X, p. 499. 

Lowell, Massachusetts, 13 ft. head. 110.00 ] 

Lov/ell, Massachusetts, 18 ft. head. 57.00 \C. T. Main, A.S.M.E., 

Lawrence, Massachusetts 63.00 [ Vol. XI, p. 108. 

Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1,000 h.p. 67.50 J 

Concord, N. H. (with dam) 57.7.^ ] 

Augusta, Georgia 34.20 I Webber, A.S.M.E., Vol. 

Columbia, South Carolina 37.50 f XVII, p. 41. 

Caratonk Falls, Maine (with dam) 24.(56 J 

Omaha, Nebraska (estimate) 67.33 ^7o9.^^^- ^''^" ^"' ^' 

Zurick (with dam) 100.00 1 Eng. Mag., February, 

Paderna, Italy (with dam) 120.00 I 1900. 

Big Cottonwood, 3,000 h.p 108.25 ^fgge^^'^^' O^^^^jer 1. 

Average without dam (excluding 

Lowell) $100 $53.41 

Average with dam 79.55 



TABLE II. COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PER HORSE- 
POWER-YEAR 

Place h'p^.-y?lr Authority 

T HT 1- 4.4. (P-.or,rt C. T. Main, A.S.M.E., 

Lawrence, Massachusetts $13.70 ^ol XIII p 140 

Canada (lowest) 6.25 ^^ry^^isst"""' ^^^'■''" 

Cottonwood 16.10 ^fi^i^^^^' October 1, 

Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1,000 h.p. 22.62 Manning^^A.S.M.K., Vol. 

Lawrence, Massachusetts, 500 h.p. 19.13 ^xill p^'l'lo''^" ^^^* 

Concord, New Hampshire 8.641 wg^or ' A S M E Vol 

Augusta, Georgia 11.05 \ ^^^VTT tT^i 

Columbia. South Carolina 9.50 J -^v-^-^' i^- '^^■ 

Omaha, Nebraska (estimate) 8.08 ^7o9.^^^" ^°^' ^^^' ^' 

Norway (electrolytic work) 11.25 Ch^em^Jnd., Vol. XXIII, 

Niagara (sold for) 13.00 ^TlTp tss^'^" ^''^" 

Estimate on plant ^5^ ~.^- voT-XV:'p.^92f: 

Average of the above $10.72 



688 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

upon which they are figured is the horse-power delivered at the 
wheel shaft. 

It is probable that the cost of such plants will be from $40 to 
$60, excluding the cost of dam, but including all other parts; and 
when the dam is included that it will be from $60 to $100. Webber, 
in Iron Age, February and March, 1893, says that water-power 
plants can be put in for $100 per h.p. ; and Stilwell, in American 
Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. X p. 484, says that the 
cost may be as low as $65. 

The cost of hydro-electric power per h.p.-yr. is variable, de- 
pending, as it does, upon the first cost of plant ; and hence no very 
good average can be foun5. Table II may serve to show the costs 
in some cases that have been reported. 

Prom Table II it may be seen that the cost per h.p.-yr. is 
$10.72. Webber gives it as $10 to $12 (Iron Age, February and 
March, 1893) ; and Conant, in an article in the Street Railway 
Journal for October, 1898, gives the cost as ranging from $10 to 
$22.40. A fair average may be taken as varying from $10 to $15. 

Cost of a Subterranean Hydro-Electric Generating Plant in 
Sweden. The following table given in Electrical World, May 10, 
1913, covers the generating and transmission equij^ment of the 
Vesterdalafven Power Company at Mockfjilrd and comprises part 
of a 65,000-h.p. interconnected system. 

Cost of the entire development was as follows : 

Water rights and real estate $223,640 

Dwellings and enginearing 17,240 

Dam,' flume and tunnels 478,980 

Generating room and switch house 102,320 

Machinery: 

Turbines and governors $ 31,720 

Generators 64,250 

Transformers .' 28,290 

Switch gear 42,360 

166,820 

Distribution system : 

Grangesberg-Mockfjard $112,860 

Nyhammar substation 21.270 

Secondary lines 5,310 

Overhead charges, interest, etc 113,530 

252,970 

$1,241,970 

Cost per horse-power $62.10 

A general idea of the plant development is given by Fig. 1. 

General Conditions. The wheel chambers are cylindrical, 21.3 ft. 
in diameter, lined to a steel and back filled with concrete and con- 
tain four double-runner Francis turbines, of 5,100 h.p. at 225 
r.p.m., rated each, horizontally mounted at the bottom of these 
chambers, with shaft centers 24 ft. above the lowest tail-race level. 

Two wheels discharge into the same tunnel, about 5,000 ft. long 
with a 322.8 sq. ft. cross-sectional area. In the roof, at a distance 
of 164 ft. from the turbines, are large pockets of about 2,000 cu. 
yds. in volume each. These pockets are interconnected and pro- 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



689 



vided with vertical shafts, to prevent water hammer. The general 
plant is indicated in Fig-. 2. 

The dam is built on bedrock with steel and concrete piers faced 
with steel plates on the upstream sides. The spillway crest has an 
elevation of 76.45 ft. There are 64 wooden gates running in re- 




Fig. 1. Section of dam, generating room and switch house. 

moval steel guides, providing large openings for removal of debris, 
four steel headgatesi and one large steel sluicegate, which is 19.7 
ft. wide and 26.3 ft. deep and is divided horizontally into two 
parts, thus providing for discharge during floods and for draining 
the pool for repairs of the dam and the screens. This construction 
avoids a large superstructure and makes available the use of the 




Fig. 2. Location of Mockfjard development. 



lower part of the gate for regulating the water level, this lower 
part being always free from ice. All gates are operated electrically 
and also by hand. There is a 6,500-ft. long steel flume for logging, 
a capacity of 40,000 ft. b.m. of timber per day, and also a salmon 
way and eel ladders. 



690 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Generating equipment comprises four 4,500-kv.a., 6,600-v., three- 
phase units operating at 225 r.p.m. and 60 cycles. 

The cars are transformed 50,000-volt for the two outgoing lines 
to Grangesberg and Domnarfvet, 30 miles and 20 miles respectively. 
On the longer line the conductors are carried on A-frame and 
square-base towers average distance of 655 ft. On the shorter 
line the towers are wooden poles 46 ft. long and 9 ins. in diameter, 
on concrete foundations, with average span of abodt 540 ft. 

Relation of K.W. Cost to Size of Plant in Switzerland and 
Sweden. H. A. McBride, in a consular report (1912), gives some 
interesting general data relative to Swiss hydro-electric plants. 
About 160 hydro-electric plants having a combined capacity of 
342,000 k.w. have reported their construction costs, showing the 
following results : 

Size of plant Cost per k.w. 

100-k.w. or less , $467 

100 to 500-k.w 281 

5,000 to 6,000-k.w 177 

20,000 to 30,000-k.w 161 

Average of all 211 

This average of $211 is divided thus: 

Cost per k.w. 

Hj^draulic plant $116 

Electric plant 95 

Total plant $211 

The $95 of electric plant includes the transmission lines and^ 
probably it includes the distribution lines also. 

In the Swedish hydro-electric plant at Mockfjard water from 
the river is diverted by a dam and through a discharge tunnel, 
5,000 ft. long, giving a head of 78 ft. The water wheels and gen- 
erators are located in subterranean chambers. There are four 
horizontal turbines of 5,100 h.p. each, at 225 r.p.m., direct con- 
nected to four generators, each of 4,500 kv.a. (or 3,800 kw. at 
85% power factor). It is not clear why the water wheels were 
not given about 25% greater capacity than the rated capacity of 
the generators instead of being practically the same capacity ; for 
generators are commonly designed to carry 25% overload for a 
short time. Assuming the rated capacity of the generators to be 
15,000 kw., the following was the cost of the plant: 

Cost per k.w. 

Water rights and real estate $14.91 

Dam, flume and tunnels 31.93 

Generating room and switch house 6.82 

Turbines and governors 2.11 

Generators 4.28 

Transformers , 1.89 

Switching apparatus 2.82 

Total $64.76 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 691 

Trahsmission lines % 1.81 

Substation 1.42 

Dwellings and engineering 1.15 

Overhead charges, interest, etc 7.57 



Total cost per k.w $82.77 

This entire plant is very inexpensive, but the low cost, of the 
tui bines is particularly noteworthy. In America the cost of the 
waterwheels is commonly about the same as the cost of the gen- 
erators. 

Cost of Power in Switzerland. The following costs were ab- 
stracted from the Proceedings of the National Electric Light Asso- 
ciation. May, 1911 : 

Owing to the development of hydro-electric energy the importa- 
tion of coal into coalless Switzerland has actually failed to increase 
over a period of ten years. Among 266 stations there are 173 which 
had their own power plants and 9 3 which bought energy in bulk 
from other stations. A large majority of the 173 stations used 
water power either alone, or together with steam power. The 
mean first cost invested per kw. is $207 for the water power 
stations, $265 for combined water power and steam stations and 
$627 for stations using gas power alone. Out of the 173 stations 
57 produced direct-current, 85 alternating-current and 31 both 
direct-current and alternating-current. The total length of the 
most extended transmission was 410 miles, that of the most ex- 
tended distributing system 490 miles, both employing overhead 
wires. The maximum distance over which electrical energy was 
transmitted was from 60 to 120 miles. The aggregate rating of 
752 hydraulic turbines and steam engines, and electric-motor gen- 
erators supplied with energy in bulk from other stations was 
289,865 h.p., giving a mean of 385 h.p. per generator. 

The possible output of the water power stations of Switzerland 
had a maximum of 213,000 h.p. and a minimum of 132,870 h.p. at 
times when the water is low. The rating of the motors and lamps 
connected to the 173 stations was 206,800 kw. Of these there 
were 87,300 kws. in motors, 102,800 kws. in incandescent lamps and 
17,000 kws. in heating apparatus, etc. At the present time figures 
would be probably about 20% higher than in 1908. The develop- 
ment of water power in Switzerland began in 1886, and by 1890 
there were 12 plants with a rating of 40,000 h.p. Of the 152 hydro- 
electric plants existing in 1907, 65 had steam reserves with an 
aggregate rating of 50,000 h.p. Other low-pressure water power 
plants used a water storage system. An excellent method of util- 
izing all the water is to combine a low-pressure plant with a high- 
pressure plant with a switch lake. Data given on some of the 
more important plants, also of the financial returns of fifteen stock 
companies having a stock capital of more than $200,000 each, show 
that interest on the capital is paid only after from two to six years. 
In 1909 the dividend for these fifteen companies varied between 
3% and 8%, the average being 5.3%. 

The rates in Switzerland for industrial power are thus quoted, 



692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Developing a Water Power at Vallorbe, Switzerland. 

The height of the fall is 229 ft., and 3,000 h.p. is developed. 

The expenditures were divided as follows (see Compressed Air, 
Jan., 1908). 

Concession and land % 6,000 

Dam 4,000 

Tunnel, etc 10,000 

Pipe line 6,000 

Turbines and sluice-gates 22,000 

Buildings 4,000 

Dynamos 60,000 

Sundries 8,000 

$120,000 

Thus the cost per h.p. was $40. Interest and depreciation at 
10% make $4 per h.p. per annum. These results are exceptionally- 
favorable, even for Switzerland ; more usually the cost of installa- 
tion would average $80 per h.p., and the annual charges $8. 

Cost of Various Hydro- Electric Developments in Ontario. The 
costs given in Table III are from the 1910 report of the Ontario 
(Canada) Hydro-Electric Power Commission and are based on 
engineer's estimates. 

TABLE III. COST PER HORSEPOWER OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC 
POWER DEVELOPMENT IN ONTARIO 

• ^ 

Z < ^ ^ U 

Location of development 

Healey's Falls, Lower Trent River . . 60 8 000 $675,000 $84.38 

Middle Falls. Lower Trent River . . 30 5.200 475,000 91.37 

Rauney's Fall 35 6.000 425,000 69.67 

Rapids above Glen Miller 18 3,200 350,000 109.38 

Rapids above Trenton 18 3 200 370,000 115.63 

Maitland Riven 80 1.600 325.000 203.12 

Sangeen River 40 1,333 250.000 187.53 

Beaver River (Eugenia Falls) 420 2.267 291,000 128.28 

Severn River (BigChute)2 52 4,000 350,000 87.50 

South River 85 750 150 000 153,33 

St. Lawrence River, Iroquois. Ont. . . 12 1,200 179,000 149.16 
Mississippi River, High Falls, 

"A" 3 78 2,400 195,000 81.25 

Mississippi River, High Falls, 

"B" 78 1,100 123,000 181.82 

Montreal River, Fountain Falls, 

Ont .. 27 2,400 214.000 89.16 

Dog Lake, Kaministiquia River 4. 347 310 13 676 832,000 61.00 

347 310 6 840 619.700 91,00 

Cameron Rapids 39 ... 16,350 815 000 50.00 

39 ... 8.250 600 000 73.00 

Slate Falls 31 40 3,686 357 600 97.00 

31 40, 1,843 260,000 141.00 

1 Dam rathpr expensive. 2 Head works and canal less expensive 
than ordinary, .-i With storage development. 4 Including 3,500 ft. 
of headwater tuni^el. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



693 



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694 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Hydro- Electric Power Development for a Large Area in 
Ontario. As a basis for estimates in demand for power made by 
a power commission of the Province of Ontario, Canada, in 1910, 
a full canvass was made by expert assistants in each town and 
city. Great care was taken to determine whether or not the con- 
sumer would be likely to adopt electric power if it were available, 
and a distinction was made in the case of power users who re- 
quired steam for other puurposes or who had refuse material 
available as fuel and who consequently would not be apt to make 
a change in their source of power. 

In estimating the total power to be distributed in each munici- 
pality it has been arbitrarily assumed that by the time transmis- 
sion lines could be completed and with power for sale at reasonable 
figures the total demand which should be provided for would be 
25% greater than present estimates. On this basis weight of copper 
was calculated. 

Having determined the cost of 24-hr. power to various munici- 
palities, its distribution was to be considered separately for cus- 
tomers in each town or city. Owing to the great amount of labor 
involved in working out the costs of a system for each small place 
it was considered sufficient to take typical cases and apply the 
results more widely. Little variation was found in the cost of 
distribution in places of moderate size where underground dis- 
tribution was not necessary. 

In the estimates on which the cost data table has been compiled, 
depreciation and replacement charges have been figured so as to 
replace the different classes of equipment in periods ranging from 
15 to 40 years. The depreciation charges are held as sufficient to 
serve as a sinking fund. However, in the case of the generating 
station estimates, the depreciation figures do not include enough 
to replace the so-called permanent portions of the development 
such as dams, head works and power-house. If a 40-year sinking 
fund large enough to cover these items is considered necessary a 
charge on some $45 to $65 per h.p. of capacity would need to be 
made. At 3 or 4% a charge of 60 to 80 cts. per annum per h.p. 
would meet the requirements. The given annual charges include 



TABLE V. CAPITAL COSTS AND ANNUAL CHARGES ON 
MOTOR INSTALLATIONS, POLYPHASE, 60-CYCLE INDUC- 
TION MOTORS. 



Capac- 
ity. 
H.p. 
5 
10 
15 
25 
35 
50 
75 
100 
150 
200 



Capital 
cost 

per h.p. 
installed 
$39.00 
36.00 
30.00 
Z5 00 
22.00 
20.00 
19.00 
17.00 
15.00 
14.00 



Inter- 
est 
5% 
$3.95 
1.80 
1.50. 
1.25 
1.10 
1.00 
.95 
.85 
.75 
.70 



Annual charge; 

Deprecia- Oil, care 



tion and 

repairs 6< 

$2 34 

2.16 

1.80 

1.50 

1.32 

1.20 

1.14 

1.02^ 

.90 

.84 



and op- 
eration 
$4.00 
3.00 
2.50 
2.00 
1.75 
1.50 
1.25 
1.00 
.80 
.70 



Total per 

hi), per 

annum 

$8.29 

6.96 

5.80 

4.75 

4.17 

3.70 

3.34 

2.87 

2.45 

2.24 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 695 

depreciation, repairs and interest during construction. The trans- 
formation charges include municipal taxes on building, insurance, 
depreciation and 20% for engineering contingencies and interest 
during construction. 

By combining the above costs with those given in Table V the 
total charge per h.p.-yr. is obtained. 

Cost of Hydro- Electric Plants at Niagara Falls. Table VI is from 
the 1910 report 6f the Ontario Hydro-electric Commission and is 
based on engineers' estimates. 

TABLE VI. COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS AT 
NIAGARA FALLS 

2 4 -hour power capacity 
50,000 h.p. 75,000 h.p. 100,000 h.p. 
develop- develop- develop- 
ment ment ment 

Tunnel tail races $1,250,000 $1,250,000 $1,250,000 

Headworks and canal 450,000 450,000 450.000 

Wheel pit 500.000 700.000 700.000 

Power hou.se 300,000 450.000 600.000 

Hydraulic equipment 1,080,000 144,000 1,980,000 

Electrical equipment 760,000 910,000 1,400,000 

Transformer station and equip- 
ment 350.000 525,000 700,000 

Office building and machine shop 100,000 100,000 100,000 

Miscellaneous 75,000 75,000 75,000 

$4,865,000 $5,900,000 $7,255,000 
Engineering and contingencies.. 485.000 590,000 725.000 

$5,350,000 $6,490,000 $7,980,000 
Interest, 2 years at 4% 436,580 529,584 651.168 



Total capital co.st $5,786,560 $7,019,584 $8,631,168 

Per horse power $114 $94 $86 

Yearly Cost of Power, Chicago Sanitary District System. (After 
Frank Koester in Engineering Magazine.) The following table 
gives the distribution of yearly cost in 1910. 

Capacity of plant, horsepower 15,500 

Total cost of development and transmission $3,500,000 

FIXED CHARGES 

Interest on investment at 4% $140,000.00 

Taxes on real estate, buildings, etc 7,200.00 

Depreciation of buildings at 1% 3,650.00 

Depreciation on water wheels at 2% 2,027.32 

Depreciation on generators at 2% 1,824.60 

Depreciation on pole lines at 3% 2,020.50 

Depreciation on other electrical appliances at 3%. ... 3,995 52 

Total fixed charge $161,137.94 

OPERATING EXPENSES 

Power and substation labor' $ 63,'240.00 

Repairs to machinery and buildings 3,700.00 

Incidental expenses 1,200.00 

Operating Lawrence Avenue pumping station 43,960.00 



696 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Operating 39th Avenue pumping station 120,380.00 

Interest on investment 39th St. pumping station 15,599.76 

Total operating expense $248,079.76 

Total cost to sanitary district $409,217.70 

Cost per h.p. per annum $26.40 

Cost of a 1,400 Kilowatt Hydro- Electric Plant. The data from 
which the following summary of costs of a small plant at Eugene, 
Ore., were prepared appeared in Electrical World, May 17, 1913, 
and Dec. 10, 1912. 

Total Per k.w. 

1. Intake $ 3,971 $ 2.84 

2. Canal 90.171 64.40 

3. Headgates 4,514 3.22 

4. Flume, forebay and wasteway 10.604 7.57 

5. Water wheels and pressure pipe lines 25.656 183 5 

6. Electric apparatus 22,097 15.78 

7. Station buildings and grounds 9,299 6.64 

Total of items 1 to 7 $166,312 $118.80 

8. Transmission line 12.164 8.69 

9. Substation apparatus 5,631 4.02 

10. Substation building and grounds 813 .58 

11. Real estate and right of way 12,164 8.69 

12. Miscellaneous 112 .08 

Total of items 1 to 12 $197,196 $140.86 

13. Di.stribution lines and transformers 22,419 16.01 

14. Meters 9,724 6.94 

15. Series street lighting 17.676 12.63 

16. Ornamental posts 7,324 5.23 

Total of items 1 to 16 ...$254,339 $181.67 

17. Supervision 4,755 3.40 

18. General office 4.417 3.16 

19. Interest during construction, and bond ex- 

pense 20,755 14.82 



Grand total $284,266 $203.05 

Note: Item 2 includes excessive charges of $26,257, due to fail- 
ure of contractor and court costs. 

Water from the McKenzie River is diverted through a canal 
19.400 ft. long and wooden flume 650 ft. long, designed to carry 
500 second-ft. The canal headgates are of concrete, located in the 
canal 350 ft. below the intake. 

There are two wood stave pressure pipes, 8 ft. diam., each 100 
ft. long, bedded on timber cradles 12 ft. apart. Just before enter- 
ing the power station the stave pipe connects to a 96-in. riveted 
steel Y which carries the water to the turbine of each unit. 

There are two turbines, each 1,200 h.p., Pelton Francis type, 
direct connected to Fort Wayne generators. Each generator is 
rated at 705 kw. or 945 h.p. This difference between turbine and 
generator rating indicates that the generators are designed to 
carry "a 25% overload for a short time (probably two hours) with- 
out excessive heating. The generators are 2.300-volt, 60-cycle, 
3-phase, 300 r.p.m. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 697 

The hydraulic head on the shaft centers of the wheels is 28 ft. 
and the draft head is 15 ft., giving a total head of 43 ft. 

The power plant building has a concrete foundation and floor, 
and corrugated iron walls on a wooden frame. 

The current is stepped up to 23,000 volts, by means of one bank 
of three kws. "Westinghouse oil-insulated, water-cooled units, delta 
connected, which have a 50% overload capacity for an hour with- 
out undue heating. A fourth spare unit is provided. 

The transmission line to Eugene is 15.5 miles long, and its cost 
was not quite $800 per mile, including a telephone line. Cedar 
poles are spaced 40 to the mile. Three wires of No. 4 copper are 
mounted on Pittsburgh single-petticoat porcelain insulators, 8 ins., 
40,000 volts. There is one river crossing of 670 ft. span. 

The substation transformers are installed in a part of the city 
water-filtration plant building, which accounts for the low cost of 
" substation buildings." The current is stepped down to 2,300 
volts, and carried in three-phase circuits. Line transformers de- 
liver the current at 230 and 115 volts. 

Thirty miles of streets are lighted with incandescents. On Dec. 
1, 1911, only two customers were being served; but 1,001 custom- 
ers were served Dec. 1, 1912. 

Cost of a 36,000 K.W. Low Head Plant in Massachusetts. In 
the plant of the Turners Falls Power and Electric Co., at Montague 
City, Mass., described in Electrical World, Apr. 21, 1917, owing to 
the low head, normally 55 ft., and the size of the units, low-speed 
machinery was adopted. The wheels are a little out of the ordinary, 
being of a single-runner type with vertical shafts bearing the usual 



■" ." 'Wasfeyyau t^---.,) r 

Fig. 3. Canal and pond for Turners Falls hydro-electric plant. 

umbrella type generator adopted for such construction. The gen- 
erating units, despite their low speed, were of moderate cost, figur- 
ing only $6.31 per kw, on full rating, while the total development 
cost only $65 per h.p., an unusually low figure for this part of 
the country. The hydroelectric development was decided on after 
a thorough examination of the possibilities of the situation, ending 
in the present scheme of enlarging and extending an earlier canal 
from the old site, utilizing the water at one point as far as possible 
and thereby avoiding a second dam across the river. 

Canal, Fig. 3, is about 2i/4 miles long from the mouth of the 
canal to the power plant. Through the town of Turners Falls it 
runs through rock, but beyond this town the canal broadens out 



698 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

into a rock-lined earth cut. At the lower end the canal widens 
still further into a forebay pond about 600 ft. wide on the average 
and 3,000 ft. long. For the last one-fifth of a mile to the gen- 
erating station the canal narrows doAvn to 150 ft. wide by 25 ft. 
deep. A 5-ft. drainage conduit extends from the head of the pond 
to the river. Because of the size of the pond sudden increases in 
load can be handled without drawing down the head to a trouble- 
some degree before the headgates can be opened. 

On the river side of the canal just above the power house is a 
wasteway, with a concrete spillway and ten 12-ft. by 10-ft. wooden 
gates mounted between piers. The gates are operated by hoists 
mounted on a concrete platform extending across the piers, the 
hoists being gear-driven through a common shaft by a 50-h.p. 
motor controlled from the generating station switchboard. The 
wasteway has sufficient capacity to handle the full canal flow. 
In addition it can be used for the removal of ice from the canal, 
in unwatering the latter, and in case of a sudden dropping of the 
load can be used as a spillway. The discharge of the wasteway 
follows a gentle slope to the river, a part of the incline containing 
a rocky bed which breaks up the rush of water. 

The Power House is 235 ft. long and 85 ft. wide, the long axis 
being parallel to the river and making an angle of 20 degs. with 
the center line of the canal. The head wall of the station contains 
racks and headgates, the latter being raised by an electric gantry 
crane running on the head wall. The crane is equipped with a 
mechanical trash collect :>r by which the racks can be cleared, the 
trash then being dumped into a special sluice behind the racks and 
discharged into the river by flushing parallel to the canal and 
thence into a canal drain at the lower end of the power house. 

Behind the racks are concrete piers separating the intake into 
three penstock chambers per generating unit. The headgates are 
made of steel and operate on a chain of rulers which enables them 
to close by force of gravity. Strictly speaking, there are.no pen- 
stocks in the plant, there being instead merely passages in the con- 
crete foundation of the building leading to the various wheels. 
These passages curve downward from the headgates to the scroll 
cases of the wheels, the latter being set 18 ft. above low water. 
At the scroll cases the 3 passages from each group of 3 gates 
merge into one. Water enters each wheel through 20 openings 
around the circumference, each opening having a wicket gate con- 
trolled by the governing mechanism. The head on the wheels is 
normally 55 ft. The penstocks, scroll cases and draft tubes are 
faced with smooth concrete 12 ins. thick of a slightly different 
mixture from that used for the station foundations. Foundations 
are new completed for all six units. 

The Wheels are of the veitical, single-runner type, rated at 
9,700 h.p. each, built by the I. P. Morris Company of Philadelphia, 
which also furnished the governors. Kingsbury thrust bearings 
are provided for these units. Each wheel drives a 7.500-kv.a. 
6,600-volt, three-phase, revolving-field alternating at a normal speed 
of 97.3 r.p.m., the system frequency being 60 cycles. On top of 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 699 

the main shaft of each unit is mounted a 95-kw. exciter, designed 
for 250-volt service to save copper. The governors are connected 
with the shafts by flexible gear drive, which is said to eliminate 
the troubles sometimes arising from belting. A spare motor- 
driven exciter rated at 100 kws. is installed in a fireproof com- 
partment off the operating room for emergency service. Each gen- 
erating unit has a lignum-vitae guide bearing lubricated by water 
received from the scroll case through a Terry cloth filter. The 




Fig. 4. Cross section of Turners Falls hydro-electric plant. 



total area of the water passages leading from each set of gates 
to each unit is about 15 ft. by 27 ft. Single-runner vertical units 
were selected because they offer no obstruction to the flow of 
water out of the wheel and because they are reliable and simple. 
The tailwater is discharged into the river 22 ft. below the sur- 
face. The ultimate rated capacity of the plant (36,000 kw.) is 
based on a river flow of 10,000 second-feet. 

A water-cooling coil is installed in each thrust bearing, consisting 
of 145 ft. of 1%-in. copper tubing per unit. Fifteen gallons of oil 
per min. is required to carry off the heat developed in each thrust 
bearing. The water for the auxiliary cooling service can be taken 
either from the canal or from the municipal supply. In the center 
of the station over the tail-race is a pump pit containing motor- 



700 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

driven oil and water pumps for lubricating and governor-operating 
service. The governor pumps are horizontal centrifugal units 
rated at 325 gals, per min. each against a 525-ft. head, and are 
directly driven by 100-h.p. induction motors, which are auto- 
matically started and stopped from a.c. motor control panels. 
Two sump tanks are installed in the pump pit and are cross-con- 
nected by a suction main from which the pump suctions are taken. 
The pumps discharge into a pressure main, to which is connected 
a pair of accumulator tanks mounted on the operating-room floor, 
the governor-operating cylinders being fed from the pressure mains 
and discharging into a receiving main leading back to the sump 
tanks. 

Each accumulator tank is divided into two sections by a dia- 
phragm, the upper section being open to the air and connected 
with the discharge main by a relief pipe. Once a week compressed 
air is forced into the governor-operating system to provide an air 
system at the top of the lower section of each accumulator tank. 
The air is furnished by a compressor driven by a 5-h.p. motor, a 
0.5-in. supply pipe being run to each accumulator tank. A hand- 
operated pump is installed on the operating-room floor to enable 
the gates to be closed if the water supply is interrupted. Five 
sets of wooden block brakes actuated by compressed air are pro- 
vided on each generator as they may be forced against the rotor- 
rim flange when it is desired to bring a machine to a standstill 
promptly. Waterwheels were furnished with a rating of 9,700 h.p. 
in order to insure the driving of the generators at full load even 
under back-water conditions. The stream flow past the plant is 
extremely variable, ranging from about 1,800 second-ft. minimum 
to 100,000 second-ft. maximum during a year. At times the head 
is cut down from 5 ft. to 15 ft. below normal. As shown by 
tests these generators will readily deliver 7.000 kw. e^ch at 80% 
power factor. According to a statement made by President Philip 
Cabott of the Turners Falls company before the Massachusetts Gas 
& Electric Light Commission, the unit cost of the total development 
figures $65 per h.p. 

Estimated Cost per Kilowatt for two new plants of the Mt. 
Whitney Power Co. in California are given in Table VII. 

TABLE VII. COST PER KILLOWATT FOR MT. WHITNEY 
PLANTS 

Plant Plant A Plant B 

Capacity in kilowatts 3,500 6,000 

Construction equipment, etc $10.00 $ 5.00 

Power house and miscellaneous buildings. 7.10 4.00 

Electrical equipment . 11.40 10 80 

Water-wheels, governors, etc 8.55 6.65 

pressure pipe line 9.15 13.35 

Regulating reservoir 12.90 7.50 

Flow lines 45.50 38.90 

Diverting dams 1.85 1.50 

Total cost per kilowatt $105.45 $87.70 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



701 



Plant A 
Power house : 

Reinforced concrete, fireproof. 

Electrical equipment : 
2-1,750 k.w. generators 
4-1,250 k,w. transformers 
2-55 k.w. exciters. 

3-switchboard equipment, aluminum 
cell arresters. 

Water-wheel equipment : 

Pelton wheels and governor, impulse 
type wheels. 

Head: 
776 ft. 

Pressure pipes : 

2',680 ft. of 36 in. to 42 in. steel pipe. 
5/8 in. to 3/16 in. thick. 

Regulating reservoir : 

Excavated solid rock 60,000 cu. yds. 

Flow line conduits : 

3,300 ft. concrete flume 6x3 ft., 6,008 
ft. 

6 X 4 ft. concrete lined ditch ; 1,085 ft. 

48 in. X 14 in. steel pipe siphon prac- 
tically complete. 



Plant B 
Same as A. 



2-3,000 k.w. generators. 
4-2,000 k.w. transformers. 



Same as A. 



Same as A. 



1,325 ft. 



3,300 ft. long about same 
size as A. 



No plans. 



2 miles to carry 100 sec- 
f t ; 6y. miles to carry 
50 sec. -ft. ; 700 ft. of 
tunnel. 

Plans not complete. 



Cost of Hydraulic Power Plants of from 100 to 1,000 H.P., and 
for 10 to 40 Ft. Heads. We have prepared the following formulae 
for determining the approximate cost of hydro-electric power plants 
based upon a table of estimated costs given by Charles T. Main in 
a paper on the " Values of Water Powers " (A. S. M. E., Dec, 1904). 
By using the formulae the approximate cost of hydraulic operated 
plants, having horizontal turbines, steel penstocks and walled tail- 
races (the cost of dam and buildings are not included) may be 
obtained. 

In the formulae, P = horse power of installation ; H =: head in 
feet ; L — distance from feeder head to end of tail-race. 
p 
Where — gives a value of from 10 to 100; cost in dollars = 
H 



Where 



H 



gives a 



625 (0.9 + 0.001 L) — 
H 




value of from 2 to 


10. 


P 

700 (0.9 + 0.001 L) — 
H 





For example, consider a plant where, P 
H- 30. 

P 500 

— - = 16.66. 

H 30 

Cost - 625 (0.9 + 0.4) 16.66 = $13,550. 



cost in dollars =: 



500 h.p. L - 400 ft. 



702 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Take another case where, P = 200 h.p. ; L. = 200 ft. ; H =: 40 ft. 
P 200 

H ~ 40 ~ 
Cost = 700 (0.9 + 0.2) 5 = $3,850. 

Cost of 38,000 Kilowatt Development of Yellow Creek, Cal. See 

the report to the Oro Electric Corporation in Chapter I, under the 
subject headed " The Calculation of Rates for Electric Current." 

Costs pep Kilowatt of Installed Capacity, with no " overhead 
charges," for the Nevada-California Power Co., are given in Table 
VIII, as determined by the authors in 1913. 

Costs per Kilowatt of Four Hydro-Electric Plants. Table 
IX gives costs per kw. for various plants on the Pacific Coast 
appraised by the authors in 1911 and 1912. "Physical costs" only 
are given, the table including no charges for engineering, business 
management, legal and general expense and interest during con- 
struction or brokerage fees. 

Comparison of Kilowatt Cost of Steam and Hydro-Electric 
Power. M. D. Pratt (Engineering News, June 10, 1909) gives the 
following comparison of operating costs taken from his experience 
with the plant. 

COST OF STEAM PLANT 

Per kw. 

Permanent : Ground foundations, buildings, wiring, water 
supply, coal bunkers, incidentals, engineering and super- 
intendence $ 35 

Boilers, boiler setting, piping, pumps, condensers, heaters, 
coal and ash handling apparatus, smoke stack and flues, 
economizers 55 

Engines, cranes 30 

Generators, switchboard and other elec. app. , 30 

Total cost per kw. installed $150 

COST OF OPERATtON FN ELEC. RY. STEAM PLANT 

These are actual figures made by a plant built by the v/riter and 
are the t-esults from a full year's operation as shown by the books 
of the owner : 

Cts. per kw.-hr. 
on switch-board 

Wages 0.1610 

Fuel 0.3080 

Water 0.0197 

Oil and waste 0.0141 

Maintenance of boiler plant 0.0210 

Maintenance of electric plant .\ . 0.0065 

Sundry sui)plies 0.0117 

Total cost 0.5420 

Interest and Depreciation Charges : 

5% interest on total cost of plant 150 X .05 = $7.50 

3% Depreciation on Item (a) 35 X .03 = 1.05 

10% Depreciation on Item (b) 55 X .10 =:: 5.50 

7.5% Depreciation on Items (c) and (d) 60 X .075 - 4.50 

$18.55 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



703 



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704 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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HYDRp-ELECTRIC PLANTS 705 

This should be multiplied by total kw. capacity of plant and 
divided by total annual output in kw.-hrs., which in the case of 
the plant mentioned would be : 

18.55 X 2,000 

; = 4640 

8,000,000 X 100 

Total cost of steam power 1.0060 cts. 

COST WITH HYDRO-ELECTPaC POWER 

Static and rotary transformers would have to be in- 
stalled to convert the high tension alternating 
current furnished by the hydro-electric plant to 
600 volt d. c. together with necessary switch- 
board at a cost of $37.50 per kw. 

(No charge is made for housing or floor space.) 

The cost of operation then becomes : 

Wages, reduced one-half 0.0805 cts. 

Fuel, reduced 90% — the remaining 10% 
being required to maintain steam plant 
in operative condition and to operate 

it in short periods 0.0308 

Water reduced 90% 0.0020 

Oil and waste, 75%, 0035 

Maintenance V2 0.0137 

Sundries V2 0.0058 

Int. and Dep'n on steam plant 0.4640 

.6003 cts. 

To this should be added interest and depreciation 
on new apparatus, at 5 -j- 7.5 - 12.5%, as fol- 
lows : 

37.50 X .125 X 2,000 

= .1172 cts. 

8,000,000 

.7175 cts. 
Cost for all steam operation 1.0060 cts. 

Difference .2885 

Owing to the 25% loss in transformation as shown in the case 
of two plants in the writer's knowledge this difference must be 
decreased in proportion, and we have : 

.2885 

= 0.216 Cts. 

1.33 

as the highest price that could be paid under the given con- 
ditions, without any profit on the transaction. 

Total Efficiency of Generation and Transmission of Hydro-Elec- 
tric Plant of the McCall Ferry Power Company according to a 
letter in Engineering News, June 10, 1909, from the chief engineer, 
Gary T. Hutchinson, is as follows : 

Per cent. 

Turbines 80 

Electric generators 93 

Transformers 97 

Transmission 92 

Transformers 97 

Secondary transmission 90 

Total efficiency 56 



706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Fig. 5 shows the h.p. resulting from various heads and dis- 
charges. The commercial h.p. is that deliverable to customers at 
a distance and equals the product of the efficiencies given. The 
rated capacity of this plant is 75,000 kw. at 50% efficiency. The 
flow required in the Susquehanna River at this point to deliver 
75,000 kw. at a load factor of 50% c6rresponds to an average 
flow of 37,500 kw. : at a 53-ft. head and 66.5% efficiency the flow 
required is 12,500 sec-ft. 




GorTii nercial HP ZCCO | 
V/Otgr HP -^:C3 



Fig. 5. Diagram showing horsepower resulting from given heads 
and discharges. 



Analysis of Efficiencies of Component Parts of a Hydro-Electric 
System. Table X gives an outline of the losses and efficiencies, 
for 1911, of the Seattle Municipal Light and Power plant by J. D. 
Ross in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 5, 1912. 

The flgures given are believed to approximate closely the true 
values, since great care was taken in the measurements made by 
frequently calibrated instruments. All results have been checked 
in as many ways as possible. 

The Seattle plant is a hydro-electric system delivering water to 
two 1,500 k.w. Pelton units and tAvo 5,000 k.w. turbine units under 
600 ft. head through two pipes approximately 3% miles long, one of 
which is 67% and the other 49 ins. inside diam. The current is 
transmitted at 60,000 volts through 2 lines to Seattle, a distance 
of 38.7 miles, and is there distributed at 15.000 and 2,400 volts for 
use by approximately 20,000 customers and for the city street 
lighting. 

Data Necessary in Purcliasing Water Wlieel. The following data 
should be furnished manufacturers to aid in the economical design 
of water wheels : 

1. Number of units. 

2. Horse power of water wheels, 

3. Kw. of generator. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



707 



TABLE X. LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES SEATTLE 

MUNICIPAL LIGHT AND POWER PLANT USH) 

^ g 3 

^i s| -| - of ^ 

l| l| fi I li 1^ 

0^ < «< CL, (1| Oi 

Genefatmg sfSteAi 54.4 6.009 2,739 45.6 45.6 75.3 

PenstockK 97.7 6.009 139 2.3 2.3 3.8 

Generating station 55.7 5.870 2,600 44.3 43.2 71.5 

Water wheels 60.7 5.795 2,277 30.3 37.9 62.6 

Generators 93.5 3.518 227 6.5 3.8 6.2 

Exciters 76 76 ... 1.3 2.1 

Station lights and control 20 20 ... 0.3 0.5 

Transmission system 91.6 3,270 276 8.4 4.6 7.6 

Step up transformers 96.1 3.270 129 3.9 2.1 3.5 

Transmission lines 98.6 3,141 43 1.4 0.7 1.2 

Step-down tra^isformers. . 96,6 3,098 104 3.4 1.7 2.9 

Distributing system 79.2 2,994 622 20.8 10.3 17.1 

City substation 98.7 2,994 40 1.3 0.7 1.1 

S. Lights and control 37 37 1.2 0.6 1.0 

Switchboard meters 3 ... 0.1 0.1 

15.000-volt system 92 5 1,323 90 7.5 1.6 2.7 

15.000-volt lines 99.2 1.323 11 0.8 0.2 0.3 

15.000-volt transformers.. 93.2 1,312 88 68 1.5 2.4 

Series street lights 86.3 305 42 13.7 0.7 1.2 

Transformers 95.0 305 15 5.0 0.3 0,4 

Series circuits 90.8 290 27 9.2 0.4 7 

Cluster street lights 79.1 170 35 20.9 0.6 1.0 

Cluster transformers 87,8 170 21 12.2 0,3 0,6 

Underground cables 90 1 149 15 9.9 0.2 0.4 

2,400-volt commercial system 76.2 1,612 357 23.8 5.9 9.8 

Feeder regulators 98.6 1.612 20 1.4 0.3 0.6 

Primary feeders 96.0 1.592 60 4.0 1.0 1.6 

Transformers 88:8 1.532 159 11.2 2.6 4.4 

Secondaries 92.9 1.373 89 7.1 1.5 2.5 

Customero' meters 97.6 1.284 29 2.4 0,5 0.8 

Direct-current system 35.7 77 49 64.2 0.8 1.4 

Motor-gi^nerator 38.0 77 48 62.0 0.8 1.3 

D-c. circuits 95.0 29 1 5.0 

Customers' meters 98.8 28 ... 1.2 

Kw.-hr. Average 

Summary: Total power loss 31.852,500 3.636 kw. 

Total power delivered to cus- 
tomers 17,304,900 1,975 kw. 

Total power delivered to street 

lamps 3,481,600 398 kw. 

Total delivered power 20,786,500 2,373 kw. 

Over-all efficiency, 39.5% 

[1 kw.-hr. at the customers' premises requires 1.364 gals. (5.163 

liters) of water from Cedar Lake at average head of 590 ft. (179.8 
m.)]. 



Total head. 

Open flume or closed flume. 

If closed flume, what is number of pipes? 

What kind of pipe? — wooden stave, steel or concrete? 

Diameter of pipes. 



708 MECHAXIC\-iL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

9. Effective head (unless design of all-water passages to and from 
wheel is left to water wheel manufacturer). 

10. Head water elevation. 

11. Floor elevation. 

12. Tail water elevation. 

13. Head variable, if so, what is normal operating head? 

14. If head is variable, what is the range of variation? 

15. How important is power and economy at lowest head? 

16. Speed of generator, if already decided. 

17. If speed of generator is not decided, name speeds which seem to 
purchaser most desirable and ask recommendations. 

18. Flywheel effect of generator. 

19. Wliat speed regulation is desired for different load changes? 

20. Will units run in parallel with other plants? If so, give gen- 
eral characteristics of such plants. 

21. If running in parallel with other plants, can these plants be 
used to regulate the system? 

22. What is the character of load factor? , 

23. What is the nature of water (silty or clear)? 

24. What date shipment of material is desired. 

25. Advise if it is expected that manufacturer shall furnish gov- 
ernor. 

26. Give sketches of powder plant site. 

27. Give information as to what is to be expected in the way of 
guarantees. 

28. Give any other information which you think would influence the 
design of the wheel. 

The following data should be supplied to the purchaser by the 
manufacturer : 

1. A check of the calculation on effective head. 

2. Horse power guarantee at normal head. 

3. Guarantee at other lieads, if head is variable. 

4. Speed guarantee, including runaway speed. 

5. Recommendation for best speed if same has not been deter- 
mined. 

6. Speed regulation guarantees. 

7. Efficiency guarantees at full load. % load and V2 load. 

8. Point of greatest efficiency of wheel and value of same in per 
cent. 

9. Efficiency guarantees for available head conditions. 

10. If water wheel manufacturer furnishes governor, give informa- 
tion as to the type, make, power required to operate same, also 
w^hat variation in speed will not be exceeded before the gov- 
ernor will begin to readjust gates to meet a change of load, 
either gradual or sudden. 

In what time will governor completely open or close gates? 
Within how many seconds will the speed of the unit be re- 
stored to normal? 

11. Complete drawings showing machinery proposed. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



709 



12. Complete description of machinery proposed. 

13. Guarantee of durability. 

14. Guarantee of shipment. 

Cost of Water Wheels and Turbines. The data and costs in 

Table XI have been obtained in connection with some of the 
appraisal work of the authors. 

TABLE XI. HORIZONTAL IMPULSE WHEELS 

Rating in Head in Rev. per Weight in Costf.o.b. 

h.p. ft. min. lbs. factory 

100 365 600 3,500 $ 515 

100 1080 625 3,200 727 

1,500 ■ 1080 450 : 3,100 

2,500 275 300 49,100 11,232 

2,850 a 1080 400 24,000 5,557 

2,850 h 1080 400 26,000 5,361 

2,900 365 400 ..... 9,949 

3,000 & 1,080 400 5,530 

3,200 c 175 200 17,100 

3,530 900 300 29,000 4,955 

3,600 900 300 6,699 

3,600 & 900 300 40,000 6,960 

3,600 h 900 300 47,500 8,605 

3,600 & 900 300 67.000 8,900 

5,000 450 225 126,000 19,250 

(a) Includes governor, probable weight 5,000 lbs., cost $1,400. 
(&) Includes governor and gate valve. 
(c) Includes governor and exciter wheel. 



TABLE XIL TURBINE WHEELS 



No. 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 



Rating in 

h.p. 
. . 1,000 
. . 1,200 
. . 3.000 
. . 3,200 
..10,000 
..10,000 



Head in 

ft. 

40 

85 
365 

90 
275 
275 



Rev. per 
min. 
300 
360 
400 
277 
300 
360 



Weight in 
lbs. 



52,250 



380,000 



Cost f.o.b. 

factory 

$10,500 

12.000 

8,230 

22,500 

32,410 

28,000 



1. Parallel flow, double runner, horizontal — price includes 700 
kw. generator, exciter and governor complete. 

2. Parallel flow, double runner — price includes 2 12-in. 875 r.p.m., 
exciter wheels, 2 tachometers, 2 48-ft. steel draft tubes and 2 gov- 
ernors. 

3. Price includes : 

Probable segregation 
Item of cost 

Turbine, 43 in $4,740 

Governor 1,400 

Relief valve 200 

Tachometer ; 80 

2 gauges 10 

Draft tube 50 

36 in. gate valve . 1,750 

Total cost .,,,, $8,230 



710 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

4. This was a very complete installation — price includes turbine 
with governor, relief valve, bursting plate, etc., tachometer, spare 
runner, etc. 

5. Radial inflow type, axial discharge. 

6. Francis type horizontal, price includes turbine, governor, etc., 
complete. The cost of installation of this unit is as follows : 

Turbine, complete $28,000 

Foundations 1,260 

Installation 1,395 

Extras 2,725 

Freight 3,460 

Total cost $36,840 

Cost of Horizontal Water- Wheels. Table XIII is from Bull. No. 
5 (Feb., 1916), Office of State Engineer, Salem, Oregon. The costs 
are estimates based on figures obtained from two independent 
manufacturers of hydraulic machinery, and are for water wheels, 
in place, not including relief valves or other accessories, but do 
include freight charges and cost of installation. 



TABLE XIII. 


COST OF WAH 


rER-WHEELS, 


IN PLACE 


Horse poAver 


Head in feet 


R.p.m. 


Cost erected 


1.085 


32 


200 


$10,000 


2.187 


58 


300 


10,500 


2.320 


60 


360 


10,400 


2,650 


65 


360 


11,000 


2,860 


70 


360 


15,000 


3,470 


90 


400 


10.400 


3,500 


87 


400 


10.000 


3.760 


92 


400 


12.000 


4,090 


100 


514 


10,000 


4,091 


300 


400 


25.000 


4,300 


135 


450 


21,000 


4,500 


132 


450 


22,000 


4,720 


138 


450 


22,000 


4,736 


140 


450 


22.000 


5,400 


132 


400 


22,300 


6.496 


210 


400 


24.000 


7,091 


280 


400- 


27,000 


9,091 


400 


360 


31.000 



Steel Penstocks — Water Pressure and Weight. R. A. Wright 
(Engineering News, Feb. 10, 1910) gives the following data: 

Determination of Size. The principal factors may be outlined 
as follows: (1) the quantity of wiater to be delivered to the 
power plant, (2) the head on different sections of the penstock. 
(3) the length of the penstock, (4) the nature of the application 
of the power, (5) accessibility of the site, (6) the design fixed 
upon for the wheels. 

The first factor is determined, usually, as one of the flr.=;t essen- 
tials of the installation, being one of the factors upon which de- 
pends the feasibility of the development. Whether the water to 
be delivered is conveyed by one or more penstocks depends on the 
quantity of water and the number of units fixed upori for the 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 711 

plant, but this is a question belonging to power-house design and 
will not be discuHsed here. The quantity of water having been 
settled, the size of penstock is fixed by the speed at which it is 
allowed to run, and this is a point, as stated above, which it is 
impossible to determine by rule in all cases. A high speed entails 
considerable loss of head by friction with a consequent low effi- 
ciency of the installation as a whole, while a slow speed brings 
increased cost of construction of the penstock itself. Considering 
the head, we find that under a low head it is advisable to use a 
slow speed because the loss of a foot of head by friction is a much 
larger percentage of the total head than where a high head is 
available, and because the spouting velocity, and consequently the 
rim speed of the turbines, being low, the water should enter the 
wheel case at a comparatively low speed in order to secure the 
best efficiency. Under a high head a slight friction head is not a 
serious matter and it is better for the efficiency of the wheels that 
the water should reach them at rather a high speed. In the na- 
ture of things, however, it is usually found that longer penstocks 
are required for high heads than for low. 

Of course, the friction head increases with the length of penstock 
so that lower speeds are more desirable for long penstocks than 
for short ones, other things being equal. The question of water- 
hammer becomes increasingly important with long penstocks and 
high speeds because of the great mass of water to be accelerated 
and retarded, and the greater fluctuations of speed. This may be 
taken care of to a certain extent by the use of stand-pipes or 
relief-valves, and certainly one or the other of these should be 
provided on all except the shortest penstocks, but it is well, also, 
to keep down the speed of water, this being the surest safeguard 
of all. Consideration should be given to the conditions under 
which the plant is to operate — pulp grinders, for instance, run 
continuously at full gate-opening, while turbines supplying power 
for electric railways may operate normally at half gate, only 
opening up wide to take care of an occasional, momentary peak 
load. In the latter case it would be fair to base the calculation 
of friction losses on the quantity of water consumed by the wheels 
at half gate. 

The use to which the power is to be applied also has a bearing 
on this question. For instance an electric power plant, being sub- 
ject to possible variations from full load to no load instantaneously, 
would require a larger penstock than a plant using the same quan- 
tity of water for driving a number of wheels connected to separate 
machines, as pulp grinders, and not subject to an instantaneous 
variation of so large a percentage of the whole power. The type 
of wheels used may also have a certain influence in the determina- 
tion of the most desirable speed of water since impulse wheels re- 
quire a high speed at the entrance to the wheel while reaction 
wheels require a lower speed. With the scroll-case type of turbine 
the water enters at nearly the speed of the entrance edge of the 
wheel buckets or at such a fraction thereof as will be determined 
by the .shape and arrangement of the guide vanes, while such a 



712 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

speed in the case of a cylindrical wheel-case, inclosing, say. a pair 
of wheels with central draft-tube and the inlet at the side of the 
case, would set up such eddies as might bring down the efficiency 
of the plant 50%. Of course it is always possible to change the 
speed of the water gradually by means of a tapered section of 
penstock just before entering the wheel -case, either increasing or 
decreasing the speed to suit the requirements of the wheel, but 
care must be taken to make such changes very gradual or else an 
appreciable loss of head will result. Though it is impossible to 
fix general rules for definite speeds, it is worth while to classify 
the speeds as characterized by common practice. Low speeds are 
from 2 to 8 ft. per sec. ; medium speeds are from 8 to 12 ft. per 
sec. ; and high from 12 to 25 ft. per. sec. 

The accessibility of the site may be an important factor in 
determining the size of the penstock since the erection and trans- 
portation of a large penstock may amount to a prohibitive figure, 
while the probable market for power may be only a fraction of 
the available power, in which case it would be economy to permit 
a considerable loss of head by friction in order to reduce the size 
of the penstock. It will be seen that for the intelligent solution 
of this problem we require complete information as to the flow 
of the stream, topography of the site, probable market for the 
power and financial resources of the promoters. These questions, 
of course, are fundamental to the proper solution of any power 
proposition and will have been carefully investigated as the very 
first step in determining the feasibility of the development. 

A little thought leads to the conclusion that, in a given water 
power development, the most economical size of pipe to install 
is the one with which the annual costs and charges plus the value 
of the energy loss in the pipe is a minimum. The size of pipe that 
most nearly meets this requirement can be found by cut and try 
methods, though there is a wide latitude of interpretations to the 
expression " value of energy loss in the pipe." When the head 
and quantity of water are fixed within narrow limits, as noted 
before, the solution is greatly simplified. Mr. A. L. Adams, M. 
Am. Soc. C. E., in a paper before the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, June 5^ 1907, demonstrated: 

" That pipe fulfills the requirements of greatest economy wherein 
the value of the energy lost in frictional resistance equals four- 
tenths (0.4) of the annual cost of the pipe." 

Many have claimed that this rule has no rigid application, but 
it is logical and in absence of other determining factors should be 
employed. 

In a hydro-electric plant it may be advisable to compute the size 
of pipe in this way at the prevailing load, developing the peak load 
at smaller efficiency. Some designers, on the other hand, may 
prefer to establish the size of pipe from an estimate of the value 
of the all-day losses or the average efficiency of operation. In the 
rare cases when a waterfall is being developed to obtain the great- 
est possible power and where the cost of installation therefore has 
only a minor bearing. Mr. Adams' rule cannot have any bearing. 



HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS 713 

Table XTV gives the friction heads corresponding to different 
speeds of water in penstocks from 2 to 10 ft. in diameter and 100 
ft. long, based on a formula given by Merriman. 

TABLE XIV. FRICTION HEADS OF RIVETED STEEL. PIPES 



Diam. 






Velocity in 


ft. per sec. 






in. 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


24 


.348 


.488 


.645 


.820 


1.005 


1.200 


1.405 


1.620 


30 


.264 


.369 


.485 


.615 


.755 


.900 


1.050 


1.210 


36 


.2 07 


.288 


.380 


.480 


.585 


.700 


.812 


.930 


42 


.166 


.231 


.304 


.383 


.466 


.575 


.670 


.765 


48 


.136 


.189 


.256 


.322 


.3^2 


.485 


.562 


.640 


54 


.121 


.167 


.228 


.286 


.348 


.430 


.500 


.570 


60 


.104 


.151 


.198 


.258 


.314 


.388 


.450 


.515 


66 


.095 


.132 


.180 


.225 


.274 


.339 


.392 


.467 


72 


.084 


.121 


.164 


.207 


.251 


.297 


.360 


.410 


81 


.069 


.100 


.130 


.170 


.206 


.255 


.295 


• . . 


96 


.058 


.084 


.109 


.142 


.181 


.213 






108 


.050 


.071 


.098 


.121 


.153 




. . . 


. . . 


120 


.043 


.061 


.084 


.109 











L V2 V2 

Formula (Merriman) Hf = f — — = 1.55 / — for I. = 100 

D 2g 1) 

Where Hf = loss of head due to friction, L = length of pipe in 
feet. D = diameter of pipe in feet. V — velocity of water in ft. per 
sec, g = acceleration of gravity, / = a factor. 

In calculating the above table / was taken 10% greater than the 
values recommended by Merriman to allow for the roughness due 
to rivet heads and for the lap of circumferential seams. 

Weight of Penstock. Having fixed on the size of penstock we 
next come to the question of fixing the thickness of the shell to 
suit the pressure of water to be carried. Most penstocks are con- 
structed of tank-steel plates having a tensile strength of from 
45,000 to 50,0000 lbs. per sq. in., although for high heads and 
speeds it is advisable to use the best quality of flange steel. The 
riveting is done in all styles, single and double-riveted joints being 
most common, although triple-riveted lap and butt joints are oc- 
casionally used. A number of considerations affect the choice of 
a style of riveting, but it would be safe to say that a majority 
of penstocks are built with all lap seams, the circumferential 
seams being single-riveted and the longitudinal double-riveted. 
This gives a sufficient excess of strength in the circumferential 
seams to provide for the bending between supports. For heads 
under 30 ft. all seams may be single riveted, making the spacing 
in the circumferential seams as great as consistent with securing 
a tight joint. 

Having selected a style of riveting and quality of plate, thus 
determining the unit strength, w^e are able to fix on the thickness 
of plate to be used. In this connection Table XV will be of use, 
giving the maximum heads under which various thicknesses of 
plates should be used with various diameters of penstock. The 
table is based on a fiber stress of about 7,500 lbs. per sq. in. under 
static load, which is an average figure for ordinary conditions, 



714 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The table gives values for both shigle and double riveting based 
on nominal efncienoies of 60 and 70% respectively. Where more 
efTicient seams or other values of fiber stress are used the head can 
be obtained by simple propoftion. 



TABLE 


XV. 


MAXIMUM 


PERMISSIBLE 


HEADS ON S 


TE 








PENSTOCKS 


IN FEET 










SINGLE KIVETBD EFP^ICIENCY eO^'c 






Diam. 


















ins. 


3/l6 


% 


^/IG 


% 


7i6 


% 


9/16 


% 


30 


130 


175 


220 


260 










36 


110 


145 


180 


220 










42 


90 


125 


155 


185 


220 


.' ! '. 






48 


80 


110 


135 


165 


190 








54 


70 


95 


120 


145 


170 


190 






60 


65 


85 


110 


130 


150 


175 






66 


60 


80 


100 


120 


135 


160 


180 




72 


55 


75 


90 


110 


125 


145 


165 




78 


. 


70 


80 


100 


120 


135 


150 ] 


65 


84 




65 


75 


95 


110 


125 


140 ] 


L55 


96 


. . . 




70 


80 


95 


110 


120 ] 


135 


108 






60 


70 


85 


95 


110 ] 


L20 






DOUBLE RIVETED 


EFFICIENCY 70% 






36 


130 


170 


210 


260 










42 


110 


145 


180 


215 


260 


'. \ '. 


'. '. '. 




48 


95 


130 


160 


190 


220 


. . . 






54 


80 


110 


140 


170 


200 


220 


. 




60 


75 


100 


130 


150 


175 


205 






66 


70 


95 


120 


140 


160 


185 


210 




72 


65 


90 


110 


130 


145 


170 


195 




78 




85 


100 


120 


140 


160 


180 1 


L95 


84 


. 


75 


90 


110 


130 


145 


165 1 


80 


96 






80 


95 


115 


130 


145 1 


60 


108 






70 


85 


100 


115 


130 1 


40 



Table XVI gives the weight of the penstock per lineal foot for 
either single or double riveting and for various thicknesses of 
plates. In figuring this table allowance was made for the cir- 
cumferential seams, based on the most usual width of plates for 
the different thicknesses, also for over-weight of plates according 

TABLE XVI. WEIGHTS PER FOOT STEEL PENSTOCKS 
(EMPTY) 



SINGLE RIVETED 



Diam. 


3/i« in. 


y4in. 


•yiein. 


% in. 


Vic, in. 


% in. 


9/i6 in 


ins. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI 


PI. 


PI. 


PL 


30 


72 


97 


116 


137 








36 


86 


116 


140 


165 




. 




42 


99 


135 


163 


192 


222 






48 


113 


154 


187 


220 


254 






54 


127 


172 


210 


248 


286 


326 




60 


141 


191 


234 


276 


318 


361 


. 


66 


155 


210 


257 


304 


350 


396 


448 


72 


170 


228 


280 


332 


382 


432 


488 


78 




246 


303 


360 


414 


467 


527 


84 


. 


264 


326 


388 


446 


502 


566 


96 


'. '. '. 




373 


444 


510 


573 


646 


108 




. . . 


420 


500 


575 


645 


726 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 715 

DOUBLE RIVETED 



Diiim. 


Vie, in. 


V-L in. 


-'Aq in. 


% in. 


i/ifi in. 


% in. 


9/i6 in 


liis. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


PI. 


36 


8 'J 


120 


145 


171 








4 2 


luii 


i;}y 


168 


198 


229 






48 


117 


159 


193 


227 


261 






54 


i;ji 


177 


216 


255 


294 


335 




60 


146 


196 


241 


284 


326 


370 




66 


160 


216 


263 


312 


359 


406 


458 


72 


175 


234 


287 


340 


391 


442 


499 


78 


. . . 


253 


310 


369 


424 


478 


538 


84 




270 


334 


398 


456 


504 


578 


96 






381 


454 


520 


585 


659 


108 






428 


511 


586 


658 


740 



to the manufacturers' standard table of allowances. The weights 
given in the table, of course, are for straight pipe — for bends 
an additional allowance should be made, up to 10% for bends of 
short radius, on account of the narrow plates used which makes 
the allowance for circumferential seams an increasing factor. 

Cost of Steel Penstocks. The following unit costs were taken 
from Bull. No. 5, Oflice of the State Engineer, Salem, Oregon 
(1916). 

Steel Work: Price per pound 

Item. , f.o.b. works 

Trash racks (Bessemer steel rails) . . . , .$0 015 

Fabrication and placing . , , 0.02 

Freight and haulage (depending on locality) 



Total (not including freight and haulage) $0,035 

Penstocks : 

Steel plate $0.0175 

Fabrication and placing $0.0325-$0.0375) 0350 

Freight and haulage (depending on locality) 



Total (not including freight and haulage) $0.0525 

Cost of Concrete Penstock. The following is from " Design and 
Con.struction of Hydro-Electric Plants " by R. C. Beardsley. 

At Charles City, la., Mr. Beardsley built a reinforced concrete 
penstock, 1,100 ft. long with a cai)acity of 18,000 cu. ft. per min. 
The section was a compound arch 12 ft. 3 ins. in height and 20 ft. 
wide at bottom. The concrete was 8 ins. thick at center of top 
and bottom arches and about 2 ft. thick at the haunches, the 
whole being heavily reinforced. Forms were constructed in sec- 
tions 12 ft. long with 5 ribs per section. The 15 sections built 
made 182 ft. of penstock. The outer forms were made of 2-in. sur- 
faced plank and 6- to 8-in. posts, on 4-ft. centers. 

The costs for the first 182 ft. with penstock resting on solid 
rock were as follows : 

Cost per lin. ft. 

Forms, inner, making $ .67 

Forms, erecting ; . -57 

Lumber at $30 per M. ft. b.m 1.08 

Steel, placing and hauling .22 

Cement, 5 1/2 sacks 3.00 

Dowel pins 09 



716 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost per lin. ft. 

Sand,, 0.61 cubic yards at $0.50 30 

Labor, mixing, tamping, etc. 83 

Concreting rock bottom, labor 80 

Washing inside 07 

$7.63 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Concrete, labor, mixing, tamping, etc $ 1.36 

Concrete, cement, 7 sacks 4.40 

(Concrete, sand, 1 cu, yd , 50 

Forms, making and erecting 2.00 

Forms, lumber 1.80 

Steel, 90 Ib.s. at $1.83 1.65 

Steel, placing 28 

Steel, hauling .13 

$12.12 
Placing steel per lb. (upper and lower) ........ $.003 

The second 182 ft. of penstock co.st $10.75 per cu. yd. As each 
182 ft. section was built the cost of the inner forms was decreased. 
Also, the men became accustomed to the work and did it more 
cheaply. 

Where the penstock rested on piers, the cost was as follows : 

Cost per lin. ft. 

Part above bottom $5.80 

Bottom 2.1 7 

Piers 18 in. thick and average height 30 in 1.00 

$8.97 

Cost per cu. yd. 

. Forms, lumber $0.36 

Forms, labor at $2 27 

Concrete, labor , 1.14 

Concrete, cement, 6 sacks 3.30 

Sand ,50 

Steel, placing 27 

Steel, 175 lbs. at $1.83 3.2Q 

$9.04 

In the above work the bottom was difficult to get to, hence the 
high cost of labor on concrete. 

The intake at the inlet of penstock contained 59 cu. yds of con- 
crete and 5,000 lbs. steel. The form work was quite difficult, con- 
sisting of floor, beams and 10 -in. walls. 
The cost of concrete was as follows : 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Forms, labor $1.00 

Forms, lumber 0.00 

Concrete, labor 78 

Concrete, cement, 7 sacks 3.85 

Concrete, sand 50 

Concrete, washing and trimming 15 

Steel. 85 lbs. at $1.83 1.56 

Steel placing, 26 

$8.10 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



717 



A reinforced concrete abutment 140 ft. long and about 16 ft. 
high cost per yard, as follows: 

Cost per cu. yd. 

Forms, labor 96 

Forms, removing and trimming 23 

Forms, lumber ( old) 00 

Steel. 45 lbs »2 

Steel, placing 10 

Cement .... - 



. 3.30 
$5.41 



Cost of Concrete and Brick Penstocks. R. C. Beardsley pre- 
pared the diagram for the cost per ft. of circular concrete pen- 
stocks .shown in Fig. 6. He states that the data from which this 
curve is plotted were derived largely from " Cost Data," by H. P. 
Gillette, but also from numerous other sources. 




2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 

Cost per n. of Penstock 
Dollars 

Fig. 6. Cost of concrete penstocks. 

Reinforcing costs about three cents per pound for steel, and 0.5 
cent to install. The concrete costs about $10 per cubic yard, in- 
cluding every item. Round rods cost about $34 per ton. 

He further states that brick penstocks require 570 bricks per 
cu. yd and 1.25 bbls. of cement. A mason should lay 1,200 bricks 
in 8 hrs. at a cost of $6. 

Wood-Stave Pipe for Water-Power Penstocks. Robert E. Horton 
(Engineering Record. March 20, 1915) states that as a result of ex- 
perience gained, in some cases through costly failures, the conditions 
under which durability of wood-stave pipe may be be.'^t attained are 
now well known. The staves must be completely and continuously 
saturated; they should be perfectly sound and of the very best 
material ; and the fibers of the wood must not be injured or broken 
in erecting the pipe by over-cinching or drawing the bands too 
tight. 

Experience has shown that in the majority of cases, except where 



718 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

pipe is buried in soils containing acids or strongly alkaline ground- 
waters, the durability of the bands is greater than that of the 
staves. For durability, the bands should be as large as is com- 
patible with securing watertightness of the pipe and at the same 
time avoid crushing of the fiber underneath the bands. The same 
conditions as to quality of material and coating of the bands apply 
as in the case of steel pipe if durability is desired. 

Where large steel pipes are used under low pressure a certain 
minimum thickness of metal must be used to provide stiffness, 
and as a safeguard against rapid development of leakage at rust 
spots. For very large thin pipes stiffening rings are also added 
to prevent excessive deformation of the pipe by its own weight. 
In the case of continuous wood pipe the economical thickness of 
staves required for structural rea.sons and to secure watertightness 
is usually sufficient to provide adequate stiffness. 

In wood-stave pipe, as in steel, the pressure is resisted entirely 
by metal. In the case of wood-stave pipes with bands having 
rolled threads or upset ends the full strength of the metal can be 
developed to resist tension. In the case of riveted steel pipe, espe- 
cially for low heads, a large amount of metal is required in excess 
of that needed to resist tension due to water-pressure. From con- 
siderations of economy in erection the riveted joints used for low 
pressures have generally relatively low efficiencies, so that only 
a fraction, varying commonly from 40 to 65% of the strength of 
the metal in the pipe walls, is available to resist pressure. 

These conditions indicate an' important field of usefulness for 
wood-stave pipe for waterpower penstocks or portions of penstocks 
which are of large diam. and under relatively low heads. As the 
head increases, the joint efficiency which can be commercially re- 
alized in steel pipes is increased, and the percentage of metal added 
for other than tension purposes is decreased, so that for heavy 
pressures the amounts required in wood-stave and steel penstocks 
would approach equality. 

The conditions determining which of these two types of penstock 
will be most efficient and economical in a given case are : Rela- 
tive first cost or investment ; relative durability ; relative cost of 
repairs and maintenance ; relative carrying capacity or, more 
properly, relative power output with conduits of a given size. 

The relative cost must, of course, be determined for each spe- 
cific case. Large steel penstocks in the Eastern States commonly 
cost from 3.5 to 5 cts. per lb., erected, exclusive of cradles or 
other supports. No simple general rules for estimating the cost 
of continuous wood-stave pipe can be given. The materials are 
mostly obtained from the Pacific Coast and formed staves at the 
mills cost from about $30 to $35 per M. ft. b. m. for Douglas fir, 
to $45 for red-wood. 

Freight is a large element in determining both the cost of wood- 
stave pipe and the relative economy of wood and steel. In gen- 
eral, the advantage of stave pipe over' steel increa.ses, proceeding 
westward from the Eastern States owing to reduced freight rates 
pn wood and increased freight on steel. 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 719 

steel conduits are commonly supported on concrete cradles, 
though sometimes buried or partly buried in earth. The cost of 
woodstave conduits is materially affected by the method of sup- 
port. Support on timber trestles is usually the cheapest. For 
large pipe above ground concrete cradles are preferable and the 
cost and spacing are about the same for wood-stave and steel 
pipes. 

Experience has shown that the staves of continuous wood-stave 
pipe are least durable when partially buried or when buried in 
porous soils, such as sands or gravels. Wood pipe is perhaps the 
most durable when buried below the line of saturation of the soil 
or in compact clay soils, where the pipe surface will be kept con- 
stantly moist by the prevention of evaporation of seepage through 
the staves. 

Conditions where the pipe can be buried below ground-water 
level are very rare and in such cases the cost of unwatering the 
trench during pipe construction is likely to inhibit the use of this 
method. Again, pipe cannot be buried where there is rock at 
the surface and if buried in the soil under conditions otherwise 
favorable for durability, the bands will be destroyed rapidly if 
the ground-water is either strongly alkaline or contains humic 
acid from the decay of surface vegetation, as Is commonly the 
case in woods. The pipe is not accessible to repair when buried 
and while it is apparently necessary to bury wooden pipe in some 
instances as a protection against landslides in mountainous regions, 
yet in the majority of cases wood-stave pipe should not be placed 
underground unless the conditions are all favorable and even then 
only when a calculation, based on economical considerations, gives 
a result in favor of placing the pipe underground. 

TABLE XVrr. COST OF WOOD PIPE 

On cradles Buried 

Cost of pipe per foot . . . . , , .$13.60 $15. 50 

Cost cradles or trench , . , 6.40 1.50 



Total investment $20.00 $1700 

Life, years 40 15 

Repairs, per cent, per year 1 

ANNUAL CHARGES 

Interest, at 6 per cent. . . .$ 1 20 $ 1.02 

Depreciation 

At 21/' per cent ....... c . . „ 0.50 

At 6% per cent 1.134 

Repairs 0.20 0.00 



Total annual charges per feet $ 1.90 $2,154 

As an illustration the calculation in Table XVII Is given, in 
which it is assumed that the life of the buried conduit without 
repairs would be 15 yrs., whereas its life above ground, properly 
maintained and repaired, would be 40 yrs. 

The comparison given is for pipe 9 ft. in diameter under an 



720 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

average head of 60 ft. It is assumed that the pipe above ground 
is supported by concrete cradles. This increases the first cost 
per foot materially over that for the buried pipe, but even then, 
owing to the rapid depreciation of buried pipe, the calculations 
show the total annual charges per foot of pipe to be considerably 
less for the pipe supported above ground. 

It is generally conceded that the carrying capacity of new wood- 
stave pipe with a given friction loss is somewhat greater than 
that for new riveted steel pipe. There is some diversity of opinion 
as to the amount of difference. The writer believes that the later 
formulae for the capacity of these two classes of pipe are sub- 
stantially correct, and that there is a material difference in favor 
of wood-stave pipe when new as compared with steel when new. 
Of the two, steel pipe is also subject to much the greater increase 
in friction head or decrease in carrying capacity with increased 
age. Probably the Hazen and Williams formula represents the 
best determination of the carrying capacity or friction head for 
steel pipes. The Moritz formula is probably the best available 
for application to large wood-stave conduits. In a somewhat later 
review of the experiments, Andrew Swickard gives the formula 

n = (D/30,000)+ 0.0105 

where n = coefficient of roughness _ to be applied in the Kutter- 
Chezy formula, and D is the inside diameter of the pipe, in inches. 
(Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 6, 1915, p. 70.) This formula 
is convenient for those who prefer to work from the Kutter formula 
or diagrams based thereon. 

For pipes 9 ft. in diameter, with velocities of 6 ft. per second, 
the friction head is as follows : 

Riveted steel pipe, Hazen and Williams formula, with C = 110, 
friction head 1.06 ft. per thousand. 

Riveted steel pipe 10 yrs. old, Hazen and Williams formula, 
with C = 100, friction head 1.26 ft. per thousand. 

Wood-stave pipe, Hazen and Williams formula, with C = 120, 
friction head 0.9 ft. per thousand. With the Moritz formula the 
friction head equals 0.60 ft. per thousand. 

The friction loss by the Moritz formula is considerably less than 
by the Hazen and Williams formula. The two results may be 
reconciled in some degree by considering that Moritz's formula 
applies to new pipe properly constructed and in the best condition, 
whereas friction head given by the Hazen and Williams formula 
would, in the writer's opinion, only apply to aveiage pipes in 
service as heretofore constructed, many of them being improperly 
constructed and in some cases subject to deposits of sand and 
sediment in the pipe inverts. Even when free from sediment and 
properly constructed the carrying capacity of wood-stave pipe 
may be reduced somewhat by growth of slime and "spongilla on 
the interior surface, which slightly decreases the effective diameter 
and increases friction by throwing off small eddies, although not* 
decreasing the apparent smoothness of the surface. 

In comparing the merits of steel and wood pipe conduits for 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 721 

specific cases, the relative carrying capacities should be taken into 
consideration, as illustrated by the example which follows. The 
relative cost or value of conduits of different materials having 
different degrees of roughness is sometimes arrived at by esti- 
mating the difference in cost of conduits of different sizes but which 
will carry equal quantities of water with the same total loss of 
head. In the writer's opinion this method is not generally ap- 
plicable in the case of conduits for power purposes. In such cases 
there is usually a maximum permissible velocity determined by 
conditions of speed regulation or governing. Economy dictates 
that whatever material is used, the fixed maximum velocity should 
be equalled but not exceeded. Accordingly the conduit should be 
of the same diameter, in the majority of cases, regardless of the 
material or friction loss per foot of length. If the velocity is the 
same in both and the friction loss in wood-stave is less than in 
steel pipe at the given velocity, the average net head available at 
the power plant will be greater if the wood-stave pipe is used, and 
the market value of the average increase in power so obtained Is 
one of the items to be considered in determining the relative eco- 
nomic value of the two types of conduits. 

The gain in power should be estimated from the increase in 
head available with the plant operating at its average load, not 
at its maximum load. The power gained by reduced friction in 
the conduit is obtained at very little expense. The power and 
speed of the turbine are increased by increased head. Generator 
costs are smaller per unit at the higher speeds and there would 
be no material difference in attendance or overhead charges in the 
two cases. Instead of calculating the gain in marketable power 
due to increased head as clear profit, it is perhaps safer to estimate 
the value of the increased power pro rata the same as the value 
of the average power output of the plant. 

Table XVIII shows a comparative estimate of the cost of wood- 
stave and steel penstocks each 9 ft. in internal diam, and 2,000 
ft. long. The figures are based on recent bids for a conduit in 
central New York. In this case the computation shows some ap- 
parent economy in favor of wood-stave pipe regardless of increase 
in power. It will be noted that taking into account the increase 
in power, the result of such a calculation may indicate that it is 
an economical advantage to use wood-stave pipe even where the 
first cost is equal to or a little greater than that for steel pipe. 

In the case on which the figures given are based, wood-stave 
pipe was not used in .spite of the economic showing in its favor, 
because of the general feeling of uncertainty then prevalent re- 
garding the durability and conditions tending to produce long life 
for wood-stave pipe. It is highly desirable that the conditions 
governing the durability of wood-stave pipe should be more gen- 
erally understood and accepted : First, to prevent repetition of 
serious mistakes of the past, where wood-stave pipe has been used 
under conditions to which it was not well adapted. Second, to 
prevent its rejection in cases where it clearly shows a decided 
economical advantage over steel. 



722 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XVIII. COST OF WOOD AND STEEL PIPE 

Wood 
Steel pipe stave pipe 

First cost of pipe $17.40 $13.60 

Concrete cradles 6.00 5.00 

Total investment $23.40 $18.60 

Life assumed 40 yr. 30 yr. 

Depreciation rate 2 1^% 3i/f^% 

Repairs 0.5% 1% 

ANNUAL CHARGES PER FOOT OF PIPE 

Interest and taxes at 7% $1,638 $1,302 

Depreciation 0.585 0.620 

Repairs 0.117 0.186 

Total $2,340 $2,108 

Total for 2,000 ft. conduit $4,680 $4,216 

Value of power gained, 25 h.p. at $10 per 

h.p.-year 00 250 

Annual balance 4,680 3,966 

Net saving with wood pipe $714 

Capitalized saving at 8% $8,925 

Thickness of Staves. Complete and perpetual saturation of the 
staves being the prime requisite, to secure durability care should 
be taken that the thickness of the staves is not too great in pro- 
portion to the pressure. If durability is desired, wood-stave pipe 
should not be used unless it will be continually filled with water 
under static pressure head of at least 20 to 30 ft. The staves are 
made from stock sizes of timber and their exact size and thick- 
ness for a particular case are governed by the smallest commercial 
size of board from which the stave can be cut. This is best de- 
termined by an accurate full-size drawing of the stave section. 
Thickening the staves increases the stability of the pipe against 
deformation and generally is conducive to water-tightness at the 
joints or seams. The staves should not be so thick as to prevent 
a reasonable amount of percolation through the pores of the wood 
under pressure. To meet these conditions the following formula 
was devised by the writer for the use in preliminary determination 
of stave thickness : 

T =1 + 71/100 + d/100 

where T = thickness of staves in inches ; h, head in feet ; d, diam- 
eter of pipe in inches. It is believed that staves determined by 
this formula will have the maximum of durability consistent with 
reasonable stiffness of the pipe. 

Decay of Wood Pipes. (Bull. 155, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 
Decay of pipes exposed to the atmosphere and free from contact 
with the soil almost invariably starts at the ends of staves, as a 
result of leaky joints. Where water leaks out and runs down 
over the outside of the pipe favorable conditions are afforded for 
the growth of algae ; then mosses may begin to grow in the soil 
that collects on such spots, and decay spreads to adjoining staves. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 723 

Bruising the staves in handling or injuring them by too tight 
cinching of bands renders them more susceptible to infection by 
the spores of wood-destroying fungi, thus hastening decay. The 
life of exposed pipes may be prolonged by promptly stopping all 
leaks as they develop and by keeping the exteriors dry. The decay 
of buried pipes has also in some instances been arrested by re- 
moving the covering and leaving them exposed. 

The asphaltum or tar coating applied to machine-banded pipe, 
while intended primarily as a protection against corrosion of the 
bands, doubtless helps also to some extent in preserving the wood. 
Until recently the practice has been to leave the ends of wooden 
sleeve couplings untreated. These couplings almost invariably de- 
cay long before the main pipe. This may indicate that infection 
by wood-destroying organisms starts principally where the coating 
is absent, though less perfect saturation of the wood in the sleeves 
may be the more largely responsible for the early decay, as it may 
also be noted that decay occurs at summits of pipe lines, where 
air accumulates, much sooner than at depressions. 

Cost of Woodstave Penstocks. E. H. Warner in describing the 
hydraulic plant of the Puget Sound Power Co. in Pierce County, 
Wash., gives the following data : 

There are 345 lin. ft. of built up wood pipes. Woodstaves were 
cut from 2-in. X 6-in. clear lumber dressed to radial lines with a 
circular curve inside and out and have oak tongues in the butt 
joints. Round iron bands, % in. in diameter, coated with asphalt 
composition hold the staves in place. The bands are spaced 8-in. 
centers, except at the butt joints, where the spacing is reduced 
to 4 ins. Two concrete walls wathin the embankment enclose the 
pipe and extend 2 ft. above. This work was let by contract at 
$2.96 per lin. ft. for 48-in. pipe, and $1.47 per lin. ft. for 18-in. pipe. 

The total cost of development approximates $125 per h.p. A 
portion of this is properly chargeable to preparation for a second 
installation, which, when made, will reduce the cost of the entire 
development to approximately $90 per h.p. 

Cost of Timber Flume tor Water Power in British Columbia. 
C. A. Lee (Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 11, 1915) states that 
the power development of the Vancouver Island Power Co. re- 
quired 5.3 miles of timber flume along a steep and broken side 
hill. Figure 5 shows the plans of this structure built, and gives 
all essential dimensions and details except as noted in the state- 
ments following. The T-bent shown was used only for " inter- 
mediate bents " under 12 ft. high between two standard bents. 
Generally the trestle was low, averaging not over 7 ft. high, but 
at a few gulch crossings it had two or more decks. The aline- 
ments, following this natural contour, was a series of curves, some 
as sharp as 90 degs. ; no serious retardation of the water resulted. 
Wier measurements indicate d fo r this flume a value of 122 for c 
in Chezy's formula V = C V rs. In locating the flume each bent 
finding was decided and the bent dimensions were computed. 
From these notes the saw mill at the lower end of this flume cut 
to lengths all bent members with daps and gains complete. A 



724 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

service railway along the flume line delivered the sawed material, 
^bout 5,000M ft. b. m. of lumber were required, or a little less 
than l.OOOM ft. b. m. per mile of flume. Not including hauling 
or clearing, the cost of lumber in flume w^as $17.41 per M, ft. b. m., 
and all lumber was cut at the company's mill and logged from 
the company's land. The total cost of the flume, excluding again 
hauling and clearing, was $419.27 per 100 lin. ft., or, say, $4.20 
per lin. ft. 





r c-'' 1 

I ,-Culli ' 






Plankmg 5ur 
faced on ona -' 
5/tfe only 


, 




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Batter li I 




K Frame Bent 5 I5'0' Center toCentv 
Section A-A 




Fig. 7. Timber flumes for Jordan River power development, British 
Columbia. 



The Economics of Pipe Line Diameters. A discussion of a 
method for determining economical pipe line construction is given 
by Mr. C, W. Harris in a paper which we reprint here from the 
Proceedings of the Pacific Northwest Society of Engineers. (See 
Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 27, 1913.) While the discussion 
is developed with specific relation to pipe lines for water power 
plants, some of the conditions are general and apply to pipe lines 
for water supply and irrigation. 

When the engineer is investigating a power proposition and has 
reached the point where he wishes to decide on the diameter of the 
penstock, three questions might be logically presented to his mind 
in the following order : 

(1) What is the smallest size of pipe through which a given 
amount of power may be transmitted? 

(2) What is the smallest diameter which can be used without 
exceeding allowable velocities? 

(3) What is the economical diameter of penstock when proper 
consideration has been given to the value of the water right? 

Any one of these considerations may be the controlling point and 
fix the size of the penstock. The first question will probably con- 
trol in long pipes if the value of the water used is small The 
second will control in short pipes under the same condition of water 
value. The third will control in either long or short pipes when the 
value of; the water is considerable. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



725 



Smallest Pipe. Returning to the first question, it is evident that 
smallest possible pipe is the one which «iust work at its maxi- 
mum capacity. The problem may, therefore, be restated as follows 
Without changing its meaning. What is the condition for maximum 
amount of power which may be transmitted through a pipe of known 




4.0 6.0 8,0 10.0 12 11.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24,0 26.0 28.0 
Cost of Pipe Line, in Thousands of Dollars 

Fig. 7 A. 



diameter when the total available head is fixed and the quantity 
of water is unlimited? This is now in the form of an old familiar 
problem, the solution of which is as follows : If there were no loss 
of head by friction, greater quantity of water would, of course, 
imply greater power since the effective head would remain constant. 
(£/■. P. = Qwh. -r- 550.) But a greater quantity must be accompanied 



'726 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

by a greater velocity with corresponding- loss of head and hence a 
loss of power. Calling- this lost head h', the horsepower delivered 
by the pipe =: qw(h — h') -h 550 but the friction head 

fl v2 ' 

^' = — — (1) 

d 2g 

making the power delivered in foot pounds (which we shall call 
energy and denote by a large E) 

fl v^ 

E = Qwh — Qw 

d 2g 

Q^wfl 

= Qwh (2) 

a-2gd 

a being the area of the pipe. To determine the conditions for 
maximum power delivered by the pipe, it is necessary to equate the 
first derivative of the above expression to zero. The first derivative 
of E with respect to Q 



dE 


- hw - 
d 


ZQ^~wfl 


dQ 

-. h- 


a-2gd 

— = 3/1' 
2g 



(3) 



(4) 



The second derivative is negative which is the condition for a 
maximum. 

It will here be noticed that placing the first derivative equal to 
zero makes our total head equal three times the head lost by 
friction, and means that the pipe is delivering its maximum amount 
of energy when the friction loss is one-third of the total head. The 
answer to our first question, therefore, is as follows: the smallest 
pipe which will deliver a given amount of power with a given 
total head is the pipe which will cause one-third of that head to be 
lost in friction. 

Thus in temporary developments such as contractor's plants or 
plants in isolated districts with large power possibilities and limited 
demand, a pipe may be chosen of such diameter that when the 
maximum power is being developed, one-third of the total head is 
lost in friction. 

One caution which must not be overlooked is that the reduction 
of effective head should not unduly increase the cost of the 
turbines to generate the required power. Working close to the 
limit must also be accompanied by judgment concerning possibility 
of variation of friction factor for pipe and for possible reduction of 
efiiciency of turbine at overload. 

A small factor of safety is introduced in the above investigation, 
however, because of the fact that our investigation assumes the 
head loss by friction to vary as the square of the velocity, whereas, 
for a constant friction factor for smooth pipes the head varies at a 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 727 

slightly less rate. Using the exponential formula recommended by 
Messrs. Saph and Schoder, 

^1.86 

H - .38 (5) 

^1.25 

the maximum power is delivered when the head lost is .35 of the 
total head. 

Penstock Velocities. The answer to the second question does not 
belong in a paper of this character. The greatest allowable velocity 
in penstocks has been subject to many discussions and a great 
many different opinions have been offered. The points which must 
be consulted in settling this important question generally defy 
mathematical analysis excepting where full conditions of operation 
are known. They have to do principally with such problems as 
dynamic action at sharp curves and with water hammer during 
regulation of load. We will, therefore, leave this question to a 
subsequent paper or to the judgment of the engineer. The answer 
does not affect what is to follow in this paper excepting to fix limits 
beyond which we cannot apply our results. 

Economical Pipe. We will now turn to the third and most im- 
portant question (the economical size of the pipe). It is very 
apparent that when either the smallest possible pipe is used, or 
when the pipe is limited in size by excessive velocity, the friction 
head will be large and the power must be obtained at a sacrifice 
of water. This may be objectionable or may not be objectionable, 
depending upon whether the water has commercial value or has 
no commercial value, water being considered valueless only when 
there is at all seasons of the year a surplus after the demand for 
power is supplied. 

When the demand for power exceeds the supply, undeveloped 
water under head has at once a commercial value which should be 
approximately equal to the difference between selling price of power 
and cost of production where the cost of production includes inter- 
est, depreciation, cost of operation, etc. A loss of one-third of the 
total head (the condition which gives the smallest pipe) or even 
a loss of sufficient head to produce excessive velocity will require 
an excess of valuable water to produce the required power. Thus 
our third question shapes itself as follows : what is the diameter 
of pipe which results in the most economical production of power, 
that is, what are the conditions for minimum cost of delivering 
power to the turbines? 

The quantity to be placed at minimum must include two separate 
items, (1) the yearly cost of pipe (interest, and depreciation), (2) 
the yearly cost of the power wasted by friction. The second factor 
depends upon the quantity of water, head lost by friction and the 
value of a horsepower year. This phase of the problem was quite 
thoroughly treated in a discussion aroused by Mr. A. L. Adams in 
an article entitled, " A Solution of the Problem of Determining the 
Economic Size of Pipes for High-Pressure Water Power Installa- 
tion," in the Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, 



728 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Vol. LIX., page 173. This paper and the discussions dealt only 
with high head pressure pipes in which the thickness of pipe for 
constant head would have to vary with the diameter, making the 
cost of pipe for a given head (and, therefore, the yearly cost of 
pipe line under that head) to vary as the square of the diameter. 
We will give a simple solution arriving at the same conclusion 
as did Mr. Adams and then extend the investigation to other con- 
clusions. 

C = Kd? , (6) 

where C equals yearly cost of pipe, d the diameter, and K is some 
constant depending upon the cost of steel per pound, interest, de- 
preciation, etc., but to which no particular value need be given for 
present purposes. 

The power lost by friction varies as the head lost h' and the 
quantity of water Q. But 

fl v^ 

^' = —~ (7) 

d 2g 

fl 172 Q3 fl QnQfi 

.-.Qwh'-Qw = (8) 

d 2g 2ga- d 2gTr^d^ 

Therefore, for a constant quantity Q the 

yearly value of power consumed by friction — k'd-^. 

And since the 

annual cost of pii)e lines = kd", 

the function to be placed a minimum is 

u= kd' + k'd-'' (9) 

= 2kd— Sfc'd-'' = ? (10) 

dd 

. • . 2/cd^ -= 5fc'ci-= (11 ) 

2 

or ~kd-= k'd-^ (12) 

5 

Two-fifths annual cost of pipe line = yearly value of power con- 
sumed by friction. 

This result is the one suggested by Mr. Adams and the method 
is somewhat similar to that used in a number of discussions of his 
paper. The conclusion to be drawn is that the proper diameter 
of pipe is that which will make two-fifths of the annual cost of the 
pipe equal the cost of the power lost by friction. 

This is, therefore, the answer to our third question when applied 
to large riveted steel pipes under high head. 

Although the article of Mr. Adams considered only the question 
of high pressure pipe lines and, therefore, pipe lines in which the 
thickness for any given head would necessarily vary directly with 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 729 

the diameter, there seems to be no good reason why a similar in- 
vestigation should not be made for pipes of constant thickness. 
In fact, it seems just as important to obtain correct diameter of 
pipes under small head as to obtain correct diameter of pipes under 
large head, especially in as much as a large majority of power plants 
with long penstocks are so constructed that the greatest length of 
penstocks is subjected to very low pressures, the pipe dropping 
quickly as it approaches the power house. Under this condition, 
the greatest total cost is for a portion of the pipe line which, though 
thin, is much thicker than that computed for static head (with 
proper factor of safety). These pipes are constructed with a 
specified minimum thickness and until this is exceeded, the thick- 
ness of the pipe is constant and the cost of the pipe will vary as 
the first power of the diameter instead of the second power as in 
the above example, 

yearly cost of pipe line = Ted 

But as the friction loss is independent of the pressure, the value of 
the power lost by friction is the same as that in the previous case. 
This change in the law of the variation of pipe cost has the effect 
of changing the function for minimum to 

w = fed + fc'd-5 (13) 

cl u 

rz fc— 5fc'(Z-6 = (14) 

dd 

or kd — 5fc'rf-5 (15) 

1 

.-. — kd — k'd-'' (16) 

5 

But kd is now the cost of the pipe and kd'^ is the same as before, 
(1. e,, the value of power lost in friction). Therefore, the result 
shows that the proper diameter of the pipe is that which will make 
one-fifth of the cost equal the value of the power lost by friction. 

Thus it is seen that the ratio of cost of lost power to cost of pipe 
is only one-half as great in the second case. This, of course, does 
not mean that twice as much may be spent for pipes of constant 
thickness. But it does mean that some additional expenditure 
should be made under this second condition, which expenditure will 
give somewhat increased diameter and thereby decrease the amount 
of power lost until the above relationship is established. 

Nor is the above treatment necessarily confined to these two 
simple cases. If the cost of the pipe does not vary as the second 
power, nor exactly as the first power, we need not conclude that 
the law of variation is no longer exponential. As long as the cost 
of pipe can be expressed as a constant times the diameter raised 
to any constant power, the above treatment can be applied. Under 
this condition 

Annual cost of pipe = Zed". 
The function to be placed a minimum is therefore 



730 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
u = kdn + fc'd-5 (17) 

= nkd''-i — k'd-^ = (18) 

dd 

.'. — k'W = k'd-^ (19) 

h 
or — kdn = k'd-^ (20) 

5 

This means that the correct diameter of pipe is that which makes 

n fifths of anual cost of pipe — cost of lost power, 
n is found from the relation of cost to diameter (for a constant 
head) as expressed above, n being the index of the power in kdn. 

The above case, of course, includes the other two cases, since 
the value of n may be 2, as in the first case, or 1, as in the second 
case. Or it may include all of the cases where n lies between 
these two values or exceeds them. The condition will always be 
that for minimum cost with values of n greater than 1, the case 
with which we are concerned. The application of the result is not 
even complicated by this general form of the statement. It is be- 
lieved that the mixed values of n present cases more of a practical 
nature than the two apparently more simple cases mentioned pre- 
viously. For example, the cost of high pressure steel pipe cited 
in the first investigation must be combined with all the accessory 
costs (if they do not remain constant with the different diameters 
of pipe). These costs do not neces.sarily vary with the same power 
of the diameter as does the cost of the simple pipe. Thus the total 
cost will no longer vary as the exact second power. Another im- 
portant case offering this apparent difficulty is that of the wood- 
stave pipe. The cost of wood-stave pipe (as related to its diameter) 
follows an exponential law in the ordinary case. But the value of 
the exponent is generally greater than 1, and yet smaller than 2. 

Fortunately, the exact value of the exponent n can always be 
determined by logarithmic plotting. The cost of various diameters 
of pipe being plotted as ordinates with the diameters as abscissae, 
the tangent of the slope of the line is the value of n. 

The use of the logarithmic sheet brings all cases to a common 
basis. Even those in which the index of the power is not exactly 
constant may be treated by this method since in the limits of any 
one problem, the variation of n is insignificant. Fig. 8 shows the 
entire variation of n for wood-stave pipes under 300 ft. head to be 
from 1.00 for 4-in. pipes to 1.58 for 54-in. pipes and practically that 
entire variation occurs at one point where the type of construction 
changes. (The lower value of w is for such small pipe and applies 
to so few commercial sizes that we may safely exclude them when 
dealing with wood pipe.) Fig. 9 for steel pipes, shows this same 
characteristic variation in n occurring at the diameter requiring 
increased thickness for the particular head for which the curve 
is drawn. The value of n for steel pipes changes abruptly from 1 
to 2 at this point as the value of n changes from 1 to 1.58 for 
wood-stave pipes. For our present purposes we are chiefly con- 
cerned with the fact that (above this critical point) the exponent 
n is constant for all diameters as long as the head is constant. 



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731 



732 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The exponent for wood pipe also changes with variation of head 
on the pipe. For example : Cost of pipes under very low head 
increases almost directly in proportion to the diameter, which 
means that the exponent is but slightly above 1. On the other hand, 
for very high heads, the cost increases almost as the square of 
the diameter placing the other limit of the exponent at 2. Between 
these two values, the variation is shown to be as represented by 
Fig. 10. These results were obtained by plotting actual cost of 
pipe as in Fig. 8 and are sufficiently accurate for application to 
practical cases. 

In computing the economical diameter by use of these exponents, 
the diameter is not sensitive to small variations in exponent. In 
view of this fact and also anticipating the fact that the diameter 




of any one pipe line should not vary throughout its length except- 
ing for moderately high heads, we are justified in using a single 
value of 1.5 for all heads between 50 ft. and the greatest head 
found practical for stave pipe. 

It is the writer's belief that an investigation involving these 
exponents is justified in the large majority of cases. This simple 
check will then eliminate the possibility of a false minimum being 
found graphically or algebraically by reason of local variation of 
points not located near the minimum. Much time may also be 
saved, providing the computor is familiar with his logarithmic 
sheet. For example, Fig. 11 shows the simple method of deter- 
mining the proper diameter when the law of variation is known. 
This plate is constructed for high head steel pipe carrying 100 cu. ft. 
per second and subjected to the following heads: 125 ft., 250 ft., 500 
ft., 1,000 ft. and 2,000 ft. One point was computed for actual 
annual cost at ten per cent, interest and depreciation, with steel at 
seven cents. The line was drawn with the proper slope (2 because 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 



n'i 



the pipe is steel) and the other four lines drawn with the same 
slope through points which increased in proportion to the head. 
Another point was computed for a check and the whole work was 
complete. This set of lines represents the actual cost of pipe for 
various diameters for all the foregoing heads. Another line is now 
drawn which represents two and one-half times the power lost by 
friction at $25 per h.p. The intersections indicate the correct 
diameter for their respective heads. 




Fig. 11. 



Even this operation is longer than necessary. We might compute 
the proper diameter for one head and knowing the law of variation 
of diameter with respect to head, construct the line which will give 
us the proper economical diameter for any head (same pipe or same 
quantity). For determining the law of variation of diameter with 
respect to head for the economical adjustment of steel pipe, we 
refer back to the expression for cost. 

Annual cost of pipe for constant head — kcP. 

Annual cost of pipe for constant diameter = k'h. 

Annual cost of pipe for varying head = k"hd'\ 

Value of power lost — kd-^. 

Therefore, k"hd^ = ckd-'^. 

Where c is a constant 5/2 for the particular case at hand. 

Therefore, h — kd^ where k is still another constant. 

From which d = kh-1/7. 



734 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



This means that the diameter of steel penstock for high heads 
(of varying thickness) varies inversely as the 7th root of the head. 
To show that this is correct, we will take the data from Fig 11 
and construct Fig. 12, with diameters as ordinates and heads as 
abscissae. The resulting line checks the above conclusion. It 
slopes downward to the right indicating inversely, and the slope is 
1 to 7 indicating the 7th root. The line might, therefore, have been 
just as easily drawn after computing one point. 

fOO 
90 
60 
^0 
©0 



50 



40 



z 
I 20 



10 

































































^'C-; o 










'^'Pe r.„.. 












^-^^^^^^-iii^^p^ 


5ec f^.,,,, 




*--- 


^^■^ua s,n.., p 


P (d-i.^.i) 


'"^ ■ 


IB 




















































































^^1 P,pf, p 










"" ' '_ 


'3_I0 C,. r^ 










— ^ — t^^;— 


;5£j^.M,tj — 








' 


=»* 


- ■ 




VARIATION OF Diameter _ 




■■^^^ 























































100 125 



250 



500 
HEAD 

Fig. 12. 



lOOO 



200Q* 



Even this operation need not be confined to the theoretical or the 
special case. The law of variation of cost when both head and 
diameter are considered may be expressed 

Cost of pipe = Kh^d^. 

The value of n has already been determined for a wood-stave 
pipe, m can be determined in a similar manner by plotting on 
logarithmic sheet. This logarithmic sheet is not shown, but the 
results of m for various heads (a mean of several diameters varia- 
tion being small) are .shown on Fig. 13. 

The.se results combined with those on Fig. 3 give all the in- 
formation necessary to determine the proper relation between diam- 
eter and head for wood-stave pipe. 



If. 



, Tch^'dr^ = Ck'd-^ ( 21 ) 



fe« = Ted' 
d = kh- 



.d =z kh- 



(22) 
(23) 

(24) 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 



735 



where fc is an unknown constant and x is the exponent of h repre- 
senting the law of variation of d. 

Fig. 14 shows values of x for various values of h. It will be 
seen that large values of x indicate small changes in diameter of 
pipe and vice versa, and when x is equal to infinity the diameter 
is constant for all heads (note that this comes from value of 
n = 1, the case for cost of pipe varying directly as diameter as in 
the case of steel pipe with constant thickness). 

The diameter not being sensitive to small changes in x, we may 
safely say that for heads under 100 ft. the pipe should remain 



600 
























r 


300 












f .' 


•S 








1 




,i' 








J 




100 









J 


/ 










/ 










Expo 


■>er,t (r 


r^J 





0? 04 06 
Fig. 13. 



0.8 1.0 



constant diameter its entire length regardless of head. And we 
can ju.st as safely say that for heads above 100 ft. and within the 
range of application of wood pipes, a constant value of x may be 
taken. The mean value 9 from Fig. 14 is correct for all practical 
purposes. Therefore, for wood pipes 100 ft. head or more, the 
diameter should vary inversely as the 9th root of the head. 

The operation of Fig. 11 was repeated for wood pipes on the 
assumption that all wood-stave pipes under pressure increase in 
cost (and therefore have their yearly cost increased) as expressed 
by the following 

Annual cost of pipe = fcd' ^ 



The diameters for various heads were then plotted and the slope 
found to be 1/9, thus verifying the previous conclusion. 

This law of variation for diameters with respect to head is now 
applicable to any pipe line under varying head regardless of value 
of water right and regardless of what use is made of the water. 



736 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



It means that for a given quantity of water and total loss of head, 
this particular variation of diameter will give the cheapest pipe. 

To show that this investigation is justifiable and not a mere 
theoretical hair splitting, take the following illustration. 

Let it be required to conduct 100 cu. ft. per second economically 
through 10,000 ft. of wood-stave pipe. Suppose the first half of 
the pipe is subjected to 100 ft. head and the remaining half to 300 ft. 



600 
^00 
^00 
300 
200 

too 

<0 










































^ 














1 




\ 














V 












\ 











Vcf/u&, 


5 Of 


A 





O 5 10 \5 20 

Fig. 14. 



25 



head. If after sufficient study it is found that 60 ft. is a per- 
missible loss, a too common practice would be to use a 42-in. pipe 
throughout the entire length. This pipe would cost the following 
amount : 

5,000 ft. of 42-in. pipe for 100-ft. head at $2.95 $14,750 

5,000 ft. of 42-in. pipe for 300-ft. head at $6.09 30,450 

Total $45,200 

But our rule says that the second half of this pipe should be 
smaller because it is under greater head an^ that the ratio of the 
two diameters (for wood pipe) should be 1:31/9. This ratio is 
1/1.13, which is the ratio of a 40-in. to a 45-in. pipe, and this 
combination of pipes gives practically the same friction loss. But 
the cost now is : 

5,000 ft. of 45-in. pipe for 100-ft. head at $3.20 $16,000 

5,000 ft. of 40-in. pipe for 300-ft. head at $5.60 28,000 

Total $44,000 

Thus it is shown that there is a saving of $1,200, which is 2^^ 
per cent, of the total cost of the pipe. 



HYDRO ELECTRIC PLANTS 



737 



To show this is not a mere local variation let us take other com- 
binations, 66-in. and 37-in., for example, which makes the total cost 
$52,250, or even 54 and 38, which costs $46,600, or the reversing 
of the correct combination making 45 and 40, which require a 
cost of $47,250. 

These results plotted to scale with ratio of diameters abscissae 
(see Fig. 15) show minimum cost to be plainly for the ratio 1.13 
which was originally chosen. In conclusion the following points 
may be summarized : 

(1) It is allowable to use the smallest possible pipe line for 
power when the water consumed has no value. This smallest pipe 
is the one which with a friction loss of one-third of the total head 
will deliver a quantity of water sufficient to produce the required 
power with the other two-thirds of the total head. 



52P00 



60.000 

•»8P00 -^- 
^6.000 -S- 
rt4,00C -<J- 



^2.000 



^aO.OOo 




Patio of Diam titers 



3*5 — 3^ To 

PMg. 15 



(2) If a pipe line is subjected to a varying head throughout its 
length, but the cost for any particular diameter remains constant 
for those various heads, the diameter should also remain constant 
throughout ; but if the cost of the pipe is different for the different 
heads, the diameter should be smaller for the larger head. The 
correct diameter under any particular head is that which will make 
n/5 of the cost of the pipe for a given length equal to the capitalized 
value of the power . consumed by friction in that same length, n 
being 2 for steel pipe and 1 V^ for wood-stave pipe, and for any pipe 
takes the index of d in the expression. 



Cost = Ted". 

With this diameter determined under one head, the diameter of 
the same pipe under any other head should vary inver.sely as the 
7th root of the head if the pipe is a high-pressure steel pipe, or as 
the 9th root of the head if the pipe is wood-stave. 

(3) If the quantity to be delivered is fixed, and the available 



738 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

friction loss is also fixed, as is the case with a pipe line connecting 
two reservoirs of fixed elevations, the diameter of the pipe should 
vary throughout the length of the same laws expressed above, the 
head to which the pipe is subjected being the static head for which 
the pipe is designed. 

Authors' Comment. One of the laws deduced by Mr. Harris may 
be stated thus : 

The diameter of a steel penstock for high heads (i. e., a " pres- 
sure j)ipe") should vary inversely as the seventh root of the head. 

Mr, Harris also proves that for a wood stave pressure pipe the 
diameter should vary inversely as the ninth root. 

Unfortunately the text of the article is considerably marred by a 
rather careless use of two important words — " value " and " cost." 
In fact, Mr. Harris uses these words indiscriminately, and he at- 
taches to the word " value " a meaning that really makes it synony- 
mous with profit. Unfortunately the conclusion is of a sort that 
might lead a young engineer entirely astray, as may be readily 
shown. Mr. Harris proves that the most "economic" (r= profit- 
able) diameter of penstock is secured when: 

" Two-fifths annual cost of pipe line equals yearly value of power 
consumed by friction." 

As stated by Mr. Harris, this law was previously deduced by Mr. 
A. Li. Adams. Search of the text of Mr. Harris' article discloses 
the fact that the word " value," as used in this law, means the 
profit derived from the sale of water power, for he says : 

" When the demand for power exceeds the supply, undeveloped 
water under head has at once a commercial value which should be 
approximately equal to the difference between the selling price of 
power and cost of production, where the cost of production in- 
cludes interest, depreciation, cost of operation, etc." 

Even this statement is not precise, for the " commercial value " 
of a water power is the capitalized annual profit derivable from it, 
and not the annual profit. 

A correct statement of the Adams law of pressure pipe diameter 
would be as follows : 

The most profitable diameter of pressure pipe is secured when 
two-fifths the annual cost of the pipe {exclusive of excavation and 
anchorage) equals the annual profit that might be derived from the 
energy consumed in pipe friction. 

In applying this law care should be taken to use the word profit 
in a proper sense. Profit is the difference between gross income 
and cost. Cost includes interest, depreciation, taxes, repairs and 
operating expenses. 

Care should also be taken to multiply the energy lost in pipe 
friction by the efficiency of the power generating machinery ; and, 
if the power is sold after transmission, the efficiency of transmission 
and transformation should also appear as a factor. 

Finally, if refinements are desired, consideration must be given 
to the fact that in a pressure pipe designed for peak load condi- 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANTS 739 

tions there will be much less loss of energy due to friction under 
average load than under peak load. 

In solving an illustrative problem, Mr. Harris makes use of 
logarithmic paper in an interesting manner, but his text does not 
agree with the chart, for the text speaks of plotting the annual 
cost of the pipe, whereas the chart shows its first cost. The text 
omits giving the length of the illustrative pipe line. It also speaks 
of the "value" of the power lost by friction as being $25 per h.p. 
Certainly the profit is rarely as much as $25 per h.p. year, whereas 
the value (i. e., capitalized annual profit) of water power is usually 
much more than $25 per h.p. 



CHAPTER X 

FIRST COST AND OPERATING EXPENSES OF COMPLETE 
ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 

Cross References. For a general discussion of the operating costs 
of an electric lighting plant, see the latter part of Chap. I. For 
data on depreciation, see Chap. II. See also Steam Power, Chap. 
VII. 

Graphical Analysis of Operating Costs into Fixed and Variable 
Expenses. Arthur Job'son, Electrical World, April 14, 1917. says: 
For a given power plant operating under normal conditions the 
unit cost of generating electric energy varies inversely as the kilo- 
watt-hour output. When the total monthly or yearly operating 
expense is assumed to vary directlj^ as the output, and uniformly, 
therewith, the expression for the unit cost may be represented by 

U = a/F-\-b (1) 

in which U is the cost In cents per kilowatt-hour, F the plant factor 
in per cent, (i.e., the ratio of the mean load for any period of time 
to the aggregate generator rating multiplied by 100), and a and b 
constants. 

If -K = aggregate generator rating in kilowatts, h = number of 
hours operated, and C — operating expense in dollars during the 
period of h hours, then, substituting in equation (1), C= [(a/F-\- 
b) XhX F/lOO X -R] -=- 100, or 

C = hR (a + bF) /lO*^ (2) 

In this expression hRa/lO^ represents the fixed operating expense 
in dollars for the period considered, and JiRbF /lO* represents that 
part of the operating expense varying with the station output. 

From these relations it may be seen that if the actual unit 
production costs are available and the unit costs are made to con- 
form with equation (1), the total operating expense may be sepa- 
rated into two components, one component being the fixed operating 
cost and the other that part of the operating cost varying directly 
with the kilowatt-hour output. The relative proportions of these 
costs will be characteristic of the particular type of plant and the 
conditions under which it may have been operating during the 
period covered by the analysis. This method of analysis is not 
only applicable to the total operating expense, but any part of such 
expense, as, for instance, the determination of the relative propor- 
tions of the fixed and variable expense required for fuel used in 
operation. 

740 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 74L 

Applications of this graphical method of analysis to actual data 
obtained from the operation of a small felectric plant are repre- 
sented in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The small circles platted in Figs. 1 and 
2 indicate average monthly switchboard production costs in cents 
per kilowatt-hour for the year 1915 and the first ten months of 
1916 respectively. Fig. 3 applies similarly to the cost of fuel in 
the operation of the same plant. The unit cost curve xy in Fig-. 1 
was determined In the following manner: 




V^ - ^ - T 


5-L _ _i_ IL 


^ i 


<».Ylp 41 


l^-^ Unfsp9r>rw-hr- W.^, /^^ . 


^ ' ' 1 


\ 


V 


v 




njiZ/C^^-ii- rT""^ 


J^mTiX ^ 


' ' ' 1 1 V 




"T ■ ^i ^ 


..s^ 


V 






_l 










i9ie ■ 










^S)^obl3^f^'''l- 





15 ^0 25 30 35 

Plont "ac^or 

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

Figs. 1-2. Cost of energy delivered to the switchboard at different 
plant factors. 



The 12 months of the year were divided into 2 groups, one group 
consisting of the 6 months having the lowest unit production costs, 
and the other group including the 6 months of highest similar costs. 
For each group the number of hours, kilowatt-hours generated and 
operating expense in dollars were totalized. From these the aver- 
age unit cost and corresponding plant capacity factor in per cent, 
were obtained for each group. These values determined the loca- 
tion of two points on the mean unit cost curve xy, and thus per- 
mitted calculation of the constants a and h in equation (1), after 
which the curve was plotted as shown. The corresponding curves 



742 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in Figs. 2 and 3 were determined in a similar manner. Equation 
(2) was then used to determine the average monthly variation in 
operating expense for corresponding plant factors within the range 
of the station output in kilowatt-hours. These expenses are repre- 
sented in the chart by means of straight lines. 

Space does not permit a very thorough discussion of these curves. 
They indicate a relatively larger component of fixed operating ex- 
pense than would be expected, even for the cost of fuel. It may 
be pointed out that the total expense in dollars does not include 
such fixed charges as interest on the investment, depreciation, in- 



05 



0^ 400 



% 0.^ t 300 

S.. ^ 



0.2 



200 



o 
0. ^ lOO 



, 


~ 


















"IT 








n 


r 


























1 1 ■ 
















\, 




/ 


Cents per Krt-hr' 


3.^ 


1-0.193 


















y 






































^ 


\<3 






































<E 


>\ 




s^ 






































0^ 


N 


'n 






















, 


:? 




- 












N 


k 


k 
















i<^i( 


, ^ 


r-' 














r 




^ 












,-■ 






























"" 




r« 


'< 


^ 


- 


















1 










L> 




/^/« 
















.^ 


U^ 


T9 


b 










■ 


— - 


— 













\^' 


-.\f 


D 






























u^ 


^^' 






























_^ 


■OC 


ll(Jf .- 






















(^ 


)i 


glto 


•'^ 


'' 


















\9l^ 






^ 


.' 


^B) 1916 


--^ 


=^ 


(a) 


Fiveri 


r.hnrr 




~^P^ 


r^ 




^-- 


.~" 












■ ~ 




J>T 


























_l :. \^ 


1^ 




^.- 


"■' 








^ 


FT- 


-' 


" 
































1 




























» 














— 

















to 



15 



30 



20 25 

Plant Factor 
Fig. 3. Cost of fuel with different plant factors. 



35 



surance, etc. The excessive fixed operating expense during the first 
ten months of the year 1916 may be attributed partly to the higher 
wages paid both for operation and maintenance and in part to a 
larger expenditure than is necessary under ordinary conditions 
for replacements. 

Output of Large Generating Systems. Table I from Electrical 
World, April 7, 1917, shows the peak load, date of same, yearly 
output in kw.-hrs. and yearly load factors of the largest generating 
systems of the country. 

Relation of Peak Load to Capacity. The following figures re- 
late to steam-electric plants and were compiled from the reports of 
officials of the companies. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 743 

Edison Electric Illuminating Co., of Boston. From 1905 to 1914 
the rated plant capacity increased from 35,400 kw. to 116,400 kw. 
with the average 74,255 kw. The peak load increased from 26,311 
kw. to 65,092 kw., average 45,852 kw. The ratio of peak to capacity 
ranged from a minimum of 54.8% in 1909 to a maximum of 74.4% 
in 1905. the average being 63.3%. 

Mobile Electric Co., Mobile, Ala. From 1909 to 1912 the rated 
plant capacity was 3,595 kw. and the peak load increased from 2900 
to 3190 kw., the average ratio of peak to capacity being 85%. In 

1913 and 1914 the rated plant capacity was increased to 6,595 kw., 
the peak load being 3150 and 3081 kw. for the 2 yrs., thus bringing 
the average ratio down to 47% for that period. 

Muskogee Gas & Electric Co., Muskogee, Okla. The rated plant 
capacity was 4,600 kw. from 1912 to 1914. The peak load was 
3,000, 2.300, and 2,200 kw. during that time, thus making the ratio 
of peak to capacity 65, 50 and 48%. 

Oklahoma Gas & Electric Co., Oklahovia City. In 1912, 1913 
and 1914 the rated plant capacity was 5,650 kw. ; the peak load 
3,864, 3,467, and 3,480 kw. ; the ratio 68, 61 and 627^. 

Ottumwa Railway and Light Co., Ottumwa, la. From 1908 to 

1914 the rated plant capacity was 1600 kw. ; the peak load aver- 
aged 1380 kw. with a minimum of 1175 kw. in 1909 and a maxi- 
mum of 1720 kw. in 1913; the ratio averaged 86, minimum 73, 
maximum 107. 

San Diego Consolidated Gas <& Electric Co., San Diego, Cal. The 
average rated plant capacity was 4,720 kw, from 1906 to 1914, it 
being 1,220 kw. in 1906 and 12,470 kw. in 1914; the average peak 
load was 3,195 kw., increasing from 918 kw. in 1906 to 7,075 kw. 
in 1914. The average ratio, peak to capacity, was 68, the minimum 
being 57 in 1914 and the maximum 116 in 1D08. 

The Edison Illuminating Company of Detroit. From 1905 to 
1914 the rated plant capacity increased from! 13,200 kw. to 90,500 
kw. ; the peak load from 10,300 kw. to .83,300 kw. The ratio aver- 
aged 81%, being 62% in 1908 and 100% in 190.6. 

Union Gas and Electric Co., Fargo, S. D. The rated plant capa- 
city was 1,860 kw. from 1911 to 1914. The peak load averaged 
1551 kw. and the ratio 84%. 

Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago. The rated plant capacity 
was 65,748 kw. in the winter of 1905-6 and 364.250 kw. in 1914-15, 
averaging 210,244 kw. ; the peak load was 53,810 kw. in 1905-6 
and 306,200 kw. in 1914-15; the ratio averaged 79%, being 66% in 
1907-8 and 86% in 1911-12 and 1913-14. 

Eastern Pennsylvania Lt., Heat, <& Pwr. Co., Pottsville, Pa. From 
1910 to 1915 the rated plant capacity was 4,130 kw. ; the peak load 
increased from 3,010 kw. to 4,620 kw., averaging 4. ,000 kv/. ; the 
ratio was 73% in 1910 and 112% in 1914 and 1915, averaging 97%. 
Maximum load given for period of about 5 minutes. 

Proportions of Steam and Hydro-Electric Equipment to Load. 
The following data were compiled from reports from officials of 
the companies, and are for the year 1915. 

Great Western Power Co., San Francisco. Rated capacity, steam, 



744 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



CO 

H 

m 
>^ 
m 

M 
< 

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t3 



<MT-(iHiMe<IrSrHrHrHCgiH 



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.Jl Pplplii^ipllllll 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



746 



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746 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

31,000 kw. ; hydro, 50,000 kw., total 80,000 k\v. Ratio of steam to 
hydro, 62%; to steam plus hydro, 38%. It was planned to increase 
the hydro capacity to 60,000 kw., making the above ratios 52% 
and 34%, considered more desirable. 

Puget Sound Traction, L. & P. Co., Seattle, Wash. Rated capa- 
city, steam; 19,950 kw. ; hydro, 57,750 kw. total: 77.700 kw. Ratio 
of steam to hydro, 35%; to steam plus hydro, 26%. Peak load, 
60,500 kw. Ratio of peak to capacity, 70%. Ratio of steam capa- 
city to peak, 33%. Steam plant on overload will carry 40% of peak 
which was considered satisfactory. 

Utah Power & Light Co., Salt Lake City. Rated capacity, steam, 
25,400 kw. ; hydro, 85,305 kw., total, 110,705 kw. Ratio of steam 
to hydro, 30%; to steam plus hydro, 23%. Peak load, 45,064 kw. 
Ration of peak to capacity, 41%. Ratio of steam capacity to peak, 
56%. This last was considered high but not unreasonable. Ratio 
of steam peak to steam capacity. 59%. 

Analysis of Kilowatt- Hour Costs of Combination System. The 
accompanying data on the generating system and energy costs of 
the Pacific Gas & Electric Company, San Francisco, Cal., abstracted 
from Electrical World, August 2, 1913, were brought out during a 
recent rate investigation by the San Francisco Board of Super- 
visors' committee on lighting and rates: 



COST DETAILS. PACIFIC GAS & ELECTRIC COMPANY 

Cost of generation, on basis of 72,160,908 

kw.-hr. : Perkw.-hr. 

Maintenance of generating capital $45,813.57 $0.0006349 

Generating expenses 530,770.98 .0073554 

Taxes 110,247.48 .0015278 

Fire insurance 62,018.16 .0008594 

Casualty insurance 43,714.67 .0006058 

Floating debt, interest 2,480.75 .0000344 

General administrative expense 94,811.10 .0013153 

$889,956.71 $0.0123330 

Cost of distribution, on basis of 66,957,215 
kw.-hr. : 

Maintenance of distribution capital ... .$123,296.29 $0.0018414 

Outside work 186,669.26 .0027879 

Statements and collections 34,551.94 .00051(50 

Office 106,976.93 .0015977 

New business 67,706.94 .0010112 

Sundry expenses ... 31,867.07 .0001759 

Uncollectible accounts 17.601.07 .0002631 

$568,669.50 $0.0084932 
Interest : 

Joint capital, $3,539,903.91 at 7% $247,793.27 $0.0034339 

S. F. capital, $6,853,872.68, at 7% 479,771.08 .0071653 

$0.0105992 
Depreciation, 25-year annuity, at 7%: 

.Joint capital, $2,523,459.52 $39,897.16 $0.0005959 

S. F. capital, $4,868,808.43 76.978.30 .0011496 

$0.0017455 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 747 

SUMMARY OF COST OF ELECTRICITY 

Maintenance of capital $0.0024763 

Generation 0073554 

Distribution 00665.1 8 

Overhead expense 0043426 

Interest i' 0105992 

Depreciation 0017455 

Total $0.0331708 

Deduct revenue from minimum charge, $11,972.63 0001788 

Net cost per kw.-hr $0.0329920 

The steam plants of the Pacific Gas & Electric Company produce 
about 78,000,000 kw.-hrs., in addition to which 19,000.000 kw.-hrs. 
is received from the hydroelectric stations of the system. Of the 
97,000,000 kw.-hrs. thus available at the switchboard it is estimated 
that 31%, or 30,000,000 kw.-hrs., is lost in distribution, in addition 
to 150,000 kw.-hrs. consumed by the company itself, leaving 66,- 
957,215 kw.-hrs. as the basis for figuring cost of distribution. To 
nearby hydroelectric lines the company sells, however, about 5,200,- 
000 kw.-hrs., making a total generation of 72,160,908 kw.-hrs. (to 
be exact), which is taken as the basis for calculating unit gener- 
ating cost. 

Operating and Cost Data for Electric Railway Power Stations. 
Electrical World, October 28, 1916. The data in table IT are a 
summary of similar information compiled for seven electric railway 
power stations by the power generation committee of the American 
Electric Railway Engineering Association and presented in its re- 
port at the convention held at Atlantic City, N. J., Oct. 9-13, 1916. 
The information was secured from typical power stations in vari- 
ous parts of the country, some of which employ large modern 
turbines, others combined low-pressure turbines and reciprocating 
engines, and still others all reciprocating engines. The range in 
rating is from 6000 kw. to 65,000 kw. The committee pointed out 
in pi'esenting these data that to obtain a fair comparison of operat- 
ing efficiencies and costs which may be generally applied, a much 
greater amount of information should be obtained in each case, such 
as daily load curves, labor costs for various classes of work, facili- 
ties for receiving and disposing of coal and water, cooling water 
limitations, etc. The data, however, give in a general way the 
tendencies in regard to electric railway station performance under 
varying conditions of load factor, fuel cost and types of equipment. 

In commenting upon these data, L. P. Crecilius, Cleveland (Ohio) 
Railway Company, pointed out that there is less than 5% difference 
in expense between the operation of the best modern turbine plant, 
according to data furnished by the committee, and that of an old 
direct-current engine plant. The reason given was that most of 
the remaining power stations of this character were built fifteen 
to eighteen years ago and located without suitable regard for water 
facilities. It was of prime importance to locate these stations 
more with regard to accommodating the low-tension distribution 
systems because of the restriction imposed by the 600-volt equip- 



'48 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 





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750 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ment. The range of usefulness of this type of plant was limited 
to a radius of less than 15,000 ft., making- it impossible to serve 
the average railway system from a single plant. The rating of 
such plants was confined to about 1200 kw. The addition of low- 
pressure turbines coupled to direct-current generators has in a few 
cases prolonged somewhat the effective life of such plants, but taken 
as a whole, the continued expansion and growth of electric rail- 
way systems has outdistanced this type of station because of its 
inflexibility. 

Labor Costs of Operation in Street Railway Power Plants. The 
following costs were taken from tables in Data, November, 1913, 
and February, 1914, by C. C. Moore & Co. 



ALTERNATING CURRENT PLANTS 

No. of men and rate per month 

Size of plant, kw. 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 

Chief engineer 1-$125 1-$125 1-$125 1-$125 

Ass't engineer 

Watch engineer 2- 100 2- 100 2- 100 2- 100 

Boiler room engineer 

Oilers 3- 60 4- 60 4- 60 4- 65 

Fireman j ^- |^ | ^3 ^^ 3- 70 3- 75 

Boiler cleaners 1- 65 1- 70 U" JJ U~ \\ 

Wipers 2- 60 2- 60 2- 60 2- 60 

Generator men 2-60 2-70 2-70 2-70 

Total cost of labor per year $12,180 $13,200 $14,940 $15,240 

Cost of labor per kw. per yr. $6.09 $5.28 $4.98 $3.81 

Cost of labor inr?0.25(a) .00278 .00241 .00227 .00174 

l^ii?r« ^^r vi, -SSi/^ .00209 .00181 .00171 .00130 

^^^t li^^ f^^'i -50 .00139 .00121 .00114 .00087 

fn^Q Tinta^ -75 .00093 .00090 .00076 .00058 

tors noiea . . . . . [^ -^ qq .00070 .00060 .00057 .00043 

Sizeof plant, kw.-hr. 5,000 7,500 10,000 15,000 20,000 

Chief engineer 1-$135 1-$135 1-$150 l-$200 l-$250 

Ass't engineer 1-120 1-125 2-125 

Watch engineer 3-100 3- 110 2- 120 5- 110 5- 110 

Boiler room engineer 1- 90 1- 90 1- 100 1- 100 

Oilers 5- 65 8- 65 10- 65 15- 65 20- 65 

Firemen 3- 75 5- 75 6- 75 10- 75 12- 75 

Boiler cleaners [3- 65 6- 65 7- 65 10- 65 | 2- 70 

U- 70 UO- 65 

Wipers 3- 60 3- 60 4- 60 6- 60 8- 60 

Water tenders 3- 75 3- 75 6- 75 

Electricians 1- 90 1- 90 

Switchboard men 1- 75 2- 80 {i~ H ^~ ^^ ^~ ^^ 

Generator men f 1- 65 3- 65 2- 65 3- 65 5- 65 

12- 70 

^, , 1 7n il- 65 fl- 65 (2- 65 

^^^rks 1- 70 {i_ 70 {i_ 70 ^i_ 70 

Total labor cost, year. .. $20,520 $29,340 $37,560 $55,320 $71,280 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 751 



Labor cost, per kw. per yr. $4-10 

0.25(a) .00187 

.331/3 .00141 

.50 .00094 

.75 .00062 

1.00 .00047 



Cost of labor 
in dollars per 
kw.-hr. at load 
factors noted 



$3.91 


$3.76 


$3.69 


$3.56 


.00179 


.00172 


.00168 


.00163 


.00134 


.00129 


.00126 


.00122 


.00089 


.00086 


.00084 


.00081 


.00060 


.00057 


.00056 


.00054 


.00045 


.00043 


.00042 


.00041 



(a) Yearly plant load factor based on 365 days, 24 hours per 
day, 8760 hours per year. 

All plant under 4000 k.w. capacity are operated continuously for 
20 hours per day, two 10-hour shifts. 

DIRECT CURRENT PLANTS 



No. of men and rate per month 



Size of plant, kw. 100 

Chief engineer l-$85 

Watch engineers 1-80 

Oilers 

Firemen 1-60 

Boiler cleaners 

Wipers 

Generator men 

Total cost of labor per yr $2,700 

Cost of labor per kw.. per yr. . . $27.00 

r 0.25(a) .01233 

Cost of Ikbor in dol- .33V^ .00925 

lars per kw-hr. at^ .50 .00616 

load factors noted .75 .00410 

[ 1.00 .00308 



200 


250 


300 


.-$85 
.- 80 


l-$85 
1- 80 


l-$90 
1- 80 



60 



1- 60 



1- 60 



$2,700 $2,700 $2,760 



$13.70 
.00616 
.00462 
.00308 
.00205 
.00154 

750 
l-$90 
1- 85 

1- 60 

2- 70 



Size of plant, kw. 400 500 

Chief engineer l-$90 l-$90 

Watch engineers 1-80 1-85 

Oilers 1-60 

Firemen 1-60 1-60 

Boiler cleaners 

Wipers 1-60 1-60 

Generator men 

Total cost of labor per 

yr $3,480 

Cost of labor per kw. 

per yr $8.70 $8.52 $6.96 

0.25(a) .00397 .00389 .00318 

.331,^ .00289 .00292 .00238 

.50 .00199 .00195 .00159 

.75 .00132 .00130 .00106 

1.00 .00099 .00097 .00079 



$10.80 
.00493 
.00370 
.00247 
.00164 
.00123 

1,000 
1-$110 

1- 90 

2- 60 

2- 70 



1- 60 2- 60 



$9.20 
.00420 
.00315 
.00210 
.00140 
.00105 

1,500 
1-$120 

1- 90 

2- 60 
2- 70 

1- 65 

2- 60 
2- 60 



Cost of labor 
in dollars per 
kw-hr. at load 
factors noted 



$4,260 $5,220 $6,960 



$6.96 

.00318 

.00238 

.00159 

.00106 

.00079 



$9,300 



$6.20 

.00283 

.00212 

.00142 

.00094 

.00071 



(a) — Yearly plant load factor based on 365 days, 24 hours per 
day = 8,760 hours per year. 

Note: All the above plants are operated continuously for 20 
houns, two 10 -hour shifts. 



Relation of Unit Labor Costs to Size of Plant for Central Station 
Work. Howard S. Knowlton published in the Engineering Maga- 
zine, Sept., 1909, the following table. 

The force at Plant A consisted of 6 engineers, 8 firemen, and 8 
engineroom and switchboard attendants in the total 24 hours. The 
generating equipment included 6 125-h.p., 2 350-h.p., and 4 400-h.p. 



752 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE OF LABOR COSTS IN SELECTED CENTRAL STATIONS 



Plant 



Appx. 

kw. 
rating 



A 6,000 

B 5,000 

C 4,000 

D 2,000 

E 2,000 

F 1,250 

G 950 

H 700 

I 630 



Total 
station 
wages 

$25,937 
20,920 
19,429 
9,954 
9,663 
6,844 
8,771 
6,669 
5,017 



Kw.-hrs. 
manuf d. 



8,776,165 
6,043,204 
5,400,192 
3,288,623 
4,305,003 
1,470,066 
1,479,898 
889,760 
730,458 



Total 
mfg. 



Labor 
cost 
per 



cost 
per 



0.296 

0.346 

0.36 

0.302 

0.224 

0.465 

0.595 

0.750 

0.685 



cts. 
1.21 
1.23 
1.24- 
1.42 
1.27 
1.56 
2.05 
2.34 
1.80 



22 

20 

28 

11 

13 

8 

7 

8 



boilers; 1 1,000-h.p. and 3 900-h.p. engines, horizontal compound 
condensing type; and 2 1500-kw. vertical steam turbines. A con- 
siderable proportion of the 15 generators in the station were belt- 
driven. The station design when the figures were taken was un- 
favorable to labor economy. 

Plant B was a modern station with economical direct-connected 
machinery, and had 6 400-h.p. boilers, 1 300-h.p., 1 2250-h.p., and 2 
750 h.p. engines, all of the vertical cross-condensing type. The 
force consisted of 4 engineers, 3 oilers, 1 wiper, 4 switchboard men, 
6 firemen and 2 coal passers. Probably this plant was somewhat 
over-manned. 

Plant C was a process of evolution from the belt-connected to the 
direct-coupled stage, much of the transformation having been ac- 
complished. The equipment consisted of 12 250-h.p. boilers, hand- 
fired. 1 1500-kw. vertical turbo-alternator, 1 30u-h.p., 1 600-h.p., 
1 1200-h.p. and 1 1800-h.p. cross-compound condensing engines. 
The electric generators were 11 in number, 4 being used tem- 
porarily for arc service. The force consisted of 4 engineers, 5 
firemen, 16 engine-room and electrical operating men, and 3 ma- 
chinists. The size of the force is undoubtedly due to the design 
of the station. The plant covered a large floor space and is elec- 
trically sub-divided so that not all the switchboard apparatus can 
be covered from any one point. 

Plant D is of almost the same ^iesign as Plant B, but of much 
smaller capacity. Here the labor requirements have been care- 
fully worked out with consequent results. The force consisted of 
4 engineers, 3 oilers, 3 firemen, and 1 helper. The plant had 5 
boilers of 258 h.p. each, and the following generating units, all direct 
connected: 1 600-h.p. engine, 1 900-h.p. engine, and 1 1500-h.p, 
engine, all vertical cross-compound condensing units. The switch- 
board was a compact hand-operated structure, centrally located on 
the engine-room floor. The boilers were hand-fired. 

Plant E got its principal load from an adjacent street-railway 
system. The force consisted of 3 engineens, 3 firemen. 2 coal pass- 
ers and 5 helpers. The boilers were 1 125-h.p., and 9 150-h.p. units, 
and engine sizes were 2 400-h.p, simple engines, and 1 100-h.p., 1 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



753 



1250-h.p., and 1 200-h.p., and 1 800-h.p. compound condensing 
units, with 15 generators. 

Plant F had 4 boilers aggregating 1000 h.p. and 3 horizontal 
cross-compound condensing direct-connected engines rated respect- 
ively at 240, 450 and 1000 h.p. The force consisted of 4 engineers 



■cooo 

5700 
5400 
GlOO 
1800 
4500 














































































































I • 


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■ \ 




















3900 
3600 
3300 
3000 
2700 
2400 
2100 
1800 
1500 
1200 
900 
600 
300 


































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6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *5 60 55 CO £5 TO 1 
Hun(>edths of a Cent The Engineering ilaaazine \ 



Fig. 3A. Curve of approximate relation between station capacity 
and cost of wages. 



and 4 firemen, and the conditions generally were favorable to the 
economy of labor, but the plant was handicapped by a small yearly 
output, being located in suburban town with little opportunity to 
develop a substantial motor load. 

Station G was of combined eng^ine and steam turbine equipment. 



754 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

well maintained, with moderate sized units of both belted and 
direct-connected type. 4 boilers of 678 total rated h.p., with 2 
horizontal cross-compound condensing- engines of 175 and 350 h.p. 
and a 500-kw. vertical steam-turbo alternator. The operating force 
consisted of 3 engineers, 2 firemen, and 2 electrical attendants. 

Station H included 3 horizontal cross-compound condensing en- 
gines, rated at 250 h.p. and a 211-h.p. simple engine, fed by 4 
boilers aggregating 600 h.p. in capacity. The force consisted of 3 
engineers, 2 oilers and 3 firemen. 

Plant I was equipped with 3 engines and 6 generators, with a 
liberal proportion of belted units, 3 boilers aggregating 550 h.p., 
and all the engines were of the cross-compound condensing type, 2 
being rated at 250 h.p., and one at 125 h.p. 3 engineers and 3 
firemen did the work. 

Fig. 3a shows the relation between station capacity and the cost 
of wages. 

Plants D and E are doing much better than the average and 
show what can be accomplished with even a medium capacity in- 
stallation. 

The following table from the above figures gives the plant capa- 
city and labor cost per kw. unit. 

TABLE OF PLANT CAPACITY AND LABOR COST 

Approx. kw. per Station wages per 

Plant station employee kw. station capacity 

A 272 $4.31 

B 250 4.18 

C 136 5.10 

D 182 4.97 

E 154 4.83 

F 157 5.45 

G 136 9.25 

H 87.5 9.52 

I 105 7.95 

Cost of Generating Electric Power for Operating tine Elevated 
and Subway Cars in Manhattan, New York City. The Interborough 
Rapid Transit Co. operates both the subway and the Manhattan 
elevated, and generates some 400,000,000 kw.-hrs. of electricity 
annually. The following data as to the cost of producing this power 
were deduced from their annual report for 1908 and published in En- 
gineering and Contracting, Apr. 27, 1910. There are 2 power 
plants, and the following is their total equipment and rated ca- 
pacity : 

Station equipment: 

Boilers, 130 units 72,880 hp. 

Superheaters, 1 2 units 9,744 hp. 

Economizers, 36 units 261,040 hp. 

Steam engines, 17 units 131,500 hp. 

Turbo-generators. 4 units 10.250 kw. 

Generators (direct A. C), 17 units 85,000 kw. 

Station tran.sformers, 12 units 2,625 kw. 

Storage battery cells, 240 units 2,000 amphr. 

Rotaries, 3 units 2,400 kw. 

Exciters, 9 units 2,250 kw. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 755 

Substation equipment: 

Rotary converters, 84 units 126,000 kw. 

Transformers, 252 units 138,600 kw. 

Miscellaneous, 39 units 2,109 kw. 

There were 402,084,635 kw.-hrs. produced, of which all was used 
to operate the subway and elevated railways except 10.181,000 
kw.-hrs. which were sold. The selling price ranged from 1.25 to 3.5 
cts. per kw.-hr., depending on the amount consumed. 

" Shop Expense," and " Undistributed Expense," are charged to 
maintenance of rolling stock as well as power plant, so we have 
roughly prorated these items to the power plant maintenance, 
although it is by no means certain exactly how they should be 
charged. 

" Buildings and Fixtures," probably includes a considerable sum 
spent on buildings other than power plant buildings, and this should 
be borne in mind when considering the following unit costs : 

Cts. per 

Maintenance : kw-hr. 

Electric line 0.037 

Buildings and fixtures 0.048 

Steam plant 0.050 

Electric plant 0.013 

Shop expense 0.019 

Undistributed expense 0.004 

Total maintenance 0.171 

Operation of power plant : 

Wages 0.105 

Fuel. 2,835 lb. at $2.95 per ton 0.353 

Water 0.032 

Lubricants and waste 0.009 

Miscel. supplies and expenses 0.020 

Undistributed expense 0.021 

Total operation of power plant 0.540 

Total maintenance and operation 0.7 11 

General expense (514%) : 0.039 

Grand total 0.750 

Although the item of " General Expense " amounted to 10.7% of 
the total operating expenses of the Interborough Rapid Transit Co., 
nearly half this general expense was due to damages and legal 
expenses. Eliminating these, the general expense would not amount 
to more than 5.5%, so we have estimated it on that basis. 

The cost of the power plant (55,000 kw.) and transmission line 
of the subway is reported to have co.st as follows : 

Electric transmission lines % 83 

Buildings and fixtures 83 

Power plant equipment 112 

Real estate 25 

Total $303 

This is a high unit cost for the transmission lines and the build- 
ings. Since the 95,000 kw. plant (subway and elevated) produced 
402,084,000 kw.-hrs., each kw. produced 4,243 kw.-hrs, during the 



756 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 

year. Since there are 8,760 hrs. in a year, the plant operated under 
an average load factor of 4,243 ^ 8,760 = 48.5%. 

Assuming', for illustration, that the first cost of each kw. of 
plant was $300, and that interest was 6%, we should have $18 in- 
terest. This divided by 4,243 kw.-hrs. gives 0.42 cts. per kw.-hr. to 
be charged to interest on investment, which, added to the 0.75 cts. 
maintenance and plant operation, gives a grand total of 1.17 cts. 
per kw.-hr. The maintenance of plant and transmission line cost 
0.17 ct. per kw.-hr., which is equivalent to only 2.5% on a plant 
whose first cost is $300 per kw. 

If we consider only the power plant equipment ($112 per kw.), 
the maintenance was 0.086 ct. per kw.-hr. Since each kw. produced 
4,240 kw.-hrs., this is equivalent to 4,240 X 0.086 ct. = $3.65 per 
kw. for power ])lant equipment maintenance. Since this is less than 
3.3% of $112, the first cost, it is evident that these maintenance 
costs are far below what they will be a few years hence, when 
the plant is older. The elevated railway power plant was put in 
operation in 1904, and the subway in 1905. 

There were 2,385 lbs. of bituminous coal used per kw.-hr., and 
the price was $2.95 per ton of 2,000 lbs. 

The Interborough Rapid Transit Co. had the following number 
of employes operating both the subway and the elevated during 
the year ending June 30, 1908: 

General office staff: 

467 employes general office staff $657,024 

Transportation : 

106 Train clerks and dispatchers. 

21 Starters. 

11 Depot masters. 

686 Ticket agents. 

740 Gatemen and platform men. 

2,173 Guards. 

530 Conductors. 

595 Motormen. 

358 vSwitchmen, flagmen and yardmen. 

1,198 Road and track men. 

302 Station porters and watchmen. 

2 Other employes. 



6,722 Total transportation , $4,517,304 

Power : 

32 Engineers. 

104 Oilers. 

19 Wipers. 

122 Firemen (stoker operators). 

22 Coal passers. 
30 Water tenders. 

23 Ashmen. 

32 Boiler cleaners. 
89 Dynarno and switchboard men. 
30 Electricians. 
23 I.,inemen. 
246 Other power plant employes. 

722 Total power , 578,493 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 757 

Car houses and shops : 
189 Car cleaners. 

22 Lamp trimmers. 
169 Car house men. 

48 Other car house employes. 
210 Carpenters. 

38 Blacksmiths. 

94 Machinists. 
114 Machinists' helpers. 

3 Brass moulders. 
208 Electrical helpers, -- 

155 Painters. 
310 Other shop employes. 

1,560 Total car house and shops $ 857,900 

9,521 Grand total 6,610,722 

This is equivalent to an average wag-e of $13.40 per employe per 
week. 

Car miles 

Rapid Transit Subway 44.005.213 

Manhattan Ry. Co. (Elevated) 64,584,609 

Total, Interborough Rapid Tr. Co 108,589,822 

Since 391,900,000 kw.-hrs. were generated for 108.589,822 car 
miles, it required 3.6 kw.-hrs. per car mile, at an average speed of 
16.08 miles per hr. (including stops). There were 4.45 passengers 
per car mile, or 71.57 passengers per car hour. 

Cost of Generating and Distributing Electricity for Lighting and 
Power. The following data are based upon the report of the New 
York Edison Co., for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1907, as pub- 
lished in Engineering and Contracting, May 11, 1910. 

Plant. — There are 8 generating stations having a total rated 
capacity of 108,300 kws., but 2 of these stations .supply nearly 80% 
of the current. There are 23 substations of 93,750 kws. capacity. 
The details of the plant equipment are as follows : 

Station equipment: 

144 boilers, water tube 76,382 hp. 

45 superheaters 29,250 hp. 

30 steam engines, direct connected 82,900 hp. 

5 steam engines, belted 1,725 hp. 

9 turbo-units, a.c 53,500 kw. 

21 generators, direct connected, a.c 93,000 kw. 

34 generators, direct connected, d.c 14,100 kw. 

3 generators, belt connected, a.c 900 kw. 

2 generators, belt connected, d.c 300 kw. 

10 excitens, motor driven 1,400 kw. 

3 exciters, steam driven 225 kw. 

2 X 140 storage battery cells 12,000 ah. 

2 station transformers 2,500 kw. 

1 frequency changer 1,000 kw. 

Substation equipment : 

100 rotary converters, etc 93,750 kw. 

276 transformers for rot'aries 108,735 kw. 

32 by 150 storage battery cells, 3 hr. rate 192,000 ah. 

The company had 70,533 meters and 34,531 arc lamps in service, 
of which lamps it owned about half, and 2,655,085 incandescent 



758 MECHMICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

lamps. In round numbers there were the following amounts of 
circuits : 

Million 

Ft. of mil. ft. 

circuit of wire 

Direct current (imderground) 10,183,000 4,619,000 

Alternating- current (underground) 1,000,000 179,000 

Alternating current (overhead) 1,096,000 794,000 



Total 12,279,000 5,592,000 

There were 639,735 lin. ft. of streets occupied by pole lines. The 
underground wires occupied conduits rented from other companies, 
a rental of $1,000 per mile of single 3-in. duct per year being paid; 
aggregating a total of $845,000. This is an enormous rental, but it 
should be remembered that the Edison Co. controls the companies 
from which it rents the conduits. 

The company owned 74,169 meters, the first cost of which is not 
reported. The Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn owned 18,088 
meters whose first cost averaged $18.40 each. 

The company owned the following lamps : 

1,957 arc — a.c. inclosed. 
13,806 arc — d.c, inclosed. 
1,813 Nernst. 
6,522 Glowers. 

The total number of arc lamps on its circuits Dec. 31, 1907, was 
34,547, and the total number of incandescents was 3,056,777. 

There were 299,172,431 kw.-hrs. produced (at the switchboard) 
and 209,024,002 kw.-hrs. sold (at the meters), showing a distribution 
loss of 30%. 

Since the plant capacity was 108,300 kws. and since there are 
8,760 hrs. in a year, the total capacity was 950,708,000 kw.-hrs. 
Therefore the plant factor was 299,172,431 -h 950,708,000 = 31.5%. 
Each kw. produced 2.760 kw.-hrs. at the switchboard during the 
year, of which 70%., or 1,932 kw.-hrs., was sold. 

The operating expenses per kw.-hr. produced (at the switch- 
board) were as follows: 

Cents per 

Production expense : kw-hr. 

Salaries 0.012 

Labor 0.171 

Fuel 0.406 

Oil, waste and sundries 0.018 

Water 0.045 

Repairs, buildings and structures 0.012 

Repairs, motive power 0.070 

Repairs, electric apparatus 0.007 

Station expen.se 0.008 

Purchased power 0.025 

Total production expense 0.774 

Distribution expense : ' 

Salaries 0.021 

Substation labor and expense 0.050 

Rental of conduits, etc 0.339 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 759 

Cents per 
kw-hr. 

Incandescent lamp renewals 0.147 

Wiring and jobbing . 0.047 

Repairing and maintaining str. lamps 0.023 

Repairs, substation buildings and apparatus 0.068 

Repairs, poles and lines 0.007 

Repairs, subways and cables 0.01.9 

Repairs, meters 0.074 

Repairs and expense commercial lamps 0.004 

Total distribution expense . . . . 0.799 

General expense : 

Salaries of officers 0.017 

Office salaries 0.113 

Office expenses 0.098 

Legal expenses 0.039 

Advertising and soliciting 0.073 

Insurance 0.040 

Engineering and testing 0.026 

Leaseholds, rentals, etc 0.016 

Total general expense 0.422 

Taxes 0.235 

Uncollectible bills 0.011 

Depreciation and contingent expense 0.575 

Grand total 2.816 

The cost of operation was as follows per kw.-hr. produced (at 
the switchboard) and per kw.-hr. sold: 

Cents per kw-hr. 

Produced Sold 

Production expense 0.78 1.11 

Distribution expense 0.80 1.14 

General expense 0.42 0.61 

Taxes , , 0.24 0.34 

Uncollectible bills 0.01 0.02 

Depreciation, contingency and renewal 0.57 0.82 

Total 2.82 4.04 

In considering these costs, it should be remembered that 35% of 
the " Distribution Expense " is due to the rental paid for conduits 
at an exceedingly high rate. 

The item of " Depreciation and Contingencies " is worthy of 
special note, as it aggregates the large sum of $1,721,413. Of this 
sum $594,735 was actually charged off for depreciation, the balance 
going to a " contingency and renewal fund," which, so far as can 
be ascertained from the report, is but another name for a depre- 
ciation fund. 

The report does not show what the plant actually cost, but it 
does show that $43,417,883 bonds have been issued, which doubt- 
less represents approximately the actual cost, or about $400 per 
kw. capacity. Possibly additions, paid for out of earnings, have 
increased the cost to $500 per kw. 

As throwing light on what such a plant may actually cost in 
New York City, the following data relative to the United Electric 
Total efficiency 56 



760 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Light and Power Co. will serve. This company was Incorporated 
in 1887, and on June 30, 1907, it was operating 4 generating sta- 
tions of a combined capacity of 10,200 kws. Its cost of construc- 
tion and equipment was as follows : 

Per kw. 

Land for generating stations $ 22 

Land for substations 3 

Buildings for generating stations 23 

Buildings for substations 5 

Electrical and steam apparatus (generating) 92 

Substation apparatus 31 

Construction cables 165 

Subsidiaries 20 

Tools and implements 2 

Stable equipment 4 

Office furniture and fixtures 1 

Installation: Includes line transformers, meters, arc 

lamps, motors, etc 142 

Maps and instruments 3 

Total $523 

The United Electric Light and Power Co. rented its conduits of 
which it occupied about 300 miles of ducts, and it had 820,000 
million mil. ft. of wire. 

In our issue of April 6 we showed that the first cost of the 
plant of the Edison Electric Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn was $437 
per kw. 

Let us express the cost of repairs on the New York Edison plant 
in terms of kws. of rated capacity : 

Repairs : Per kw. 

Station buildings and structures $0.35 

Motive power 1.95 

Electric generating apjjaratus 0.21 

Substation buildings and apparatus 1.87 

Poles and lines 0.20 

Subways and cables . 0.52 

Meters 2.54 

Street arc lamps 0.63 

Commercial arc lamps 0.12 

Total $8.37 

Incandescent lamp renewals 4.46 

Grand total $12.83 

If these repair costs are expressed in percentages of the probable 
first costs of tlje various items, it will be seen that they are all very 
low. It would .seem, therefore, that the apparently large amount 
($1,721,413) charged off for depreciation and renewals is none too 
high. 

We have seen that the actual cost, as reported, was 4.04 cts. per 
kw.-hr. sold. The average income was 6.49 cts. per kw.-hr. sold. 
The plant represents a first cost of $500 per kw. — the interest 
charge at 6% would be $30 per kw. We have seen that each kw, 
produced 1,932 kw.-hrs. sold. Hence $30-^1,932-1.56 cts. This 
is the interest charge, which added to 4.04 gives a total cost of 5.60 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



761 



cts. per kw.-hr. sold. This would leave a profit of nearly 0.9 ct, 
per kw.-hr. It should be remembered, however, that we have as- 
sumed a high finst cost, and that a high price was paid for rental 
of conduits. However, no exorbitant profit has been made al- 
though the profit has unquestionably been liberal. 

The payroll was approximately as follows for the year ending 
June 30, 1907, based upon the payroll for the week ending June 
29, 1907: 

Employes : Total 

881 General $ 672.678 

519 Technical . 447,283 

857 Generating plants 756,050 

122 Sub.station plants 110,113 

972 Distribution department 727,677 

565 Construction department 450,69 4 

98 Monthly salaries 256,306 

4,014 Total $3,420,801 

This is equivalent to an average of nearly $16.40 per man per 

week. That this payroll is higher than normal is quite evident 
from the following tabulation of wage earners on the payroll June 

30 and Dec. 31, 1907. The average wage is that paid by the 

Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn, which presumably differed 
little from the New York Edison Co. 

June 30 Dec. 31 

Foremen at $3.80 103 103 

Assistant foremen at $4.03 43 44 

Inspectors at $3.09 40 48 

Engineers at $3.95 52 51 

Firemen at $2.85 130 148 

Coal passers at $2.22 31 47 

Oilers and water tenders at $2.49 201 202 

Electricians at $2.67 109 39 

Electricians helpers at $1.84 24 

Dynamo attendants at $2.33 47 40 

Switchboard attendants at $3.13 97 100 

Machinists at $2.77 56 ♦ 48 

Machinists helpers at $2.13 56 53 

Blacksmiths at $2.43 9 8 

Linemen at $2.44 14 13 

Lamp trimmers at $1.66 37 30 

Wiremen and helpers at $2.59 186 131 

Meter readers at $2.96 36 37 

Teamsters and stablemen at $2.40 9 6 72 

Electric wage earners not elsewhere specified at 

$1.76 1172 782 

Total wage earners 2,515 2,020 

The number of salaried employes and their weekly wages for 
the same time were as follows : 



Canvassers at $25.48 71 55 

Cashiers and bookkeepers, men, at $20.69 93 98 

Cashiers and bookkeepers, women 25 26 

Clerks (men) and salesmen at $15.93 395 343 

Clerks and saleswomen at $8.71 36 40 

Collectors at $23.36 29 34 

Demonstrators at $14.46 1 



762 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

June 30 Dec. 31 

Messengers, telephone operators, etc.. at $6.87.. 55 47 

Stenographers, men, at $10 58 „ 39 36 

Stenographers, women, at $13.01 65 57 

Superintendents 17 17 

Watchmen, elevator men. etc 132 110 

All other salaried employes , . 533 429 

Total salaried employes 1,49 1 1,282 

Grand total employes 4,006 3,302 

The average weekly salaries are based on those paid by the 
Edison Illuminating Co. of Brooklyn. 

For the half year, July 1 to Dec. 31, 1907, the total payroll was: 

Officers ( 5 ) $ 25,000 

Salaried employes . 626,955 

Wage earners 988,320 

Total $1,640,275 

During- this same half year, 166,731,594 kw.-hrs. were generated, 
and it required 4.11 lbs. of coal per kw.-hr. generated. The coal 
was nearly all anthracite, less than 20% being bituminous, and the 
average price was $1.96 per ton of 2,000 lbs. The high coal con- 
sumption and the low price indicate a very poor quality. 

Cost of Producing Electric Power. PJngineering and Contracting, 
July 31, 1907, gives the co.st of producing electric power at the sta- 
tion of the Cincinnati, Milford & Loveland Tracton Co., operating 36 
miles of interurban electric railway. The plant is briefly described 
as follows: The boilers are 4 400-h p. Sterling, operating under nat- 
ural draft 8 (small) furnished by 2 54-in. by 100 ft. steel stacks, 4 6 
by 4 by 6 in. Dean pumps in duplicate handle the feed water, 1 pump 
running water to an 800-h.p. Cochrane open type heater where the 
temperature is raised to 210 deg. F. and the other pump running 
the water from the heater to the boilers. Condensing water is 
supplied to a 750-h.p. Tomlinson condenser by 2 single stage centri- 
fugal pumps direct operated by 7 by 7-in. marine engines. The.se 
pumps o])erate at 300 rev. per min. and deliver 1,200 gals, per min. 
The circulating pumps are set in a 12 -ft. pit in the boiler room and 
have a minimum life of 50 ft. The engines are 16 by 34 by 42-in. 
Allis-Chalmers cross-compound condensing. In order to give a high 
output for their size the engines are operated at 125 rev. per min. 
The generators are 500-kw. Bullock revolving field machines. They 
generate 3 phase 25 cycle current at 4 00 volts pressure and have 
an output of 721 amperes. Current for distribution of fields and 
for station lighting is furnished by 22.5-kw. 125 volt generators 
belted to an extra wheel bolted to the spokes of the flywheel. The 
following is the statement of the output and operating cost of this 
station for one month : 

Labor : 

2 engineers $150 

2 oilers 100 

2 firemen 100 

1 general help 45 

Total $395 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 763 

Fuel and supplies : 

342 tons coal at $2.10 $718.20 

. Oil and waste 37.10 

General supplies 33.25 

Total $788.55 

The output in kw.-hrs. was 168,000, so that the cost per kw.-hr. 
at the switchboard was as follows : 

Item Total Per kw.-hr. 

Labor - $ 395.00 $0.00235 

Fuel and supplies 788.55 0.0047 

^ Total $1,183.50 $0.00705 

The total amount of coal burned during the month was 684,000 
lbs., or 4.07 lbs. per kw.-hr. 

Cost of Power. The followin.g is abstracted from a paper by 
Frederick Darling-ton presented before the A. I. E. E., Pittsfleld, 
Mass., Jan. 18, 1912. 

The flg-ures given below are for the cost of producing electric 
power in steam plants carrying railroad loads under conditions 
that are widely prevailing in the United States, These figures 
are not exact costs taken from any particular power plant, but 
are average costs worked out from actual results in several 
steam plants on heavy railroad and other work, so shown as to 
permit easy analysis for varying conditions of load and for differ- 
ent fuel costs, etc. 

Cost 

per yr. 

per kw. 

Total cost of plant Per 

per yr. capacity kw-hr. 

Operating labor $52,500 $2.10 0.100 

Operating materials (exclusive of fuel) 15,000 0.60 0.025 

Labor for maintenance of plant 15,000 0.60 0.025 

Material per maintenance of plant.... 17,500 0.70 0.030 



Total cost of power plant, operation 

and maintenance, exclusive of coal 

per year $100,000 $4.00 0.180 

Add the cost of coal at $1 per ton for 

coal of 13.500 B.t.u. per lb 82,500 3.30 0.15 

Note : — The fuel cost will increase as 

the cost per ton increases or the 

quality falls off 

Other expenses pertaining to power 

plant operation, such as adminis- 
tration, legal and general expenses 10,500 0.42 0.02 

193,000 7.72 0.35 

Add for fixed charges on the cost of 

power plant 225.00 9.00 0.41 

Total cost of power per yr. with coal 
at $1 per ton and a load factor 
25% $418,000 $16.72 0.76 

The figures given are the cost, including fixed charges, of 
producing power in a 25,000-kw. steam turbine plant, containing 



764 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ' 

5 main units of 5000-kw. nominal capacity each, but capable of 
carrying- 50% overload or more in emergencies. 

The yearly production of power is assumed at 55,000,000 kw.-hrs. 
or a load factor of 25% on a maximum load of 25,000 kws, which is 
the total nominal capacity of the 5 g-enerators. It is equivalent 
to an average operation of all of the generators for 2200 hours per 
yr. at their rated capacity. 

Such is the cost of electric power g-eneration by steam for heavy 
railroad operation and general central station service. 

There are 2 factors in the foregoing costs which are liable to 
maximum variations, viz., the cost of fuel alid the- average load 
on the plant, or as it is called, the load factor. Tla^e assumed 
maximum load of 25,000 kws. could easily be carried on 4 ordinar^ 
5000-kw. nOrminal capacity steam turbine generators, and leave 
one spare unit in a 5 -unit station. At 25% load factor as assumed 
above (25,000 kws. maximum load and 55,000,000 kw-hrs. per year), 
the result in thermal efHciency would be about 8.4%. It is difficult 
to determine from actual results just what the thermal efficiency 
would be at other load factors, but as it is sometimes necessary to 
know this as a basis for arriving at the fuel costs under varying 
load conditions, the following approximate figures are given for 
these variations. The coal is assumed to contain 13,500 B.t.u. 
per lb. 



Yearly load 






factor (ratio 


Average 


Thermal 


of maximum 


operation 


efficiency 


load to aver- 


peryr., hrs. 


of plant 


age output) 






10%) 


876 


6.5% 


20 " 


1752 


7.8 " 


25 " 


2190 


8.4" 


30 " 


2628 


9 " 


40 " 


3500 


9.8 " 


45" 


3940 


10.1 " 



Cost of coal 

per kw-hr. at 

$1.00 per short 

ton 

0.20 cent 

0.16 

0.15 

0.14 

0.13 

0.125 



It would be difficult to demonstrate in detail the economies that 
can be derived from combinations of mixed power service from the 
above plant compared with power for only one industry like rail- 
roads, but analysis of the schedules of costs and thermal efficiencies 
for a 25,000-kw. plant, working at 25 per cent, load factor, proves 
the broad assertion that in power generation large stations carrying 
mixed loads afford the maximum economies. Take for example, the 
cost of general expenses and of fixed charges and of power station 
labor and material, exclusive of coal. These things are little af- 
fected by the load factor, but even in so large a station as 25,000 
kws. they amount to $13.42 per kilowatt per year, out of a total 
cost of power of $16.72 per kilowatt per year, with good coal at 
$1.00 per ton, or $20.02 with coal at $2.00 per ton, etc. Further- 
more, even the fuel cost per unit of power generated will ordinarily 
be less in mixed service plants than on i)lants for railroad work 
only, since the former generally work at better load factors than 
the latter. The better load factor comes for serving a diversity 
of operations. Also with more operations the plant will be larger 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 765 

and for this reason as well it naturally has a better load factor 
and all unit costs are correspondingly less. 

There are other important advantages from centralization of 
power in large power plants, which will have important bearing on 
the future of central station business, for industrial and for rail- 
road power. One of these has to do with obsolescence and its im- 
portance in this connection does not always receive the attention 
that it deserves. Another is the utilization of ofC-pealc or secondary 
power, which so far has been very little realized but which will 
increase in importanee. 

Cost of Power in a Plant with a Relatively Large Railway Load. 
Electric Railway Journal, October 9, 1909. The return of the Hyde 
Park (Mass.) Electric Light Company to the Board of Gas and 
Electric Light Commissioners for the year ending June 30, 1909, 
illustrates the cost of generating electrical energy in a station of 
moderate size having a large railway load. Although the Hyde 
Park Company handles an electric lighting and power business in 
the suburb of Boston where its plant is established, by far the 
greater portion of its output is utilized in the operation of trolley 
lines at the south of Boston. The total normal capacity of the 
station is 1965 kws. and in the year covered by the return the 
company generated and delivered at its switchboard 3,990,634 
kw.-hrs. Its total sales were 3,661,372 kw.-hrs., and of this amount 
of energy 3,314,076 kw.-hrs. were sold to electric railway lines at a 
price of practically 2 cts. per kw.-hr., the exact figure being 1.98 cts., 
as deduced from the return. Practically 92% of the total generated 
energy was thus sold — a much higher proportion than is usually 
encountered in central station work, and due without question in 
this case to the purchase of the railway power at the direct-current 
switchboard of the station, with the avoidance by the central sta- 
tion of the usual 15 to 30% distribution losses. 

The equipment of the Hyde Park plant, as reported in the return, 
consists of 9 150-h.p. Cunningham boilers with Hartford setting, 
each having a 72-in. shell and 92 3.25-in. tubes; also 1 125-h.p. 
Dobbins boiler with a Jarvis setting, 72-in. shell and 140 3-in. tubes 
built for 110-Ib. steam pressure. The total rating of the boiler 
plant is 1475-h.p. The engine equipment consists of the following 
units : 

1 Corliss compound, 24 by 48 by 48 ins., 80 rev. per min., 1250 hp. 
1 Green compound, 24 by 38 by 48 ins., 100 rev. per min., 800 hp. 

1 Mclntosh-Seymour compound, 13 by 23 by 17 ins., 200 rev. per 

min., 200 hp. 
Direct connected, respectively to 850, 525 and 100-kw., General 
Electric, 500-volt, d.c, generators. 

2 Armington & Sims 181^1, by 18 ins., 200 rev. per min., 200 hp. 

belted and one Armington & Sims compound lOVo by 16 1/^ by 12 
ins., 285 rev. per min., 100 hp., belted, driving 6-arc light 
dynamos, four alternators of a total capacity of 330 kw. and 
two 500-volt, d.c. generators of 100 kw. rating each. 

The station was operated by a total force of 3 engineers, 3 fire- 
men and 2 coal -passers. The company burned a mixture of soft 
coal costing about $4.21 per ton and buckwheat at $3.26, the total 



706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fuel cost for the year being stated as $34,471.24. The station wages 
cost for the year was $9,621.86. These were the two principal 
items of cost at the switchboard, the total expense of manufacture 
being about $50,000. The principal repairs tabulated were those of 
the steam equipment, which came to $2,741.45. The electrical re- 
pairs at the station were barely $1,100. The power production cost 
was as follows in detail : 

Cost of manufacture at switchboard as follows: 

Kw.-hr. delivered at switchboard 3,990,634 

Cost of manufacture at switchboard as follows : 

Fuel $34,471.24 

Oil and waste 778.22 

Water 273.06 

Wages at station . 9,621.86 

Repairs, station building 90.59 

Repairs, steam equipment 2,741.45 

•Repairs, electrical equipment 1,101.33 

Tools and appliances 698.05 

Total $49,775.80 

The cost per kw-hr. manufactured in cents was : 

Fuel 0.86 

Labor 0.24 

Miscellaneous 0.15 

Total 1.25 

Installation and Maintenance of a Small Electric Light Plant. 

The following is abstracted from an article in the May, 1906, issue 
of Power. In Jordan, Minn., a town of 1200 inhabitants, was organ- 
ized the Jordan Electric Light and Heating Company. 

Adjoining a side track, and near the central portion of the town 
a substantial building of brick, with cement tile floors, brick parti- 
tions and a gravel roof was erected. It is 20 ft. in width and 54 in 
length inside. 

The source of water supply is a 3-in. tubular well bored just far 
enough outside the building to allow the working of a well-drilling 
machine. At a depth of 62 ft. a plentiful supply of water was 
secured, coming to within 16 ft. of the surface. The well is located 
opposite the pump section of the boiler-room, the pit extending 
inside of the building and being open through the floor on the inside, 
the outside being arched over with brick and covered with dirt, 
making it frost-proof. An arch in the foundation of the building 
carries the wall over the pit. Suction is depended on entirely for 
drawing water. The top of the well casing is fltted with a tee, 
the run being extended to form a vacuum chamber and the branch 
leading inside to the pumps. A check is inserted near the well to 
facilitate priming. 

The pumping outfit consists of a Fairbanks, Morse & Company's 
brass-fitted duplex steam pump 3 by 2 by 4, and a duplex power 
pump 2.5 by 6, each set on a cement foundation. The stroke of 
the plungers of the power pump is adjustable from 4 to 6 ins. The 
pumps are cross-connected so that either can draw from the well 
or tank and deliver to the boiler, tank or hose. In practice one 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 767 

cylinder of the power puinp draws from the well and delivers to the 
tank, and the other cylinder draws hot water from the tank and 
feeds the boiler, the stroke of the plunger being set so that it 
loses a little during the peak load, and gains on the light loads. 
A tight-and-loose pulley allows the pump to be stopped when . de- 
sired, or the water can be by-passed. During the two years of 
operation of the plant the steam pump has been required but a few 
hours. 

An iron tank which is 6 ft. in diam. and 8 ft. high, with a 5 -in. 
hole in the cover, is placed on the roof, and used as a combined 
tank and heater. It holds enough water to fill the boiler one and a 
half times. The 5 -in. exhaust pipe is led into it, besides the water 
inlet and outlet pipes. The heating of the feed-water is accom- 
plished by allowing it to drip over a series of shelves. These become 
coated with a considerable thickness of scale in a short time which 
is knocked off and shoveled out through a manhole in the side 
of the tank. Under running conditions about 3 ft. of water is 
carried in the tank. The delivery to the pump is taken from a 
point 8 in. from the bottom through a frost-proof connection. The 
temperature of the feed-water ranges from 160 to 190 deg. F. 

On all feed-piping which is of 1.5-in. extra heavy pipe, tees and 
crosses are used instead of ells, so that the inside of the pipe can 
be inspected and cleaned without taking it all down, but this oper- 
ation has as yet not been necessary. Both cylinders of the power 
pump are provided with relief valves to guard against breakage In 
the event of the belt being thrown on when the outlet valves are 
closed. The feed is carried through the front head of the boiler 
and discharged about two-thirds of the way back. 

The boiler, which is 54 ins. in diam. and 14 ft. long, is of the 
standard high-pressure, double-butt-strap triple-riveted, horizontal, 
tubular type, with 44 3. 5 -in. tubes, and set in a regular air-space 
brick setting, with stationary grates 4.5 by 5 ft., affording ample 
grate area for burning low-grade fuel. This grate area has since 
been reduced to 18 sq. ft. by placing a 12-in. dead-plate across the 
back ends of the grates, which has improved the firing and economy 
somewhat, besides affording a good place for banking fires. The 
2. 5 -in. blow-off is protected by brickwork and provided with a 
Jenkins special blow-off valve. The 4,5-in. main pipe leads from 
the top of the boiler to a tee, into which is screwed a 3-in. pop 
safety-valve set at 125 lbs., thence to an angle valve, thence to a 
tee with a plugged opening to receive steam from a future boiler, 
and thence to a tee in the engine room, where a 4-in. pipe leads to 
the engine, a plugged opening being left for future connections. A 
2.5-in. auxiliary pipe, also provided with a valve and a plugged 
opening for future connections, supplies the tube-blower, pump, 
engine-room gage and city fire whistle. The water column is con- 
nected up with extra heavy tees and crosses and provided with blow- 
offs leading to the ash pit. All live steam piping is covered with 
.5 in. of felt over .625 in. of asbestos. 

The stack, which is supported by the boiler setting in the usual 
manner, is 30 ins. in diam. and 60 ft. high from the grates. Where 



768 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

it passes through the roof the woodwork is amply protected by an 
iron ventilator, having 8 sq. ft. of opening, which can be opened 
and closed at pleasure. A water-table above the roof effectively 
prevents water from flowing down the stack into the boiler 
room. The plates of the stack are inverted with the seams open- 
ing upward. After the stack was erected these seams were filled 
with a good machinery filler and then painted with graphite mixed 
with linseed oil, which gives the stack a lasting dull black color. 
No water enters the stack or boiler room, even during the heaviest 
rains. 

The coal room, located between the boiler room and the track, 
is 11 by 36 ft. inside, and holds about 120 tons of coal. The coal 
room has two doors for wheeling in coal, also an unloading device 
which consists of a hay carrier and track, attached to the trussed 
framework of the roof, and two automatic dumping boxes, dis- 
charging through a hatch in the roof. At present this rig is 
operated with a team of horses, and it requires about 3.5 hrs. 
to unload a 30-ton car, costing about 8.5 cts. per ton, compared 
with 10 cts. a ton for unloading with wheelbarrows when the bin 
is empty and 20 cts. when partly full. The rig has now unloaded 
upwards of 500 tons and shows no perceptible wear except the 
rope, which will soon have to be replaced. 

The engine room is 15 by 26 ft. inside and contains a Russell 
11.5 by 12 single-valve automatic engine running at 300 rev. per 
min. direct connected to a Westinghouse 45 kw. generator, together 
with switchboard, desk, show-case, bench, supplies and merchandise 
stores. The engine is nominally rated at 80 h.p. and is provided 
with the usual sight-feed oiling devices for continuous running, 
and a complete set of oil shields, allowing the oil to be fed liberally 
without waste, insuring against stoppages from insufficient oiling. 
The oil is then filtered and used over again, about 36 gals, of fresh 
oil a year being required. 

An independent sight-feed was attached to the oil chamber 
of the lubricator, delivering oil through two ,125-in. pipes tapped 
into the top of the steam-chest casting and connected by .0625-in. 
holes drilled into the face of the valve seat. Since installing this 
device, less oil is used with better results. An extension of the 
engine shaft carries a 10-in. pulley for driving the countershaft 
which drives the pump in the boiler room adjoining. A 5-in. 
exhaust pipe is laid under the floor to the boiler room where there 
is a .5-in. drip leading to a drain for keeping the pipe clear of water. 
It then extends up through the roof to the tank. 

The generator is a Westinghouse three-wire engine-type machine 
delivering direct current at 115 and 230 volts. The leads and 
balancing v/ires are carried through a glazed tile conduit, laid 
under the floor of the switchboard. On the switchboard are 
mounted one voltmeter, two ammeters, a field rheostat, and gener- 
ator, arc and commercial switches. The station lights are wired 
on a single two-wire circuit and a double-throw switch on the 
back of the board enables the operator to throw them on either 
side of the neutral, thus assisting to balance up any unevenness 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 769 

in the load that may occur from time to time. The usual fuses 
and lightning arresters are provided. 

The distribution is mainly from a complete loop two blocks 
long and 1.5 blocks wide, the power house being in the center of 
one side of the loop. This loop is composed of 5 wires, one neutral 
common to both arc and incandescent lighting, a pair of 00 com- 
mercial feeders and a pair of No. 1 arc feeders. Branches are run 
from this loop to out-lying districts, extending as far as 6 blocks ; 
100- and 105-volt lamps are used on the longer extensions. This 
system has given entire satisfaction. 

There are now connected 18 arc lamps for the city, run on a 
moonlight, 1 o'clock schedule, at $60.00 each per year, and about 
700 incandescent lamps, three arcs and three motors aggregating 
2.5 h.p., on the commercial lines. About 75% of the service is on 
meters; the base rate of 12.5 cts. per kw.hr. is discounted, in pro- 
portion to the amount used, to 10 cts. 

The plant is operated from the usual dusk starting time to 

1 A. M. and for 4.5 months of the winter season from 6 a. m. to 
daylight. 

The plant has now been in operation 2 years, but records of 
operation were not commenced till 5 months after starting, at 
which time the plant was considered to be in normal condition, 
and the load was sufficient to make a showing. The total cost of 
the plant and incidentals as inventoried at that time was, in round 
numbers, $7300. During the year ending Nov. 1, 1904, 361.5 tons 
of central Illinois coal were consumed, costing $1070.24. The total 
output for the year was, as nearly as can be estimated from the 
volt and ammeter readings, 50,370 kw.-hrs., which gives approxi- 
mately 14.5 lbs. of load per kw.-hr., or $0.02175 for fuel. It requires 
about 180 lbs. of coal an hr. to run one lamp ; this rate of fuel 
consumption remains about constant until about 175 to 200 lamps 
are reached, then it increases with the increase of load to about 250 
lbs. for a 34-kw. load. 

The load is very regular, gradually coming to a peak which holds 
on for about two hrs.. then gradually falls off to 10 or 15 amperes 
at shutting down time. 

The mason work of the building was let on a contract which 
covered brick and stone for both building and foundation, lime, 
cement, sand, excavating and all labor connected with the mason 
work 

for $847.50 

(Brick was selling in home market at $5.50 per M.) 

Lumber bill, purchased as needed 184.07 

Hardware bill, purchased on bids 30.73 

Roof, purchased on bids 43.75 

Additional hardware 4.00 

Cement tile floors, laid complete 64.10 

Carpenter work 15.98 

Anchors, bolts and rods . . . '. 3,75 

2 screen doors, 2 windowvS, and transom 5.50 

Paint and painting 16.40 

Supt, time charged to building ....,,....,,,,,,.,., 90.00 

$1,305.78 



770 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The well was drilled for $1.00 per foot including 3-in. casing 

to the rock, and the pit, costing complete $ 62.00 

The foundation for the boiler and engine were laid at the 
same time, by the day, the company furnishing the 
material, therefore it is not practicable to itemize the 
cost of each, but it is safe to charge 70% to the 
engine foundation. 

4 % Cd. stone, 1000 brick $ 25.65 

Cement 18.00 

Sand 2.1 

Labor 22.75 

$ 68.50 

For the boiler setting 12 M. brick were used $ 66.00 

600 fire brick, delivered 23.00 

Bbl, fire clay 2 50 

Lime 14 bbl 10.50 

Cement 3.25 

Sand 2.70 

Labor 31.30 

Superintendence 20.00 

$159.25 
Cost of boiler with water-column, safety valve, blowoff, 

front and castings, and stack 713.00 

Tank 6 ft. diam. by 8 ft. high, No. 12 steel 66.00 

6 sets of shelves fitted to same 23.00 

$89.00 

Freight on boiler and tank 20.70 

Cost of engine with sub-base complete, freight allow- 
ance to St. Paul 915.00 

Erecting and setting on foundation 24.12 

Superintendence 12.00 

$951.12 

Freight on engine 22.90 

Cost of dynamo delivered 1031.05 

Setting up and starting 12.00 

Switchboard complete 96.00 

Station lightning arresters 23.00 

Misc. items 18.35 

Superintendence 45.00 

$1225.40 
The main steam and exhaust pipes were cut to diagrams, 
and cost, including 4-in. valve on the boiler and all 

fittings 68.84 

Labor of erecting 26.00 

$94.84 
The auxiliary piping and valves, fittings, 50 ft. hose, flue 
blower and scraper, iron wheel-barrow, waste, enough 
packing to start with, in all making a list about 2 ft. 

long, cost on bids 176.50 

Additional 8.30 

$184.80 
Lump price on the power pump, 15 ft. of shafting, self-oil- 
ing hangers, and pulley was .* 56.65 

Steam pump 35.35 

Freights 2.60 

Foundations about 6.40 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 771 

Labor and superintendence on setting up pumps and fit- 
tings, piping in running oi'der 67.50 

$168.50 
The line, poles and arc lamps were purchased second-hand 

and erected at a cost of 950.00 

The estimate on new equipment was $1450.00. 
In addition to the above the legal expenses on incorporat- 
ing 91.50 

Labor not charged to any item in particular 97.00 

Superintendence not charged to anything in particular. . . . 149.64 

Wiring power house 1 3.50 

Coal hoist 61.50 

Show case (without stock) 9.50 

Value of lot occupied 450.00 

Pine covering, put on one year after starting 19.50 

Radiators 15.62 

Office equipment, small additions, tools, service wires, ex- 
tensions, the wiring equipment in an amusement hall 

and park, etc. ; a long list of small items growing daily 475.00 

Total $7270.55 

OPERATING EXPENSP:S FOR THE YEAR ENDING NOV. IST, 1904 

10 gals, cylinder oil $ 6.00 

Insurance 18.78 

Floor brush and broom 1.80 

Stationery 1.70 

10 gals, cylinder oil • 7.50 

Packing 12.75 

10 gals, cylinder oil 6.65 

Extra labor 1.60 

Repairs .40 

Extra labor 1.60 

Stamps and freight 1.25 

Taxes 51.00 

Expense account 1.53 

31 gals, cylinder oil 19.35 

Expense account 5.62 

Arc globes 1.90 

Stationery 2-25 

Repairs, power pump 3.25 

Repairs .60 

Expense account .55 

531/2 gals, cylinder oil 32.10 

53 gals, engine oil 13.25 

Freight and dray 2.50 

Stationery .60 

Repairs .65 

Expense account 5.26 

Telephone rent for the year 14.05 

Arc globes 1.44 

Cross arms and insulators for repairs 4.68 

Boiler compound ^ 5.30 

Carbons used, about 12.00 

$ 227.91 

361 1/2 tons coal $1070.24 

Superintendent's salary, covering all labor expenses con- 
nected with operating plant 1100.00 

Secretary's salary : 25.00 

Total without interest or depreciation $2423.15 

Add 10% for interest and depreciation, part of the deprecia- 
tion was kept up in the shape of repairs 730.00 

Grand total of operating expenses for one year $3153.15 



772 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Design and Operation of Cleveland Municipal Electric Ligiit Plant. 

Lefax, May, 1915 ; an abstract of an article by F. W. Ballard in 
the Journal of the A. S. M. E.. Feb.. 1915, The new niiinicipal 
lighting station on East Fifty-third street, Cleveland, Ohio, went 
into operation July 20, 1914. The decision to build this plant 
was the result of experience with a small station of 1,500-kws. 
capacity, known as the Brooklyn Station which has been in opera- 
tion by the city since 1906. 

PLANT VALUE OF BROOKLYN STATION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 

Bond issue 1902 ; $30,000.00 

From taxes and general fund $320,796.24 

Value of street lighting 109,147.02 

Added from taxes and general fund 1906-1909 211,649.22 

Added from earnings 306,533.21 



Investment in plant, Dec. 31, 1913 548,182.43 

Depreciation written oft Dec. 31, ^913 113,244.19 



Depreciated value of station Dec. 31 $434,938.24 

REVENUE AND E.KPBNSES FOR YEAR 1913 

Total revenue from sale of current $185,698.81 

Kw-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. sale price. . $0.0238 
Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. sale price . . 0.0328 

Total operation and maintenance expense 116,719.55 

Kw-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. cost price. .$0.0149 
Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. cost price . . 0.0206 



Net earnings $68,979.26 

Fixed charges — Depreciation and interest 19,079.50 

Kw.-hr. generated ..7,797,661 Ave. cost price. . $0.0024 
Kw-hr. sold 5,656,668 Ave. cost price . . 0.0033 



Profit for year of 1913 $49,899.76 

POWER STATION REPORT FOR YEAR 1913 

Operation Unit cost 

Labor $23,050.25 $0.0029 

Oil, packing and waste 1,538.52 

Water 3,110.00 

Sunday expense 743.32 0.0007 

Coal 39,275.42 0.005 

Maintenance 

Buildings $105.85 

Boilers . 3,515.98 

Engines and generators 3,449.72 

Condansors and piping 606.91 

Switchboard 153.48 

Tools 223.81 

Arc light equipment ; 661.88 

Sundry repairs 246.21 0.0011 



Total operation and maintenance $76,681.35 0.0097 

Total kw-hr. generated 7,797,661 

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ■ — ■ OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR YEARS 
1912-1913 

Poles and lines $ 7,342.53 $8,203.32 

Arc lamps 2,241.68 4,485.53 



ELECTRIC 'LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 773 

Meters 334.12 486.38 

Tools 197.25 213,69 

Wagons, harness, etc. 582.16 730.28 

Stable expense, feed, etc 1,134.86 1,935.57 

Carbons and globes 2,219.08 2,735.80 

Trimming labor .' 2,811.25 2,437.48 

Services, transformers, etc 3,224.87 6,166.62 

Miscellaneous expense 573.40 1,084.94 

Auto truck , ■ 923,61 

Substation maintenance 2,054.98 

$20,661.20 $31,846.50 

Kw-hr. generated 4,611,853 7,797,661 

Cost per kw-hr. generated ■ $0.00448 $0.00408 

The new station equipment Qonsists of 3 turbine units of 5,000- 
kw. each, 1,800 rev. per min 11,000 volts A. C. supplied with steam 
at 225 lbs. and 125 deg. F. superheat. The boilers are installed 
with 10,000 sq. ft. of heating surface. They are equipped with 
Taylor underfed stokers and are intended to be capable of operat- 
ing to 300% of rating. 

The operation of the boilers at a high percentage of rating 
means a higher temperature of flue gases. This, with the low 
temperature of feed water, gives a temperature head between flue 
gases and feedwater which will be practically double that ordinarily 
obtained in economizer practice. This alone would be sufficient 
to warrant the installation of a larger amount of economizer heat- 
ing surface. Another factor, however, is the low interest rate of 
4.5% on the investment to be balanced against the saving produced 
in the economizers. These were installed by the Green Fuel Econo- 
mizer Company and have a heating surface of 27,000 sq. ft. 

The use of both forced and induced draught contributes greatly 
to the flexibility of the installation, and makes it possible to carry 
practically a balanced pressure in the combustion chamber, thus 
avoiding one of the greatest sources of loss in boiler practice, 
namely, the leakage of air through the boiler settings. 

Coal is delivered overhead by railway cars, and discharged by 
gravity into bunkers which have a capacity of 3,400 tons. From 
these bunkers it is drawn through gates under pneumatic control 
into an electric telpher, which moves back and forth from under 
the bunkers on the track leading out over the stoker hoppers. The 
coal hopper on this telpher is carried on scale beams, and the 
weight of the coal and the time of delivery are carefully recorded. 
The power for the motor driven auxiliaries is taken from a 1,000-kw. 
turbine formerly in operation at the Brooklyn station, and will 
be operated in connection with a Le Blanc condenser, the cooling 
water for which will be drawn from a cistern used for the storage 
of the boiler feed water and which takes also the condensate from 
the three main turbines. The water in the cistern passes through 
the jet condenser several times before it goes as feedwater to the 
boilers and the connections are so arranged that the coldest water 
is supplied to the condenser and the hottest to the boiler feed 
system. The auxiliary motors in the station are connected through 
a double bus systeni so tha^ each e^n be operated by current either 



774 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

from the auxiliary turbine or the main turbine. In this way the 
load on the auxiliary turbine can be adjusted so that the temper- 
ature of the feed water will be that best suited for delivery to 
the economizers. 

Tests showed that the 3 turbines were each capable of 7,500 kws. 
continuous capacity and the auxiliary machine, of 1,500 kws., 
making a total of 24,000 kws. maximum continuous capacity. The 
station, however, is rated at 25,000 kws. All current supplied is 
alternating-, even in the congested districts. 

The results secured in the way of operation and maintenance 
costs in the new power station itself for the months of August 
and September are shown below. 



Operation 


August 


Unit 
cost 


September 


Unit 
cost 


Labor 

Switchboard attendance . , 
Oil, packing and waste . . . 
Sundry expense 


, . .$1,498.48 
, .. 352.80 


$0.0018 
0.0004 


$1,573.00 
380.00 
66.89 1 
10.465 


$0.0017 
0.00042 
0.00008 



Coal 2,686.50 0.0033 2,415.69 0.0026 

Maintenance 
Condensers, piping, etc 5.48 



Total operation and main- 
tenance $4,543.26 

Total kw-hr. generated 809,120 



$0.0055 



$4,446.04 
914,850 



$0.0048 



The station during these 2 months has been operating at less 
than .2 of its total capacity. The figures representing unit costs for 
the various items of labor, maintenance, fuel, etc., are, of course, 
considerably higher than can be obtained when the station is run- 
ning up to its capacity, when it will be operating at a much higher 
efficiency in regard to coal consumption per kw.hr., and also the 
labor and other charges will be less per unit cost by reason of the 
larger output. 

Cost of Operating City Lighting Plant in Detroit. Electrical 
World, April 29, 1916. The energy for the municipal lighting sys- 
tem in the city of Detroit is generated at a steam station which 
contains 1 5000-kw. and 2 2000-kw., 60-cycle, 2300-volt, two-phase 
Westinghouse turbo-generators with steam-driven auxiliaries, A 
triple expansion 800-h.p. Williams steam engine also operates a 
600-kw. two-phase, 2300-volt Stanley alternator. The boiler plant 
contains 4 300-h.p. double-deck tubular boilers with Hawley down- 
draft furnaces, 1 300-h.p. Wickes vertical water-tube boiler with 
Detroit stoker, 3 400-h.p. Wickes vertical water-tube boilers with 
Taylor stokers and Foster superheaters, and 2 Sterling water-tube 
boilers with Taylor stokers. The coal used is Meadowbrook lump 
at $2.50 per ton, and nut, pea and slack at $2.25 per ton. 

The city's lighting system load consists of 8193 4-amp. and 
6.6-amp. series arc lamps for street lighting, and 1210 kw. of 
carbon incandescent lamps, 4350 kw. of tungsten incandescent 
lamps and 1840 h.p. in small motors and fans in public buildings. 
To the main station 2554 arc lamps are connegted, with the re- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 775 

TABLE III. COST OF OPERATING PLANT FOR YEAR ENDED 
JUNE 30, 1915 

Cost per 

Maintenance : Total kw-hr. 

Buildings, track, dock, etc $2,397.82 

Steam plant 7,541.22 

Electric plant 3,860.33 

Miscellaneous tools and machinery 4,131.05 

Conduits 1,196.30 

Towers and lamp posts 1,787.06 

Arc lamps and switches 6,868.32 

Lines and cables 29,138.08 

$56,920.18 $0.00329 
Executive : 

Salary secretary and city electrician $8,000.00 

Printing and stationery 848.88 

Store room 4,395.73 

Office expense 8,695.28 

Superintendence and drafting 6,881.33 

$28,821.22 0.00166 
Station : 

Oils $481.28 0.00003 

Waste 30.97 0.00000 

Coal 64,375.32 0.00372 

Miscellaneous supplies 1,433.08 0.00008 

Wages 38,523.88 0.0022.2 

$104,844.53 0.00605 
Lighting : 

Trimming and patrolling $19,063.10 

Electrodes 8,618.15 

Rectifier tubes 1,721.00 

Incandescent lamp renewals 4,801.61 

Incandescent lighting expense 1,225.72 

Globes 2,471.47 

Miscellaneous supplies 49.75 

Belle I.sle Park 933.85 

Palmer Park 79.20 

$38,963.85 0.00225 

Shop supplies $40.65 

Surgeon and hospital 2,130.10 

Relief fund 4.115.61 

Total operating cost $235,836.14 $0.01361 

Total kw-hr. output at switchboard 17,327,785 



mainder connected to the distributing circuits from 5 substations. 
The total operating expenses for the system, according to the 
twentieth annual report of the Public Lighting Commission, just 
published, are given in table III. The kw.hr. load represented by 
the arc and the incandescent lamps, the total lamp-hours scheduled, 
the station operating costs and the coal burned per kw.-hr. for the 
12 months covered by the report, are shown in Fig. 4. 

Cost of Construction and Operating Expenses of the Municipal 
Electric Lighting Plant at Burlington, Vt. Engineering News, May 
30, 1907. The municipal electric lighting plant, of Burlington, Vt., 
was authorized by the City Council, in 1904, and Prof. W. H. 
Freedman was retained as Consulting Engineer. The building con- 



776 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tract was let to a local builder on a cost-plus-10% basis. The 
contract for the entire steam and electric equipment was awarded 
to Bellman & Sanford, of 149 Broadway, New York City. 

At the outset, the important question arose, whether the city 
could exercise the right of " eminent domain " to secure the use of 
existing poles in the corporate limits. The clause in franchises 
providing for free attachments of all municipal signal wires, was 
claimed as establishing precedent for free attachment of all muni- 



1500 




Pig. 4. 



Jan. Feb. Mar Apr MayJune July Xu^.Sept Oct. Nov. Dec 
|< .-.,9,5 ^. , 1914.. .^ 

Lighting load and station operating costs for Detroit City 
light plant. 



cipal wires. However, instead of taking the question into the 
courts, a compromise was effected whereby the city pays a rental 
of 20 cts. per attachment per year. 

The first equipment of the plant was in brief: 2 Atlas 150-h.p. 
water tube boilers ; Sturtevant induced draft and economizer plant ; 
2 Crocker-Wheeler 125kva., 2 3 00- volt, alternators direct connected 
to Watertown, 200 h.p., 257 rev. per min., compound, slide-valve 
engines ; 1 Wheeler jet condenser ; 3 Westinghouse constant current 
transformers, of 100 arc capacity each; 218 Westinghouse enclosed 
arc lamps. The cost of this installation is segregated in Table IV. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 777 

TABLE IV. COST OF FIRST INSTALLATION 

Building $8,899.75 

Machinery 20,929.12 

Line and lamps . 21,073.39 

Consulting engineering- 2,972.94 

Total $53,875.20 

The service was entirely satisfactory after the plant assumed 
normal running condition. The lights are operated from dusk to 
dawn with no "moonlight schedule." Altogether 16 street and 13 
commercial arcs have been added since the original ijlant wa.s 
started, making a present total of 247 lamps on 6 circuits. There 
was from the first some demand for incandescent lighting service, 
for city buildings and by persons dissatisfied with the private 
service in the city; $5,000 was appropriated by the City Council 
and a few constant potential lines were strung, until the combined 
load of arc and incandescent service was such that it seemed best 
to install additional generating equipment to insure continuous 
service. In April, 1906, the contracts were let to the manufacturers, 
for the installation of machinery for this, at the prices shown in 
table V. No intermediate contractors were concerned in the work. 
A large amount of construction was done by the superintendent 
of the plant under minor contracts, and by his own force. The 
entire cost of the plant to Jan. 1, 1907, is given in Tables V and VI. 

TABLE V. ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT AND COSTS 

1 300 hp. Atlas water tube boiler $4,125.00 

Sturtevant induced draft and economizer plant 2,200.00 

1 Westinghouse 300-kw. turbine generating unit 12,369.00 

1 Wheeler jet condenser for turbine 2,119.00 

1 35-kw. Westinghouse rotary converter 1,114.00 

Switchboard 510.00 

Piping, wiring transformers and small machinery by su- 
perintendent or minor contracts 21,990.14 

Total $44,427.16 

TABLE VL SEGREGATION OF STATION COST TO JAN. 1, 

1907 

Buildings $ 13,482.60 

Steam equipment 29,081.01 

Electrical equipment 17,081.79 

Street lighting system 21,572.27 

Commercial system 16,796.79 

Tools and office fixtures 289.88 

Total $98,302.34 

Appropriation.s, bond issues and premiums $108,592.53 

Unexpended balance $10,290.19 

The liabilities incurred by the city in building the plant were : 

Bonds due 1934 • $58,000.00 

Bonds due 1936 39,000.00 

Council appropriation 5,000.00 

Total $102,000.00 



778 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Of this sum $3,697.66 has never been expended and with $6,592.53, 
premiums on the sale of bond issues, lies at the credit of the 
electric light department, making- a reserve capital of $10,290.19. 

The operating cost of the plant for the year 1906 is given by- 
Table VII, and the operating income, in Table VIII. A net gain 
of $3,931.97 over expenditures is shown, which would be 4% interest 
on the cost of the plant, $98,302.34. This is claimed by the Elec- 
tric Light Commissioners as the profit which the plant earned, but 
it cannot justly be that amount. These figures follow the system 
of city accounting of Burlington, except that fuel on hand Jan. 1, 

TABLE VIL OPERATING EXPENSES AND INCOME FOR THE 
YEAR 1906 

Expense generating plant : 

Fuel $7,642.41 

Labor 3,467.23 

Supplies 584.39 

Repairs 310.48 

Total $12,004.51 

Expense distribution system : 

Supplies $116.67 

Repairs 1,797.88 

Labor 1,000.69 

Total $2,915.24 

Administration expense : 
Office supplies,- | 

Telephone, etc. J $612.20 

Salaries 1,533.33 

Advertising 89.15 

Interest on bonds 3,100.00 

Total $5,334.68 

Grand total $20,254.43 

Operating income : 

Street lights $16,103.33 

Commercial lights 7,612.76 

Accounts receivable 420.09 

Supplies and labor sold 50.22 

Total $24,186.40 

Net gain of income over expense $3,931.97 



TABLE VIII. COMPARISON OF INCOME AND COST FOR THE 
YEAR 1906 

Operating income I $24,186.40 

4% interest on reserve 411.61 

Total income $24,598.01 

Operating cost $20,254.43 

For depreciation fund 1,981.19 

Total operating expenses .' $22,235.62 

Balance as profit $2,362.39 

Profit in % of liabilities 2.15 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 779 

1907, appearing- on the city accounts as operating income is h«re 
deducted and does not appear in either expense or income tables. 

The city system does not include any depreciation in value of 
the machinery. A charge has here been figured as that sum, 
which annually placed on interest at 4% will amount to $58,000.00 
in 27 yrs., and to $44,000 00 additional at the end of 29 yrs. Such 
a sum is $1,981.19 for 27 yns.. and $798.78 for the 2 yrs. addi- 
tional. At the end of these terms, the bond issues will have been 
met from receipts, and the plant will be entirely solvent, whatever 
value the machinery may have at the end of these terms. This 
method of figuring the profit earned by the plant seems more ac- 
curate than that of the Board of Commissioners. The earning by 
this is then 2.15% of the entire liability, $102,000.00. 

The Board of Electric Light Commissioners is conducting an ad- 
vertising campaign for its commercial service in an endeavor to 
place the plant on a still better paying basi.s. When this service 
was first installed the receijits were very small, but the increase has 
been considerable as Table IX shows. 

TABLE IX. INCREASE IN COMMERCIAL SERVICE 

Receipts, month of January, 1906 $.377.60 

Receipts, month of February, 1906 $474.53 

One month's increase in per cent, of Jan- 
uary receipts 25.5 

Receipts, month of January, 1907 , $1,225.10 

Per cent, increase over January, 1906 223.5 

Yearly Operating Costs in Four Typical Central Stations in 
Massachusetts. The following operating costs, from Data, Novem- 
ber 1910, were for the year ending June 30, 1909 : 

eISSc ^ Ga.^&''^ Haverhill Maiden 

GBNERAi. ^Light" E^STtrlc Electric Electric 

Co. Co. ^^- ^'^• 

2 turbines 1 turbine 

Type of prime mover. ... 6 engines 3 engines 1 engine 3 engines 

Rated station capacity, kw. 2,500 2,000 2,300 

Output, millions of kw-hr. 3.106 4.006 3.721 4,715 

Yearly load factor, % 14.2 . 22.9 18.5 

Total station operating 

force 14 12 13 14 

Co.st of fuel, dol. per ton. 4.51 4.52 3.97 3.78 

Coal per kw-hr., lb 3.3 3.28 3.27 3.02 

OPERATING COSTS. CTS. PER KW-HR, 

Coal 0.740 0.740 0.650 0.565 

Oil and waste 0.025 0.015 0.190 0.020 

Water 0.027 0.025 0.003 0.045 

Wages 0.410 0.308 0.285 0.320 

Station building repairs . . Q.034 0.017 0.063 0.023 
Steam equipment repairs. 0.158 0.041 0.073 0.072 
Electrical equipment re- 
pairs 0.011 0.072 0.019 0.14 

Miscellaneous 0.024 0.040 0.21 

Total 1.412 1.242 1.152 1.08 



780 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

steam- Electric Central Stations in the State of Massachusetts. 
Data, September, 1910, gave the following operating costs for the 
year ending June 30, 1908: 

OPERATING COSTS. CT. PER KW-HR. 











> 




bo ■ 






a 
o 




"o 


S 






c 






1 


o 


t 


rf 
§ 


O 


1 


Fuel 


.462 
.008 


.703 
.027 


.710 
.009 


.880 
.032 


.635 
.017 


.690 
.019 


.618 


Oil and waste 


.012 


Water 


.024 
.192 


.03 4 
.360 


.008 
.262 


.012 
.538 


.032 
.342 


.055 
.347 


.040 


Wages 


.296 


Station repairs 


.015 


.012 


.020 


.012 


.035 


.021 


.052 


Steam repairs .... 


.042 


.055 


.020 


.037 


.072 


.059 


.147 


Electrical repairs. . 


.056 


.055 


.009 


.029 


.014 


.046 


.045 


Miscellaneous 


.023 
.822 


.000 


.022 


.080 


.033 


.000 


.000 


Total 


1.246 


1.060 


1.620 


1.180 


1.237 


1.210 


Cost of fuel per ton 


$3.99 


4.79 


4.75 


4.68 


4.49 


4.40 


3.60 


Output millions kw.- 
















hr. per yr 


88.5 


5.4 


9.4 


4.0 


4.6 


6.0 


8.7 


Capacity of stations, 
















thousands of hp. . 


73.5 


5.90 


7.39 


4.43 


4.87 


6.75 


8.2 



Central Station, Operating Costs. These data are from the 
annual report, of the Fitchburg Gas & Electric Light Co. 

Gross receipts : 

Commercial lights $ 60,230 

Motors 55,291 

Street lighting 35.205 

Miscellaneous 2,644 

Total $153,370 

Operating expenses : 

Station operation $ 47,711 

Distribution 15,791 

Office 19,066 

Taxes 10,399 

General 7,623 

Total $100,595 

Net receipt of operation $ 52,775 

General statistics : 

Station capacity in kw 2,000 

Gross income per kw. station cap $76.68 

Connected load per kw. station cap 1.337 

Connected motor load per kw. sta. cap .765 

Population served 37.826 

Number of residences, Oct. 1, 1910 4,528 

Residence consumers, Oct. 1, 1910 890 

Consumers per 100 population 2.56 

Residence consumers per 100 population..... 2.35 

Average income per consumer $158 

Gross income per capita -. 4.05 

Electric plant investment per capita 15.20 

Watts station capacity per capita 53 

Total investment $574,926 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



781 



Yearly operating- expense per $100 invested.. 17.50 

Kw-hr. generated 4,461,580 

Kw-hr. accounted for per 100 kw-hr. generated 89 

Year load factor 30.8% 

Central Station Gross Receipts. These figures for typical small 
stations are given by the National Electric Light Association, 1909: 



LOCATION Popu- 
lation 
New Jersey. .4,000 
Illinois 1,000 

Kentucky ...1,800 

New York 1,300 

Ohio 1,800 

Illinois 2,000 

Illinois 2.700 



Indiana . 
Ohio . . . . 
Kentucky 



860 
1,900 
1,900 



Capital 

$30,000* 
$12,000 

S 5,500t; 

\ 7,500*1 
12,000* 
20,000* 
10,000 
j 25,000* I 
( 12.500t j 
10.000 
40.000 
40,000 



Iowa 4,000 

* Stocks, t Bonds, 



Ice 



$4,945.52 



Water 



Electricity Total 
and per 

supplies capita 
$10,909.42 $2.60 
- 2,900.00 



6,145.72 

5.504.16 

8,300.00 

7,563.98 

$720.00 8.353.8'0 



320.00 
3,745.00 
1,270.00 



3,952.00 
7,235.20 
7,933.00 



2.90 

3.41 

4.25 
4.60- 
3.78 

3.36 

5.00 
6.10 

7.85 



12,000.00 [I'^^^'J^^^.^g. I 38,300.00 14.00 



Central Station Diversity Factors and Investments. Data, Janu- 
ary, 1911, gives the following": 

TABLE X. DIVERSITY FACTOR OF THE SYSTEM 

Resi- Com- 

dence mercial Motor Large 

light light service users 

Between consumers 3.35 1.46 1.44 

Between transformers 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.15 

Between feeders 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 

Between substations 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 

Consumer to transformer 3.35 1.46 1.44 

Consumer to feeder 4.36 1.90 1.95 1.15 

Consumer to substation 5.02 2.19 2.24 1.32 

Consumer to g-enerator 5.52 2.41 2.46 1.45 

Consumer to generator corrected for 

losses 4.13 1.81 1.84 1.09 

INVESTMENT IN DOLLARS PER KILOWATT FOR VARIOUS CONSUMERS 

Meters 124 38 15 Neglig-ible 

Transformers 12 12 12 8 

Distributing lines 146 146 145 49 

Substations and transmission 58 58 58 58 

Generating equipment 100 100 100 1 00 

Total investment 440 354 330 215 



Operating Costs and Income. The tabulation from Bulletin 38, 
Iowa State College Engineering Experiment Station, gives some 
average figures dealing with 6osts and incomes per kilowatt hour 
for commercial electric central stations. The group numbers are 
based on population as follows: Group I, 500-2,000 ; IT, 2,000-3,000 ; 
HI, 3,000-10,000; IV, 10,200-20,000; V, 20,000-117,000. 



782 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XI 





O .ft 


1 




§2o 






1" 




1^2 






I 


18 


1,290 


86 


78,000 


7.8 


II 


7 


2,640 


154 


230,000 


4.9 


Ill ...... 


11 


5.680 


489 


540,000 


4.8 


IV 


4 


12,690 


1,225 


1,820,000 


2.5 


V 


6 


46,830 


4,130 


7,700,000 


1.8 


All groups. 


46 


9,470 


819 


940,000 


5.2 



P fc, o <v u 



laoj o 



&o^ 



1* (P 1j +-' +-< © 

Oi O jj <X) S « 

>.s£ >S.S 

10.3 75.8 

6.8 72.6 
7.2 66.1 
4.6 54.6 

3.9 47.1 
7.6 67.8 

Operating Expenses of Massachusetts Steam Stations. The data 
given in Table XII and taken from Electrical World, August 7, 1915, 
represent an analysis of the officially reported operating expenses 
of steam-electric stations in the State of Massachusetts that gen- 
erated or purchased more than 5,000,000 kw-hrs. of electrical energy 
during 1914. The figures are based upon the returns of companies 
made to the Board of Gas and Electric Light Commissioners. On 
account of the fact that a number of the companies purchase and 
distributed energy in addition to the output of their stations, the 
operating expenses are divided into those due to station operation 
and those due to distribution. All expenses are given in cents 
per kw.-hr. so that the relationship of the various items in any 
one plant can be easily found. When comparing the same items 
of different stations, such as wages, ofHce management, taxes and 
the like, it must be remembered that the relative magnitude of the 
station outputs must be considered in order to make a fair com- 
parison. 

Of the 20 stations for which data are given, 12 are in cities of 
from 40,000 to 100,000 people and have a station output varying 
for the most part between 5,000,000 kw.-hrs. and 15,000,000 kw.-hrs. 
per annum. It is interesting to note that the total output for the 
stations reported excluding Boston in 18 cities of a total population 
of 1,194,870 is 209,250,000 kw.-hrs., which is only 20,530,000 kw.-hrs., 
or 10%, more than the reported annual output of the Boston com- 
pany in a city of 670,585 people. The averages given in next to 
the last column for the operating costs of the preceding 19 sta- 
tions are interesting when compared with the costs for the Boston 
company. The figures in the average column represent in a gen- 
eral way the average of conditions as regards operating costs for 
stations similar in size and yearly output when varying conditions 
as regards plant-factor and load-factor are ignored. The cost data 
for the Boston company, on the other hand, represent results of a 
highly specialized system operating under conditions which favor 
reduced costs per kilowatt-hour. This is particularly noticeable in 
the cost of fuel, wages and station repairs, these values being lower 
than the average of the values for the other stations of the State. 



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786 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The cost of repairs to electrical equipment, tools and appliances 
and repairs to lines is, however, higher for Boston than the average 
of the values for other stations of the State, as might be expected. 
In addition, the cost of management and taxes for the Boston sta- 
tion is more than twice the average value for the State, yet the 
net operating return per kw.-hr. for Boston is 1.5 times that for 
the State. In the case of the Boston company taxes per kw.-hr 
are considerably more than the cost of coal per kw.-hr., while for 
the entire State the item of taxes is about equal to the cost of coal. 
The averages for the stations of the State show the cost of fuel 
to be about 70% of the total station operating expense, wages to be 
26%, with the remaining percentage accounted for by oil, waste, 
water, tools and repairs. 



IS 














































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1 8 9 10 U 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 Zl 22 23 24 25 2G 27 28 
Percent Load FactOE 

Fig. 5. Relation of coal consumption and load factors. 



TABLE XIII. 



GENERATING COSTS FOR MIDDLE 
STEAM STATION 



General expenses Amount 

Superintendence % 2,109.16 

Boiler labor 5,287.06 

Engine labor 4,042.77 

Miscellaneous labor 59.06 

Fuel . 47,224.39 

Water 8.60 

Lubricants 327.63 

Production supplies 309.87 

Station expense 611.97 

Repairs steam equipment 10,008.49 

Repairs electrical equipment 209.96 

Repairs station, buildings, structures and mis- 
cellaneous 303.92 

Total generating expenses $70,502.88 



WEST 

%of 

total 

operating 

expenses 

1.63 

4.11 

3.13 

0.05 

36.65 

0.01 

0.25 

0.24 

0.48 

7.76 

0.16 

0.24 

54.71 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



787 



TABLE XIV. EXPENSES OF THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 

%of 
total 
General expenses Amount operating 

expenses 
0.08 
0.13 
0.75 
0.34 
1.16 
5.77 
0.15 
0.80 
0.24 
2.75 



Superintendence $100.05 

Wages 165.65 

Setting and removing meters 969.45 

Setting and removing transformers 437.70 

Supplies and expenses 1,500.73 

Repairs overhead lines 7,436.87 

Repairs underground system 197.02 

Repairs services 1,035.24 

Repairs distribution transformers 308.97 

Repairs customers' meters 3,549.51 

Total distribution expenses $15,701.19 



12.17 



Generation and Distribution Expenses of a IVIiddle West Company. 

The data in tables XIII and XIV taken from Electrical World, 
January 13, 1917, show the annual generation and distribution ex- 
penses of an electric service company operating in a Middle West 
city of 50,000 inhabitants, and having 5500 consumers. Last year 
the maximum demand was 4400 kws. and the annual output 11,- 
920,000 kw.-hrs. 



OPERATING EXPENSES PER KW-HR. GENERATED FOR 
SMALL WISCONSIN STEAM STATIONS 



Station location J^JJ?"^ 

Algoma 2,300 

Alma 1,100 

Arcadia 1,400 

Athens 1,200 

Cedarburg 2,000 

Chilton 1,800 

Gillett 800 

Mondovi 1,325 

Omro 1,100 

Neillsville 2,000 

Owen 800 

Pardeeville 1,050 

Phillips 2,500 

Rib Lake 1,100 

Rio 700 

Sauk City 900 

Seymour 1,100 

Sheboygan Falls.. 1,630 

Viroqua 2,200 

Bangor 750 

Weighted average .... 
Arithmetic average .... 
Median 



Classified expenses, cts. per kw-hr. 



Genera- 
tion, 
kw-hr. 
97,580 
29,382* 
87,550 

103,920 

198,231 

175,400 
24,400 

*30,000t 
38,100 
75,000 

141,720 
43,200t 

250,000? 
37,880 
22,0001: 
34,500 
45.400 
65,000 

148,600 
55,500 



C o 
3.36 



0.25 



Si 

5'^ 



S 

fl O 

U 

„.«. V..... 0.10 . .. 

8.24 0.35 0.15 0.07 

4.86 0.39 0.29 . . . 

4.17 0.13 0.29 0.03 
4.41 0.60 0.07 0.12 
5.86 0.64 0.30 . . . 
3.01 3.53 0.12 .. . 

7.41 0.11 0.70 0.51 
5.98 0.94 0.79 0.85 
5.61 1.02 0.68 . . . 
1.43 1.16 0.20 0.08 
5.03 0.83 2.95 0.14 
3.54 0.20 0.11 
7.27 0.57 1.36 

9.18 0.18 0.45 
6.81 0.25 0.27 

0.86 0.23 

1.25 4.11 

0.67 0.13 

0.16 0.04 „.„. 

..68 0.62 0.48 O.OJ. 

5.42 0.70 0.66 0.13 
5.32 0.58 0.28 0.10 



4.29 
3.45 

5.84 



0.08 



0.03 
0.58 



u cc 3 
O ^^ 

1.20 0.03 
0.28 0.45 
0.40 0.09 
0.28 0.04 
0.22 ... 
0.74 ... 
0.08 . . . 
1.27 0.70 
2.78 0.30 
0.40 ... 
0.35 0.04 
0.60 0.07 
1.77 0.10 



2.73 

0'.27 
1.85 
0.11 
0.01 
0.76 
0.77 
0.40 



0.23 

o'.os 

0.10 
0.10 



o 

4.94 

9.54 

6.03 

4.94 

5.42 

7.54 

6.74 

10.70 

11.64 

7.71 

3.26 

9.62 

5.80 

9.20 

12.54 

7.33 

10.14 

11.53 

4.59 

6.63 

6.71 

7.78 

7.44 



* Estimated, t Mostly purchased at 3 cents. % Both steam and 
hydraulic generation. § Burns mill refuse for fuel. 



788 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The utilization, commercial, general and miscellaneous expenses 
amounted to about 5, 14 and 14% of the total, respectively. Fuel, 
36.65%; repairs to steam equipment, 7.76%; boiler labor, 4.11% and 
engine labor, 3.13% constituted the larger items under generation 
expense, while repairs to overhead lines, 5.77% and repairs to cus- 
tomers' meter, 2.75%, made up the principal part of distribution 
cost. 

Unit Operating Expenses of Several Small Wisconsin Utilities. 
The following data from Electrical World, March 11, 1916, collected 
by the Wisconsin Railroad Commission on the operating expenses 
of 20 small electric utilities serving communities of 2500 persons 
and less, are tabulated herewith according to the classification of 
accounts prescribed in most States. It may be pointed out that 
the cost of generating energy in these particular cases is about 
70% of the total cost of supplying electric service. Next in order 
are the expenses of general supervision 11%, of distribution 9%, 
and of utilization 7%. In the plants having annual outputs of 
50,000 kw.-hrs. or less the unit generating expense lies between 
5.03 cts. and 9.18 cts per kw.-hr., but in the stations having larger 
outputs the unit costs are lower, making the arithmetical average 
cost 5.42 cts. and the weighted average 4.68 cts. per kw.-hr. 

Cost of Power. The following costs were compiled from figures 
published in Data, 1910, 1911 and 1912. 

TYPICAL 575 KW. STATION IN MASSACHUSETTS 

Output at busbars, kw-hr 656,880 

Tons of coal used 2,417 

Price of coal,, per ton $4.88 

Costs per kw-hr. Cents 

Coal, bituminous '. 1.796 

Oil and waste 0.055 

Water 0.038 

Wages 0.724 

Repairs, station building 0.107 

Repairs, steam equipment 0.102 

Repairs, electrical equipment 0.066 

2.888 

TYPICAL 725 KW. STATION 

Output at busbars, kw-hr 889,760 

Tons of coal used 2,299 

Price of coal, per ton $5.31 

Costs per kw-hr. Cents 

Coal 1.372 

Oil and waste 0.025 

Water .008 

Wages 0.750 

Repairs, station building 0.045 

Repairs, steam equipment 0.130 

Repairs, electrical equipment 0.003 

2.333 

POWER PLANT OF THE HYDE PARK ELEC. LT. CO. 

Total generator capacity, kw 1.775 

Output at busbars, kw-hr , . . ." ,..,.,.,.,.,,. 4,357,648 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



789 



Of the total amount sold 88.5% was for street railway serv- 
ice. 

Price of coal, per ton, bituminous, $3.94; #3 buckwheat, 
$3.17. 

Costs per kw-hr. Cents 

Fuel 0.785 

Oil and waste 0.017 

Water 0.016 

Station wages 0.221 

Repairs, station building 0.107 

Repairs, steam equipment 0.068 

Repairs, electric equipment 0.015 

Minor tools 0.018 

1.154 

OPERATING RESULTS FROM A CENTRAL STATION USING COMPOUND 
CORLISS ENGINES 

Rated capacity, kw 5,000 

Output at busbars, kw-hr 6,052,518 

Costs per kw-hr. Cents 

Fuel 0.633 

Oil and waste 0.015 

Water 0.069 

Wages at station 0.302 

Repairs, station building 0.074 

Repairs, steam equipment 0.266 

Repairs, electric equipment 0.060 

1.419 

TYPICAL 5000 KW. STATION 

Output at busbars, kw-hr 8,216,267 

Costs per kw-hr. Cents 

Fuel 0.544 

Oil and waste 0.014 

Water 0.049 

Wages at station 0.282 

Repairs, station building 0.075 

Repairs, steam equitjment 0.173 

Repairs, electric equipment 0.065 

1.202 

TYPICAL 6000 KW. STATION 

Output at busbars, kw-hr 8,776,165 

Costs- per kw-hr. Cents 

Fuel 0.617 

Oil and waste 0.012 

Water 0.040 

Wages at station 0.296 

Repairs, station building 0.052 

Repairs, steam equipment 0.147 

Repairs, electric equipment 0.046 

Station tools & sundries 0.002 

1.212 

Comparison of Costs of Operation of Gas Engine Station and 
Steam Generating 'Station. The following is taken from an article 
by H. S. Knowlton, Engineering Record, March 27, 1909. The 



790 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

service requirements at each of these two stations, a gas-engine 
station at Somerville, Mass., and a steam generating plant at East 
Boston, are somewhat similar, both being located in outlying parts 
of the Boston Elevated Railway Company's system, and operated 
in harmony with other stations of larger size located nearer the 
center of the surface car, subway, tunnel and elevated railway 
load. All the stations of the Boston system are directly controlled 
in their daily operation by a superintendent of power distribution, 
reporting to the superintendent of power stations. In examining 
the records of any particular plant it is necessary, therefore, to 
appreciate that the needs of the system as a whole are considered 
before those of any particular station, and that in the handling 
of the company's service it is frequently necessary to impose con- 
ditions upon individual plants which do not enable the equipment 
to be operated at its highest local efficiency. This is in some 
measure the case with the stations at Somerville and East Boston. 

The equipment of the Somerville plant consists of 2 two-cylinder, 
32 by 36-in. American Crossley four-cycle gas engines of 610 b.h.p. 
rating each, running at 140 rev. per min., and each direct connected 
to a 350-kw., 575-volt d. c. Crocker-Wheeler generator. There are 
2 Loomis-Pettibone bituminous coal down-draft producers, each 9 ft. 
in diam. and various auxiliary apparatus for scrubbing and clean- 
ing the gas. circulation of water through jackets, etc. The engines 
are started by a 6 by 8 -in. Rand air compressor. The producers are 
supplied with coal by hand firing, the fuel being hoisted to the 
charging floor by a motor-driven bucket elevator. 

At East Boston the plant consists of 4 180-h.p. Corliss vertical 
boilers rated at 180 h.p. each, and 3 200-kw. generating sets con- 
sisting of 12 and 22 by 42-in. cross compound horizontal condensing 
Greene engines, direct connected to 575-volt direct current gener- 
ators running 120 rev. per min. This station is hand fired and 
runs under natural draft. 

The labor requirements at Somerville during the year w^ere as 
follows : 1 chief engineer, 2 watch engineers, 2 oilers, 2 producer 
men, 1 coal handler, 1 helper and 1 apprentice; total 10 men. Be- 
tween June 1 and Oct. 1 the force was reduced by the dropping of 
the helper and one producer man. 

The East Boston labor requirements were : 1 chief engineer, 1 
watch engineer, 2 oilers and 3 firemen ; total, 7 men. 

The hours of daily service at Somerville averaged from 7 a. m 
to 10 p. M. and at East Boston from 6.30 a. m. to 10 p. m._, except 
in June, July and August, when the service averaged from 6.45 
A. M. to 9 A. M., and from 2 p. m. to 9 p. M., Sunday operation being 
from 2 p. M. to 11 p. m. the year through. 

The plant of Somerville operated for the year as a whole at a 
total manufacturing cost of 1.68 cts. per kw.-hr., exclusive of any 
fixed charges. (Table XV. ) The coal consumption per kw.-hr. of 
output was 2.236 lbs., giving 1.66 lbs. per horse-power-hour of sta- 
tion output, all fuel included. This was the lowest fuel consump- 
tion per kw.-hr. reached during the year by all stations on the 
Boston Elevated system, and also the lowest fuel cost per kw.-hr. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



791 



TABLE XV. OPERATING RESULTS FOR YEAR ENDING 
SEPT. 30, 1908. 

Steam plant Gas engine plant 

Location East Boston Somerville 

Total kiJowatt-hours 2,108,521 1,182,900 

Total kilowatt-hours used in sta- 
tion 21,529 133,118 

Total kilowatt-hours output. 2,086,992 1,049,782 

Tons of coal 3,609.2 1,048.5 

Price per ton $3,801 $4,179 

Pounds of coal .- 28,086,193 2,348,031 

Pounds of coal per kilowatt- 
hour . 3.874 2.236 

Cubic feet of water 1,163,300 265,860 

Price per 100 cubic feet $0,123 $0,126 

Pounds water (evaporated) per 

pound coal 8.991 

Pounds water consumed per pound 

coal 7.119 

Gallons of cylinder oil 960 197.52 

Price per gallon $0,262 $0,299 + 

Gallons of engine oil 311.40 5,672.39 

Price per gallon $0,141 $0.15 

Cost of Supplies — 

Coal $13,721.35 $4,381.12 

Cylinder oil $252.21 $59.26 

Engine oil $44.13 $850.87 

Other lubricants 

Total lubricants ($296.34) ($910.13) 

Water $1,432.53 $337.34 

Miscellaneous small supplies $403.26 $1,284.65 

Supplies and expenses for repairs 

(electrical) $860.42 $525.32 

Supplies and expenses for repairs 

(steam power equipment).. $2,107.25 

Supplies and expenses for repairs 

(gas power equipment) $1,731.74 

Expenses for repairs of buildings. $112.60 $367.47 

Total cost of supplies $18,933,75 $9,537.77 

Cost of coal per kilowatt-hour for 

year $0.0065+ $0.0041+ 

Cost of supplies per kilowatt-hour 

for year $0.0090+ $0.0090+ 

Cost of Labor — 

Engineers $1,096.21 $1,294.60 

Oilers $1,364.25 $1,143.78 

Firemen and producer men $2,582.81 $1,119.58 

Coal and ash handlers $571.60 

Miscellaneous, including helpers 

and cleaners $372.16 $1,324.63 

Labor for repairs (electrical equip- 
ment) $83.07 $101.67 

Labor for repairs (steam equip- 
ment) $840.97 

Labor for repairs (gas power 

equipment) $2,544.69 

Total cost of labor $6,339.47 $8,100.55 

Cost of labor per kilowatt-hour. . . $0.0030+ $0.0077+ 

Total cost of output $25,273.22 $17,638.32 

Cost of output per kilowatt-hour. $0.01210+ $0.01680+ 

in all plants owned by the company. Considering the fact that the 

capacity of the Somerville station is but 700 kw. at normal load, 
these figures show that the gas plant in this in.stallation is efficient, 
although the load factor of the installation is unfavorable to the 



792 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

highest economy of operation. The load factor defined by the full 
load output for 365 days at 18 hours per day divided into the actual 
output was 22.7% for the year. The relatively small station output 
for the year in relation to the machinery capacity installed tended 
to carry the labor cost per kw.-hr. to rather high figures, the aver- 
age for the year being 0.77 cts. The high cost of labor in June, 
1908, was due to the fact that at this time the station was shut 
down for 2 weeks' thorough overhauling, the labor of the latter 
being performed by the regular operating force, which brought the 
kw.-hr. charge to 2.23 cts. In the other summer months low output 
was largely responsible for the relative high labor costs, the fuel 
consumption running not far from that of other months when the 
demand on the plant was greater. 

At Somerville the lowest coal consumption per kw.-hr. was ob- 
tained in August, 1908, 1.967 lbs., a month when the station output 
was unusually low in quantity. The figures show that this station 
was not much affected in fuel economy when the output dropped 
considerably, and a factor in this was the careful operation of the 
machinery only under conditions when the service of each unit was 
clearly necessary. In other words, if the load factor of the station 
were available, figured on the basis of the capacity of the equip- 
ment in actual operation at all times, it would run much higher 
than was indicated by the load factor quoted above. During the 
year the cost of coal per kw.-hr. averaged 0.41 ct., and varied from 
a maximum of 0.46 ct. to a minimum of 0.33 ct. 

The figures for labor cost of repairs include the work done by 
tjhe station staff during the annual overhauling of the producers 
and their auxiliaries in June. The plant has proved thoroughly 
reliable and has sustained no enforced shut-downs. The machinery 
can be started up throughout the entire station inside of 15 or 20 
minutes without trouble. The losses from banking the fires are 
exceedingly small. The most important items of expense in the . 
electrical end of the station in the year covered were a new switch- 
board panel installed for use with a plan for starting the engines 
by running the generators as motors, 3 new armature coils in one 
generator, and the re-wiring of the station lighting circuits. In 
the gas end of the plant the main items of expense for renewals 
were a cylinder head costing about $400, a new exhaust box and 
a new exhaust valve ; while in the gas house the changing of the 
stones in the scrubber equipment from 6 to 2 ins. diam. was the 
principal alteration. The fires are cleaned and the ashes thor- 
oughly removed on Sundays by an average force of 6 men. The 
average life of igniter points is about 3 months. Under ordinary 
conditions the gas engine exhaust valves are ground once in two 
months. The cylinders were cleaned formerly about every two 
weeks, but since changing the stones in the scrubbers this cleaning 
has to be done but once in 2 months. New excelsior is placed in 
the dry scrubber once in 2 months. New excelsior is placed in 
one grid of the wet scrubber each week.. The point of greatest 
consequence appears to be to secure clean gas. An average analysis 
of the gas obtained is as follows: CO2, 3 9%; O, 0.2%; CO, 24.3%; 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 793 

CHi, 1.1%; H, 7.5%; N, 63%; total, 100%. The average calorific 
power of the gas per cubic foot is 114.6 B.t.u. The earlier troubles 
from back firing and pre-ignition have now been practically over- 
come. 

The East Boston station had a generating cost of 1.21 cts. per 
kw.-hr. for the year on a station load factor of 53% obtained by 
dividing the total year's output by 600 kws. carried 18 hrs. per day 
and 365 days. The average cost of coal per ton for the year was 
about $3.80, or 37 cts. per ton less than at the Somerville station. 
The coal consumption per kw.-hr. was 3.87 lbs,, or about 74% greater 
than in the gas plant. The cost of coal per kw.-hr. for the year 
averaged 0.65 ct. Including all supplies the cost per kw.-hr, was 
the same in each station, or 0.9 ct., but the larger output of the 
steam plant and the smaller force tended to give it an advantage 
on the side of the labor cost per unit of output. In comparing these 
stations in this way the object is rather to show the actual results 
of different conditions of operation, and to emphasize the influence 
of operating at a good deal below the capacity of the installation. 
The labor cost of 0.30 ct. per kw.-hr. at East Boston was the 
result of a range in monthly costs from 0.21 to 0.5 per unit. In 
general, as the output fell off the labor cost increased. There were 
no breakdowns, and the only large repairs were the refitting of the 
boilers with new tubes. 

Table XV gives the operations of the two stations for the year 
in full detail. In the operation of the plants of the company 
monthly records of cost are kept for all the items listed in the table. 

Central-Station Labor Costs. The following data were taken 
from Electrical World, Nov. 16, 1912. In Plant A, serving a New 
England manufacturing city, the station output at the switchboard 
in 1911 was 2,418,000 kw.-hrs. and the labor cost for the entire 
year $11,265, or 0.46 ct. per unit. The payroll covered 4 engineers, 
3 oilers, 3 firemen and 2 helpers, or 12 men in all, the generating 
plant consisting of 3 alternators of 2000-kw. combined rating, each 
directly driven by a vertical cross-compound engine. The units 
were rated at 400 kws., 600 kws. and 1000 kws., and steam was 
supplied by 5 Sterling boilers rated at 1250 h.p. total. The ratio 
between station rating and labor requirements was 166 kws. per 
man. The use of vertical engines, comparatively small powered 
units and hand firing tended to increase the labor expense. In this 
plant 1,494,000 kw.-hrs. were purchased during the year from an 
outside hydraulic transmission company at a cost of $8,434. It 
appears probable that if this plant were to be rebuilt in a similar 
situation, the labor cost could be cut materially by the installation 
of either a 2000-kw. turbine or 2 turbo units of possibly 1500-kw, 
and 500-kw. rating in place of the vertical engines. The plant is 
not hampered by high real -estate costs. At the time it was erected 
the possibility of purchasing energy at a later date was not known, 
and consequently 3 sizes of engines were installed to enable the 
owners to operate the equipment economically under widely varying 
loads. 

Station B, rated at 4000 kws. and serving a population of about 



794 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

60,000, produced electricity last year at the low labor cost of 0.17 
ct. per kw.-hr. In this station the payroll covered 4 engineers, 3 
oilers, 1 electrician, 5 firemen and 2 repair men, their wages total- 
ing $16,197 for the year. The labor ratio was 210 kw. per man, 
and mechanical stokers were used in the boiler plant. The latter 
consisted of 4 525-h.p. water-tube units. The large output of the 
plant, 9,400,000 kw.-hrs., is chiefly responsible for the low unit 
labor cost. 

Plant C shows the importance of large outputs in securing low 
unit costs, and produced electricity during a recent year at a labor 
cost of 0.16 ct. The installation is a tidewater plant, with mechani- 
cal fuel-handling and stoking system.s, and the output for the 12 
months was 14,453,000 kw.-his. The equipment w^as 6 520-h.p. 
water-tube boilers, 2 500-kw. turbo units, 1 200 kw., 2 1000-kw. 
and 1 2000-kw. engine-driven set. The station rating was therefore 
5200 kws,, or 19 2 kws. per employee on the payroll. There were 
27 station men, including 4 engineers, 4 firemen, 2 helpers, 2 water 
tenders, 2 switchboard men, 2 repair men, 5 oilers, 1 cleaner, 1 
conveyor man, 3 coal handlers and 1 clerk. This station supplies 
energy for lighting, motor and railway service over a large number 
of towns within a radius of 60 miles of the plant, and the labor 
requirements are unquestionably increased by the variety of circuits 
and voltages, including both direct current and alternating current, 
fed from the central installation. The gradual introduction of turbo 
units and the use of motor-operated valves are tending to facilitate 
the handling of the steam end of the plant with fewer men. The 
station has been in service from 10 to 15 years, and if a new plant 
of the same size were to be buiit to-day on the same site, there is 
little question that it could be greatly simplified, with substantial 
reduction in the force required to man the machinery. 

Plant D, which has recently been turned into a substation follow- 
ing the supply of energy from a new installation, illustrates to a 
marked degree the tendency which diversified equipment of moder- 
ate size has to multiply labor costs. This station contained 12 
hand-fired horizontal return tubular boilers and no less than 5 
electric generating units of the steam-driven type, besides several 
motor-generators and a number of units belt-driven from a base- 
ment line shaft. The approximate rating was 4500 kws., and the 
payroll called for 21 men. The boiler-room work was handled by 
5 firemen in spite of the absence of mechanical stokers, but on the 
prime-mover and generator side of the station 4 engineers and 12 
other attendants were required. The cost of labor for the year was 
$19,571, or 0.34 ct. per kw.-hr. at the bus, the output for the year 
being 5,754,000 kw.-hrs. An analysis of the operating conditions 
in the station showed that the boilers and engines were well handled 
but that the multiplied labor requirements were largely due to the 
use of line shafting and driving small generators in addition to the 
main alternators, to the use of small arc-lighting dynamos and to 
the distribution of an extensive direct -current service for motor 
operation. The station building was so large that the small ma- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 795 

chines in service were greatly scattered, and the area of the plant 
militated against economical labor service. The rating per man 
was 214 kws. 

Station E. Small output handicaps a station even where its 
general design favors economical work by its operating shifts. A 
typical case is afforded by Station E, equipped with 3 engine-driven 
alternators of 150-kw., 300-kw. and 800-kw. rating. The boiler 
plant consists of 4 water-tube units of 1000-h.p. combined rating, 
with hand firing. The station is simple in lay-out, with short 
distances between apparatus units, direct lines of piping and a 
moderate-cost switchboard. 4 engineers, 4 firemen and 1 helper 
are required, the rating per employee being 139 kw. In a recent 
year the plant output was 1,602,000 kw.-hrs., the labor cost being 
$7,759, or 0.48 ct. per kw.-hr. 

Station F. Another small station with a more complicated equip- 
ment had a relatively high labor cost. This plant had on its pay- 
roll 7 men, consisting of 3 engineers, 1 electrical operator, 1 gen- 
erator attendant and 2 firemen, and was equipped with 4 water- 
tube boilers of 678-h.p. combined rating, two horizontal cross-com- 
pound condensing engines, a 500-kw. turbine and 3 arc machines. 
The station rating was 1082 kws., or 155 kws. per employee. The 
labor cost for the year was $8,972, or 0.61 ct. per kw.-hr., the total 
output being 1,466,000 kw.-hrs. In this station the piping and 
auxiliaries were unusually complicated in arrangement, the floor 
levels were not well planned, and extreme crowding characterized 
the equipment in the engine room. The labor cost in this plant was 
unduly high, and a betterment study would probably result in a 
reduction of the force by about 28%. In so small a station there 
are great disadvantages in maintaining attendants for purely elec- 
trical duties in addition to those required to operate engine and 
turbine equipment and look after the general condition of the 
auxiliaries. 

Data of the above character drawn from actual practice show 
some of the reasons why the large turbine plant with individual 
units of high power is making such inroads into the field formerly 
occupied exclusively by stations composed of generating and 
auxiliary apparatus of diversified character and low individual 
output. Apart from the questions of fuel economy which bulk so 
large in plant design and the selection of machinery for production, 
it is coming to be realized that enormous increases in output can be 
handled without additions to the number of men required to operate 
the installation, if the problem is viewed in a broad way. Fre- 
quently the capacity of a moderate-sized plant can be practically 
doubled by this means with little or no addition to the force of 
employees. Repeated analyses of production costs in stations rated 
at from 3000 kws. to 7000 kws., under favorable conditions of ma- 
chinery arrangernent, indicate that with the natural development 
of business a labor cost of 0.1 ct. to 0.15 ct. per kw.-hr. should be 
attained in regular practice, although 2 or 3 times that unit expense 
at present is a common figure. 



796 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
Table XVI gives a summary of the costs for the various stations. 





TABLE XVI. SUMMARY OF LABOR COSTS 






Total 


Annual 


Number of 


Kw. rating 

per 
employee 


Labor 


Plant 


rating of 


output 


central 


cost in 


station 


in 


station 


cents per 




in kw. 


kw-hr. 


employees 


kw.-hr. 


A . .. 


. 2000 


2,418,000 


12 


167 


0.46 


B ... 


. 4000 


9.400,000 


15 


210 


0.17 


C . . . 


. 5200 


14,453,000 


27 


192 


0.16 


D ... 


. 4500 


5,754,000 


21 


214 


0.34 


E . . . 


. 1250 


1,602.000 


9 


139 


0.48 


F . .. 


. 1082 


1,466,000 


7 


155 


0.61 



2200 Volts Versus 13,200 Volts for Rural Extensions. In Table 
XVII are the overhead charges which may be assessed on isolated 
transformers when they are energized all the time, given in Elec- 
trical World, Dec. 9, 1916. The first group of figures relates to 
13,200-volt equipment and the second to 2200-volt apparatus. 
These data indicate that if rural communities are not far from 
cities having electric service it may be cheaper to operate and main- 
tain 2200-volt extensions to the city primary circuits than to oper- 
ate a 13,200-volt line and corresponding voltage transformers. For 
instance, the overhead charges on a 5-kw. 2200-volt transformer is 
over $26 less than for a similar size 13,200-volt transformer with 
the necessary protective apparatus. Assuming interest at 7% and 
line depreciation, operation, maintenance and taxes at 6%, the sav- 
ing on each 5-kw. transformer is sufficient to cover the overhead 
charges of a 2200-volt line costing $200. 

This seems to indicate that for every 5-kw. transformer to be 
connected the 2200-volt transmission line can cost $200 more than a 
13,200-volt line would to serve the same load with the same line 
loss, without making the overhead charge greater than for the 
higher voltage line. In other words, if the single-phase 13,200-volt 
line required to serve a scattered rural load of 5 5-kw. trans- 
formers cost $7,600, a 2200-volt line having no greater overhead 
charge would cost $8,600. If the 2200-volt line could not be built 
for this amount without obtaining a larger line loss than on the 
13,200-volt line, then the higher voltage transmission would be 
preferable. 

Distribution -Line Economies. The following is abstracted from 
an article in Electrical "World, June 9, 1917. Some interesting 
views on considerations influencing selection of transformers were 
brought oiit in a recent paper, by S. B. Hood of the Minneapolis 
(Minn.) General Electric Company. Since the price per kilovolt- 
ampere of transformer rating decreases as the size increases it 
naturally follows that the larger sizes should be used wherever 
practicable. This can be accomplished usually by stringing heavier 
and longer secondary bus lines and feeding them with a smaller 
number of units. The most economical balance is obtained as re- 
gards Initial investment when the cost of secondary bus lines plus 
transformers is a minimum. There is, however, a very wide dif- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 797 

TABLE XVII. TRANSFORMER OVERHEAD CHARGES WHEN 

RURAL DISTRICTS ARE SERVED FROM ISOLATED 

TRANSFORMERS 

i3,200-VoIt Line 
Cost of 5-kw. transformer installed, including high-tension 

fuHes and horn-gap arrester • $125.00 

Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20%. 25.00 

Core loss, 91 watts or 800 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. . . 16.00 

Labor for trouble calls 9.00 

Total extra cost of service per annum $ 50.00 

Total extra cost of service per month 4.16 

Cost of 3-kw. transformer, installed, including high-tension 

fuses and horn-gap arresters . . . $100.00 

Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20% $ 20.00 

Core loss, 53.5 watts or 470 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. 9.40 

Labor for trouble calls 8.60 

Total extra cost of service per annum $ 38.00 

Total extra cost of service per month 3.16 

2200-Volt Line Extended from City Limits 

Cost of 1-kw. transformer, installed $ 30.00 

Interest, repairs and depreciation 6.00 

Core loss, 20 watts or 175 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts.. . 3.50 

Labor for trouble calls and service 3. 50 

Total extra cost of service per annum % 13.00 

Total extra cost of service per month 1.08 

Cost of 3-kw. transformer % 45.00 

Interest, repairs and depreciation 9.00 

Core loss, 35 watts or 307 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts.. . 6.14 

Labor for trouble and service 3.50 

Total extra cost of service per annum % 18.64 

Total extra cost of service per month 1.55 

Cost of 5-kw. transformer % 60.00 

Interest, repairs and depreciation, 20 per cent 12.00 

Core loss, 45.5 watts or 400 kw-hr. per annum at 2 cts. 8.00 

Labor for trouble and service 3.50 

Total extra cost of service per annum $ 23.50 

Total extra cost of service per month 1.96 

ference between the depreciation on copper wire and on trans- 
formers. Wire depreciates very slowly and has a high fixed sal- 
vage value. Transformers have an uncertain life and their scrap 
value is low. Taking these conditions into consideration, it is good 
practice to spend considerably more on bus copper than is actually 
required to strike an economical balance. An excess copper in- 
vestment equal to 50% of the transformer cost is not too much 
to allow. 

As an example, take two secondary bus sections, each fed by 
5-kva, transformers, the investment on which, m position, will be 
about $150. By connecting these bus lines and substituting a 10- 
kva. transformer, advantage is taken of the diversity on the bus, 
thereby permitting the connecting of more load. The new trans- 
former investment will not exceed $95, showing a saving of $55 



798 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

that can be spent for connecting and increasing the size of the 
secondary bus and still maintain a balance as regards investment. 
Assuming interest at 6% and depreciation at 7.5%, the annual 
charges will be $20.25 and $12.82 respectively, show^ing an annual 
saving of $7.43 by using one unit in place of the two. Now. if 
interest is assumed at 6% and depreciation at 2.5% on copper wire, 
and this saving is capitalized, it will be possible to spend $87 plus 
the $55, or $142, on the secondary bus and still maintain an eco- 
nomical balance. This makes no allowance for the saving due to 
lower core loss with the single unit as compared with two smaller 
units. If this were taken into consideration, a still greater 
secondary investment could be justified. In purchasing trans- 
formers it is very poor policy to stock the small units. A 5-kva. 
unit is small enough to use regularly on any system of distribution. 

As regards ratios and taps for distribution transformers, 2300- 
volt primary and 115-230-volt secondary windings without taps 
give the best all-around results. These will operate over a primary 
range of 2200 to 2400 volts. Taps have no real advantage and 
introduce complication in the end turns where the greatest strength 
is required. The double primary winding used in earlier days is 
of no use at present, and its omission together with that of taps 
makes possible the elimination of the primary terminal board which 
has been the cause of so many transformer failures. 

Factors that Determine Economical Life of Transformers. In 
Electrical World, Jan. 13, IS 17, Theodore B. Morgan gives the fol- 
lowing considerations involved in an investigation to ascertain 
whether it is economical to continue in service, hold in reserve or 
condemn and junk long-used transformers. Unless steps are taken 
occasionally to weed out inefficient or antiquated transformers 
from distribution systems certain units will be found which have 
become uneconomical to operate as compared with newer designs. 
This is especially true of " old timers," since as a rule they age 
more rapidly than modern types. According to manufacturers' 
statements and judging from results of tests to force aging, recently 
designed transformers do not age appreciably. It is doubtful, there- 
fore, whether future developments in this apparatus will permit 
sufficient reduction in losses to justify the replacement of modern 
units for this reason alone. It should be emj^hasized, however, that 
only future experience can prove this contention. 

To determine whether it is economical to continue in service, 
hold in reserve, or condemn and junk transformers which have been 
in service several years the writer has conducted extensive investi- 
gations, part of the results of which are presented in what follows. 
In arriving at conclusions it was considered advisable to take the 
following conditions into account: (1) Unit cost of energy at the 
switchboard; (2) number of hours per day normal and maximum 
load is liable to last; (3) relation of transformer rating to con- 
nected load; (4) iron loss; (5) copper loss.; (6) kva. drawn from 
feeder by transformer for exciting at no load; (7) cost of new 
transformer to replace one in service; (8) size of wire and load 
carried by feeder giving service ; ( 9 ) distance of transformer from 



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799 



800 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

station; (10) power factor of feeder load; (11) profit that can be 
realized by central station by change; (12) service characteristics; 
(13) better regulation given to secondary distribution system. 

Data included under the first item were readily obtained from the 
company's operating accounts, while information on items 2 and 3 
was secured by making tests in typical districts and by comparing 
the ratings of transformers in service with statistics secured from 
the commercial department. Tests on thirty-odd transformers rated 
at 0.6 to 5 kva., and which had been in service for different periods 
up to 17 years, were made to secure data for items 4 and 5. these 
being facilitated by the replacement of the units shortly before the 
tests by transformers of large rating. 

These tests as well as all subsequent ones were conducted to 
show the losses under operating conditions, voltage being applied 
to the low-tension coils of the transformer at the rating given by 
the manufacturer. No attempt was made to insure pure sinusoidal 
waves. On the other hand, it was most desirable to have the 
wave formation identical with that supi)lied to the system under 
operating conditions, otherwise the tests would have been value- 
less or would have given erroneous results when applied to dis- 
tribution problems later on. 

Preliminary tests were made to determine what apparent changes 
might be expected under varying conditions. When generators 
producing diffei-ent wave forms were paralleled on the system the 
difference in loss was apparent, but to such a small degree that it 
was not appreciable. Operation of generators on two other sys- 
tems caused a greater variance, but at no time greater than 2%. 

Other tests made to determine the variation in loss when the 
rated voltage was impressed upon the transformers with and with- 
out additional external variable resistances indicated that when a 
lamp bank or meter-testing rheostat was used the error introduced 
by the change of voltage wave was not sufficient to be more than 
discernible by the tester. 

When the iron and copper loss data had been tabulated, however, 
the results for transformers of the same rating .varied so greatly 
that it was hopeless to attempt any conclusions without securing 
information that would permit classification of the data." Conse- 
quently, manufacturers were asked for the history of transformer 
design and for such data as would be used to classify the trans- 
formers into groups, each group to represent a distinct departure 
from the preceding group as regards iron and copper losses. Lists 
of these losses were also secured. From this information all of 
the 900 transformers tested to date and having ratings from 0.6 
kva. to 600 kva. were classified as shown in Table XVIII: 

With this classification as a guide, cards were selected from 
the transformer files for 4 transformers of each size in each class. 
By routing a regular testing crew according to these cards it was 
possible to make a large number of tests with the least amount 
of travel, 118 tests being made in one district. The exciting cur- 
rents were determined at the same time for item 6. Since some of 
the transformers of each class were miles apart, or could not be 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 801 

TABLE XVIII. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS • 

Class X — Designed for 133-cycle, 1040/2080-volt primary, 54/108- 

volt secondary, about 19 years old. 
Class A — Designed for 60-cycle, 1040/2080 volt primary, 54/108 

or 108/21 6-volt secondary, 19 to 11 years old. 
Class B — Designed for 60-cycle, 1040/2080-volt primary, 54/108 

or 108/216-volt secondary, 11 to 9 years old. 
Class C — Designed for 60-cycle, 1 100/2200-volt primary, 110/220- 

volt secondary, 9 to 6 years old. 
Class D — Designed for 60-cycle, 1100/2200-volt primary, 110/220- 

volt secondary. 6 to 5 years old. 
Class E — Designed for 60-cycle 2200-volt primary, 110/220-volt 

secondary, 5 to 4 years old. 
Class F — Designed for 60-cycle, 2200-volt primary, 110/220-volt 

secondary, 4 to 1 years old. 
Class H — Designed for 60-cycle, 220-volt primary, 110/220-volt 

secondary, less than 1 year old. 



♦ All transformers operating on 60-cycle, 2200-volt, with 110 and 
220-volt, two and three-wire secondaries. 

disconnected for testing, and as certain sizes of some classes were 
rare or were not in use at all, it was impracticable to carry out the 
initial intention of testing four transformers of each size. How- 
ever, enough tests were made so that data were secured for about 
23% of the total number of units installed, the smallest percentage 
of any class being about 18% for Class E. Where data could not 
be secured for certain sizes of any class, where the data were 
4nsufRcient for making satisfactory averages, or where the tests 
were not as accurately conducted as desired the losses were 
estimated. 

While test data were secured under operating conditions for 
transformers rated as high as 600 kva., only that for sizes (up to 
20 kva.) which are most common on all systems have been plotted, 
since it is by the proper selection of these units that the largest 
saving can be made. The curves are based on the average losses 
as found by over 500 tests made during a period of four years, and 
are shown in Fig. 6, with curves plotted from the data furnished 
by manufacturers on losses at the time of manufacture. The manu- 
facturers also gave data on what the losses should be at the time 
of test, but the values were much below those actually measured, 
due probably to differences which exist between theoretical and 
actual conditions. For instance, wave form in commercial may 
not and is usually not sinusoidal, the transformer may be over- 
loaded in kilovolt-amperes but not in kilowatts, and the oil used 
for heat radiating purposes may be lacking or not in the proper 
operating conditions, thus permitting the iron cores to age. 

While Class X and some of Class A transformers were operated 
for a time without oil as a heat-radiating medium, this condition 
was corrected in 1902-1903. The oil in many of the older types 
had reduced from one-third to two-thirds of its original bulk, 
thereby becoming thick and sluggish. Several cases were found 
where the oil and insulating compound had combined into a thick, 
sticky mass covering part of the laminations and coils. These 



802 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

conditions were talien into consideration after making the tests 
on the transformers, it being decided that the iron loss had not 
been affected except where excessive load in comparison to the 
radiating capacity had been carried. The averages of test results 
can therefore be used only as a guide for transformers of the class 
tested, as the losses of each individual transformer are liable to 
change. For estimating purposes, however, the curves will be 
found fiiirly accurate. It may be pointed out that for the period 
of transformer development represented, the iron losses of similar 
size units have been gradually reduced and the ratio of copper 



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4 6 & 10 12 14 16 15 
f^a+ing of TransforTTiers in KVA. 
Fig. 7 



loss to iron loss gradually increased from 1 :1 to about 2 :1, thus 
permitting a higher all -day elliciency when the load factor is low. 
Figs. 7 and 8 compare the iron and copper losses of modern trans- 
formers with those of older types in percentages. 

From the manufacturers' list prices and discounts for different 
size units figures (Table XJX) were obtained on which to base 
the cost of replacing transformers. The cost to set transformers 
on lines includes freight, cartage, etc., and is an average for" re- 
moving and setting a number of transformers when arrangements 
have been made to carry on the work systematically. The junk 
values are based on prices that have been paid in the past for 
good transformers with high iron loss. These figures are necessarily 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



803 



TABLE XTX. ULTIMATE COST OP NEW TRANSFORMERS 
ASSUMED FOR ESTIMATING PURPOSES 



Size of 



Cost at 



transformers f^ptorv 
in kva. raciory 



1 

1.5 

2 

2.5 

3 

4 

5 

7.5 
10 
15 
20 



23.00 
27.00 
32.00 
36.00 
40 00 
47.00 
56.00 
73.00 
89.00 
118.00 
115.00 



Cost set 
on lines 

26.00 
30.00 
35.00 
39.00 
43.00 
50.XI0 
59.00 
76.00 
92.00 
121 00 
148.00 



Junk value 

of old 

transformers 

3.00 

4 00 

5 00 
6.00 
7.00 
9.00 

10.00 
14.00 
18.00 
25. UO 
30.00 



Ultimate 

cost of new 

transformers 

on lines 

23.00 

26.00 

30.00 

33.00 

36.00 

41.00 

49.00 

62.00 

74.00 

96.00 

118.00 




I& ZO 



Ro+ing of Transformers, in K.V.A. 



Fig. 



Comparisons of the iron and copper losses of 
transformers 

All of the curves are plotted with the assumption that the losses 
of class H transformers are 100 per cent. The curves of Fig. 7 
are based on the average losses at time of manufacture while those 
of Fig. 8 are based an actual test data. The upper curve of Fig. 
7 represents copper losses and lower one iron losses. Fig. 8 also 
represents iron losses. 

arbitrary, as it is impossible to arrive at true costs for a great 
number of points where freight, cartage and labor conditions differ 
from those assumed. From these data and the assumption that 



804 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

energy at the switchboard cost 1 ct. per kw.-h., curves slant- 
ingr upward to the right in Pig. 9 were plotted. On account of 
the different methods used in computing depreciation and the fact 
that many companies set aside a reserve fund rather than figure 



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2 4 6 8 10 12 K 16 16 20" 

Rating erf Transformers in K.VA 

Fig. 9. Return on investment which can be realized by substituting 
new transformer for one having certain iron loss 
The curves sloping upward to the right are based on the values 
given in the right-hand column of Table II, while those sloping 
to the left are based on the figures in the second column of the 
table. An energy cost of 1 cent per kilowatt-hour is assumed. 



depreciation on small items, depreciation is not considered, although 
it may readily be introduced and results worked up for individual 
cases with the figures and curves given. A comparison of the curves 
of Pig. 9 with those of Pig. 6 shows that the substitution of a 
modern type transformer for a class X transformer will pay 20% 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 805 

on the investment, while the replacement of Classes A, B, C, etc., 
will permit gradually smaller returns. The curves in Fig. 9 which 
slope upward to the left show smaller returns from the substitution 
of modern transformers, since they are based only on the cost of 
the new transformers and not on the replacement cost. 

Additional advantages are often secured by changing trans- 
formers, such as increasing the feeder rating, improving power 
factor and regulation, since two or more transformers can often 
be replaced by one and the conductor combined to serve as one 
circuit. 

When the iron loss of transformers is relatively high and the 
consumer's consumption small the cost of energizing the units 
will sometimes exceed the actual income received. Such a case 
was found where a 5-kva. tran.sformer of the X class was serving 
a single customer whose bill never exceeded the minimum charge 
of 50 cents per month except one month of the year. The income 
was $9 a year while the cost of service, including $7 interest and 
fixed charges and $17.50 for energy consumed by the transformer, 
made a total yearly cost of $24.50 without charges for consumer's 
energy, bookkeeping, meter reading, billing and the like. With an 
ircm loss of 180 watts the power factor was 20% at no load. Since 
900 kva. was supplied to the transformer the greater part of each 

TABLE XX. COST OF SETTING TRANSFORMERS AND 

VALUE OF THOSE REMOVED FROM CONNECTICUT 

SYSTEM 



<ii 'f. (a 

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1 


$23.00 


1 


2 


46.00 


1.5 


4 


108.00 


2 






2.5 


3 


I'OS.OO 


3 


3 


120.00 


4 


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15 


2 


236.00 


20 






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40 


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Total 


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$2027.00 



•d 


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Val 
tra 
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$138.00 


5 


276.00 


10 


243.00 


5 


160.00 


5 


216.00 


3 


280.00 


4 


188.00 


4 


392.00 


3 


730.00 


2 


89.00 




590.00 


■3 


435.00 


3 


576.00 


3 



$115.00 

12 276.00 10 230.00 

9 243.00 5 135.00 

5 160.00 5 160 00 

6 216.00 3 108.00 

7 280.00 4 160.00 

4 188.00 4 188.00 
7 392.00 3 16800 

10 730.00 2 146.00 
1 

5 590.00 3 348.00 
3 435.00 3 435.00 
3 576.00 3 576.00 



78 $4313 00 50 $2769.00 



806 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

day the line loss was way out of proportion to the energy sold and 
the rating of a 9-mile section feeder was considerably reduced. 

While all central stations endeavor to keep their distribution 
systems from becoming loaded with networks of wire or over-rated 
transformers, points can invariably be found where there is too 
much wire and too little transformer capacity or too much capacity 
for the size of the installation. Such conditions cause a loss to the 




Fig. 10 




Fig 



Figs. 10 and 11. 



Portion of distribution system before and after 
rearrangement 



operating company, and unless careful super^nsion is maintained 
in making extensions or installing transformers, thousands of 
dollars may be uneconomically strung in the air instead of being 
used to better advantage elsewhere. 

In working on secondary distribution systems, it has been found 
that iron losses are often rated far below the actual figures. For 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 807 

instance, an excitation current of 0.5% to 10% of the unaccounted 
for current, as sometimes claimed, is entirely too low. Tests show 
that a system furnishing 24-hour service must be in perfect con- 
dition to show a loss as low as 20%, while for sparsely populated 
residential districts the loss is seldom as low as 40%. Analyzation 
of the unaccounted-for current in a number of systems indicates 
that the distribution transformers take up anywhere from 38 to 
60%, estimators usually overlooking the fact that iron loss is con- 
tinuous for the 24 hours in the day and for 365 days in the year. 
Another item which is usually overlooked is that old transformers 
have the greater losses and should be considered separate from the 
more modern types, which have very low losses by comparison. 

As an example of a case where the foregoing considerations were 
taken into account in rearranging a distribution system the ac- 
companying maps and data of Table XX are presented. The map 
in Fig 10 shows distribution conditions in a section of a Connecticut 
town before changes were made and where the system had grown 
with the demand for service. 

In rearranging the system 78 of 141 transformers were removed 
and 30 hung on the lines, making 93 transformers with a total 
rating of 1487 kva. instead of 141 with a total rating of 1709 kva. 
About the only transformers purchased for the change were a 30- 
kva. unit and a 40-kva. unit, since a sufficient number of various 
sizes were secured by rearranging to fit in places where transform- 
ers were needed. In general the secondaries were not run more than 
9 sections from their corresponding transformer. When it was pos- 
sible to form loops, however, 20 to 25 section secondaries could be 
employed on fairly heavily loaded circuits. 

TABLE XXI. SAVING DUE TO REMODELING OF 
CONNECTICUT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 

Transformers removed from lines 78 

Kva. capacity 421.1 

Value if purchased new = 14,313.00 

Transformers set on lines 30 

Kva. capacity 199.1 

Value if purchased new ?2,027.00 

Saving in kw-hr. per year in reduced iron loss 36,667 

Valued at 1 ct. per kw-hr $366.67 

* Added rating of 11,000-volt feeder in kva 20.50 

Pounds of base wire removed, 2313 (junk), valued at. . . . $578.25 

Pounds of weather-proof wire run, 2150, valued at $602.00 

* Due to increasing power factor of exciting current. 

In addition to other wire removed and run as noted elsewhere 
about 6000 ft. of No. 6 new weatherproof wire, which cost 30 cts. a 
pound, was removed and substituted by copper-clad wire equivalent 
to No. 10 copper that cost 15 cts. a pound two years before. This 
substitution was permitted by making one long run with a 1-kva. 
transformer at the end, the copper-clad wire being obtained from 
a suburban line where the increased load had demanded a change 
to a larger size of conductor. 



808 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

For the benefit of companies contemplating changes similar to 
those outlined, attention is called to a few of the many difficulties 
encountered. For instance, after the primary and secondary sys- 
tem have been mapped and comprehensive tests made on the feed- 
ers, transformers and secondary system, the value of the results 
may be entirely lost because infrequent loads have not been taken 
into consideration. If some evasive load of this nature crops up 
it may be necessary to change conductors and transformers, making 
the expense about double the initial or estimated expense. Such 
occurrences can often be avoided, however, by conferences with the 
line superintendents and foremen, who are usually acquainted with 
the characters of the loads. Better teamwork will usually be ob- 
tained, too, if their confidence is secured, since they do not generally 
take kindly to reconstruction of work which they have spent time 
and money to perfect. Another point to recognize is that the good 
will or enmity of the community will be secured depending on 
whether the rehabilitation is attended with improved or unsatis- 
factory results. Under no consideration should anyone undertake 
extensive readjustments unless he has a knowledge of local con- 
ditions, good engineering training, practical experience, and testing 
and mapping facilities. 

Costs per Kilowatt of Steam Power Electric Plants. The costs 
in Table XXII are from appraisals by the authors made in 1911 
and 1912 on the Pacific Coast. "Base costs" only are given, 
the table including no charges for engineering, business manage- 
ment, legal and general expense, interest during construction or 
brokerage. 

Electric Power Plant Cost. (Condensed by Lefax from an article 
by M. C. McNeil in Electric Journal, March, 1914.) The cost of 
construction or installation of steam turbine driven electric power 
plants, complete from real estate up to and including all auxiliary 
apparatus, for a given size of plant, is fairly constant throughout 
the country. Local conditions may, however, cause an appreciable 
variation from the average case. The size of plant affects the cost 
very materially, and the unit cost tends to increase rapidly for 
small plants, and decrease less rapidly for large plants. 

The installation cost of plant affects the cost of power produced 
in that the fixed charges are a part of the operation cost, say 10.5% 
for turbine plants, made up of interest 5%, taxes and insurance 2%, 
and amortization fund 3.5%, the latter being sufficient at 4% com- 
pound interest to replace the plant in 20 years. The total cost of 
power, consisting of operating costs and fixed charges, is a fluctuat- 
ing quantity, depending upon size of plant and load-factor. The 
principal variation however is due to operating expense, which con- 
stitutes about 80% of the total power cost, and is made up of the 
following items : 

Fuel. Coal is rarely less than 50%, and sometimes as high as 
80% of the total operating expense. The larger the plant and the 
greater the load-factor, the better the fuel economy. Load-factor 
equals ratio of average load during any period, as 24 hrs., to the 
average maximum load for one hour during that period. As the 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLAN'TS 



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810 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

load-factor falls off the fuel cost increases, due to increased steam 
consumption per kw.-hr, produced. The general plant losses and 
inefficiencies are proportionately greater the smaller the plant, and 
the lesser the load-factor. 

Labor Costs follow the same general trend as fuel costs, although 
not so fluctuating. The load-factor does not affect the labor as 
much as it does the fuel item, as practically the same labor will 
be required for a plant having a 75% load-factor as for one having 
a 50% load-factor, if the maximum load for the two plants is the 
same. 

Supplies. The items oil, waste and supplies, and repairs and 
maintenance are indeterminate quantities, although experience has 
shown that they bear an approximate relation to labor and fixed 
charges; oil, waste and supplies being around 20% of the labor cost, 
and repairs and maintenance about 15% of the fixed charges. 

TABLE XXIII. COST OP INSTALLATION PER KW. STEAM 
TURBINE DRIVEN 

Size of plants — kilowatts 
500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 
Building, real estate and ex- 
cavating 16.75 14.50 13.25 12.00 11.00 10.00 

Turbines and generators 32.60 25.75 21.15 17.30 15.80 15.00 

Condensers 10.60 6.75 4.50 3.90 3.50 3.00 

Boilers, stokers, superheaters 

and stacks 32.65 28.50 25.50 23.60 21.50 20.00 

Bunkers and conveyors 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.25 

Boiler feed and service pumps. 1.25 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.50 

Feed water heaters 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.80 

Switchboard and wiring 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.75 

Exciters 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.75 

Foundation (machinery) 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 

Piping and conduits 5.75 5.75 6.00 6.00 6.25 6.25 

Crane 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 

Supt. and engineering, etc 6.50 5.00 4.25 3.75 3.25 3.00 

Total 124.10 103.50 89.40 79.30 71.80 66.80 



Each of the plants considered in Table XXIII is normal rated 
at the size given; that is, the 500 kw. plant has 3 200-kw. normal 
rated units, making it possible to operate the plant with 2 turbines 
running, the third unit being used only during the peak load period. 
However, if 1 unit is shut down for repairs, the peak load can be 
handled by the remaining 2 machines, although at reduced economy. 
Ample capacity is provided, such as spare boiler, extra boiler feed 
and service pumps and other extra apparatus consistent with good 
design. 

Labor saving apparatus is not warranted for the smaller plants. 
The 1000 kw. plant is about the dividing line, above which it is 
economy to install labor saving machinery. 

Table XXIV gives the cost of power generation in cents per kw.-hr. 
for steam turbine generating units. Cost of fuel was calculated 
for $3.00 coal. For simplicity, the steam operating conditions of all 
the plants were considered the same, being 175 lbs. steam pressure. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



811 



100 deg. superheat and 28 in. vacuum. These conditions may be 
rather high for the smaller units, but there would not be any great 
difference in total power costs if the steam pressure was lowered 
and superheat omitted, as saving in fuel due to the more economical 
operating conditions just about balances the extra fixed charges. 



TABLE XXIV. COST OF POWER GENERATING' 

DRIVEN 

Cost in cents per kilowatt-hour 



TURBINE 



Size 

of 

plant. 


Fuel 


Labor 


Oil, 

waste 

and 


Repairs 

and 

main- 


Oper- 
ating 
costs 


Fixed 
charges 


Total 


kws. 






supplies 


tenance 












100% Load-Factor 








500 


0.449 


0.132 


0.026 


0.025 


0.632 


0.148 


0.780 


1000 


0.364 


0.094 


0.019 


0.021 


0.498 


0.124 


0.622 


2000 


0.328 


0.073 


0.015 


0.018 


0.434 


0.107 


0.541 


3000 


0.304 


0.065 


0.013 


0.016 


0.398 


0.095 


0.493 


4000 


0.289 


0.058 


0.011 


0.014 


0.372 


0.086 


0.458 


5000 


0.271 


0.053 


0.010 


0.013 


0.347 


0.080 


0.428 








75% Load-Factor 








500 


0.548 


0.166 


0.033 


0.031 


0.778 


0.197 


0.973 


1000 


0.428 


0.116 


0.023 


0.026 


0.593 


0.165 


0.758 


2000 


0.389 


0.088 


0.019 


0.021 


0.517 


0.143 


0.660 


3000 


0.352 


0.079 


0.016 


0.019 


0.466 


0.127 


0.593 


4000 


0.327 


0.072 


0.014 


0.017 


0.430 


0.115 


0.545 


5000 


0.308 


0.065 


0.013 


0.016 


0.402 


0.107 


0.509 








50% Load-Factor 








500 


0.741 


0.236 


0.047 


0.042 


1.066 


0.296 


1.362 


1000 


0.558 


0.166 


0.033 


0.035 


0.792 


0.248 


1.040 


2000 


0.494 


0.118 


0.024 


0.030 


0.666 


0.214 


0.880 


3000 


0.438 


0.106 


0.021 


0.027 


0.592 


0.190 


0.782 


4000 


0.402 


0.097 


0.019 


0.024 


0.542 


0.172 


0.714 


5000 


0.380 


0.088 


0.017 


0.022 


0.507 


0.160 


0.667 



In central station service the ideal condition of 100% load-factor 
is never reached and seldom approached, the condition of 75% 
load-factor being considered very good, and only attained in some 
instances. 

Prime Movers Other Than the Turbine. The comparison is made 
on the basis of 1,000 kws. normal capacity plant, all conditions 
being similar, and the gas engine being supplied with fuel from a 
producer gas plant. 

COST OF INSTALLATION 1,000 KW. PLANT 

Per kilowatt 

Turbine 1103.50 

Reciprocating steam engine 132.50 

Comb, recip. engine and turbine 127.00 

Gas engine 162.50 

Table XXV gives cost of producing power for the different plants. 
For plants of other sizes than 1,000 kws. the same proportional dif- 
ferences between plants of various sizes as shown in Table XXIII 
can be used and will be approximately correct. 



812 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXV. COST OP POWER GENERATION PER KW-HR. 
1,000 KW. PLANT 

« IS 

^ I ^.| 1- £| II s 

g « =g ^6 a8 .|€ c 

100% Load-Factor 

Turbine 0.364 0.094 0.019 0.021 0.498 0.124 0.622 

Recip. steam engine 0.390 0.105 0.023 0.024 0.542 0.166 0.708 

Comb, recip. and turbine. 0.340 0.110 0.025 0.025 0.500 0.158 0.658 

Gas engine 0.260 0.165 0.033 0.035 0.493 0.213 0.706 

75% Load-Factor 

Turbine 0.428 0.116 0.023 0.026 0.593 0.165 0.758 

Recip. steam engine 0.461 0.128 0.028 0.030 0.647 0.222 0.869 

Comb, recip. and Turbine. 0.404 0.134 0.030 0.032 0.600 0.211 0.811 

Gas engine 0.334 0.195 0.039 0.044 0.612 0.285 0.897 

50% Load-Factor 

Turbine 0.558 0.166 0.033 0.035 0.792 0.248 1.040 

Recip. steam engine 0.602 0.182 0.039 0.040 0.863 0.332 1.195 

Comb, recip. and turbine. 0.527 0.189 0.042 0.043 0.801 0.316 1.117 

Gas engine 0.482 0.252 0.052 0.055 0.841 0.426 1.267 



The turbine economy, however, is proportionately better for larger 
units than is either the gas engine or reciprocating steam engine, 
though the reverse is true to some extent with smaller plants. 

Costs of Steam Turbo- Electric Central Stations. O. S, Lyford, 
Jr., and R, W. Stovel, in Electric Journal, April, 1912, give the 
following high and low costs of steam turbo-electric generating 
stations of 2,000 to 20,000 kw. capacity, based on maximum con- 
tinuous capacity of generators at 50 deg. C. rise. 

Dollars per kw. 
High Low 

Preparing site : Clearing structures from site, con- 
structing roads, tracks, etc % 0.25 .... 

Yard work : Flumes for condensing water, siding, 

grading, fencing, sidewalks, etc 2.50 $1.00 

Foundations : Foundations for building, stacks and 

machinery, excavation, piling, waterproofing, etc 6.00 1.00 

Building: Frame, walls, floors, roofs, windows, doois, 
coal bunker, etc., exclusive of foundations, heat- 
ing, plumbing and lighting 12.00 4.00 

Boiler room equipment : Boilers, stokers, flues, stacks, 
feed pumps, feed water heater, economizers, me- 
chanical draft, piping and covering, except con- 
denser water piping 24.00 12.00 

Turbine room equipment : Steam turbines and gener- 
ators, condensers, condenser auxiliaries, condenser 
water piping, oiling system, etc 22.00 12.00 

Electrical switching equipment : Exciters, masonry 
switch structure, switchboards, switches, instru- 
ments, etc., all wiring except for lighting 5.00 2.00 

Service equipment: Cranes, lighting, heating, plumb- 
ing, fire protection, compressed air, furniture, 
permanent tools, coal and ash handling ma- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 813 

Dollars per kw. 
High Low 

chinery, etc $ 5.00 $ 2.50 

Starting Up : Labor, fuel and supplies for getting- 

plant ready to carry useful load 1.00 0.50 

General Chai'ges : Engineering, purchasing, super- 
vision, clerical work, construction plant and sup- 
plies, watchmen, cleaning up, etc 6.00 3.00 

Total cost of plant, except land and interest 

during construction $83.75 |38.00 

Construction Costs of Power Houses. A. E. Dixon gives the fol- 
lowing data in Power, October 3, 1911. 

8000-KW. PLANT OF THE WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD, AT 
WESTVILLE, N. J. 

(B. F. Wood's paper before the American Institute of Electrical 
Engineers), 

Building, stacks, coal and ash-handling machinery $354,000 

Equipment 640,000 

Total $994,000 

Total cost per kw $110 

850 0-KW. PLANT OF THE FORT WAYNE & WABASH VALLEY TRACTION 
COMPANY, AT SPY RUN, FORT WAYNE, IND. 

(Paper before American Street and Interurban Railway Engineers' 
Association, by J. R. Bibbins). 

Cost per 
kw. 

Building, including general concrete and steel work, gal- 
leries, coal bunker, smoke flue, condenser pit, coal- 
storage pit, etc $10.97 

Generating plant, including turbines, generators, exciters, 
cables, switchboards, transformers and ventilating 
ducts 30.55 

Boiler plant, including boilers, superheaters, stokers, piping, 

pumps, heaters, setting, breechings and tanks 13.92 

Condenser plant, including condensers, pumps, piping, free 

exhau.st.s, water tunnels and intake screen 3.98 

Coal-handling plant, including crane, cru.shers, motor and 

track 0.94 

Erection, superintendence, engineering and miscellaneous. . 5.49 

Total, excluding land and railroad siding $66.30 

3000-KW. PLANT OF THE YOUNGSTOWN & OHIO RIVER RAILROAD AT WEST 
POINT, OHIO 

(C. W. Ricker's addendum to paper by J. R. Bibbins before the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, July, 1908) 

Cost per 
kw. 
Building and fixtures: foundation, general excavation, con- 
crete work, including condetiser wells, overflow, ash tun- 
nel, steel frame and building superstructure, ash-han- 
dling apparatus, coal trestle, chimney, smoke flue and 

crane $21.40 

Boiler plant: 6 400-hp. Avater-tube boiler.s, settings, fur- 
naces, pumps, heater, piping and covering 14.24 



814 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost per 
kw. 

Generating plant: 3 1000-kw. 3-phase, 25-cycle, 400-volt, 
turbo-generators, 6 375-kw. 22,000-volt, step-up trans- 
formers, duplicate exciters, switching and protective ap- 
paratus $37.59 

Condenser plant : 3 barometric condensers with centrifugal 
pum])s. water intake and dam, including the deepening 
of the channel 6.41 

General expense : including the expenditures which could 
not be distributed easily and part of the expense of 
supervision 2.42 

Complete $82.06 

Substation equipment in power house ; 2 300-kw. synchronous 

converters with 5-panel switchboard 4.20 

Total $86.26 

30.000- 10,000- 
kw. kw. 
plant plant 
Excavation and foundations, including condenser in- 
take and outflow $ 8.97 $ 4.89 

Superstructure and steelwork 19.04 3.57 

Turbo-generators and condensers 26.13 24.83 

Boilers, stokers, chimneys and flues 11.11 15.75 

Coal- and ash-handling equipment 1.62 1.40 

Boiler-feed pumps, heaters, etc 0.52 2.80 

Piping and valves 3.17 6.58 

Exciters, etc 1.01 .... 

Crane, air compressor, etc 0.33 0.67 

Switching equipment 6.02 1.24 

Water supply 0.83 0.38 

Engineering 3.90 .... 

T©tal cost per kw '. . $82.65 $62.11 

In Koester's " Steam-Electric Power Plants " the following are 
given : 

Cost per 
kw. 

Bo.ston Edison, L street plant $125.00 

Interborough. Fifty-ninth street plant. New York City 150.00 

Superstructure of latter plant only 32.00 

The cost of foundations will vary greatly and is one of the ele- 
ments which local conditions affect to a greater degree than most 
others. The conditions vary from liquid mud to solid rock. Rock 
may be desirable owing to its high bearing value, but it is very 
expensive to excavate and the depth of excavation is frequently 
fixed by the local water level. The cost of the foundations will vary 
from 2 to 12% of the total cost per kw. of generating capacity. 
The lower costs hold where firm sand or some other readily exca- 
vated material with a high bearing value is found upon the site 
and the water level does not fluctuate very much. The higher costs 
will be found with rock excavation where the character of the rock 
is such that it breaks out very roughly and leaves a large excess 
of the excavation to be refilled with concrete. Similar high costs 
will be found where the underlying strata are such as to involve the 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 815 

use of long piles and a heavy concrete mat built within a cofferdam. 
In some localities it is possible to use a concrete raft, and by keep- 
ing the bearing pressures down the structure can be floated upon 
the soil. A raft of this kind must be so designed that it will 
distribute the pressure, and this calls for the use of reinforced con- 
crete and careful proportioning to carry the heavy local loads. 

Steel framing must be so proportioned as to carry the loads, and 
these will vary greatly. In many plants double, and in one case 
three decks of boilers are used, and if a heavy bunker must be 
supported, the steel framing will be proportionately heavy. The 
length of the span between columns in the boiler room will be fixed 
by the size of the boilers, and it is advisable to keep the column 
spacing below 20 ft. This spacing, or a little less, will accommodate 
nearly all types of boiler. Where longer spans are used the heavy 
girders increase the cost. The minimum amount of steel will be 
required when the roof trusses are .supported upon the walls and 
carry the roof alone. This construction is objectionable as the 
steel work must be held back to suit the masonry and the masonry 
will then be delayed while the steel is being placed. This pro- 
cedure will generally cost more than when the steel is so arranged 
that it can be erected entirely independent of the walls. The inde- 
pendent steel skeleton also permits the use of thin curtain walls, 
which results in a saving in masonry as well as in the cost of 
erection. 

Double-deck power plant, with the boiler room at the bottom and 
the operating floor above, seems designed to get the maximum 
amount of power concentrated in a possible minimum floor space. 
This type of plant is an inversion of the original double-deck plant 
in which the boiler room was located above the operating floor, as 
at that time this type of construction was adopted to suit recipro- 
cating engines owing to the difficulty 25 years ago of handling the 
heavy engine parts and erecting them on the second floor. 

One of the objections made to the double-deck plant and the 
plant with a heavy overhead bunker has been the use of columns 
passing up through the walls of the boiler settings. In one or two 
cases water cooling has been employer for the columns placed in 
the division wall between the 2 boilers of a battery, owing to the 
fear that these columns might expand unduly and irregularly from 
alternate cooling and heating. The coefficient of linear expansion 
of steel or iron is about 0.000006 per deg. F. ; hence if such columns 
became heated to a temperature 300 deg. higher than the atmos- 
phere they would expand 0.001800 part of their length. With a 
column 35 ft. high, this would amount to about .75 in. and might 
be very serious. 

Cost of boilers and stokers ranges from 10 to 15% of the total. 
Brick settings may or may not be tight at the start, but they are 
rarely permanently tight, and this leakage is by no means unim- 
portant. Internally fired boilers or marine settings will entirely 
prevent leakage into or out from the setting. Why they are not 
used more extensively it is difficult to say. 

Engine-driven units cost more than turbo-generators, but the type 



816 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of unit to be selected will depend upon local conditions. When a 
liberal supply of cooling water can be secured for the cost of pump- 
ing it is possible to maintain a high vacuum, and the turbine may- 
be the most economical prime mover. Where cooling water is 
scanty and a high vacuum cannot be maintained, the reciprocating 
engine has many points in its favor. The turbine is inherently a 
high-speed proposition and is better suited to the driving of alter- 
nating-current generators than it is to driving a direct-current gen- 
erator. High speeds with direct-current machinery introduce cer- 
tain commutating difficulties, particularly when dealing with heavy 
loads. 

In plants where a large portion of the exhaust steam can be 
utilized, a reciprocating unit may be a better paying investment 
than a turbine. The engine can be used as a reducing valve and 
operated with a low back pressure. The turbine operates better 
with a vacuum, and this would entail the use' of live steam passed 
through a reducing valve, which is a rather expensive way to secure 
low-pressure steam. 

For the ground area occupied, there are a number of charts which 
have appeared from more or less interested sources, most of them 
demonstrating the economy of the turbine in this respect. It is true 
that the actual number of sq. ft. occupied may be less for the turbine 
than for any other type of prime mover and generator, but in many 
cases the actual area occupied by the unit itself is not the govern- 
ing feature. When it comes to a question of crowding the most 
generating capacity into the least possible ground area the recipro- 
cating engine is not very far behind the turbine, even in large units. 
Vertical-inverted and grasshopper-type marine engines have been 
built in very large sizes and occupy very little floor area. 

Coal-handling equipment is another factor and the local condi- 
tions in some cases permit the coal to pass by gravity from the car 
to the bunker and thence to the fire and the ashpit and the dump. 
There are, however, not many cases where this scheme is feasible. 
The important factors are to simplify the machinery as much as 
possible and at the same time arrange it so that it can be operated 
by the fewest attendants. Each case presents its own peculiarities. 
This portion of the equipment will range in cost from 2 to 5% 
of the total. 

The switch gear for controlling the electric power in many ways 
is the weakest link in the chain. Some of the biggest generating 
stations, those which would normally be supposed immune from 
serious interruptions, due to this portion of their equipment, have 
been completely put out of service for periods of time ranging from 
a few minutes to several hours or more. This part of the equip- 
ment will cost from 2 to 10% of the total plant cost. 

Double-husbar system is advisable where continuity of operation 
is of greatest importance. True, this method duplicates a part of 
the control apparatus and is more costly than the single-busbar 
system, and its entire value depends upon the price one is willing 
to pay to minimize possible shutdowns. The Seventy-fourth street 
power plant of the Manhattan Railway Company, now the Inter- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 817 

borough Rapid Transit Company, New York, was upon one occa- 
sion tied up completely for some time by a piece of wet newspaper 
which landed where it could cause the greatest amount of trouble. 

Barometric or jet type of condenser costs about 60% less than a 
surface condenser and the cost of maintenance is less. The local 
water-supply conditions will have to be considered in connection 
with this question. Where salt cooling water must be used the 
condenser discharge cannot be utilized for boiler feed and the large 
amount of water required may under such conditions make the sur- 
face condenser the cheaper. In many localities it is possible to 
arrange the circulating system of a surface condenser so as to take 
advantage of the siphon effect of a balanced water column and in 
this manner reduce to a minimum the amount of power required for 
cooling water ; for after the water has been set in motion the 
circulating pump has only the friction head and the slight difference 
in head between the intake and outfall chambers to overcome. 

Relative advantages of steam or electrically driven auxiliaries 
have been threshed out a number of times. The steam from auxili- 
aries can be used to heat the feed water, and this is one of the 
most powerful arguments in favor of the steam-driven unit ; in 
fact, within reasonable limits, the more steam used in the auxiliaries 
the hotter the feed water, and the relative economy of the steam 
auxiliaries combined with the heater will far surpass other 
methods of drive as all of the heat units which are not used in the 
auxiliary engines are returned to the boiler. Electrically driven 
auxiliaries, on the other hand, increase the load upon the main 
units, and should any serious electrical disturbances arise these 
vital parts of the equipment may fail at the moment when their 
continuous operation is absolutely necessary to keep the plant going. 
The only way an electrically driven auxiliary can be rendered abso- 
lutely safe is to insure for it a supply of current which does not 
depend upon the operation of the main generators. A special gen- 
erating unit might be installed for this purpose. 

Cost of Constructing Steam-Driven Electric Power Plants. Frank 
Koester gives the following data in Engineering News Dec. 19, 1917. 
The cost of steam power plants is determined by the location and 
by the character of the building and equipment. The amount of 
capital available also plays an important part in determining the 
equipment. Mistakes have been frequent in selecting the type and 
size of various portions of the equipment, and in such cases it has 
been evident that the use of other machinery (perhaps lower-priced) 
would bring better results. 

The figures given herein represent an average arrived at by the 
comparison of costs of various plants with which the writer has 
been connected, directly or indirectly in one way or another during 
a considerable experience in the design and erection of such works. 
The costs represent recent practice and are quoted per kw. capacity. 

Building. Judgment in the architectural treatment and the selec- 
tion of stock sizes of doors and windows will very materially keep 
down the first cost of the building. Comparatively the cost of the 
superstructure for a plant of small capacity will be greater per kw. 



818 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

capacity than the cost of the larger plant. The superstructure for 
plants up to 5,000 kw. capacity costs from $15 to $25 per kw. The 
former figure may be secured by a compact arrangement with walls 
of common brick, wooden doors and window frames, steel roof 
trusses supported by the walls and a roof of the cheapest fireproof 
construction, such as corrugated iron, tin, etc. 

The other type of building, costing about $20 to $25 per kw., 
may be constructed of higher grade masonry with fireproof windows 
and doors, roof trusses carried by steel columns which at the same 
time carry the crane runway, and the roof itself consisting of rein- 
forced concrete covered by tar and gravel. 

The cost of the superstructure for large size plants usually runs 
from $10 to $20 per kw. These are constructed of a self -supporting 
steel skeleton and self-supporting walls. The superstructure at $20 
per kw. may embrace multiple boiler floors while those at $10 
per kw. cover single boiler floor plants only. In both cases coal 
bunkers are provided. In the lower cost building steel bunkers of 
five to eight tons capacity per running foot are installed. In the 
multiple boiler floor building the bunkers are made up of structural 
steel, the beams being fllled in with masonry arches, the side walls 
also being of masonry filling. 

Chimney. The cost of the chimney depends largely on the loca- 
tion of the plant, the proximity to the source of the particular kind 
of materials constituting an important factor, as the cost of trans- 
portation of materials is a large item, steel chim^neys being cheaper 
in localities where transporation costs favor such construction. 

Furthermore, the competition among builders of chimneys, and 
especially since the introduction of the reinforced concrete chimney, 
is so strong that a radial brick chimney may sometimes be had as 
cheap as a steel chimney or reinforced concrete chimney. 

A radial brick chimney for large size power plants may be built 
from $1.75 to $2.25 per kw. Reinforced concrete chimneys and plate 
steel chimneys may cost from $1.50 to $2 per kw. 

Coal and ash' handling systems. The cost of coal and ash handling 
systems is difficult to determine, depending so largely as it does 
upon the manner in which the coal is received from the shipper, 
the way the ashes are disposed of and the distance through which 
the coal as well as the ashes must be handled. Experience shows 
that the figures for equipment for handling coal and ashes range 
from $1.50 to $3 per kw. 

Boilers. The cost of water tube boilers ranges from $8 to $10 
per kw., depending upon the square feet of heating surface in the 
boiler. These figures do not include mechanical stokers, for which 
from $2 to $3 may be assumed. Breeching, of course, is also a 
separate item and varies considerably as to cost per kw. The boiler 
setting is included in the cost of boiler given above. 

Blowers. In many of the modern power plants, especially plants 
for railway purposes, forced or induced draft is adopted. The 
blowers are usually steam-driven. The cost of such equipment is 
about $1 per kw. 

Economizers. Where economizers are installed of sufficient capa- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 819 

city to heat the water to 200 deg or 220 deg. F. such apparatus 
costs about $2 per kw., provided that there are not too many addi- 
tional smoke flues necessary for by-passing, etc. 

Boiler feed pumps. The cost of such pumps alone is some 50 cts. 
per kw. When storage tanks are necessary the cost of the com- 
bined outfit amounts to 75 cts. or $1, depending on the number and 
size of the tanks. 

Piping. In some stations piping has been installed for $2 per 
kw., while in others as high as $6 per kw. has been paid. This 
includes all high and low-pressure piping (steam and water). 

For plants varying from 10,000 to 20,000-kw. capacity, the piping 
system not being elaborate but sufficient for continuous operation, 
$2.50 to $2.75 has covered the cost. This includes a high grade of 
covering for steam piping valued at about 20 cts. per kw. 

Prime Movers. While the price of the prime movers varies with 
the size of the units, it also varies with the type of machine. The 
price of turbines is often governed by the price of reciprocating 
engines, although the former can be produced cheaper than the 
latter. Although the condensers for a turbine cost more than for 
a reciprocating engine the complete turbine generating unit ordv- 
narily should cost considerably less. A 5,000-kw. turbo-generator 
should cost from $20 to $22 per kw. Reciprocating engines of this 
capacity are sold roughly at the same price, and about $10 per 
kw. needs to be added for the generator. The total cost for smaller 
units, 600 to 3,000 kw. capacity, is from $20 to $25 per kw., whether 
they consist of turbine or reciprocating-engine apparatus. 

Co7idensers. The cost of condensers depends very much upon the 
vacuum desired and on the type of condenser. The cost of jet con- 
denser equipment runs from $3 to $5 per kw., depending upon the 
type of pump used. The cost of surface condenser apparatus will 
vary from $5 to $8, depending partly upon the vacuum to be carried 
and whether the casing necessary forms part of the condenser 
equipment or is provided as part of the turbine shell, as is the case 
in the Curtis base-condenser turbine, in which case the above figures 
may fall as low as $3 per kw. 

Exciters. A steam-driven exciter unit costs from 35 cts. to 40 
cts. per kw. If a condenser should be installed in connection with it 
the cost may run as high as 70 cts. per kw., assuming that the 
exciter capacity is, approximately, 1% the total capacity of the 
plant. 

Switchboards. In considering the cost of a switchboard equip- 
ment only such switchboard is herein considered as is necessary for 
the operation of the plant and the outgoing feeders, not including 
substation boards. The cost will vary with the voltage adopted for 
the system. For a high tension voltage the cost will run from $"2 
to $3.50, while for a low tension voltage (2,300 volts and lower) the 
.svv'itchboard equipment may be obtained for $1 to $2 per kw., de- 
pending largely upon the .system of wiring adopted. 

Miscellaneous. There are many other items, which must be fig- 
ured in, the complete cost of the plants, such as traveling cranes, 
which will amount to 25 or 50 cts. per kw. Smaller items like house 



820 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

pumps, water meters, blow-off tanks, painting, supervision, etc., may 
total from $1 to $2 per kw. 

Summary. To the summarized costs (see table XXVI) there 
needs still to be added the enginering fee which in many cases is 
figured as a pei'centage on the total cost. 

TABLE XXVI. RELATIVE COSTS OF TURBINE AND ENGINE 

PLANTS 

Steam-turbine Steam-engine 

plants plants 

per kw. per kw. 

Excavation and foundation $ 2.00 $ 2.50 $ 3.00 % 5.00 

Building 10.00 15.00 10.00 20.00 

Tunnels 1.75 4.00 1.50 2.75 

Flues and stacks , 2.50 3.50 2.50 3.50 

Boilers and stokers 8.50 12.00 8.50 12.00 

Superheaters 2.00 2.50 1.75 2.25 

Economizers ." 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.25 

Coal- and ash-handling system 1.50 3.00 1.50 3.00 

Blowers and ducts : 1.00 1.50 1.00 1.50 

Pumps and tanks 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25 

Piping, complete 2.25 4.50 2.50 5.00 

Turbo-generators 22.00 25.00 

Engines - ... 18.00 22.00 

Generators, engine type ... 10.00 12.00 

Condensers, surface 5.00 8.00 ... 

Condensers, jet ... 3.00 5.00 

Exciters 0.75 1.00 0.75 1.00 

Cranes 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 

Switchboard 2.00 3.50 2.00 3.50 

Labor 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 

Total cost per kw $65.50 $92.00 $70.25 $104.50 

It should be noted that the first column of figures in each case 
represents costs which are exceptionally low and may be attained 
under favorable conditions with engineering skill. The second 
column of figures represents fair average figures as ascertained from 
the costs of a number of plants recently erected. However, plants 
have been installed which cost as much as $125 per kw., and in an 
exceptional case the cost approximated $150 per kw. 

All of these figures represent costs of plants of large capacity. 
Small plants of about 3,000 kw. capacity have been erected in the 
West at from $120 to $130 per kw.. which costs may be reduced if a 
simple combination of machines is provided. 

Referring to these tables, it will be observed that the turbine 
plant varies from $65 to $92 per kw. The main items constituting 
this difference are: building, turbo-generators and condensers. The 
difference in cost of these is due to the type of turbine, the size 
and make of condensers and their auxiliaries, as well as the manner 
of assembling, all of which may reduce the size of the building 
required. 

The difference in cost of boilers is due to the make or type and the 
rating of the boiler h.p. adopted by the plant designer per kw. capa- 
city. This ratio varies greatly. Plants have been installed with the 
same type of boiler and the same type of prime mover in which the 
ratio varies, one valu© being 0.60 boiler horse-power per kw, gen- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 821 

erator capacity, while in other cases it is 0.75, and 0.80. This dif- 
ference depends upon the experience and judgijuent on the part of 
the designer as well as the estimated ability of the future available 
operating force to produce steam effectively. 

The difference observed in the cost of the other items may be 
explained by the difference in the grade of material used and the 
ability of one purchaser over another to secure the lowest market 
price. 

Average Construction Costs of Steam Turbo- Electric Power 
Plants. (Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 6, 1912). The 
average range of costs of constructing steam turbo-electric 
plants is given in a discussion before the Engineers' Society 
of Western Pennsylvania by O. S. Lyford, Jr., and R. W. Stoval 
of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co. The plants are assumed to 
have no other equipment than that required efficiently to produce 
alternating currents. Bituminous coal is the fuel assumed to be 
used. The costs are shown in Table XXVII, and the authors 
explain the several items as follows: 

Some of the group costs in this table do not have any very specific 
relation to the kilowatt capacity installed in the plant and the 
probable range in such costs is a matter of experience with previous 
cases. This refers to such groups as " Preparing Site," " Yard 
Work," " Electrical Switching Equipment " and " Service Equip- 
ment." For instance, the main item of cost coming under the 
" Yard " group is generally that of condensing water flumes exterior 
to the building and it will be readily understood that this cost is 
affected much more by the relative location of the building to the 
water supply and by the character of work required than by the 
actual size of the plant. 

Similarly the electrical switching equipment costs depend much 
more on the extent and the scope of the electrical distributing sys- 
tem than upon the actual capacity of the plant. Again the largest 
item of the " Service Equipment " costs, namely, that of coal hand- 
ling, depends upon the existing physical conditions much more than 
upon the capacity. 

Some of these cost groups, however, can be reduced to other 
units than that of the kilowatt, and this permits a clearer under- 
standing of their range. 

The foundation costs, for instance, will run from $1.25 to $4 per 
sq. ft. of building plan area, depending on the character of the soil ; 
the lower cost covering .simple concrete footings on thoroughly good 
bearing soil, while the necessity for piling, water-proofing, excessive 
rock excavation, etc., will run this cost toward the higher limit. 
Then the plan area will vary from 0.8 to 1.5 .sq. ft. for each kw. of 
capacity installed, depending upon the size of the units and upon 
their arrangement ; the combined effect of these two cost ranges 
giving the range in price per kw. shown on the table. 

The building co.st will vary from 8 cts. to 12 cts. per cu. ft. of 
overall building volume, according to the size of the building, and 
the character of construction and the local price of building ma- 
terials and labor. Depending again upon the size of the units and 



822 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

upon the efficiency used in arranging them, there will be required 
from 50 to 100 cu. ft. of volume per kw. of capacity. The com- 
bined effect is to make the building costs range from $4 to $12 per 
kw. as shown. 

In boiler room equipment the cost of materials and labor will 
generally be between $30 and $40 per nominal boiler h.p., and 
generally there will be installed between 0.4 and 0.6 boiler h.p. 
per kw. of capacity, resulting in the cost range shown in table 
XXVII. 

TABLE XXVII. COST OF STEAM TURBO-ELECTRIC 
GENERATING STATIONS 

2,000 to 20,000 kw. capacity, based on maximum continuous 
capacity of generators at 50 deg. rise. 

Per kw. 
High Low 

Preparing site : Dismantling and removing structures 

from site, making construction roads, tracks, etc.$ 0.25 $ 

Yard work: Intake and discharge flumes for con- 
densing water, railway siding, grading, fencing, 
sidewalks, etc 2.50 1.00 

Foundations : Including foundations for building, 
stacks and machinery, together with excavation, 
piling, waterproofing, etc 6.00 1.00 

Building: Including frame, walls, floors, roofs, win- 
dows and doors, coal bunker, etc., but exclusive 
of foundations, heating, plumbing and lighting. . 12.00 4.00 

Boiler room equipment : Including boilers, stokers, 
flues, stacks, feed-pumps, feed-water heater, 
economizers, mechanical draft and all piping and 
pipe covering for entire station except condenser 
water piping 24.00 12.00 

Turbine room equipment : Including steam turbines 
and generators, condensers with condenser auxil- 
iaries and condensing water piping, oiling system, 
etc 22.00 12.00 

Electrical switching equipment : Including exciters 
of all kinds, masonry switch structure with all 
switchboards, switches, instrument.s, etc., and all 
wiring except for building lighting 5.00 2.00 

Service equipment: Such as cranes, lighting, heating, 
plumbing, fire protection, compressed air, fur- 
niture, permanent tools, coal and ash handling 
machinery, etc., etc 5 00 2.50 

Starting up: Labor, fuel and supplies for getting 

plant ready to carry useful load 1.00 0.50 

General charges: Such as engineering, purchasing, 
supervision, clerical work, construction, plant and 
supplies, watchmen, cleaning up, etc., etc 6.00 3.00 

Total cost of plant to owner, except land and in- 
terest during construction $83.75 $38.00 

From this table it is seen that the cost of such stations under 
normal conditions may range in price from $40 to $85 per kw. 
of maximum continuous generator capacity. So far known to the 
writers, no stations have as yet been built for the lower figure, for 
this minimum is possible only with an extremely fortunate com- 
bination of circumstances, such as natural advantages of location 
combined with most favorable sizes and arrangement of apparatus. 

It is apparent from this table that there may be a very large 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 823 

difference in the first costs of two stations of the same size, and 
that this may be the case, even though the two stations have been 
designed and built with equal ability and economy. 

Unit Costs of a Large Steam Station In Ohio. J. C. Lathrop in 
Electrical World, Aug. 30, 1913, gives the following costs of the 
steam station of the Northern Ohio Traction & Light Company at 
Cuyahoga Falls. 

Total Cost per 
Items of station costs boiler-hp. 
Foundations, excavation, etc., including condens- 
ing water tunnels $170,000 $ 17.60 

Portion of dam, construction, tracks, etc 50,000 5.20 

Superstructure 109,000 11.30 

Structural steel 43,000 4.45 

Coal bunkers, including structural steel, con- 
crete, chutes, etc 112,000 11.60 

Electrical equipment of station, including tur- 
bines 245,000 25.40 

Crane 6,000 0.62 

Condensers 41,000 4.25 

Pumps 10.000 1.04 

Feed-water heaters 6,000 0.62 

Piping, heating and covering 40,000 4.15 

Stack 13,000 1.35 

Boilers , 140,000 14.50 

Breeching 11,000 1.14 

Stokers 60,000 6.20 

Minor instruments 10,000 1.04 

Engineering and superintendence 50,000 5.20 

Total $1,107,000 $114.00 

General Description of the Plant is as follows : The boiler room 
is 56 by 330 ft. and separated by a division wall is the turbine room 
(on the river side) 63 by 227 ft. The water of the Cuyahoga Is 
dammed and used for condensing purposes. Coal is obtained from 
a railroad siding which runs along the top of the bank about 90 
ft. above the boiler-room floor. The coal is handled through a 
standard trestle with individual bunkers for each boiler. It passes 
through Richardson automatic scales so that a fairly accurate 
record of the amount delivered to each boiler is kept. 

Foundations are concrete on solid rock, or on a compact shale 
with a massive concrete wall 24 ft. high on the river side ; the re- 
maining foundation walls for the building being 2 ft. 6 ins. deep, 
except where they stepped up at the ends of the turbine room. 

Intake and discharge tunnels were built in a trench cut in solid 
rock by a standard channeling machine. 

The exterior walls of the building are of paving block, the 
trimmings, moldings, window architraves, copings, etc., were fur- 
nished in gray architectural terra cotta having a tooled surface. 
The window sashes are of solid steel sections throughout. Those in 
the turbine room are glazed with polished plate glass, while all 
others are glazed with AA double-strength glass. The boiler-room 
monitors are glazed with ribbed wire glass in continuous steel 
sashes, which swing from the top and are opened or closed in 
sections by devices operated from the boiler-room floor. In the 



824 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

center of the turbine-room basement is a steel rolling door large 
enough to admit standard railway cars. The entire surface of the 
turbine-room walls under the crane runway girders is finished with 
a marble-like material called " Vitrolite," and all interior ironwork 
is painted a light gray. All floors in the turbine-room have a 
granulithic finish. Lamp circuits are carried in conduits back of 
the wall facing, except above the crane runways. 

A switchboard gallery about 40 ft. long is located in the center 
of the turbine room. 

Structural Steel framing is independent of the walls and was 
erected complete before the general construction was started. 
I-shaped plate and angle columns, and roof trusses of the " Fink " 
type were used over the turbine room, and ordinary flat-top trusses 
over the boiler room. The crane runway girders were of built-up 
sections, reinforced laterally by 15-in. channels on the top flange. 
The turbine-room roof was of Spanish tile laid on a reinforced- 
concrete slab, the boiler-room monitors were covered with the same 
tile, while the general surface of the boiler-room roof has a standard 
tar and gravel surface over concrete. 

The Boiler-Room contains 16 604-h.p. B. & W. boilers and super- 
heaters, arranged in one row and equipped with Taylor stokers 
and Sturtevant fans, driven by Sturtevant engines, regulating the 
speed of the fans directly from the steam pressure. Each boiler 
has recording instruments for coal consumption (Richardson 200- 
Ib. automatic scales), CO2 recorders, draft gages and steam-flow 
meters, recording thermometers and automatic feed-water regu- 
lators. 

Coal Pockets are provided with dumping gates to handle a car- 
load at one time. 

The Stack, built by the Custodis Chimney Construction Company, 
is 275 ft. high and 16 ft. in diam. inside at the top. 

Steam Piping System provides that the boilers may be divided 
into 4 groups, any of which may be out of service at any time, but 
no effort was made to design a duplicate system of piping. The 
main-station header was made in lengths of about 36 ft. All 
nozzles, including the 12-in. leads to the turbine, were welded on 
by an electric arc. Van Stone flanges were used throughout on all 
high-pressure piping 4 in. and above in diam. Cast-steel fittings 
were used on all high-pressure superheated steam lines, and all 
high-pressure superheated steam valve bodies were made of cast 
steel, while the disks, seats and stems were of monel-metal. All 
high-pressure and low-pressure steam piping has 85% magnesia 
covering. 

The main turbine exhausts are 36-in. diam. and pass through 
a division wall and vertically alongside the stack and terminate 
above the turbine-room roof in a standard exhaust head. 

Water Storage. A 50,000-gal. steel tank is set on a bluff above 
the station with a head of about 100 ft. and supplies the general 
service water, the cooling water for transformers, the water lines 
for cooling ashes and the fire lines. These fire lines are connected 
to the feed-water lines so that in case of fire one of the feed pumps 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 825 

can be used as a fire pump. Duplicate 6 -in. feed-water mains are 
filled by the 3 feed-water pumps, which take water from the hot- 
well or discharge tunnel, one of which contains a 6-in. Venturi 
meter. A separate system for condensing- water, with standard 
air and oil piping- with convenient taps, etc., is provided. 

The TurMne-room is equipped with a 50-ton Morgan crane, with 
a 50-ton hoist and an auxiliary 5-ton hoist, 4 motors on a 500-volt 
d.c. circuit. 

Electrical Equipment comprises 3 Westinghouse 6300-kw,, 2,300- 
volt, 60-cycle, 3 -phase turbo-generators, 1,800 rev. per min., con- 
nected with 3 Westinghouse horizontal double-flow steam turbines. 
The contractors have guaranteed a steam consumption of 14.8 lbs. 
per kw.-hr. at 100% rate and 15.4 lbs. at 150% rate. There are 2 
150-kw. steam-driven exciters placed on the turbine-room floor be- 
tween main units and directly in front of the main switchboard. 
The exhaust steam from the turbines discharges into Westinghouse 
Le Blanc condensers, which are located in the basement. Circu- 
lating and air pumps for these condensers are on a single shaft 
and are driven by a 228-h.p. Westinghouse steam turbine. Auxili- 
ary Alberger single-stage booster pumps were provided in the 
turbine-room basement, driven by 75-h.p., 2300-volt, 3 -phase West- 
inghouse motors. 3 boiler-feed pumps are provided in the base- 
ment, having a total rating of 1,000 gals, per min., all interconnected 
and suitably valved, which take their water normally from 3 
Hoppes feed-water heaters, and have an additional suction line in 
both a hot and cold well. These feed-water heaters are filled by 
2 300-gals. per min. turbine pumps directly connected to Westing- 
house motors. 

Main cables from the generators are carried under the turbine- 
room floor to the 2300-volt busbar, from which bus cables lead to 3 
3,000-kw. transformers in the turbine-room basement, stepping up 
to 22,000 volts for the outgoing high-tension lines that feed the 
substations. No. 3 substation is located in the northwest corner 
of the turbine-room and consists of 3 500-kw. Westinghouse single- 
phase, 60-cycle rotaries and 3 step-down transformers which are 
fed directly from the 2,300-volt main busbar. 

The foundation work and excavation for this structure was done 
by the company on a force-account basis. The other work was 
installed by contract. 

Cost of Equipment for Isolated Plants. D. F. Atkins and H. M. 
Price in Electrical World, Aug. 3, 1912, give the following unit 
costs which are used in estimating the cost of mechanical equip- 
ment of federal buildings under the control of the Treasury De- 
partment. 

Cost in place, 
per kw. 
Single-valve, direct-connected' simple engines and gen- 
erators $35 

Single-valve, direct-connected compound engines and gen- 
erators 45 

Four-valve, direct-connected simple engines and gen- 
erators ' 45 



826 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost in place, 
per kw. 
Four-valve, direct-connected compound engines and gen- 
erators 55 

Water-tube boilers and setting, with breeching and stack. . 30 

Switchboard and mountings, per panel 300 

Pipings, pumps, feed-water heater, etc., in place, at 20% of the 
cost of the boilers, engines and generators. 

Cost of Elements of Small Steam Electric Power Plants. The 
following table, based on the personal experience of P. R. Moses 
in New York and vicinity, was published in Isolated Plant, Decem- 
ber, 1908. 

Cost per kw. 
plant capacity 
Boilers (erected and set in masonry) : 

Horizontal-tubular $14-$18 

Water-tube 16- 20 

Steam engines : 

High speed, simple direct-connected 20- 25 

Medium speed, compound non-condensing direct- 
connected^ 28- 35 

Low speed, compound condensing, belted 20- 25 

Low speed, simple, slow speed, belted 25- 30 

Gas engines 50- 60 

Oil engines 75- 85 

Gas producers 15- 20 

Dynamos : 

Direct-connected to high-speed engine 13-16 

Belt-connected to engine 12- 15 

Direct-connected to Corliss engine 16- 20 

Switchboard 5-10 

Foundations 5- 10 

Steamfitting — including auxiliary apparatus — such as 
feed heater, grease separator, exhaust head, tanks, 
covering, etc 20- 30 

Checking Power Plant Construction Cost Estimates by Percent- 
ages. F. W. Gay, mechanical engineer for J. G. White and Co., in 
the Journal of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, March, 1913, 
shows a method of checking estimates and confining the greatest 
chances of error to minor parts of the installation. 

According to his scheme, the first work is in the determination 
of the relative importance of the various items to be covered by 
an estimate. From his experience, he has compiled data and pre- 
pared diagrams covering power plants from 2,000 to 40,000 kws. 
in capacity. 

The diagrams show that : engines and foundations constitute from 
33.6% to 61% of the total equipment cost; an average of 50%. 
Boilers, settings and foimdations, from 17.25% to 31.5%, average 
about 25%. Piping, coi)ij)lete, from 7% to 17%, averages about 
11%. Condensers, complete with foundations and auxiliaries, 10% 
to 15%, average at 11%. Circulating -water system, 4.5% to 8%, 
averages 6.5%. Thus in these 5 groups is a minimum of 72.35% 
of all apparatus items, leaving the remainder, 27.65%, to be 
divided among at least eleven groups, including " miscellaneous." 
If, therefore, the greater part of the allowable time is spent on these 
5 groups he believes that the result will justify the expenditure of 
time and money. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 827 

Boilers, foundations and settings can be estimated closely, as 
can also the condensing apparatus. Engines, foundations, piping 
and circulating-water systems present greater difficulties, relatively, 
about in the order named. He finds it possible to estimate as 
close as 3% on toilers, installed; on engines, installed, as close as 
5%; on engine foundations, as close as 10%; on circulating -water 
systems as close as 15%; on piping systems, as close as 20%; on 
coyidensers, auxiliaries and foundations, as close as 3%. 

Applying these percentages of error to the minimum percentages 
of the whole, he has the total probable error on 72.35% of the 
apparatus as follows : 

Boilers 17.25 x 0.03 = 0.52% (plus or minus) 

Engines 33.60 x 0.06 = 2.01% (including foundations) 

Piping 7.00 x 0.20 = 1.40% 

Condensers 10.00 x 0.03 = 0.30% 

Circ.-water system .... 4.50 x 0.15 = 0.68% 

Total 4.91% 

He assumes, for discussion, that one must estimate on the total 
cost as close as 15%, which percentage ordinarily includes 5% for 
contingencies and errors. By concentrating attention on the five 
principal groups, he thinks he can come as close as 5% on the 
larger items, and has then a leeway of about 43.5% on the remain- 
ing items. He believes it possible, in almost every case, to come 
within 20% on these items, and then the total estimate is within 
8.5%. as against the 15% assumed. 

Buildings for this apparatus vary from 6% to 16% of equipment 
costs, an average, say, of 10%. Using unit prices, on a square- and 
cubic-foot basis, as well as, for h.p. and kw. bases, checking each 
against the other, he thinks enables him to keep his error within 
10 to 15%, or 1% or 1.5% on the total. 

In his practice he has used the minimum percentages for the 
principal items. In some cases this is as high as 85%, and by 
analyzing this in the same manner as for the 72.35% the total 
estimate may be within 6.5%. 

Referring to one contract recently finished, he states that the 
final figures from the cost analysis show that the estimate was in 
error less than 2.5%. 

Cost of Five Substations. The following cost data are based on 
the company's construction and purchase records, including allow- 
ances for fixed charges as indicated in the inventory of Sloan, 
Huddle, Feustel and Freeman published in Electric Railway Journal, 
Jan. 22, 1916. The 5 substations, of which detailed costs of land, 
buildings and equipment are given for 2, receive energy at about 
13,000 volts, 25 cycles, and deliver direct current at the usual 
trolley pressures of 550 volts to 600 volts. They were built about 
10 years ago, and the investment cost new is the total outlay the 
company had made on NoV. 1, 1914, in the construction of this 
portion of its system. The fixed charges listed are those incurred 
during construction, and the figures show, as nearly as may be, 
the actual investment the company has made in the five substations 
tabulated. 



828 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

COST OF SUBSTATION BUILDINGS 

BRIDGEWATER (900 KW.), 35 FT. 2 IN. BY 60 FT. 6 IN. 

Item and quantity 

Excavation, 476 cu. yd. at $ $ 0:50 $ 238 

Concrete foundation, 170 cu. yd. at $ 14.00 2,380 

Concrete — 3-in floors — plain, 1200 sq. ft. at $ . . . . 0.16 192 

Concrete — 6-in. reinforced floor, 417 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.50 208 

Concrete — 3-in. reinforced floor, 349 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.25 87 

Concrete — 4-in reinforced floor, 119 sq. ft. at $ . . 0.35 42 

Concrete — 10-in. reinforced floor, 984 sq. ft. at $ 0.60 590 

Concrete steps, 12 cu. ft. at $ 035 4 

Brick — walls, 74,000 at $ 24.00 1,776 

Brick — coping and pilasters, 9000 at $ 26.00 234 

Cut stone, 193 cu. ft. at $ 2.50 ' 482 

Steel and iron — structural steel, 13,531. lbs. at $.. 0.04 541 

Steel and iron — wrought-iron railing ... 20 

Steel and iron — miscellaneous ... 260 

Timber — roof sheathing, 7200 ft. b.m., at $ 41.00 295 

Timber — miscellaneous ... 5 

Roofing — slate, 2860 sq. ft. at $ 0.10 286 

Millwork — doors, 214 sq. ft ... 101 

Millwork — windows, 473 sq. ft ... 228 

Screens, 232 sq. ft. at $ 0.15 35 

Sheet metal work, $517 ; lighting, $393 ... 910 

Heating, $18 ; plumbing, $175 ... 193. 

Painting — oil, 583 sq. yds. at $ 0.18 10& 

Painting — cold water, 402 sq. yds. at $ 0.12 48 

Fence ... 57 



$9,31? 



Engineering, interest, insurance and contingencies, 

11%, $1025 ; taxes, organization, 3.5%, $326. . . . 1,351 



Total building cost $10,668. 

Total building cost per kw $11.82 

Buildings, brick and concrete, walls being brick and floors plain 
and reinforced concrete. Roof supported by steel trusses and 
covered with slate. Present condition good. 

BROCKTON (3750 KW.), 34 FT. 8 IN. BY 78 FT. 10 IN. 

Item and quantity : 

Excavation 599 cu. yd. at $ $ 0.60 $ 359 

Trenching, 91 cu. yd. at $ 0.75 68 

Concrete — plain footings, 154 cu. yds. at $ 14.00 2,156 

Concrete floor 6 in. 2733 sq. ft. at $ 0.18 492 

Concrete curbing. 72 cu. ft. at $ 0.30 22 

Concrete — 3-in. walk, 90 sq. ft. at $ 0.16 14 

Concrete — 4-in. reinforced floor, 209 sq. ft. at $.. 0.40 84 

Concrete — 6-in. reinforced floor, 301 sq. ft. at $.. 0.50 150 

Brick — walls, 109,000 at $ 24 2,616 

Brick — pilasters, 53,000 at $ 26 1,378 

Cut stone, 510 cu. ft. at $ 3 1,530 

Timber 291 

Millwork ^- doors, 381 sq. ft 173 

Millwork — windows, 1263 sq. ft 622 

Millwork — screens, 360 sq. ft 54 

Cast iron, 5113 lbs. at $ 0.04 205 

Railings, etc .... 144 

Steel, 37,617 lbs. at $ 0.05 1,881 

Slate, 153 sq. ft. at $ 0.90 138 

Roofing — tar and gravel, 2607 cu. ft. at $ 0.07 182 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 829 

Sheet metal .... 308 

Grating. 266 sq. ft. at $ 0.35 93 

Ventilators, $20 ; El Lighting-, $386 406 

Heating, $95 ; Plumbing $175 270 

Painting — oiling, bricic .... 150 

Painting — cold water, 1362 sq. yds. at $ 0.12 163 

Painting — oil, 498 sq. yds. at $ 0.18 90 

$14,039 

Overhead, as above, 14.5% 2,036 

Total building cost $16,075 

Total building cost per kw $4.29 

Building has brick walls, floors plain and reinforced concrete ; 

roof supported by steel trusses, covered with tar and gravel. 
Plant in good condition. 

Taunton substation, brick and concrete building, 45 ft. by 88 ft., 
with brick walls and concrete floors, all in good condition. 

Fall River substation, irregular building, converted power house, 
about 86 ft. by 146 ft., approximately 12,000 sq. ft. 

Rockland substation building, 31 ft. by 60 ft., brick, concrete 
and steel. 

COST OF EQUIPMENT 

BRIDGEWATER (900 KW.) 

Items 

3 300-kw. GE rotary converters at $ $4,570 $13,710 

3 330-kw. GE three-phase, air-cooled transformers 

at $ 2,512 7,536 

2 40-in. motor-driven Buffalo blowers at $ 165 330 

1 GE motor-driven air compressor and equipment 

at $ 375 375 

4 12,500-volt GE electrolytic lightning arresters at $ 300 1,200 

Switchboards and wiring 7,647 

Miscellaneous equipment and tools 195 

Total $30,993 

Engineering, insurance, contingencies, interest, 

10.5%, $3254; taxes and organization, 3.5%, $1085 4,339 

Grand total $35,332 

Grand total equipment per kw $39.20 

BROCKTON (3750 KW.) 

3 750-kw. GE rotary converters at $ $10,085 $30,255 

1 1500-kw. GE rotary converter at $ 10,578 10,578 

3 825-kw. GE three-phase air-cooled transformers 

at $ 3,872 11,616 

1 1575-kva. GE three-phase air cooled transformers 

at $ , 4,393 4,393 

1 12,500-volt GE electrolytic lighting arresters 

at $ 358 358 

2 70-in. Buffalo motor-driven blowers at $ 375 750 

1 GE motor-driven air compressor and equipment 

at $ 375 375 

Switchboards and wiring 16,292 

Miscellaneous equipment and tools 93 

1 10-ton hand-operated traveling crane at $ 1,350 1,350 

Total $76,060 

Overhead as above, 14%. . 10,648 

Grand total $86,708 

Equipment per kw $23.20 



830 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

SUMMARY OF SUBSTATION COSTS 

Kw. ca- Equip- Total, ex. Grand 

Substation pacity Land Building ment Land Total 

Bridgewater .. 900 $ 1,296 $10,668 $35,332 $46,000 $47,296 

Brockton 3,750 2,488 16,075 86,708 102,783 105,271 

Fall River ... 3,000 20,507 28,200 81,307 109.507 130,014 

Rockland 900 1,188 12,783 35,968 48,751 49,939 

Taunton 1,700 4,644 17,088 59,639 76,727 81,371 

Total 10,250 $30,123 $84,814 $298,954 $383,768 $413,891 

Average per 

kilowatt $2.92 $8.25 $29.20 $37.45 $40.37 



Cost of Sub-Stations. (Data, Aug., 1915.) H, W. Young gives 
the total net cost of steel tower 3 -phase outdoor sub-stations with 
three single-phase 33,000 to 2,300 volt transformers. 



Station 

capacity, 

kw. 

45 

60 

75 

90 

120 

150 



No. of 
trans. 
3-15 kw. 
3-20 " 
3-25 " 
3-30 " 
2-40 " 
3-50 " 



25 cycle 

station 

per kw. 

$35.50 

28.50 

24.50 

21.50 

16.75 

14.25 





60 cycle 




Total 


station 


Total 


cost 


per kw. 


cost 


$1,597.00 


$29.35 


$1,321.00 


1,710.00 


23.55 


1,415.00 


1,837.00 


20.65 


1,550.00 


1,935.00 


17.65 


1,589.00 


2,010.00 


13.80 


1,656.00 


2,137.00 


11.90 


1,785.00 



Net costs Include all high tension bus bar supports, copper tube 
bus, high and low tension dead ends and a galvanized steel tower 
with footings. 

Mr. Young is also authority for the net cost per kilowatt for 
equipment of electric sub-stations, of the outdoor type, equipment 
for 3 -phase current and voltage range from 2,300 to 33,000. 

Cost per kw. 
Cost of high tension 
per kw. switching and 
60-cycles protective 

units 
$20.00 $6.25 

16.50 4.75 

15.00 3.80 

13.00 3.10 

10.50 2.50 

9.00 2.00 



Station No. of 

capacity, trans- 

kw. formers 



45 
60 
75 
90 
120 
150 



3-50 kw. 
3-20 " 
3-25 " 
3-20 " 
3-40 " 
3-50 " 



Transformer, 
25-cycles 



$25.00 
20.50 
18.00 
16.00 
12.50 
11.00 



Cost of Sub-Stations. The following costs are from construc- 
tion reports of a power company in California in 1908. In each sub- 
station oil cooled transfonners were installed for the lighting, ail3 
water cooled for the power circuits. 



55,000-66,000 TO 2,300 VOLT STATIC TRANSFORMER STATIONS 


Kw. capacity 

Oil Water 
cooled cooled 


Cost of 
building 


Cost 
per 
kw. 


Cost of 
equipment 


Cost 


Total 
cost 
per 
kw. 


3650 
2400 
1500 
1500 
1500 


4325 
3075 
1875 
1875 
1875 


$12,489.85 

9,152.60 

10,979.90 

7,236.28 

7,344.96 


$2.85 
2.85 
5.85 
3.86 
3.92 


$29,669.94 
30,534.48 
23,774.49 
19,023.29 
14,732.10 


$6.87 

9.92 

12.65 

10.15 

7.90 


$9.72 
12.77 
18.50 
14.01 
11.82 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



831 



Comparative Costs of Indoor and Outdoor Types of Sub-Stations. 

The following c-osts are derived from a paper by K. C. Randall, 
Trans. A. I. E. E. Vol. XXVIII. year 1911, 

TRANSFOKMER SUB-STATIONS 

2,000 kva. 25,000 volt, 60 cycles. 

Indoor Outdoor 

Building $ 5,400 $1,020 

Trati.sformers . , . 7,200 7,800 

Switchboard 2,500 2,625 

$15,100 $11,445 

Per kilovolt-ampere . 7.55 5.72 

MOTOR-GENERATOR SUB-STATION 

3,000 kva. 22,000-3,000 volt, 25 cycles 

Indoor Outdoor 

Building $ 21,835 $7,480 

Transformers 15,000 16,000 

Motor-generators 48,000 48,000 

Exciters 4,500 4,500 

Switchboard 20,000 20,200 

$109,335 $96,180 

Per kilovolt-ampere 36.45 32.00 

Area per h.p. Occupied by Various Power Groups. Table XXVIII 
after Mr. R. E. Mathot in Engineering Magazine, January, 1907, 
gives the area per h.p. occupied by various plant groups. 



TABLE XXVIII. 



Type of engine 



AREA OCCUPIED 
UNITS 



BY VARIOUS POWER 



Producer-gas motor 

Stationary engine and boiler. 

Producer-gas motor 

Semi-portable .steam engine.. 
Two producer-gas motors .... 
Semi-portable steam engine. . 



Hp. 



200 
100 
100 
150 
50 + 30 
50 



Total space 
occupied by 
all apparatus 
and passage- 
ways, sq. ft. 
1,620 
1,000 
680 
475 
1,050 
420 



Area 
per hp. 
sq. ft. 

8.1 
10.0 

6.8 

3.2 
13.1 

8.4 



Floor Space Required for Different Kinds of Prime Movers for 
Various Capacities of Plant. The diagram. Fig. 12, was pre- 
pared by Mr. E. H. Sniffen in 1902. 

Reconstruction Cost of a Storage Battery Plant. Electrical 
World, May 31, 1913. Charles A. Hobein in the Iowa Engineer 
gives the following cost of reconstructing a storage battery of the 
United Railways Company, St. Uouis, in which, after 6.5 years' 
operation the plates were nearly worn out and the batteries very 
inefficient. 

Originally there were 2 batteries rated at 2,500 amps, per hr. 
each. The tanks were of yellow pine and lined with lead .0625 in. 
thick. The electrolyte was dilute sulphuric acid of 1.210 specific 
gravity. 



832 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In the new installation each cell is an independent unit. Wooden 
blocks resting- on bricks form the support for the insulators. There 
are 10 of these blocks and insulators under each tank. The space 
under the cells is clear so that a man can crawl under and replace 
any insulator or block. A new insulator was developed by the 
company. An annular space in the insulator contains oil. Any 
leakage would have to come down the center extension of the 
insulator, across the surface at the oil to ground. After 2 years' 
service the insulation is almost perfect. The new tanks without 
paneling have proved much stronger and do not require so many 
spacing insulators. The paneling of the old-type tanks was so 



I5fi00 




\OfiOO EOfiOO 30,000 40,000 50,000 

Horse Power. 

Fig. 12. Diagram of floor-space required for different kinds of 
prime-movers, for various capacities of plant. 



constructed as to form a lodging place for acid drips, and the conse- 
quence was decay in the crevices. 

The old tanks were removed to an upper floor, the lead lining 
removed, and after the lining had been inspected inside and out 
and repairs made if needed, the lining was installed in the new 
tank. All the old linings with a few exceptions were used over 
again. 

The lead linings where they extend over the edge of the tanks 
were cut to form drip points. The point of each end was in the 
center and on the sides there were 4 points which came between 
the insulator spacing of the tanks. This scheme keeps the insulators 
free of acid from dripping. 

A positive plate known as the Tudor type was used. They are 
practically pure lead plates, grid and active material, about .375-in. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 833 

thick. The surface is cut into horizontal rows of finely divided 
grooves. Between the .375-in.-wide liorizontal rows was left a 
web of the lead which was not cut. The active material was 
formed in the finely divided grooves. These plates were very easily 
buckled and required very rigid separation. The board separators 
were equipped with 5 dowels each. The outside dowels were 1 in. 
wide by .5 in. thick. The other 3 were .5 in. wide by .5 in. thick, 
These separators were suspended from the top of the plates by 
means of a rubber peg pushed through the top of the center dowel. 
The hold-downs are semicircular glass pieces about 8 ins. long. 
Some of the old plates removed in the process of reconstruction 
did not have any of the active material remaining in them. 
Enough were found, however, to be sufficiently valuable to give a 
year's service in 50 cells. 

TABLE XXIX. DATA OBTAINED FROM WATTMETER TESTS 
(One week's average). 

Before After 

rebuilding rebuilding 

Kw.-hr. efficiency, % 32.1 43.8 

Amp.-hr. efficiency, % 45.3 51.3 

Capacity discharge, amp-hr 960 2,410 

The negative plates are the plates from the original installation. 
They were found good for several years more of efficient service. 

Some wattmeter tests made on one of the batteries before and 
after the reconstruction are recorded in Table XXIX. The weekly 
overcharge was distributed and charged to the amount of energy 
put into the battery, by adding % of the power required by the 
overcharge to the charge required by the battery, after a dis- 
charge, if a discharge occurred on 6 nights of a week following the 
overcharge. 

COSTS OF ORIGINAL, INSTALLATION AND RECONSTRUCTION 

2 batteries installed complete with boosters, wiring 

switchboards and copper bars $198,000.00 

Cleaning out sediment, including pump, tanks, etc 2,223.13 

Reconstruction 1910 and 1911 107,321.88 

Board separators complete with dowels each 0.15 

Positive plates, each 4.00 

Negative plates, each 3.65 

Oil insulators, complete with alloy cap, each 0.40 

Wooden tanks, railway company's manufacture, each. . . . 12.00 

Lead lining.s, railway company's manufacture, each..... 15.00 

Cost of Constructing a Turbo-Generator Power Plant, Transmis- 
sion Line and Substructures. In 1910 an arrangement was made 
by which the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. agreed to an 
enlargement of its power plant at Douglas, Arizona, to supply power 
for El Tigre mines, 65 miles away, in Mexico. In Western Engi- 
neering February, 1913. J. W. Malcolmson describes the new plant 
and gives in detail the construction costs. (Tables XXX-XXXIV.) 



834 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XXX. COST AND ERECTION OF POWER PLANT 

Engineering 

rs' salaries while ensraered in draftiner. blue 

.$ 477.98 



:ineering: 

Engineers' salaries while engaged in drafting, blue- 
prints for foundations, piping, condensers, etc 



Foundations : 

Excavation (labor) , $ 96.19 

Anchor bolts (labor and material) . 132.58 

Molds (labor and material) 468.93 

Concrete, 127^ cu. yds. (labor and material) 981.97 

$ 1,679.67 
Hot well : 

Excavation (labor) $ 72.94 

Molds (labor and material) 46.86 

Concrete, 15 cu. yds. (labor and material) 238.95 

Pipe connections (labor and material) 167.14 

Steel reinforcement (labor and material) 34.81 

$ 560.70 
Steam turbo-generator: 

2 A.T.B. 4-750-1800 generators with Curtis steam 

turbines and accessories $28,250.00 

4 5-in compression and vacuum gages 11.20 

Insurance on engine 70.62 

Freight, Schenectady, N. Y., to Douglas , 2,143.55 

Labor erecting 906.51 

Material for erecting = 320.17 

$31,702.05 
Switchboard : 

1 complete switchboard $ 2,455.00 

Insurance 3.89 

1 Hartman & Braun frequency meter 52.20 

2 d.c. voltmeter.s, range 0-150 volts; 2 d.c. ammeters, 
range 0-300 amp. ; 2 d.c. ammeters, range 0-150 

■^ amp 1 44.74 

Freight to Douglas on above parts 267.25 

Labor erecting 145.63 

Material erecting 85.54 

$ 3,154\25 
Wiring: 

75 ft. 552-lb. 3/250,000 C.M.V.C, 3/32 by 1/16 lead, 

7/64 Sec. No. 1, complete; 30 ft. 52-lb. 3/8 wire, V.C. 

5/64 by 1/16 lead, Sec. No. 1. complete 175 ft. 155- 

Ib. 4/0 cable, R.C 5/64 T.B.W., Sec. No. 1, complete. 

S. O. N. 72143; 22 lb. No. 227 compound $ 133.40 

Freight on above 24.12 

Labor erecting 11 7.28 

Material for erecting 18.86 

$ 293.66 
Condensers : 

2 72-in. type "B" Helander patent barometric con- 
densers 

2 12 by 24 by 16-in. dry air pumps $ 7.100.00 

Insurance 3.37 

Freight on above 2,208.47 

Labor erecting . 

Machine shop, 45 hr 22.88 

Blacksmith shop, 6 hr 3.64 

Carpenter shop, 114 hr . 55.68 

Rigging gang, 1,2451/2 hr 332.08 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 835 

Electric gang, 384 hr 146.83 

Special gang, 158 hr . 33.23 

Construction, 995 1^ hr 400.52 

$ 994.86 

Material for erection 133.31 

n0,440.01 
Steam and motor exciters : 

1 standard 30-kw. generator set, consisting of 1 9 by 
9 VS. 7 automatic engine, complete with cylinders, 
lubricators, and full set of wrenches, extended sub- 
base for direct connection to 1 No. 10 C. h.p. 8 gen- 
erator compound wound for 125 volts field rheo- 
stat $ 1,125.00 

1 2-brg. motor-generator set, consisting of one 30-kw 
No. 8 " L" type " S " generator coupled with 125 v. 
with bed plate and shaft, one No. 11 A.H. 45, 6-hp 
type " C.C.Li." motor, 2300 volts with auto starter 

and oil 1,000.00 

Insurance 3.87 

Freight 244.27 

Labor erecting 44.40 

Material for erecting 9.29 

$ 2,426.83 
Water piping : 

Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa % 3,522.87 

Freight to Douglas 1,644.09 

Labor laying and erecting 408.33 

Material for laying and erecting 110.43 

Material and labor for supports 1.23 

? 5,686.95 
Exhaust piping : 

Cost. Pittsburgh, Pa $ 807.94 

Freight to Douglas 336.88 

Labor erecting 83.13 

Material for erecting 33.92 

Supports and hangers (labor and material) 29.11 

$ 1,290.98 
Steam piping and separators: 

Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa. ... $ 7,717.41 

2 16-in. Stratton separators 1,089.00 

Freight on pipe and separators to Douglas, New York 1,478.87 

Labor erecting 833.30 

Material for erection 234.59 

Supports and hangers 33.73 

Pipe covering, erected 2,400.00 

$13,786.90 
Air piping : 

Cost, Pittsburgh, Pa $ 258.70 

Freight to Douglas 71.16 

Labor erecting 25.25 

Material for erecting 37.05 

Supports and hangers (la,bor and material) 1.61 

$ 393.77 

Total $71,893.75 

Note. Weight of pipe and separators, 340,405 pounds. 



83G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXXL COST OF TRANSMISSION LINE 

Poles : 

First cost $ 8,642.18 

U. S. freight 4,245.74 

Unloading-, hauling and delivery along line 3,730.57 

Assembling and erecting 1,348.05 

Digging holes and setting poles 8,610.97 

Customs charges and duties 121.12 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 1,397.25 

$28,095.88 
Transmission line — Cross-arms : 

First cost $ 1,422.28 

U. S. freight 446.10 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line. 614.30 

Customs charges and duties 13.78 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 112.12 

$ 2,608.58 
Transmission line — Hardware (bolts and braces) : 

First cost $ 1,380.55 

U. S. freight 429.21 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 1,017.90 

Customs charges and duties 460.90 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 87.59 

$ 3,376.15 
Transmission line — Pins : 

First cost $ 1,524.18 

U. S. freight . . ._. 326.49 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 167.03 

Custom charges and duties 184.12 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 25.26 

$ 2,227.08 
Transmission line — Insulators : 

First cost $ 7,312.99 

Inspecting and testing 308.90 

U. S. freight 4,046.93 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 507.48 

Assembling and erecting 468.25 

Customs charges and duties 1,006.56 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 430.11 

$14,081.22 
Telephone line — Cross-arms: 

First cost $ 393.00 

U. S. freight 196.08 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 43.97 

Custom charges and duties 167.41 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 63.51 

$ 863.97 
Telephone line — Cross-arm hardware : 

First cost $ 240.27 

U. S. freight 51.36 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 16.51 

Custom charges and duties 51.60 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 6.07 

$ 365.81 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 837 

Telephone line — Pins : 

First cost $ 130.20 

U. S. freight 70.44 

Customs charges and duties .* 4.40 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Yshabal) 7.02 



$ 212.06 
Telephone line — Insulators : 

First cost % 525.75 

Inspecting and testing 18.90 

U. S. freight 216.59 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 2.58 

Customs charges and duties 40.44 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 23.57 



$ 827.83 

Pole steps, guying and bracing (eyebolts, guy wires, 
clamps, anchors, pole braces, etc.) : 

First cost % 895.53 

Labor 503.00 

• U. S. freight 138.15 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 168.00 

Customs charges and duties 176.85 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 35.78 

? 1,917.31 

Special structures, concrete and cribbing, incident to spe- 
cial construction : 

First cost % 465.60 

Labor 973.10 

U. S. freight 52.22 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 85.00 

Customs charges and duties 22.10 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 20.63 



$ 1,618.65 
Painting : 

First cost $ 313.43 

Labor 206.00 

Customs, charges and duties 18.61 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 0.54 



$ 538.58 
Transmission line — Wire : 

First cost $18,096.29 

U. S. freight 2,695.78 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 353.48 

Assembling and erecting 2,658.75 

Customs charges and duties 1,9 68.61 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 172.90 



$25,945.81 
Transmission line — Ties or clamps : 

First cost $ 279.03 

U. S. freight 21.38 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 1.00 

Assembling and erecting 7.00 

Customs charges and duties . . , 23.26 

Mexican railroad freight (Dougla{5 to Ysabal) 20.40 

% 5,363.05 



838 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Telephone line — Wire : 

First cost $ 3,249.41 

U. S. freight 388.54 

Unloading, hauli-ng and delivery along line 9 6.60 

Assembling and erecting 1,231.50 

Customs charges and duties 365.30 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 31.70 

$ 1,795.92 
Telephones : 

First cost . .$ 1,132.24 

U. S. freight 138.22 

Unloading, hauling and delivery along line 50.00 

Assembling and erecting 401.63 

Customs charges and duties 21.82 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 52.01 



$ 739.50 
Clearing and trimming: 

Right of way, including easements or real estate and 

collateral costs incident thereto $ 1,048.96 

Pole signs 129,60 

Preliminary work, including payments made by Tigre 

Mining Co. to J. Langston for services and expenses 4,033.75 

Contractors' equipment and tool account 1,040.35 

First cost 892.83 

U. S. freight 70.05 

Customs charges and duties 48.53 

Mexican railroad freight (Douglas to Ysabal) 19.9 4 

Labor 9.00 

Stable — operation and feed $ 1,373.62 

Camp — equipment 817.76 

Camp — expenses and repairs 271.00 

Subsistence 4,061.57 

General engineering and administration (New York) .... 76.33 
General engineering and administration (local office), 

including surveys 5,476.84 

Office $ 2,436.95 

Surveys, including surveys by Tigre company 3,039.89 

Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 

contractors 597.28 

Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor 

on job and housing of same 425.89 

Medical services and expenses 24.75 

Expenses duo to insurrection (repairs, etc.) 1,041.57 

Trail along 1 ransmission line 723.75 

Station hous > on line " fronteras " 62.50 

Total, " transmission line " $112,134.99 



'UNABLE XXXII. DOUGLAS SUB-STATION 

Excavation, grading, and disposition of excavated material? 257.38 

Foundations of sub-station building (substructure) 142.77 

Machinery foundations 191.74 

Building (superstructure) 2,398.66 

Brickwork $ 1,400.00 

Labor £.:nd material (miscellaneous) 998.66 

Switchboard and wiring (thereof, thereto, therefrom) .... 1,903.05 

Switchboard $ 1,300.00 

Freight 49.14 

Nyelec panel and switches 47.00 

Insulators, fittings, clamps, wire, etc 365.26 

Labor , , 141,65 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 839 

Underground cable between switchboard and step-up sub- 
station 1,583,55 

Cable $ 1,270.01 

Cable terminals and jointing compound 28.41 

Miscellaneous material and cartage 132.99 

Labor 152.14 

Sub-station step-up transformers 8,401.64 

Four 400-kva. step-up transformers 6,207.34 

Freight 1,185.30 

Drying transformers 266.00 

Miscellaneous material 21.00 

Labor 722.00 

Painting and finishing of machinery 10.02 

Plumbing, lockers, and other sub-station furnishing 35.99 

Contractors' equipment and tool account 153.84 

Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 

contractors 20.80 

Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor 

on job, and housing of same 93.50 

Tests of equipment 948.49 

Steam and electric power 745.00 

Miscellaneous material , 203.49 

Total Douglas sub-station $16,141.'^ 3 



TABLE XXXIIL EL TIGRE SUB-STATION 

Sub-station proper $ 5,294.55 

Switchboard and wiring (thereof, thereto, therefrom) .... 5,362.26 

Switchboard 3,780.00 

Freight, customs charges, and duties 769.47 

Nyelec panel and switches 106.00 

Insulators, fittings, clamps, wire, etc 594.94 

Labor 111.85 

Sub-station step-down transformers 8,899.26 

Four 320-kva step-down transformers 4,989.09 

Freight, customs charges, and duties 1,964.24 

Miscellaneous material 531.98 

Labor 1,413.95 

Traveling expenses and board of general engineers and 

contractors 32.70 

Transportation and expenses incident to placing any labor , 

on job, and housing of same . 70.00 

Tests of equipment 173.58 



Total El Tigre sub-station ?1 9,832.35 



TABLE XXXIV. RECAPITULATION OF COSTS 

Transmission line $112,134.99 

Douglas sub-station 16,141.43 

El Tigre sub-station 19,832.35 

Total $148,108.77 

Fees paid Sanderson & Porter 13,000.00 

$151,108.77 

(The total shown above, amounting to $161,108.77. includes dis- 
bursements made by Sanderson & Porter amounting to $132,743.48, 
and as reported by the Tigre Mining Co. amounting to $28,365.29.) 

The plant in Douglas consists of 2 750-kw. exhaust steam turbo- 
generators which will work with a 50% underload or overload 



840 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

without any very serious loss of efficiency. The Tigre Mining 
company receives power at the bus bars at a tension of 2,200 
volts. This is stepped up to 44,000 volts by means of 3 General 
Electric transformers. At the mine the current is stepped down to 
440 volts and distributed to the various circuits in the plant. 

The transmission is unusual on account of the small quantity of 
power being transmitted such a long distance. The current is 
44,000 volt, 60 cycle, 3 phase, transmitted over a single line of 
wooden poles carrying 3 conductors of No. 4 B. & S. gage, medium, 
hard drawn copper wire with telephone wires below. The poles 
are 200 ft. apart; at the crossing of the Bavispe River the span is 
1,600 ft. The cost of the line from the low tension side of its step- 
up transformer station at Douglas to the low tension side of its step- 
down transformer station at El Tigre was $161,121. Not including 
the transformer stations at each end, their cost was very closely 
equal to $2,000 per mile. The line, including the transformer sta- 
tions, was built by Sanderson & Porter of New York. The total 
cost of the exhaust steam turbo-generator plant including the steam 
piping, etc., was $71,S94, the machinery being installed by the 
Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. During the past year, 
6,000 tons of ore have been concentrated monthly and 7,500 tons, 
cyanided at the Tigre mill; an average of 616 h.p. is distributed at 
El Tigre switchboard. The delivered cost is $86 per h.p. per year; 
the cost at Douglas being 0.95 per kw.-hr. 

Distribution Equipment Cost on a Small System. Electrical 
World, February 21, 1914, makes the following abstract from a 
report to the lighting committee of the town of South Hadley, 
Mass., by Mr. William Plattner, manager of the North Attleboro 
(Mass.) electric lighting department, in which a thorough study 
was made of the cost of the local distribution system. The value 
of the equipment in use was based upon the market price of its 
replacement, as of August, 1913, and transportation charges, freight 
and express and the labor cost of installation were included. 

ESTIMATED COST OF REPLACING VARIOUS EQUIPMENT 

t Poles in place » 

Expected 
Number and kind Cost Length, ft. life, yr. 

315 first class, at $3.75 $1,181.25 25 15 

63 first class, at $4.50 283.50 30 15 

132 second class, at $4.00 528.00 25 10 

28 second class, at $4.50 126.00 30 10 

94 third class, at $4.00 376.00 25 5 

18 third class, at $4.50 81.50 ' 30 5 

11 fourth class, at $4.00 44.00 25 Need 

1 fourth class, at $4.50 4.50 30 replacement 

Painting 1 29 poles at $0.50 $64.50 

Setting 71 poles in concrete, at 0.50 35.50 

Setting 4 poles in curb, at 0.50 2.00 

Fourteen guys. — 80 ft. No. 4 copper wire, 299 ft No. 6 copper 

wire, and 444 ft. No. 6 galvanized steel wire, all in place 85.75 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



841 







ELECTRIC METERS (G. E. 


TWO-WIRE) 












Trans- 


Labor, 




Total 




Size, 


Unit 


Total 


porta- 


erec- 




per 


No. 


amp. 


cost 


cost 


tion 


tion 


Total 


meter 


40 


5 


$10.00 


$400.00 


$13.00 


$20.00 


$433.00 


$10.82 


267 


10 


11.20 


2990.48 


81.25 


135.00 


3206.73 


12.00 


17 


15 


12.80 


217.60 


5.00 


10.00 


232.60 


13.65 


31 


25 


16.00 


496.00 


9.50 


16.00 


521.50 


16.80 


11 


50 


21.40 


235.40 


3.67 


8.00 


247.07 


22.36 


2 


100 


26.70 


53.40 


1.00 


5.00 


59.40 


29.70 


TRANSFORMERS (G. 


B. AND STANLEY, VOLTAGE 1100-2200; 110-220) 
















Total 












Labor, 




per 




Size, 


Unit 


Total 


Freight 


erec- 




trans- 


No. 


kw. 


cost 


cost 


charges 


tion 


Total 


former 


65 


1 


$21.80 


$1417.00 


$23.90 


$96.00 


$1536.90 


$23.60 


16 


1.5 


26.00 


416.00 


4.00 


24.00 


444.00 


27.80 


21 


2 


30.40 


638.00 


10.40 


30.00 


678.40 


32.20 


9 


2.5 


34.00 


306.00 


5.00 


18.00 


329.00 


36.60 


10 


3 


38.00 


380.00 


5.00 


19.00 


404.00 


40.40 


2 


4 


45.60 


91.20 


2.90 


5.00 


99.10 


49.55 


9 


5 


53.20 


478.80 


9.20 


18.00 


506.00 


56.22 


2 


7.5 


70.40 


140.80 


2.68 


10.00 


153.48 


76.74 


3 


10 


87.20 


261.60 


3.80 


20.00 


285.40 


95.13 


1 


20 


146.80 


146.80 


2.74 


18.00 


167.54 


167.54 


1 


25 


172.80 


172.80 


4.00 


18.00 


194.80 


194.80 


1 


30 


197.20 


197.20 


5.50 


22.00 


224.70 


224.70 



The transformer costs include fuses, cut-outs, hangers and oil. 

TRANSFORMER HOUSE, SOUTH HADLET 

One house, matched boards, 7 ft. 3 in. by 7 ft. 3 in. by 9 ft. 9 
in. high in front, 8 ft. 6 in. high in rear, tar-paper roof, 
paneled window, wire screen door, painted $ 75.00 

One G. E. regulator, type I.R.S., 8.75 kva., 2300 volts, 2'5 amp., 

complete with panel and transformers 468.40 

One G. E. constant-current transformer, 10 kw., 5.5 amp., 

form G, complete 304.50 

One G. E. transformer, 1 kw., oil type, 2200 volts to 110-220 

volts 16.73 

One Campbell time switch, series street lighting, 2500 volts, 

two-pole, 25 amp., eight-day clock 25.00 

Two G. E. 2300-3000-volt horn-gap lightning arresters 9.50 

Inside wiring, material, labor, etc 35.50 

Outside wiring including 300 ft. service for lighting 21.75 

Total $956.38 



Cost of Additions and Improvements to Central Stations. The 
following data were given in Electrical World, Aug. 16, 1913. A 
2000-kw. Curtis steam turbine costing about $30,000 has been 
installed in the main steam plant by the Greenfield (Mass.) Electric 
Light & Power Co.. with two Porcupine boilers, rated at 500 h.p. 
each, at a cost of $11,500. The condensing-water supply formerly 
pumped into the station has been rearranged to permit its intro- 
duction by gravity. 

New equipment of the Gardners Falls station of the New Eng- 
land Power Co. includes two 1,450-h.p. turbines designed to oper- 
ate at 150 rev. per min. under 37 ft. working head and an exciter 
turbine of S. Morgan Smith make, rated at 135-h.p., the cost of 



842 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

these erected being $11,500, or $3.85 per h.p. The electrical ap- 
paratus consists of 2 generators of 1170 kva. rating, a 60-kw. 
exciter and three 1200-kva., 3-phase transformers for delivering 
energy at 13,200 volts to the Greenfield company's transmission 
feeders, the price of this equipment f.o.b. factor being $29,500. The 
estimated cost of switchboard additions for this installation is about 
$15,000, including incidentals, and the contract for excavation, 
extending the station and installing foundations is figured at $4,250. 
Central Station Equipment Costs. Electrical World, April 28, 
1917. Improvements on the system ot the Fitchburg (Mass.) Gas 
& Electric Light Company (1916) included the installation of a 
2500-kw. high-pressure Westinghouse turbine with LeBlanc con- 
denser and foundations, centrifugal feed pump, piping, superheat- 
ers, 2 500-h.p. Bigelow-Hornsby water-tube boilers, 2 Taylor 
stokers, feed-water meter, air compressor, pipe covering, coal- 
handling equipment, economizers, mechanical draft apparatus and a 
1,000-h.p. feed-water heater. To house the additional equipment 
the plant was extended about 36 ft. From the cost sheets of the 
company the following items are printed to give engineers a gen- 
eral idea of the relative unit costs of equipment in a plant of this 
size: 

2500-kw. Westinghouse double-flow turbine (not including 
generator), with No. 14 LeBlanc condenser, complete 

with pumps $19,779.40 

Turbine foundations 2,221.76 

300-gal.-per-min. Westinghouse centrifugal boiler-feed 

pump 1,545.00 

Connecting turbine and condenser 472.86 

Galvanized-iron air duct for turbine 236.00 

Type C duplex piston automatic pump and receiver ....... 125.40 

Miscellaneous items, completed December, 1914 973.43 

1 5-in. and 2 6-in. Edwards check valves 318.68 

Installation of above 114.30 

New superheater for 240-hp. Stirling boiler 675.00 

Piping, covering and brickwork for above 228.69 

Freight, teaming, insurance and miscellaneous 111.94 

2 500-hp. Bigelow-Hornsby water-tube boilers 9,000.00 

Masonry in connection with above 1,316.94 

Foundations 4,206.67 

2 Foster superheaters 2,900.00 

2 feed-water controllers 160.00 

Labor Fitchburg company's force 418,19 

Pipe covering 167.95 

Miscellaneous 1,073.59 

Labor and material installing floor grates 57.57 

(Note. — Total additions to boilers, $20,782.34). 

2 Taylor stokers, grates, fans, engine and driving mechan- 
ism 9,785.00 

Foundations for above (paid contractor) 704.13 

Crushed stone, sand, etc., for foundation 165.00 

Steel for coal hoppers 329.41 

Labor for coal hoppers 157.20 

Shafting, hangers, chains, etc 301.00 

5-in. by 5-in. vertical stoker engine 248.00 

Labor, Fitchburg company's force 592.49 

Other items 711.87 

4 sheet-steel boxes for stokers in ash pit 48.00 

Labor and material installing above boxes 30.33 

(Note. — Total additions on account of stoker cost, $13,072.43) 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 843 

4-in. type M. Venturi registering and indicating feed-water 

meter 465.00 

Freight, teanriing and installation of above. , 46.02 

Piping installation, in connection with station increase. . . 16,028.66 

Coal-handling apparatus , 4,967.10 

1000-hp Whitlock feed-water heater 575.00 

Sturtevant economizer installation for additional capacity 

of plant 12,423.14 

5-hp. motor and wiring for above 73.75 

3125-kva. 60-cycle, 3-phase, 2300 -volt generator 9.879.60 

Other labor and material 571.92 

3 sheet-steel guards for generator flywheels (old units) . 60.00 
75-kw. motor-generator exciter set, 115-hp. 220-volt mo- 
tor 1.758.00 

2 2500-volt aluminum lightning arresters 234.00 

6 300-amp. 250-volt single-pole switches 29.70 

The total cost of the complete improvements outlined is not ob- 
tainable by adding items segregated herewith, since the data pre- 
sented includes merely items of broad interest. 

Plant Extensions at Amesbury, Mass. The following is taken 
from Electrical World, Sept. 13, 1913. The Amesbury Electric 
Light Company in increasing the capacity of its generating plant 
by the addition of a 1000-kw. steam-turbine unit with the necessary 
boiler capacity, condensing equipment and auxiliary apparatus, 
estimated the cost of the new work, based on bids received and 
previous experience in the enlargement of the plant, as follows : 



ESTIMATED COST OF ENLARGING STATION AT AMESBURY, 
MASS., 1913, BY 1000 KW. 

Extension of power plant building % 9,122 

Kellogg radial brick stack; height, 150 ft. ; diam. at top, 6 ft. 3,585 

Stack foundation 840 

Piling, excavation, etc 400 

Turbine foundation, 10 ft. by 20 ft. by 14 ft 1.200 

Boiler foundation. 19 ft. by 26 ft. by 11 ft 1,300 

Excavation for .suction piping, 2000 cu. yds. at 50 cts. ...... 1.000 

2 400-hp. water-tube boilers, Babcock & Wilcox 9.781 

Brickwork . 1,500 

2 superheaters 2,214 

2 Taylor stokers 6,150 

Boiler flue , 800 

Coal-handling cars and track 1,200 

1000-kw. horizontal Curtis turbine, 60 cycles, 2300 volts. ... 13,200 
Westinghouse Le Blanc No. 8 condenser, capacity 20,500 lbs. 

steam per hr. 28 in. vacuum turbo pumps, 70 degs. water 3,225 

Piping 3,000 

Feed pumps, heater, etc. 800 

Pipe covering 1,000 

Turbo-alternator switchboard 500 

Erecting and wiring board and turbine 500 

Incidentals, 10% 6.132 

Total $67,449 

Cost of Control Apparatus for 19,000-voit Power Station. Elec- 
trical World, July 17, 1915, gives the following cost of switches, 
lightning arresters and other apparatus in the Vernon power- 
station end of the "Vernon Station-Massachusetts line as follWs: 



844 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

2 150 -amp.. 70,000-volt, triple-pole, single-lhrow, sole-noid- 

operated oil Kwiiches. complete $ 2,093.00 

12 100-amp. disconnecting switches, complete 408.30 

6 300-amp., 70,000-volt disconnecting switches, at $27.90. 167.40 

2 70,000-volt aluminum lightning- arresters, complete with 

supports, tanks, fittings,* etc.. at $765 1.530.00 

1 20,000-volt aluminum cell lightning arrester 360.00 

3 single-pole, time-limit series relays, with switches, op- 

erating rods, bases and insulators, at $60 180.00 

6 single-pole, time-limit 100-amp.. 22.000-volt disconnect- 
ing switches with 10 -in, base 81.00 

Steel frame for extending monitor, 48 ft and one 24 ft 440.00 

Structural steel for 2 roof frames, 4 stubs and 6 brackets 222.00 

3 300-amp., 70,000-volt disconnecting switches, at $34.20. 102.60 

2 600-volt, dc. aluminum lightning arresters for tele- 

phone system, at $9 . 18.00 

3 type H 60-oycle, 5000 -watt, 2400/240-volt secondary 

transformers, form K , 195.52 

Set cores and coils , 27.00 

3 single-pole, single- throw, 100-amp., 22,000-volt discon- 
necting switches . 18.00 

15 knife switches, 3% ins. wide 40.30 

Insulators, pins and supports 463.29 

Pipe and pipe fittings 619.50 

Miscellaneous switching apparatus 162.00 

Tools, etc 389.60 

Hardware 188.48 

Miscellaneous materials, oil drums, etc 201.30" 

Transportation of material 370.72 

Labor and expenses 3,229.09 

Total $11,507.10 

Cost per Pound of Electrical Machinery. lieonard A. Doggett in 
Electrical World, Oct. 2, 1915. gives the figures below based upon 
data collected from various sources. 

It is a well-known fact that a 1-h.p. motor having a rated speed 
of 2000 rev. per min. is much cheaper than, and about .5 as heavy 
as, a 1-h.p. motor having a rated speed of 1000 rev. per min. 
Therefore, the rational way to tabulate either cost or weight data 
is in terms, not of dollars or lbs per kw., but of dollars or pounds 
versus kilowatts divided by speed. The term (kw.-^rev. per min.) 
is really torque, and of any machine it can be said that the greater 
the torque the greater the necessary size, weight and cost. There- 
fore, in this paper the independent variable is taken as (kw. -^ 
rev. per min. ) . In Figs. 13 and 14 the accumulated data are plotted, 

TABLE XXXV. COSTS AND WEIGHTS OF ELECTRICAL 
MACHINERY 

Kw. -7- rev. per min. 
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 

85 280 1,150 5.500 

100 260 850 3,500 

1,200 4,600 16,000 

37,000 136,000 

Compound .... 6,000 17,700 

Compound 1,600 4,900 

Simple 3.200 13,500 

Simple 680 2,530 



Name of machine 
Direct-current gener- 
ators and motors.. 

Induction motors 

Alternators 


New or 
second- 
hand 

New 
New 
New 


Turbo-alternators . . . 
Low-speed engines... 
High-speed engines. . . 
Low;-speed engines... 
High-speed engines... 


New 
New 
New 
New 
New 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



845 



Name of machine 



COSTS IN DOLLARS 

New or 

second- Kw. -f 

hand 0.001 0.01 



Direct-current gener- 
ators and motors. . Second hand 

Induction motors. . . . Second-hand 

Alternators Second-hand 

Engine-driven direct 
current and alternat- 
ing-current gener- 
ators Second-hand 



40 
45 



120 
170 
140 



rev. per min. 
0.1 1.0 



450 
550 
450 



1,600 
2,500 
2,200 



10.0 



8,000 



200 700 3,000 13,000 



WEIGHT IN POUNDS 

Direct-current gener- 
ators and motors 130 810 4,200 22,000 110,000 

Induction motors 80 510 2,800 15,000 81,000 

Alternators 130 810 4,200 20.000 90.000 

Turbo-alternators 170,000 640,000 

Low-.speed engines 2,400 19.000 140,000 

High-speed engines 4,500 31,000 

Engine-driven direct 
current and alternat- 
ing-current gener- 
ators 1,400 8,000 50,000 250,000 

CENTS PER POUND 

Direct-current gener- 
ators and motors.. New 65 35 27 25 

Induction motors.... New 125 51 30 23 

Alternators New 29 23 18 

Turbo-alternators . . . New 22 21 

Low-speed engines... New Compound ... 28 11 

Ifigh-si)eed engines... New Compound 36 15 

Low-speed engines.... New Simple ... 17 9 

High-peed engines.... New Simple 15 8 

Direct-current gener- 
ators and motors. . Second-hand 31 15 11 7 

Induction motors Second-hand 56 33 20 17 

Alternators Second-hand . . 17 11 11 9 

Engine -driven direct- 
current and alter- 
nating-current gen- 
erators Second-hand . . 14 9 6 5 



In using Pigs, 13 and 14 it should be remembered in the case of 
new machinery that these figures represent standard or stock ma- 
chines, and that machines with unusual specifications will lie 
above any data there plotted. 

In gathering and plotting the information interesting facts de- 
veloped, many of which could be explained. For example, cost 
figures on Edison bipolars, Stanley inductor alternators and 133- 
cycle alternators, if they had been plotted, would always have 
fallen below the general trend of the plotted points. That is, obso- 
lete types of machines lie between the curve for second-hand ma- 
chines and the scrap value of the machine. In Fig. 13 are plotted 
some data on new 1-hr. rating series motors, these points being 
represented by #. As would be expected, these i>oints lie between 
the points for new and those for second-hand direct-current 
machines. 



846 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It is interesting' to note that the average cost of all the new 
machinery tabulated is 32 cts. per lb., and of the second-hand ma- 
chinery 17 cts. per lb. 

iVliscellaneous Central-Station Construction-Cost Data. Electri- 
cal World. Sept. 27, 1913. In connection with the completion of 



R.PH R.PI1 R.pri 

qOOl 0.00? Q0Q3 O.005 0007 0.01 0.0^ a03 0.05 QQ7 0.!' 0.2 Q3 0.5 0.7 1.0. 



.10,000 
7,000 
5,000 

3,000 
2,000 

III I,O0Q 

B 700' 

.o 500 
o 

300 

200 



100 

'to 

5Cb 
30 
20 



10 



\o^ 



^<U 



t^m 






.^^ 



w 



5;^ 



i^ 



w 



^ 



-^^ 



^r 



X New 



9- Second pdnt 



•lorn Q003 0.0050007001 002003 005 O.OI 0.1 






One TlouKf?gfh 



7000 

3000 
2000 



1000 
700 
500 2 

300 Q 

200 o 
o 

100 
70 
50 

30 
20 



1.0 



Kyy. 

RP.n 



Kw 
R.P.M 



Fig. 13. Charts plotting cost data for electrical machinery. 



recent improvements in the plants and systems of several of the 
Tenney central-station companies in Massachusetts, the following 
cost data have been obtained. The companies drawn upon are the 
Haverhill Electric Company, Maiden Electric Company, Fitchburg 
Gas & Electric Company and Suburban Gas & Electric Company 
of Revei'e. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



847 



Kw. 

RPM 

aOI 0.02 003 QOFi 



20,000 

tO,0()0 
7»000 
5,000 

3,000 
2,000 

1,000 
700 
500 

300 
200 



QOI 



Kw. 

RP.n 

C? 03 0.5 m 1.0 









= 

















' 







































































'T — 




.... 








=^ 


#f 






-. .. 








_^^:_r^i 














^^Jb^L 












-K^ 




° :! 








-^^€- 




a 


% , 




7 * 


--- 






■-' — 





1 \e\ 




*■« 








--■- .<>^ 


[^^-.frt 






.. . [ 






te^V^ 


•^ 


«v 










V'' 








. 








1 


! 


> < 

,o 












o 


zz 


n '-' "" L 












* o 














1 


!> ^ (I Q 






















xyl/£ 


lY 














'^ Second fiand 





'aOI 0.02 0.03 
Kw 
RP.M 



0.01 0.2 03 
Kw 
Rf.M 



07 |.( 



10,000 
7,000 
5,000 

3,000 jO 
2,000 % 



1,000 

700 

500 



2 3 5 7 10.0 
Krf 
R.P.I1. 



Fig. 14. Charts plotting- cost data for electrical machinery. 

Sea Wall for Haverhill Station, on Merrimac River. 

Granite wall, rough cut stone, backfilled with earth 
filling; length, 410 ft; width, 14 ft to 18 ft; height, 
25 ft; area, 6329 sq ft. Cost of material and labor, 
$17,500; miscellaneous, $1,215; total $18,715.00 

Stock House Vaults Haverhill. 

Built of brick, two stories, 8 ft by 10 ft inside dimen- 
sions, 8-in outer wall, 2-in air space and 8-in inner 
wall. Cost, $580 ; doors, wiring, shelves, etc., $350.- 
08 ; total co.st 930.08 

New Generating Unit, Haverhill. 

One 25-kw steam turbine arranged for direct connec- 
tion and mounted on common bedplate, including one 
No. 16 "Westinghouse LeBlanc condenser and elec- 
tric generator ; erected complete, Westinghouse 
Machine Company 31,639.00 



848 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Miscellaneous Steam and Electric Plant Equipment, Hav- 
erhill. 

One 9-in. by 12-in. by 10-in. duplex piston-pattern 
pump, brass-lined pump cylinders, Tobin bronze 
piston rods, composition pump pistons, brass valve 
seats, medium-hard rubber valves for cold water and 
high lift c 

P'oundation, pipe connections, etc = 

One Sarco (X)^ recorder 

One 6'ft. by 2iy2-ft. Scannell return tubular boiler re- 
moved from service; first cost complete, erected.,.. 

Ont! ;U25-kva., 60-cycle, 3-phase, 2300-volt Westing- 
house turbo-generator 

Switchboard apparatus 

Cable 

Air duct 

4 60-lamp, 60-cycle, 220-volt, 2.75-amp. air-cooled, 
constant-current transformers 

4 series arc oil switches, 9E, type F, form 2, 2.10 
amp., 1 200 volts 

10 25 ft. ornamental arc-lamp poles ($38 each) 

68 30 -ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved, at 

$5.56 

140 35 ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved at $7.55 
19 40-ft. chestnut poles, painted and shaved at $8.75. 

1 50-ft. chestnut pole, painted and shaved 

1 60-ft. chestnut pole, painted and shaved 

15,820 ft. (6252 lb.) No. 0, triple-braided, weather- 
proof, solid wire, at 14.2 cts. per lb 

1 30-in. Lumsden & Van Stone steam-exhaust head.. 
1 16-in. Standard twin strainer. No. 684 

Transformers, All 60-Cycle Equipment. 

19 1-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-nO-volt second- 
ary, single phase, each 

8 IVa-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-llO-volt second- 
ary, single-phase, each 

27 2y2-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary. 220-110-volt second- 
ary, single-phase, each 

30 5-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-110-volt second- 
ary, single-phase, each 

6 7V2-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 220-volt secondary, 
single-phase, each 

6 10-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
single-phase, each 

3 15-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
single-phase, each 

1 20-kw., 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
single-phase, each , 

3 25-kw. 2200-kw.-1100-volt primary, 575-volt second- 
ary, single-phase, each 

6 30-kw., 2200-1100 volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
single-phase, each , 

3 50-kw. 2200-1100-volt primary, 575-volt secondary, 
single -ijhase, each 

1 50-kw.. 2200-1100-volt primary. 220-volt secondary, 
single-phase, subway type, each 

Meters. 

67 5-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
546 10-amp,. 110-volt F^ort Wayne type " K3." each.. 

5 15-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 
33, 25 -amp., 110-volt P^ort Wayne type " K3," each... 
21 50-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 

1 300 -amp.. 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each... 

2 400-amp., 110-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each. . . 



405.00 
401.39 
326.80 

2,607.30 

9,227.87 
955.38 
248.52 
408.80 

1,040.00 

224.00 
380.00 

377.86 

1,054.14 

166.80 

10.50 

18.75 

889.22 
189.00 
428.63 



17.06 

23.13 

30 68 

49.43 

65.17 

80.95 

110.67 

137.14 

$172.86 

183,82 

252.70 

310.88 



$9.28 
10.06 
13.00 
13.00 
18 68 
27.00 
27.40 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 849 

20 5-amp., 550-volt, Fort Wayne type " K3," each 27.40 

16 10-amp., 550-voIt P'ort Wayne type " K3," each 33.83 

3 15-amp, 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 34.80 

13 25-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 35.84 

6 50-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each.... 39.60 

1 150-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each.... 66.26 

1 200-amp., 550-volt Fort Wayne type " K3," each 51.60 

9 15-atnp., Wright demand meters, each 5.78 

6 75-amp., Wright demand meters, each 7.80 

Power-Plant Equipment, Fitchhurg. 

5 6-in. G. E. steam-flow meters, type " Ts 2," 200 lbs., 

at $48 each $240.00 

Labor of installing above 24.19 

Pipe, fittings and material 31 77 

Total ($59.19 per meter) $295.96 

3 2-ln. Squires feed water regulators, at $90 each.... $270.00 

Labor of installation 44.38 

Miscellaneous material, gate valves, pipe, etc 38.37 

Total ($117.58 per regulator) $352.75 

2 Murphy automatic smokeless furnaces $2,86800 

Installation of above 212.21 

1 5-hp. 50-volt motor ; 190.25 

Miscellaneous material and labor, oil pan, steel spur, 

etc 52.28 

Total ($1,661.37 per stoker) $3,322.74 

1 13-ft. by 5-ft. straight-blade Sturtevant exhaust fan 

with engine $7,220.00 

Piping for above 664.74 

Labor and material 1.782.83 

Total cost of fan installed $9,667.57 

1 Sturtevant economizer, 360 tubes, 10 ft. long. Total 

heating surface, 4903 sq. ft $5,240.00 

Foundation 4 50.00 

1 5-hp. motor, including labor '262.00 

Miscellaneous material, including pipe, fittings, etc.... 1,418.94 

Total ($1.50 per sq. ft. heating space) $7,370.94 

Ornamental Street-Lighting Fixtures, Fitchhurg. 

93 fixtures, each equipped with 4 60-cp, 6:6-amp 
series incandescent lamps, connected to under- 
ground arc system through 1-to-l transformers 

and mounted on local street-railway feeder poles $1,860.00 

Labor of installation 1,088.67 

Cable and wire 1,838.61 

Miscellaneous material, cross-arms, cut-outs, pipes, etc. 1,419.58 

Total ($66.50 per fixture) $6,206.86 

Maiden Plant Equipment. 

1 steel structure, forced -draft cooling tower, 2000-kw. 

capacity, complete with foundations $14,531.47 

1 Parsons ash ejector, installed, with 16-ton ash tank 2,173.22 

4 Kibbs safety feed-water regulators with 2V2-in. valve 340.00 

Cost of installing above regulators 103.95 

1 5-amp., 3-phase. 115-volt , wattmeter 56.60 

1 3-phase G. E. electrostatic ground detector 115.51 

3 500-kw., indoor-type, oil-cooled 13,200-volt trans- 

formers 4,325.00 

1 15,000-volt aluminum lightning arrester 477.75 

400-ft. 400,000-cir. mil. flame-proof cable for 5000 volts 158.70 



850 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Maiden Underground Construction Costs, 

27,395 ft. 2y2-in. fiber conduit $923.67 

100,830 ft. 3y2-in. fiber conduit 4,394.21 

Cost of installing- above by contract 48,297.06 

Total cost of conduit $53,614.94 

Line to Revere. 

26,896 ft. No. 00, 3-conductor cable for 17,000 volts $28,040.80 

Installation, contract at 4.5 cts, per ft 1,210.32 

Total cost to Revere line $29,241.12 

Cable Installation in Maiden. 

22,721.5 ft. No. 00 cable $12,240.31 

31,497.5 ft. No. cable 16,294.42 

93,519 ft. No. 6 cable 17,095.27 

Cost of drawing in above 147.768 ft. cable 3,859.44 

25 G. & W. potheads 709.82 

Labor, company's employees 519.20 

Miscellaneous items, freight, tape, asbestos cloth, etc.. 5,283.46 

Total $56,001.92 

Liability insurance, miscellaneous materials, labor of 

employees, etc., on general work 3,865.30 

Total additions to underground system 142,723.28 

Miscellaneous Items, Maiden System. 

Driving- 106 ft. 2.5-in. galvanized-iron pipe for cable 

grounding, at contract rate of $1.75 per ft $189.14 

Company labor and material, including cost of pipe.. 85.12 

Total $274.26 

Revere, Miscellaneous Costs. 

One 6 8 -ft. by 5 8 -ft. one-story cement and brick, steel- 
trussed garage: building, $5,300; trusses, $566; mis- 
cellaneous, $1,413.03 (including labor, $348.91) $7,279.03 

(Included in above one 40-gal. chemical extinguisher on 

wheels, $144). 

40,000 ft. duct; 3yo-in-lVi> in. socket joint conduit.... 1,895.25 

Thirty manholes 572.50 

Nineteen 500 watt sign-lighting transformers, at $10.67 

each 202.67 



TABLE XXXVI. ARRESTERS, LIGHTNING 



DIRECT CURRENT STATION TYPE 

Voltage Weight, lb. 

0-350 2% 

350- 750 4y2 

750-1300 11% 

1300-1500 Iiy2 

1500-1800 Iiy2 

0-4000 a 6% 

4000-6000 a 20 

: arc. circuits, 

ALTERNATING CURRENT STATION TYPE 

Voltage Weight, lb. 

0- 350 2% 

350- 1200 4% 

1200- 2500 6% 



Price 

$3.20 
3.50 
7.00 
8.00 
8.50 
4.40 

11.00 



Price 

$3.20 
3.50 
4.40 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



851 



"Voltage Weight, lb. 

2500- 3500 11 y> 

3500- 5000 26 Vo 

5000- r,600 41 ■ 

6600- 7500 46 

7500- 8500 58 

8500-10000 71 

12500-15000 106 

15000-17500 123 

17500-20000 ^ 140 

FOR THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 

Voltages Weight, lb. 

5700- 7600 353 

7600-11250 465 

11250-13500 , 550 

13500-17000 650 

17000-22000 805 

22000-27000 980 

27000-32000 1245 

32000-37000 1430 

FOR SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS 

Voltages Weight, lb. 

5700- 7600 265 

7600-11250 350 

11250-13500 415 

13500-17000 490 



Price 
5.00 
11.00 
11.50 
18.20 
19.55 
24.30 
36.95 
44.50 
50.00 



Price 
$85.00 
137.00 
172.50 
210.00 
250.00 
330.00 
420.00 
500.00 



Price 
$60.00 

92.50 
115.00 
147.50 



TABLE XXXVTI. DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS AND 
PERFORMANCE OF EDISON CELLS 



RATED 







Over-all di- 


Weight 




Rated 




0) 






mensions of 


in lb. 


i-'' 


capacity 




ho 








cell, in. 






b '^ rt 


A 


1 




Sh © 






-m 


B^'a 




' 




'' 


-^Vn^ 






A 

^ 




I 


% 
o 

o 






A u 


m 

rt c 






^ 




41s 


l«« 


1- 


r- 


$a& 


< 


B- 


2 


1.5 


5.1 


8.8 


4.6 


5.5 


8 


40 


48 


10.4 


9.6 


_ 


4 


2.6 


5.1 


8.8 


7.4 


8.7 


16 


80 


96 


13.0 


19.2 


— 


6 


3.8 


5.1 


8.8 


11.0 


12.0 


22.5 


112.5 


135 


13.7 


27 


A- 


4 


2.7 


5.1 


13.4 


13.3 


14.5 


30 


150 


180 


13.3 


36 


_ 


5 


3.2 


5.1 


13.4 


16.8 


18.5 


37.5 


1S7.5 


225 


13.4 


45 


_ 


6 


3.8 


5.1 


13.4 


19.0 


21.0 


45 


225 


270 


14.1 


54 


_ 


8 


5.0 


5.3 


14.0 


27.0 


30.0 


60 


300 


360 


13.1 


72 


-10 


6.2 


5.5 


14.0 


34.0 


37.5 


75 


375 


450 


13.2 


90 




12 


7.4 


5.5 


14.6 


41.0 


45.0 


90 


450 


540 


13.2 


108 



Table XXXVII is from the American Handbook for Electrical 
Engineers. 

The Edison Storage battery, best-known of the alkaline types, 
was first used commercially in 1904. The elements consi.st of 
nickel hydroxide for the active material of the positive plate and 
iron for the active material of the negative plate. Dilute potas- 
sium hydrate solution is used as the electrolyte. 



852 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Edison cells complete including- trays, etc., is approxi- 
mately $1.00 per pound. 

Storage Batteries For Isolated Lighting Plants. For 110 volt 
lamps, 62 cells will usually be found satisfactory if the battery is 
not too far from the center of distribution of the lights. With this 
number of cells, the voltage may fall one or two volts below 110 at 
the end of a complete discharge at the normal (8 hr.) rate, or a 
little lower at higher rates of discharge ; but on the few occasions 
when a complete discharge is required, this final drop of pressure 
will not, ordinarily, be objectionable. If the requirements are still 
less exacting, 60 cells might prove satisfactory. If no drop in 
voltage is permissible, 64 cells would be necessary for 110 volt 
lamps, or even a greater number if the drop in voltage in the 
wiring is appreciable. 

The amp.-hr. capacity of a battery decreases as the rate of 
discharge increases. The " normal " rate of discharge is the 8 hr. 
rate ; the " normal " capacity is the amp. hrs. obtained at the 
" normal " or 8 hr. rate of discharge. At rates of discharge greater 
than the normal or 8 hr. rate, the capacity of a battery in amp. -hrs. 
is, therefore, somewhat less than the normal capacity, this reduc- 
tion in capacity being practically the same, whether the entire 
discharge has been effected at the higher rate or the rate is in- 
creased after a partial discharge at lower rate. Thus, if a battery 
has a capacity of 5 amps, for 8 hrs., or 40 amp. -hrs., it can dis- 
charge at the rate of 10 amps, for only 3 hrs., or 30 amp. -hrs. ; and 
if, after full charge it be discharged at the rate of 5 amps, for 4 
hrs., or 20 amp. -hrs., and the rate of discharge be then increased to 
10 amps., it will give this output for 1 hr. longer, thus giving a 
total of only 30 amp. -hrs., whereas, if the rate had not been in- 
creased, the discharge could have been continued at 5 amps, for 
4 hrs. longer. 

The final voltage at the end of discharge at the 8 hr. rate is 
about 1.75 volts per cell. At the 3 hr. discharge rate, the voltage 
will fall to about 1.7 per cell, while during charge the voltage 
rises from about 2.15 per cell at the beginning to about 2.6 at the 
end. 

TABLE XXXVIII. COST OF STORAGE BATTERIES 

(60 cells, 110 volts, parallel charge, series discharge and resistance 
regulation for 8-hr. discharge) 

Capacity, amp. Shipping weight, lb. Price complete • 

2.5 2,100 $ 175 

5.8 3,300 265 

7.5 4,300 345 

10 5,300 416 

12.5 6,200 480 

15 6,200 500 

20 7,700 600 

25 9,800 760 

30 ,.., 10,800 900 

35 12,500 1,100 

40 ■ 18,700 1,280 

50 20,200 1,560 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 853 

Capacity, amp. Shipping weight, lb. Price complete * 

60 24,000 1,800 

70 27,300 2,100 

80 34,000 2,400 

90 39,000 2,750 

100 41,000 3,000 

* The above prices include the following material to make up bat- 
tery complete. 

60 elements. 
62 glass jars. 
60 sand trays. 
70 bolt connectors. 
245 glass insulators. 
62 glass covers. 

Necessary electrolyte. 

3 Hydrometers. 

1 set cell numbers. 

1 pair socket wrenches. 

1 low-reading voltmeter. 
18 terminal lugs. 

1 set stringers. 

Bus Bar Copper can be obtained in a great variety of sections to 
fulfill the requirements of the station. Varying from a strap, .05 
by .5 in., which on a basis of 1,000 amps, per sq. in. cross section 
would have a capacity of about 25 amps., to large bars 1 by 3 ins, 
or larger. 

In ordering bus bar copper, 6 ft. is considered the standard length 
for strips thinner than .09375 in. ; 12 ft. for all other. 

The following prices are based on such standards, and the price 
of 15 cts. per lb. for bar copper base. For orders of less than 
10 lbs. the price for bus bars is 33 cts. per lb., with a differential 
for finished bus bars of 2.5 cts. per lb. for each cent increase or 
decrease, above or below the 15 ct. base price. 

In orders of from 10 to 50. lbs. the price of bus bar is 27.5 cts. 
per lb. with a 2.25 ct, differential for each cent variation in price 
of base copper. 

Bus Bar Aluminum. The average price of stranded aluminum 
wire f. o. b. factory for the three years ending June 30, 1915, 
was 25.7 cents, to which should be added 5 cents for installing, 
giving a price in place of 30.8 cents. 

Aluminum Wire. Average price per pound of bare aluminum 
cable f. o. b. factor for 3 year period immediately preceding the 
war was 26 cents per pound. The price for weatherproof cable 
was 20 cents. 

Average Price of Ingot Copper. These prices of Lake copper 
from 1885 to 1898 inclusive and electrolytic copper from 1899 to 
1914 inclusive, are quoted from Mineral Industry. 

TABLE XXXIX. AVERAGE PRICE OF INGOT COPPER 

One-year 8-yr. 16-yr. 

Year average average average 

1885 11.12 

1886 11.00 

1887 11.25 

1888 16.66 13.00 



8-yr. 


16-yr. 


average 


average 


12.94 




12.76 


.... 


12.70 




11.87 


12.63 


11.67 


12.84 


11.20 


12.98 


11.58 


13.10 


12.26 


12.86 


12.93 


12.98 


13.19 


13.20 


13.50 


13.65 


13.75 


13.75 


14.28 


13.89 


15.19 


14.09 


15.61 


14.18 


15.23 


14.54 


14.84 


14.78 


14.98 


14.88 


14.87 




15.32 




15.28 




14.57 


.... 



854 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

One-year 

Year average 

1889 13.75 

1890 15.75 

1891 12.87 

1892 11.30 

1893 10.78 

1894 9.56 

1895 10.76 

1896 10.88 

1897 11.29 

1898 12.03 

1899 16.67 

1900 16.18 

1901 16.11 

1902 11.63 

1903 13.24 

1904 12.82 

1905 15.59 

1906 19.28 

1907 » 20.00 

1908 13.21 

1909 12.88 

1910 12.74 

1911 12.38 

1912 15.34 

1913 15.27 

1914 13.60 

TABLE XL. COST OF CHOKE COILS FOR CIRCUITS 

Capacity, amp. "Weight, lb. Price 

10 4 $ 1.80 

20 4 2.40 

30 4 2.88 

40 4 3.35 

50 9.25 4.00 

100 9.25 4.25 

125 9.25 4.50 

175 16.25 5.00 

225 , 16.25 5.25 

260 , 16.25 5.50 

50 8.5 4.95 

125 8.5 5.50 

160 11.0 5.75 

200 11.5 5.95 

250 , 12.25 6.05 

325 15.5 6.60 

400 18,75 9.35 

500 21.25 13.25 

600 33.75 14.85 

800 37.75 17.60 

1000 48.75 24.75 

1200 65.5 27.50 

1500 72. 33.55 

1600 89.75 37.40 

2000 102. 52.80 

TABLE XLI. COST OF MOTOR-DRIVEN EXCITERS 

Price 
Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 

1800 REV. PER MIN. 

2.5 630 $ 220 

5 1,130 365 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 855 



Size, kw. 

7 5 


Weight, lb. 
1,480 


Price 
f.o.b. factory 
460 


10 


1,800 


535 


15 


. , 2 350 


675 


20 


2,850 


800 


25 


3,300 


900 


50 


, 6 950 


1,650 


2.5 


1200 REV. PER MIN. 

930 


$ 310 
460 


5 


1 480 


7 5 


1,940 


575 


10 


2,350 


675 


15 


3 050 


850 


20 


3.700 


990 


25 


4,300 


1,120 


50 


6 850 


1,650 

% 900 
1,120 


10 


720 REV. PER MIN. 

3,300 


15 


4,300 


20 


5,200 


1,325 


25 


6,000 


1,500 


50 . . 


9,600 


2 100 


75 

100 


12,300 

15,000 


2,450 
2,700 



TABLE XLII. COST OF MOTOR-GENERATOR SETS 

1200 REV. PER MIN. 

Price 
Size, kw. Weig-ht, lb. f.o.b. factory 

100 11,000 $2,000 

125 13,000 2,300 

150 14.500 2.550 

200 17,500 3,050 

720 REV. PER MIN. 

200 25,000 $4,200 

250 29,500 4,900 

300 33,400 5,500 

350 37,000 6,000 

400 40,800 6,500 

450 44,200 7,000 

500 47,500 7,400 

500 REV. PER MIN. 

200 32,500 $5,300 

250 38,000 6,100 

300 43,000 6,800 

350 48,000 7,500 

400 52.500 . 8,200 

450 57,000 8.800 

500 61,500 9,400 

600 69,500 10,500 

700 77,500 11,500 

800 85,000 12.500 

900 92,000 13,500 

1,000 100,000 14,400 

360 REV. PER MIN. 

1,000 125,000 $17,800 

1,250 145,000 20,400 

1,500 163,000 22,800 



856 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Weights and Costs of Generators and Turbo-Generators. Tables 
XLIII and XLIV give weights and prices averaged from a mass of 
data which we have accumulated in our appraisal work. The 
prices and weights include the cost and weight of the necessary- 
exciter. There is a variation of about 25% both greater and less 
than the average in weights and prices of machines of intermediate 
sizes and a variation of about 35% both greater and less for ma- 
chines of the smaller and larger sizes listed. 

In general, belt-driven machines weigh and cost more than the 
direct-connected engine, or water-wheel-driven type. 

We have given the prices and weights for different sizes of alter- 
nators for various revolutions per minute without specifying the 
electrical characteristics, as it appears that the latter are of minor 
importance in determining the cost as compared with the speed. 

TABLE XLIII. COST OF DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS 

Price 
Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory 

100 REV. PER MIN. 

300 74,000 $8,900 

350 80,000 9,700 

400 84,000 10,300 

450 89,000 11,000 

500 91,000 11,500 

750 98,000 13,300 

1,000 111,000 14,500 

300 REV. PER MIN. 

5 1,830 $350 

7.5 2,450 445 

10 3,000 520 

15 4,050 660 

20 5,000 785 

25 5,850 900 

50 9,700 1,400 

75 13,000 1,840 

100 . . . 16,000 2,200 

150 21,500 2,875 -- 

200 28,300 3,450 

250 31,000 4,000 

300 35,500 4,500 

350 40,000 5,000 

400 44,000 5,450 

450 48,000 5,850 

500 51,500 6,250 

500 REV. PER MIN. 

1 400 115 

2 650 160 

3 860 195 

4 1,060 230 

5 1,250 260 

7.5 1.700 325 

10 2,100 390 

15 2,800 495 

20 3,450 580 

25 4,050 750 

50 6,600 1,000 

75 9,000 1,310 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 857 



ize, kw. 


Weight, lb. 


Price 
f.o.b. factory 


100 

150 

200 

250 


11,000 

15,000 

18,300 

21,500 


1,600 

2,100 

2,500 - 

2,860 

3,250 

3,600 

3,900 

4,200 

4.500 


300 

350 

400 


24,500 - 

, 27,400 

, 30,300 


450 

500 


33,000 

35,500 




1200 REV. PER MIN. 




1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 5... 


245 

360 

470 

570 

670 

. . . . 890 


$76 
105 
128 
145 
162 
200 


10 

15 

20 


1,100 

1,480 

, 1,820 


235 
295 
350 


25 

50 

75 

100 


2,140 

3,540 

4,750 

5,850 

1800 REV. PER MIN. 


400 
600 
760 
900 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 5 


210 

285 

360 

435 

500 

635 


$65 
90 
105 
120 
135 
160 


10 

15 

20 


820 

1,100 

1,350 


190 
235 
275 


25 

50 


1,580 

2,640 


315 

470 


75 


3,500 


600 


100 


4,400 


710 



TABLE XLIV. COST OF AI^TERNATING CURRENT 
GENERATORS 

Price 
Size, kw. Weight, lb. f.o.b. factory- 

ISO REV. PER MIN. 

500 54,500 $8,500 

750 72,000 10,400 

1,000 87,000 14,000 

1,500 124,000 18,600 

2,000 140,000 23,000 

2.500 163,000 26,800 

3,000 182,000 30,500 

3,500 203,000 34,000 

4,000 222,000 37,500 

4.500 240,000 41,000 

5,000 260,000 44,000 

360 REV. PER MIN. 

500 30,000 $4,600 

750 40,000 6,200 

1,000 48,000 7,500 

1,500 63,000 10.000 



858 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Size, kw. Weight, lb. 

2,000 77,000 

2,500 89,000 

3,000 102,000 

4,000 122,000 

5,000 143,000 

6,000 162,000 

7,000 180,000 

8,000 198,000 

9,000 212,000 

10,000 230,000 

12,500 265,000 

500 REV. PER MIN. 

100 13,000 

250 18,500 

500 25,000 

750 32,000 

1,000 38,500 

1.500 51.000 

2,000 62,000 

2,500 72.000 

3,000 81.000 

4,000 99.000 

5,000 114.000 

6,000 130,000 

7.000 144,000 

8,000 158,000 

9.000 170.000 

10,000 182,500 

800 REV. PER MIN. 

100 10,800 

150 12,600 

200 14.000 

250 15.300 

300 16,400 

400 18,300 

500 20,500 

750 24,300 

1,000 28,300 

1250 REV. PER MIN. 

100 9,200 

150 10,400 

200 11,900 

250 13,000 

300 13,900 

400 15,400 

500 16,900 

750 20,000 

1,000 22,500 



Price 
f.o.b. factory 
12,300 
14,400 
16,300 
20.100 
23.500 
26,600 
30.000 
33,000 
36.000 
38.500 
45,000 



$2,230 

2,900 

3,800 

4,850 

6,000 

8,000 

9,800 

11,500 

13,000 

16,000 

18,700 

21,200 

23,700 

26.000 

28,300 

30,500 



$2,000 
2,200 
2.360 
2,510 
2,650 
2,900 
3,110 
3.680 
4,300 



$1,800 
1,940 
2.110 
2,220 
2,340 
2,520 
2,700 
3,100 
3.440 



TABLE XLV. 



COST OF CONDENSING STEAM TURBO- 
GENERATORS 



OPERATING AT 750 REV. PER MIN. 

Size, kw. lb. (approx. ) 

5,000 355,000 

7.500 450,000 

10.000 530,000 

12,500 600.000 

15,000 675,000 



* Price 
f.o.b. factory 
$84,000 
109,000 
130,000 
150,000 
168,000 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



859 



OPERATING AT 1000' REV. PER MIN. 

Shipping- weight 

Size, kw. lb. ( approx. ) 

17,500 740,000 

20,000 800,000 

1,000 118,000 

1,500 150,000 

2,000 175,000 

2,500 200,000 

3,000 222,000 

3,500 244,000 

4,000 263,000 

4,500 282,000 

5,000 300,000 

7,500 380,000 

10,000 450,000 

12,500 510,000 

15,000 570,000 

OPERATING AT 1500 REV. PER MIN. 

250 49,000 

500 64,000 

750 79,000 

1,000 92,000 

1,500 118,000 

2,000 139,000 

2,500 158,000 

3,000 175,000 

3,500 194,000 

4,000 208,000 

4,500 222,000 

5,000 236,000 

7,500 300,000 

10,000 355,000 

12,500 405,000 

15,000 450,000 

OPERATING AT 2400 REV. PER MIN. 

1,000 72,000 

1,500 89,000 

2,000 105,000 

2,500 120,000 

3,000 134,000 

3,500 145,000 

4,000 157,000 

4,500 168,000 

5,000 179,000 

OPERATING AT 3600 REV. PER MIN. 

250 36,000 

500 48,000 

750 52,500 

1,000 59,000 

1,500 72,000 

2,000 84,000 

2,500 95,000 

3,000 105,000 

Price does not include condenser. 



* Price 
f.o.b. factory 

185,000 

200,000 

$25,700 

33,000 

40,000 

46.000 

51,000 

56,500 

61,000 

66,000 

70,000 

91,000 

109,000 

125,000 

140,000 



$11,400 
14,000 
17,100 
20,100 
25,700 
30.800 
35,000 
40,000 
43,500 
47,500 
51,000 
55,000 
70,000 
84,000 
97,000 

109.000 



$15,500 
19,500 
23,000 
26,400 
29,500 
32,500 
35,000 
38,000 
40,800 



$8,900 
10,800 
12,000 
13,000 
15,500 
18,200 
20,600 
23,000 



Cost of Generators. The following unit costs are from Bulletin 
5, Office of the State Engineer, Salem, Oregon, and are based upon 
estimates of several manufacturers of electrical machinery. 



860 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

COST OF 3-PHASE, 2300 VOLT, 60-CYCLE, HYDRAULlCALLr-DRl VEN 
GENERATORS 

Cost, per kw. 
Head, ft. output 

Under 40 $8.00 

40 to 80 7.00 

80 to 120 6.00 

120 . 5.00 

Exciter turbines and exciters will cost about $0.80 per kw. output 
of whole plant. 

Switchboard and accessories, cables, etc., per kw. output of the 
whole plant will cost about $2.25, 

Transformers, oil insulated and water cooled, 2,300 to 60,000 
volts will cost about $4 per kw. output, whole plant. 

Turbo -Generators. The following was abstracted from The Iso- 
lated Plant, October, 1909. 

APPROXIMATE] COSTS OF TURBINE SETS, INCLUDING 
DYNAMOS 

NON -CONDENSING 

kw. Speed Price, f.o.b shop 

50 2500-3000 $1900 to $2000 

75 1650-2500 2600— 2800 

100 „ 1650-2500 3300— 3400 

150 1650-2000 4500— 4700 

300 1250-1800 9000 

CONDENSING 

75 $3000 

300 9500 

Generators, Electric. A. A. Potter (Power. December 30, 1913) 
gives the following formulae of costs in dollars. 

Direct current (voltage 110-250), belted, up to 7 kw. (1400 to 2300 
rev. per min.) 21.1 + 28.5 x (kw.) 

Direct current (voltage 110-250), belted, 10 kw. to 300 kw. (600 
to 1400 rev. per min.) 10 X (kw.) — 9. 

Direct-connected up to 300 kw. (100 to 350 rev. per min.). 313.3 
-f- 10 93 X (kw.) 

Direct-connected 300 to 1000 kw. (moderate speed 12.08 X (kw.) 
— 383. 

Alternating-current, belted, up to 300 k.v.a. (600 to 1800 rev. per 
min.) 81 -+- 9.723 x (k.v.a.) 

Direct -connected, up to 300 k.v.a. (200 to 300 rev. per min.) 375 
+ 7.477 X (k.v.a.) 

Direct -connected, 250 to 2500 k.v.a. (100 to 250 rev. per min.) 
2413 -f 469 X (k.v.a) 

Instruments. The following prices of instruments are net. f.o.b. 
factory, prior to the war. 

AMMETERS 

Round Pattern Switchboard Type Ammeter, for direct current, 
especially designed for .switchboards on which an illuminated dial 
type is not desired. These instruments weigh about 15 Ib.s. apiece, 
with shipping weight of 22 lbs. and may be obtained in sizes rang- 
ing from to 1 amperes to 0-2500 amperes, with scale values of 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



861 



0.01 for the smallest size to 20 for the largest. The cost of these 
Instruments varies from $25.00 for the smallest instrument to 
$45.00 for the 2500 ampere size, there being an increase of from 
$.50 to $3.00 for each 100 ampere increase in range of instrument. 

Note. Ammeters are also made in considerably cheaper types 
to meet a demand for thoroughly serviceable and durable switch- 
board instruments, but where accuracy is not essential, and a low- 
price is of great importance. Such instruments cost from $12.00 
to $18.00 for sizes ranging from 1 to 500 amperes. 

Extra Large Illuminated Dial Instruments for Direct Current, for 
indicating the total output of large central stations, and for use 
on switchboards, controlling unusually large currents. 

Model A — Length of scale, 28 in.; length of pointer, 12 in. 
Model B — Length of scale, 38 in.; length of pointer, 18 in. 

These models are often found very desirable in connection with 
electro-chemical work, as their indications can be read with ease 
and accuracy at a considerable distance. 

Range in amperes Price, Model A Price, Model B 

1,000 $135 $165 

1.500 140 170 

2,000 143 174 

2.500 145 176 

3,000 146 178 

3.500 150 181 

4,000 155 190 

4,500 160 192 

5.000 167 200 

6,000 175 205 

7,000 180 212 

8,000 195 225 

10,000 207 238 

Illuminated Dial Station Ammeters, with shunts for direct current. 





Value of 


Price of 




Range in 


scale division 


instrument 


Price of 


amperes 


in amperes 


with shunt 


shunt alone 


200- 300 


2 


$72 


$3 


400- 750 


5 


73- 75 


3- 6 


1000- 1.500 


10 


76- 82 


7-13 


2000- 3,500 


20 


85- 9 2 


17-23 


4000 


30 


96 


27 


4500 


40 


103 


33 


5000-- 7.000 


50 


110-123 


40-54 


8000-10,000 


100 


136-150 


68-81 



VOLTMETERS 

Round Pattern Switchboard Tyj)e D. C. Voltmeters, designed for 
switchboards on which an illuminated dial type is not desired, in 
capacities ranging from 0-3 to 0-750 volts with value of each scale 
division varying from 0.02 to 5 volts, cost from $25.00 for the 
smaller sizes to $35 00 for the larger sizes, with a variation in 
price of about $1.00 to $2.00 for each 100 volt increase in size of 
voltmeter. 



862 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The weight of these instruments is 15 lbs. witli a shipping weight 
of 22 lbs. 

Note. Voltmeters are also made in considerably cheaper types 
to meet a demand for serviceable and durable switchboard instru- 
ments, but where extreme accui^acy is not essential, and a low 
price is of great importance. Such instruments cost from $12.00 to 
$18.00 for sizes ranging from 75 to 750 volts. 

Extra Large Illuminated Dial Voltmeters for Direct Current. 
For description see similar type under ammeters. 

Range in volts Price, Model A Price, Model B 

125 $120 $158 

150 125 158 

250 130 162 

300 130 162 

600 135 167 

750 140 171 

Illuminated Dial Station Voltmeters, for direct current. 

Value of each scale 

Volts division in volts Price 

125- 150 1 $68 

180- 300 2 69- 71 

600- 750 5 72- 73 

1000- 1.500 10 90-100 

2000- 2,500 20 108-117 

3000- 3,500 25 121-135 

4000- 5,000 50 144-162 

6000- 6,500 50 175-185 

7000- 7,500 50 190-198 

8000-10,000 100 210-250 

Recording Milli-voltmeters and Voltmeters for d.c. circuits are 
regularly made in two styles ; one using a frictionless ink recording 
device and the other a patented smoked chart upon which a record 
is made by a needle coming in contact with the surface. 

By the use of these instruments a continuous record is obtained, 
but due to the delicacy of the instruments and the extremely small 
potentials at which the millivoltmeters operate it is necessary to 
eliminate all friction between the tip of the pointer or recording 
arm and the surface of the chart to obtain an accurate record. In 
these instruments this is accomplished by bringing the recording 
arm into contact with the moving surface of the chart only periodi- 
cally, and between contacts it is left free to take its new position 
without friction. Standard instruments, except those in which the 
revolution of the chart is made in one hour's time, are equipped 
with 10-second vibrators ; special vibrators may be obtained, how- 
ever, recording every half second if required. 

The price of these instruments varies from $99 to $108 for in- 
struments using the smoked chart; $99 being the price for standard 
instruments making 12 and 24 hr. records; $108 is the price for 
standard instruments making 1 hr. record. These instruments may 
regularly be obtained for recording from -4-0-4 millivolts in 24 
hours up to capacities of 495-770 volts, and from -5-0-5 millivolts 
in 1 hour up to 375-675 volts. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 863 

Instruments using the frictionless recording device cost about 
$9 more each than those using the smoked charts. 

SYNCHROSCOPES 

Synchroscopes for determining whether a.c. generators are run- 
ning with the same frequency and are in phase, made for 100 to 
125 volts and any commercial frequency up to 150 cycles, cost about 
$60 each. 

WATTMETERS 

Polyphase Wattmeters, with characteristics similar to the single 
phase type for 100 to 150 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes with a 
scale reading from 1 kw. to 15 kws. cost $65 ; for 100 amperes, 
from 20 kws. to 30 kws. the cost is $70. 

For 200 to 300 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
reading from 2 kws. to 30 kws., the price Is $75 each ; for 100 
amperes, with a scale reading from 80 kws. to 120 kws. the price 
is $75 each. 

For 400 to 600 volts and from 5 to 50 amperes, with a scale read- 
ing from 4 kws. to 60 kws., the price is $75 each ; for 100 amperes, 
with a scale reading from 80 kws. to 120 kws. the price is $80 each. 

For 600 to 750 volts and from 5 to 50 ampere.s, with a scale read- 
ing from 5 kws. to 75 kws., the price is $80 each; and for 100 
amperes, with a scale reading from 100 kws. to 150 kws. the price 
is $85 each. 

Wattmeters for Single Phase A.C. or D.C. Circuits are back 
connected and designed for mounting upon switchboards. Meters 
for a voltage over 300 have external resistance boxes ; for ranges 
above 750 volts potential transformers are used ; for current ranges 
above 100 amperes, current transformers must be used. For use 
with current transformers the 5 -ampere range instrument is recom- 
mended. 

This type of wattmeter for voltages of from 100 to 150, and for 
an amperage of from 1 to 50, with the scale recording from 150 
watts to 7.5 kws. cost $45 each; for 100 to 150 volts at 100 
amperes, with scale reading from 10 to 15 kws.^ — $50 each. 

For 200 to 300 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
reading from 300 watts to 15 kws. the cost is $50 each. For 200 
to 300 volts at 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 20 to 30 
kws. the cost is $55 each. 

For 400 to 600 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale read- 
ing from 600 watts to 30 kws. these wattmeters cost $55 each. 

For 4 00 to 600 volts and 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 
40 to 60 kws., the cost is $60 each. 

For 600 to 750 volts and from 1 to 50 amperes, with a scale 
reading from 750 watts to 40 kws., the price is $60 each. 

For 600 to 750 volts and- 100 amperes, with a scale reading from 
50 to 75 kws., the price is $70 each. 

Recording Wattmeters may be obtained for either d.c. or a.c. 
circuits: 12, 8 and 6-in. charts for a.c, and 12 and 8-in. charts 
for d.c. 



864 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

These are designed to record electrical energy consumed during 
periods of from 1 hour to 7 days, and in quantities from a fraction 
of a kilowatt to many thousand kilowatts. 

D.C. Recording Wattmeters, 12~Inch Charts are made in sizes to 
record from to 90 kws. in 24 hrs. up to to 2500 kws. in 12 hrs. 



Volts 
600 to 750 
500 to 750 
240 to 750 
120 to 750 
250 to 500 
250 to 750 
500 
250 



-Capacity- 



Amperes 
120 to 150 
180 to 300 
400 to 600 
800 to 1200 
2.000 to 2400 
2,000 to 4000 
5.000 
10.000 



Price 
$87 
96 
105 
114 
123 
132 
240 
330 



Prices of DC. recording wattmeters, 8-inch charts, follow : 



Volts 
5--750 
5-500 
125-750 
125-750 
125-750 
125-750 
110-250 
250-500 



-Capacity- 



Amperes 
8- 80 
75- 150 
200- 400 
600 

800-1200 
2000-2500 
3.000-4.000 
5.000 



125-250 10,000 



Range of chart 

0-2.5 to 0- 50 

0- 15 to 0- 90 

0- 25 to 0- 300 

0- 75 to 0- 450 

0-100 toO- 900 

0-200 to 0-1500 

0- 350 to 0-1000 

0-1250 to 0-2500 

0-1250 to 2500 



Price 

$69 

78 

87 

95 

105 

114 

$123 

230 

320 



Recording Wattmeters with 8-in. charts for 3-wire, d c. system. 
The following instruments have chart ranges of from 0-200 to 
0-300 kws. 



, 




Capacity- 






Volts 






Amperes 


650- 


750 






120- 


150 


250 


■500 






200-- 


400 


250 








600 




125 








800- 


1200 



Price 

$155 

173 

190 

210 



Recording Wattmeters for Alternating Current are normally 
wound for 125 volts and 5 amperes. However, by using a proper 
combination of series and potential transformers, these meters can 
be used on cunents of practically every amperage and voltage and 
will record from 0-0 5 to 0-30.000 kw.s. 

For a.c. single phase and 2-phase, meters for 12-in. charts cost 
$88; for 8-in. charts $79; for 6-in. charts $61. 

Balanced 3-phase meters for 12-in. charts cost $102; for 8-in. 
charts $92. and for 6-in. charts $74. 

With unbalanced 3-phase circuits a special instrument has been 
developed which sells for $126. 



WATTHOTTR METERS 

Watthonr Meters for Alternating Current, 2- 
40 and 60 cycle. 



and 3-phase, 25, 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



8G5 



Size in Net price Net price Net price 

amperes 100 to 100 200 to 220 400 to 440 

volts volts volts 

3 : $19.00 $21.00 $30 00 . 

5 21.00 23.00 31.50 

10 24.00 26.00 34.50 

15 26.00 28.00 36.00 

20 27.00 29.25 37.00 

25 28.00 30.50 38.00 

30 29.00 31.50 39.00 

40 31.00 33.00 40.50 

50 32.00 35.00 41.50 

75 34.00 37.00 44.00 

100 36.00 39 00 45.00 

150 39.00 42.00 48.00 

200 41.00 45.00 50.00 

Watthour Meiers for Alternating Current, Single Pliase 40 to 133 
Cycle. 

Net price Net price Net price 

Size, 100 to 110 200 to 220 400 to 440 

amperes volts volts volts 

5 $6.50 $7.25 $7.75 

10 7.50 8.25 8.75 

15 8.75 9.50 10.00 

20 10.00 10.50 11.50 

25 ... 11.00 11.50 12.75 

30 11.75 12.50 13,50 

40 13.00 14.00 15.00 

50 . = 14.50 15.00 16.50 

75 16.50 17.50 19.00 

100 18.00 19.00 21.00 

150 20.00 21.50 23.00 

200 21.00 22.50 24.00 

300 21.00 23.00 25 00 

PANELS 

Panels for large size installations are usually made to order. The 
following costs of standard switchboard material may be found 
useful in estimating the cost of special panels. 

Angle Iron Frames made of 2 by 1.5 by .1875 in angle iron, given 
one coat of black paint and provided with angle iron support or 
cross connecting piece so that switchboard does not have to depend 
on bolts for support, cost about as follows. 



Size of panels Length of legs, in. 

18 by 48 24 

18 by 54 , 24 

18 by 60 18 

18 by 66 18 

18 by 72 12 

24 by 48 24 

24 by 54 24 

24 by 60 18 

24 by 66 18 

24 by 72 •. . 12 

36 by 48 24 

36 by 5 4 24 

36 by 60 18 

36 by 66 18 

36 by 72 12 

42 by 48 24 



Price 
$3.50 
3.80 
3.80 
3.95 
3.95 
3.70 
3.90 
3.90 
4.05 
4.10 
3.90 
4 05 
4 10 
4.1.0 
4 10 
4 00 



866 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Size of panels Length of legs, in. Price 

42 by 54 24 4.15 

42 by 60 „ 18 4.00 

42 by 66 ... 18 4.15 

42 by 72 12 4.15 

Channel Iron Base for these frames, 4 in., price per ft $0 50 

" *' " " " " 6 in., price per ft 1.10 

Wall Braces for supporting and stiffening panels. These are of 
two types. One made of .5 in. pipe with flange ; and the other is 
made of .5 in pipe with adjustable turn buckle. 

Prices are as follows: 

Iron pipe braces Adjustable braces 

(with flange) (with turn buckles) 

12 in $ .40 

18 in 60 $1.60 

24 in 75 1.80 

36 in 1.10 ^ 2.00 

48 in 1.45 2 25 

60 in 2.95 

Switchboard Bolts for holding marble or slate to frame. These 
bolts are complete with washers, bolts and polished copper capnut. 

Thickness of 
panel, in. Size, in. Price 

11/4 V2by2 $0.30 

11/2 1/2 by 2 14 0.35 

2 ¥2 by 2% 0.35 

Pilot Brackets including base sockets, 2.25 in. shade holders, 
wired and ready for mounting on switchboard. (Price does not 
include the shade.) 

One light $1 25 

Two light 2.20 

% pear porcelain green shade 0.50 

^2 pear tin shade 0.25 

Slate for Electrical Use. Black slate, oil finish. 



Thickness, 
in. 


1 to 3 
sq. ft. 


3 to 8 
sq. ft. 


8 to 1 2 
sq. ft. 


12 to 15 
sq. ft. 


15 to 20 
sq. ft. 


20 to 25 
sq. ft. 


1 or less 

1 to 1 V4 incl. . . 
1 V4 to 1 1/2 incl, 
IVa to 2 incl.. . 


$.60 
.62 
.68 
.79 


$.64 
.67 
.71 
.84 


$.77 
.79 
.85 
.99 


$ 80 
85 
.89 

1.01 


$.88 
.92 
.97 

1.06 


$.93 

.98 

1 04 

1.10 



The cost of beveling the edges is : % in beveled, 1 ct. per lin, ft.; 

% in. beveled, 2 ct. per lin. ft. ; V2 in. beveled, 3 ct. per lin. ft. 

Marble for Electrical Use. 

Prices per sq. ft. 

Pink or gray Blue White 

Thickness, in. Tennessee Vermont Italian 

Vs or less $113 $1.35 $1.45 

1 or less 1.24 1.45 1.55 

1^ or less 1.45 1.75 1.85 

11/2 or less 1.75 2.05 2.28 

2 or less 2.38 2.48 3.00 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 
Prices for drilling holes and counter-sinking. 



867 



Diam., in. Per hole 

14 $0.10 

1/2 0.14 

% to 1 0.20 

1 14 to 1 1/2 0.25 

2 0.30 

Slate Panels. 
Size , Net price per sq. ft. v 

in. Black 

width Thickness Bevel Black marine Black enamel oil finish 

16 1 14 $0.95-1.00 $1.70-1.80 $1.20-1.35 

12-32 1% % 1.00-1.10 1.80-1.90 1.55-1.80 

12-32 IV2. % 1.10-1.15 1.85-2.05 1.80-2.05 

16-48 2 ^2 1.25-1.75 2.00-2.60 2.15-3.20 

Marhle Panels 

Black marine Veined marble White Italian 

16 1 % $1.30-1.50 $1.80-2.10 $2.45-2.85 

12-32 1% % 1.35-1.45 1.85-2.20 2.60-3.00 

12-32 1% % 1.65-1.70 2.15-2.40 • 3.20-3.55 

16-48 2 % 1.80-2,15 2.40-2.75 4.30-4.95 

Both slate and marbU panels are made in sizes varying from 1 
to 5 ft. in length ; in general the larger slabs costing more per sq. ft. 
The weight of marble panels is 13.7 lbs. per sq. ft. per inch of 
thickness and the weight of slate panels is 14.6 lbs. per sq. ft. per 
inch of thickness. 

Alternating-Current Switchboard Costs. Mr. J Wilmore in the 
Electrical World, August 21, 1915, gives the following data. 



TYPES OP ALTERNATING CURRENT SWITCHBOARD PANELS 

Switchboard Panels with the numbers designating Instruments and 

other equipment. 



1 — Alter, current ammeter. 

2 — Indicating wattmeter. 

3 — Field ammeter. 

4 — Alter, current voltmeter. 

5 — Power-factor meter. 

6 — Synchronizing Lamp. 

7 — Voltmeter receptacle. 

8 — Synchronizing receptacle. 

9 — Rheostat. 

10 — Field discharge switch. 

11 — Ground detector lamp. 

12 — Ground detector receptacle. 

13 — Ground detector push. 



14 — Single-phase relay. 

15 — Recording watt -hour meter 

16 — Non-automatic oil switch. 

17 — Auto, oil circuit breaker. 

18 — Card holder. 

19 — Ammeter receptacle. 

20 — -Graphic record, wattmeter. 

21 — Direct-current ammeter, 

22 — Knife Switch. 

23 — Direct-current voltmeter. 

24 — Carbon bieaker (.shunt trip 

and reverse current relay.) 



The self-contained switchboard, as distinguished from the re- 
mote-control and electric operated types, has been found in prac- 
tice to be the most desirable for three phase alternating-current 
plants of a rating up to and not exceeding 3000 kva. and a poten- 



868 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tial of 2500 volts or less. Modern power-station practice has prac- 
tically standardized the switchboard equipment, and the large 
nianufacturers now carry a line of various panels which are known 
as " standard units." By choosing- from these stock units, a com- 
plete switchboard for any installation may be easily made up. 



Panel C 



P'anel 
J. — 



®0 
^r 7..O0O* 



8 "^MoGoie 



r- 



k— 3'Phaie J 
6e/7. Panek 



CD 

B 

14 14 

DD 



©0(2) 

®(D 

EO 

= 18 
Qn 

' \ 
• I 



to 

f 8- 
I 12 



\0 Ot 19 



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5 : 







o-U 



Q- 



t 

i 



H 



O 

23 

9 




22 



Fig. 15. 



-•• 3'PhQSC ••—>!< ••• 

Peeder Panels 



^ O 19 

O 



-'5v 



®®® 

®®o. 



10 



3- /%a5c 
6ey7. Panels 

I J 



o o 

® ® 



^4 



Exciter H 

Panels 



Types of alternating-current switchboard panels. 



These panels are usually made of black marine or natural 
black slate, mounted on angle iron or pipe frames, being 90 in. 
high with two or three sections of slate covering the entire frame 
from top to floor, or 76 ins, high for the .smaller and lighter panels, 
with one section of slate 48 ins. high and the exposed frame extend- 
ing to the floor. 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



869 



The 90-in. panels in 2 sections are made up of .either a 65-in. 
top section and 25-in. lower section or 62-in. and 28-in. sections 
respectively. A 90-in. panel in 3 sections has a 20-in. upper sec- 
tion, 45-in. middle and 25-in. lower section, or 28-in., 31-in. and 
31-in. sections respectively. These sections are 24 ins., 20 ins, or 
16 ins. wide. The thickness of slate is usually 1.5 ins. 

The cost data in Table XL.VI, which may be used for estimating 
or for purposes of power comparison, are based on figures recently 
published in a series of papers by C. H. Sanderson and H. A. 
Travers. The values given are for three-phase, 2200-volt panels 
completely wired, corresponding to the ratings listed in the tabula- 
tions covering the various switchboard panels shown in the illustra- 
tions. These panels represent a form of standard units and are 
typical of self-contained switchboards. 



TABLE XLVI. 



RATINGS AND COST OP SWITCHBOARD 
PANELS 



Type 
Panel (Fig. 15) 

Generator A 

Generator B 

Generator C 

Generator D 

Generator E 

Feeder F 

Feeder G 

Exciter H 

Exciter I 

Exciter J 





Approximate 


Rating, kva. 


cost per panel 


100- 200 


$34 


250- 800 


44 


1000-1200 


52 


10- 200 


63 


25- 500 


122 


600-1200 


139 


1400-2250 


213 


25- 500 


175 


600- 800 


180 


1000-1200 


192 


1400-2250 


265 


25- 500 


210 


600- 800 


215 


1000-1200 


228 


1400-2250 


300 


25-1200 


170 


1400-2250 


215 


25-1200 


400 


1400-2000 


445 


4- 25 


75 


35- 45 


81 


55- 75 


90 


150- 200 


129 


4- 25 


116 


35- 45 


125 


55- 75 


139 


150- 200 


195 


4- 25 


110 


35- 45 


121 


55- 75 


135 


150- 200 


210 



FEEDER REGULATORS 
Automatic, 2300 V. 10% B. of B. 









Net price 










Shipping 


f.o.b. 


Cost of 


Total 


Amperes 


Kva. 


weight, lbs. 


factory 


installing 


cost 


50 


11.50 


1,600 


$519 


$20 


$539 


75 


17.25 


1,800 


585 


20 


605 


100 


23.00 


2,025 


632 


22 


654 


150 


34.50 


3,0C0 


756 


31 


787. 



870 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 









Net price 










Shipping 


f.o.b. 


Cost of 


Total 


Amperes 


Kva. 


weight, lbs. 


factory 


installing 


cost 


200 


46.00 


3.600 


940 


36 


976. 


250 


57.50 


4,250 


1,068 


43 


1,111 


300 


69.00 


5.000 


1,282 


50 


1,332 


500 


345.00* 




3,400 


200 


3,600 




500.00 


18.000 


4,850 


250 


5,100 


25 


5.75 


785 


$216 


$10 


$226 


50 


11.50 


897 


247 


10 


257 


75 


17.25 


910 


270 


10 


280 


100 


23.00 


1,150 


296 


12 


308 


150 


34.25 


1,510 


384 


16 


400 


200 


46.00 


1,760 


476 


18 


494 


Automatic, 


oil cooled, 


single phase 2200 v. 10% B. of B. 




100 


22.0 


2,500 


$538 


$25 


$563 


200 


44.0 


3,500 


800 


35 


835 


Automatic, 


water cooled, two phase, 2300 v. 


15% B. of B, 






500 


16.640 


$6,400 


$160 


$6,560 


Motor operated, 2300 


V. 10% B. 


of B. 








1 


300 


$144 


$10 


$154 


. . . 


3 


52J0 


185 


10 


195 




6 


900 


302 


12 


314 



*157o B. of B. hand operated 2300 V., 10% B. of B. 

SHUNTS 

Standard Switch Board Shunts, for all types of switchboard am- 
meters. 

Capacity, amperes, 

fordo. Weight, lb. Price 

25- 200 0.75- 1 $3 

300- 500 1.25 3- 4 

600- 800 1.5- 2 5-7 

1,000-1,200 . 6.0- 6.75 7- 8 

1,500 8.5 13 

2,000 12 5 17 

2,500 20.0 19 

3,000-3,500 28.0-30 20-23 

4.000 36.0 27 

4.500 44.0 34 

5,000 45.0 41 

6,000 55.0 48 

7,000 , 65.0 44 

8,000 70.0 68 

9,000 80.0 75 

10,000 95.0 81 

12,000 105.0 108 

15,000 . 140.0 150 

18,000 155.0 190 

20,000 175.0 220 

SWITCHES 

Motor Starting Switches, plain finished ; front connection ; 
mounted on oil slate bases. 

Switches of this type are used with alternating current motors, 
having excessive starting current and therefore requiring fuses on 
switch to be temporarily cut out of circuit. The knife blades in 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 871 

starting are held against a spring pressure bar which is powerful 
enough to prevent the switch being left in the starting position. 
After the motor has come up to speed the blades are reversed and 
thrown to the fused end of the switch, in which position the fuses 
are in circuit to protect the motor. 

DOUBLE POLE 

High Grade 
Capacity, 

amperes Price, each Shipping weight, lb. 

30 $2.00 6 

60 2.75 11 

100 5.25 21 

Punched Clip 

30 1.85 5 

60 2.40 11 

100 .' 5.00 19 

THREE POLE 

30 2.75 8 

60 3.65 16 

100 7.00 23 

Punched Clip 

30 2.50 7 

60 3.30 15 

100 6.60 21 

FOUR POLE 

30 3.65 10 

60 4.90 20 

100 9.90 28 

Punched Clip 

30 3.35 * 9 

60 4.20 18 

100 8.80 26 

Note. The above prices and weights are for switches for not 
over 250 volts. Switches for 500 volts, high grade type cost about 
30% more for the 30 ampere size, 20% more for the 60 ampere 
and about 10% more for the 100 ampere size; and weigh about 
2 lbs. per switch more than for 250 volts. 

Switches of the punched clip type for 500 volts cost about 20% 
more in the 30 and 60 ampere sizes; and about 10% more in the 
100 ampere sizes. These switches also weigh about 2 lbs. more per 
switch than those listed. 

Disconnecting switches and thin installation front connected, sin- 
gle pole, single throw : 

Net price. 
Type Volts Amperes f.o.b. factory 

M.B 2,500 300 $4.95 

M.B 2,500 600 7.65 

M.B 2,500 800 10.35 

M.B 2,500 1,200 13.50 



872 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



873 



Type Volts 

M.B 2,500 

M.B 2,500 

M.B 2,500 

M.B 2,500 

M.B 7,500 

M.B 7,500 

M.B 7,500 

M.B 7,500 

M.B 7,500 

S.B. • 7,500 

S.B 7,500 

S.B 7,500 

S.B 7,500 

S.B 7,500 

M.B 15,000 

M.B 1 5,000 

S.B 15,000 

S.B 15,000 

M.B 22,000 

S.B 22,000 

S.B 35,000 

S.B 45,000 

S.B 70,000 

S.B 70,000 

Safety catches — all sizes 

M.B. — Marble base, 
S.B.— Steel base. 



Amperes 
1,500 
2,000 
3,000 

300 

300 

600 

800 
1,200 
2,000 

300 

600 

800 
1,200 
2,000 

300 

600 

300 

600 

300 

300 

300 

300 

100 

300 



Net price, 

f.o.b. factory 

25.20 

39.60 

b4.90 

6.75 

9.00 
11.25 
15.75 
23.80 
67.50 

7.20 

9.45 
13.95 
21.10 
62.10 
11.25 
14.40 

9.00 
11.70 
16.20 
13.50 
18.00 
26.10 
34.20 
67.50 



5.40 



The estimated cost installing- these switches is as follows : 

Cost of Cost of 

Volts installing Volts installing 

2500-15000 %1 45000 4 

22000 2 70000 5 

35000 3 

* Oil switches for panel mounting with switch on panel pipe 5-in. 
back of panel cost about $2 to $3 more and weigh about 10 lb. more 
for the non-automatic type and about 80 lb. more for the automatic 
type. 

t Double pole switches have 1 transformer. Triple and four-pole 
switches have 2 transformers, these are also furnished with 3 
transformers /.. at a cf)st of about $15 more and weigh about 30 
lb. more than tho.se listed. 

Switches for the higher voltages are also made for " remote con- 
trol," with switch on framework, at a cost of from about $10 to $15 
more for the single throw and from about $25 to $30 more for the 
double throw switches. 



Distributing Transformers. The prices and weights given are 
for transformers for sing-le phase 60 cycle currents. Three phase 
transformers for same voltages and cycles cost from about 15 to 
25% more than those listed and 25 cycle about 30-4 0% more. 

There is considerable variation in the weights and prices of the 
same transformers among different manufacturers, also in the prices 
quoted by any one of the manufacturers depending upon the quan- 
tity ord«^red. Tn general we have found variations of 20% both 
more and less than the prices and weights given. 



874: MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XLVIII. 



OIL SWITCHES, AUTOMATIC, ELECTRIC 
OPERATED 







Double pole 


Triple pole 


Capacity 


Sing-le throw 


Single throw 


Am- 


Volt- 


Cost 


Cost 


peres 


age 


Switch Complete 
only installed 

1 — Cell 


Switch 
only 

mounted 


Comple 
installe 


300 


2.500 


.... 






300 


7,500 


.... .... 




.... 


200 


12,000 










300 


15,000 


$190 $245 


.... 


. . . . 


500 




.... .... 


.... 


.... 


800 


.... 


2 — Cell 


mounted 


I 


300 


15,000 


$204 $270 




.... 


500 


15,000 


211 277 
3 — Cell 


mountec 




300 


2,500 




$694 


$774 


500 


2,500 




714 


794 


800 


2,500 




866 


951 


1,200 


2,500 




932 


1,027 


2,000 


2,500 





1,428 
1,853 


1,536 
1,973 


3,000 


2.500 




1,800 


1,920 


2,000 


3,300 




860 


970 


300 


4,500 




273 


349 


500 


4,500 




281 


357 


300 


7,500 


'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'. 


278 


354 


500 


7,500 




280 


356 


800 


7.500 


'.'.'.'. '...'. 


340 


421 


1,200 


7,500 




370 


456 


2,500 


12,000 




1,500 


1,610 






3 — Cell 


mounted 






Triple pole — 


Single throw 




—Capacity s 




Switch 




Amperes 


Voltage 




only 


100 




15,000 




$278 


300 




15.000 




278 


300 




15,000 (H3.) 




694 


500 




15,000 (H3.) 




714 


600 




15,000 




706 


800 




15,000 (H3.) 




866 

845 


1,200 




15,000 (H3.) 




932 
1,532 


2,000 




15,000 (H3.) 




1,428 


600 




25,000 




1,030 


1,200 




25,000 




1,166 


300 




35,000 




1.000 


400 




60,000 

4 — Cell 


mounted 


1,100 






Four pole — 


Single Throw 


300 




2,500 




$948 


600 




2,500 




973 


800 




2,500 




1,178 



Four pole 
Single throw 

Cost 
JwitchComplete 
only installed 



$210 


$271 


250 


315 


210 


271 


240 


300 


250 


315 


250 


311 


250 


310 


260 


326 


260 


325 



Complete 

installed 

$354 

359 

777 

797 

787 

954 

931 

1,030 

1,636 

1;538 

1,129 
1,270 
1.091 
1,230 



$1,049 
1,074 
1.284 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 875 
-Capacity x Switch Complete 



Amperes Voltage only installed 

1,200 2,500 1,260 1,371 

2,000 2,500 1,936 2,061 

300 15,000 (H3.) 948 1,053 

500 15,000 (H3.) 973 1,078 

800 15,000 (H3.) 1,178 1,288 

(K.12) 332 423 

300 15.000 (K.4) 332 428 

FLOOR MOUNTED 

Triple pole — Single throw 

300 22,000 614 644 

300 45,000 678 718 

150 1,703 1,778 

300 55,000 1,166 1,226 

150 70,000 1,166 1,226 

150 70,000 1,703 1,778 

150 70,000 1,001 1,051 

DISTRIBUTING TRANSFORMERS 

Single phase, 60 cycle; high tension side — 1100, 1200, 2200 and 
2400 volts. Low tension side — 110,120,220 and 240 volts. 

Shipping weight. 

Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 

1 145 $22 

1.5 160 27 

2 175 32 

2.5 210 36 

3 235 40 

4 285 47 

5 340 55 

7.5 475 74 

10 600 91 

15 820 123 

20 1,020 152 

25 1,220 180 

30 1,400 205 

40 1,770 255 

50 2,050 300 

75 2,600 390 

100 2,950 465 

150 3,400 575 

200 3,650 650 

Single phase, 60 cycle; high tension side — 6,600 volts; low ten- 
sion side — 110-220-440 volts. 

Shipping weight. 

Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 

1 280 $47 

1.5 290 50 

2 300 54 

2.5 310 58 

3 330 62 

4 375 70 

5 425 78 

7.5 550 100 

10 650 122 

15 830 160 

20 1,020 195 

25 1,220 225 

30 1,400 254 



876 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Shipping weight, 

Size, kw. lb. (approx.) Net price 

40 1,800 310 

50 2,100 360 

75 2,800 470 

100 3,400 550 

150 , 4,250 660 

200 4,800 730 

Capacity, 200 volt-amperes. Secondary voltage, 100. 

Primary 

voltage 25 cycles 60 cycles 

at 100 V. Shipping, Net Shipping, Net 

secondary weight, lb. price weight, lb. price 

Dry type 

200 53 $17 42 $15 

400 55 18 42 15 

500 55 18 45 16 

600 62 19 53 16 

1,000 62 20 53 18 

2,000 64 24 53 20 

3,000 85 27 58 23 

4,000 93 30 75 25 

5,000 100 32 80 28 

6,000 115 37 85 31 

Oil insulated type, 

200 77 $24 77 $21 

400 80 25 77 22 

500 80 26 77 23 

600 80 26 77 24 

1,000 88 28 77 25 

2,000 110 2» 77 26 

3,000 115 31 85 28 

4,000 130 51 120 41 

5,000 145 53 125 43 

6,000 150 56 130 45 

10,000 210 75 190 64 

12,000 250 88 215 73 

15,000 320 143 270 126 

20,000 350 167 285 156 

25,000 385 226 350 184 

30,000 410 240 380 204 

40,000 900 478 815 378 

50,000 925 - 536 835 402 

60,000 925 616 835 431 



CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 

Current Transformers are used for one or both of two purposes, 
namely, to reduce the currents to be measured to the relatively 
small values suitable for measuring instruments, relays and circuit 
breaker trip coils, or to insulate meter circuits from high line 
voltage. They are used wherever the current exceeds 5 amperes 
and should be used wherever the line voltage exceeds 1000. 

The following table shows the range in weights and costs of 
several types and makes of Current Transformers. As a general 
rule these transformers are made in the following sizes — 5, 10, 15,, 
20, 25, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600, 800,' 
1,000 amperes primary and a close price and weight may be ob- 
tained by interpolating. These transformers may be used on cir- 



ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANTS 



877 



cuits of all commercial frequencies. The current in the secondary- 
winding- is 5 amperes in every case. 







Dry Type. 






Maximum 


Primary 




Approx. 


wt. 




voltage 


amperes 




boxed, 


lb. 


Price 


2,500 




5-500 




32 




$10-$13 


2,500 




5-800 




24- 28 


13- 19 


2,500 




5-800 




48- 57 


21- 31 


8,000 




5-1,000 




44- 50 


21- 34 


15,000 




5-800 




82- 83 


34- 44 


17,000 




5-600 




51- 54 


32- 41 


24,000 




5-500 




142-146 


45- 55 






Oil Insulated 






27,000 




5/10-400/^00 




460 




$93 


35,000 




5-400 








78-102 


45,000 




5/io_400/3oo 




"540 




125 


47,000 




5-400 








192-213 


70,000 




%o --'o%oo 




Xoeo 




250 


70,000 




5-400 









223-247 




STATION AND SUB-STATION TRANSFORMERS 














Net price 




Weight (approx.) 


High tension side voltages 


Size 




Case, coils 




6300 


- 20.000- 50.000- 


inkw. 


Oil 


and iron 


Total 


20,000 50,000 100,000 


100 


3,500 


5,300 


8,800 


$580 


$850 


$1,000 


150 


4,000 


6,400 


10,400 


72C 


1,04C 


1,220 


200 


4,300 


7,200 


11,500 


84(] 


1,20C 


1,400 


250 


4,600 


8,000 


12,600 


94C 


1,35C 


1,580 


300 


4,900 


8,700 


13,600 


1,040 


1,500 


1,730 


350 


5,200 


9,300 


14,500 


1,13C 


1,60C 


1,870 


400 


5,400 


10,000 


15,400 


1,20C 


1,70C 


2,000 


500 


5,800 


11,000 


16,800 


1,38C 


1,93C 


2,230 


750 


6.800 


13,000 


19,800 


1,700 


2,370 


2,730 


1,000 


7,300 


15,000 


22,300 


2,00C 


2,73C 


3,150 


1,500 


8,400 


17,800 


26,200 


. . . 




3,850 


2,000 


9,200 


20,300 


29,500 




. . . . 


4,500 


2,500 


9,800 


22,400 


32,200 


. . . 


. 


5,000 


3,000 


10,400 


24,300 


34,700 


. 




5,500 


4,000 


11,400 


27,800 


39,200 


.... 




6,300 


5,000 


12,300 


30,700 


43,000 


. . . 


. 


7,000 


6,000 


13,000 


33,500 


46,500 


. . . 




7,700 


7,000 


13,800 


36,000 


49,800 


. 


. 


8,400 


8,000 


14,300 


38,000 


52,300 


.... 


. . . . 


9,000 


9,000 


15,000 


40,000 


55,000 




. 


9,500 


10,000 


15,400 


42,000 


57,400 






10.000 



Transformers. A. A. Potter (Power, Dec. 30, 1913) gives the fol- 
lowing formulas of costs of transformers. 



Type Capacitj^ 

Air-cooled Sizes up to 3000 kva. 

Oil-cooled Sizes up to 30 kva. 25 cycles 

Oil -cooled Sizes up to 30 kva. 60 cycles 

Oil-cooled Sizes 30 to 100 kva. 25 cycles 

Oil-cooled Sizes 30 to 100 kva. 60 cycles 

Water-cooled Sizes 100 to 1000 kva. 

Water-cooled 1000 to 3000 kva. 



Equation of cost 

in dollars 

439 + 1.467 X (kva.) 

52.9 + 8.1 X (kva.) 

26.2 + 6.25 X (kva.) 

157 + 4.68 X (kva.) 

119.5 + 3.57 X (kva.) 

181. + 1.725 X (kva.) 

805 -i- 1.099 X (kva.) 



CHAPTER XI 

OVERPIEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND 
DISTRIBUTION 

Chapter XX, Electric Railways, contains additional data on 
overhead construction. 

Cost of Wooden Poles. The cost of wood poles varies greatly 
with market conditions and distance from the shipping point. By 
far the largest number of poles is produced in the Northwest, 
and unless freight rates are excessive, poles from this section will 
usually compete in price with " local " poles. 

The prices given in Table I are averages of pole costs from a 
number of recent appraisals by the authors and indicate the relative 
prices for different sizes of wood poles. 

TABLE L COST OF WOOD POLES 



ngth, 


Diam., top, 


Average price. 


Average price, 


ft. 


ins. 


cedar poles 


chestnut poles 


25 


5 


$1.48 






6 


2.62 


$1.38 




7 


3.44 


2.00 


30 


6 


3.80 


2.12 




7 


5.03 


3.00 




8 


6.23 


4.00 


35 


6 


5.57 


3.50 




7 


7.80 


4.38 




8 


8.93 


4.75 


40 


7 


9.63 


5.50 




8 


10.61 


5.75 


45 


7 


12.10 


6.50 




8 


13.92 


7.00 


50 


7 


14.81 


8.50 




8 


16.77 


8.75 



Table lA gives the average price of poles in Seattle, Wash., for 
the years 1912 to 1915 inclusive, made up from prices quoted from 
several of the largest dealers. 

TABLE lA. AVERAGE PRICE OP CEDAR POLES IN 
SEATTLE, WASH., FOR PERIOD 1912-1915 INCLUSIVE 



Height, 


Diam of 


Average 


ft. 


top, ins. 


price 


25 


6 


$1.86 


30 


7 


2.23 


30 


8 


2.70 


35 


8 


2.97 


35 


9 


3.43 


40 


8 


3.39 


45 


9 


4.65 


40 


9 


3.92 



878 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 879 



Height, 


Diam of 


Average 


ft. 


top, ins. 


price 


50 


9 


5.17 


55 


9 


5.83 


60 


9 


6.68 


65 


9 


7.93 


70 


9 


10.20 


75 


9 


11.93 


80 


9 


16.11 


85 


9 


19.3r8 


90 


9 


22.66 


95 


9 


23.91 


100 


9 


25.18 



Weights of Chestnut and Cedar Poles. Fig. 1 shows the weights 
of chestnut and cedar poles of various lengths and sections as 
determined by actual measurement of a large number of poles 
made in connection with recent appraisal work of the authors. 




ZOff 300 400 500600 dOO IpOO fJSOO 2fiOO 

Weight in Lbs. 

Fig. 1. Weight of wood poles. 



3fiOO 4jm 



Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data, p. 952, has a table of cu. ft. 
of wood per lin. ft. of poles of different dimensions. 

Cedar Poles, Shipping Data. We have taken the data in Table 
II from " American Telephone Practice," by Kempster B, Miller. 

TABLE II. SHIPPING WEIGHT OF CEDAR POLES 







IN SINGLE CARS 






Diam. top, 


Length, 




, Weight 


lbs. , 


ins. 


ft. 


No. in load 


Green 


Seasoned 


4 


25 


175 to 225 


200 


155 


5 


25 


150 to 200 


260 


200 


6 


25 


100 to 125 


325 


250 


7 


25 


75 to 100 


425 


350 


6 


30 


75 to 100 


425 


350 


7 


30 


60 to 80 


500 


450 


7 


35 


55 to 75 

IN DOUBLE CARS 


750 


650 


7 


40 


60 to . 75 


1,075 


850 


7 


45 


50 to 65 


1,150 


1,000 


7 


50 


40 to 50 


1,400 


1,250 


7 


55 


35 to 45 


1,875 


1,650 


- 7 


60 


25 to 35 


2,300 


2,000 


7 


65 


20 to 25 


2,800 


2,500 



880 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Weight Saved by Seasoning Wood Poles. The following taken 
from Circular 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, is for 
Arborvitse (White Cedar). Table III shows the weight per cent, 
saved on poles cut at various times of the year and seasoned for 
varying periods. Seasoning took place for the most part under 
very favorable conditions. The ground was rather of a sandy soil 
which held no moisture and the other conditions were such that 
the sun's rays and the wind had free access to the poles. 

TABLE III. PER CENT. OP FREIGHT WEIGHT SAVED BY 
SEASONING POLES 

Time sea- Spring Summer Autumn Winter 

soned, days cut % cut % cut % cut % 

30 13.2 11.0 

60 15.7 16.5 

90 16.3 18.0 ... 1.8 

120 16.3 18.0 ... 19.6 

150 16.3 18.0 0.9 25.1 

180 16.3 18.0 20.2 27.5 

210 16.3 18.0 25.5 29.2 

240 16.3 18.7 28.0 

270 16.3 22.6 28.9 

300 16.3 25.4 

330 18.5 26.9 

360 23.2 28.1 

390 24.5 

420 25.4 

Detail Cost of Preparing and Setting Wooden Poles. The follow- 
ing data were determined by studies of the operations as conducted 
in the state of Washington. 

Unloading. A team and driver at $6 and a laborer at $2.50 per 
8 hour day can unload from a car per day 300 25 ft., 200 30 ft., 
160 35 ft.. 96 50 ft., or 60 70 ft. poles at a total cost of $8.50, aver- 
aging 2.8 cts., 4.2 cts., 5.25 cts., 8.75 cts., and 14 cts. per pole 
respectively. 

Shaving. One man at $2.50 per 8 hr. day can shave 6 25 ft., 
5 30 ft., 4 35 ft., 3 40 ft., 2 50 ft., or 1 70 ft. pole per day, averaging 
40 cts., 48 cts., 60 cts., 80 cts., $1.20 and $2.40 per pole respectively. 

Cutting Gains. Two men at $2.40 per 8 hr. day cutting an aver- 
age of 1 gain can handle and gain 96 35 ft, 65 50 ft, 40 70 ft. 
poles, averaging 5 cts., 7.39 cts. and 12 cts. respectively. In cutting 
2 and 4 gains into 25 and 30 ft. poles respectively it was found 
that one man could handle and gain 64 25 ft. poles and 32 35 ft. 
poles, making an average cost per gain in poles of these sizes 
of 1.9 cts. 

Roofing. Two men at $2.40 per 8 hr. day can roof 125 25 ft., 
100 30 to 35 ft. 64 40 to 50 ft., and 35 70 ft poles, averaging 
3.84 cts., 4.8 cts.. 7.5 cts. and 13.7 cts. per pole respectively. 

Hauling. It was found that, hauling against fairly steep grades, 
the following average loads could be handled for a maximum num- 
ber of trips as given. Three loads of seven 25 ft. poles, three loads 
of four 35 ft. poles; 3 loads of two 50 ft. poles. The number of 
poles carried per load and number of loads would, of course, vary 
somewhat, depending upon the grades and length of haul. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 881 

Digging Holes. One man at $2.50 pei' 8 hr. day can average in 
gravel 3 6 ft. holes or 5 4.5 ft. holes per day, giving a unit cost of 
83.3 cts. and 50 cts. respectively. 

Actual costs for a large number of 35 ft. poles set in hard pan, 
earth and gravel averaged $1.35 per pole. Holes for 50 ft. poles 
cost about 24% more or $1.68 and holes for 70 ft. poles cost about 
58% more or $2.14. 

Erecting and Tamping. One lineman, 8 hrs. @ $.50 ($4.00) 
and 12 helpers, 8 hours @ $.30 ($28.80) can set and tamp 35 35 ft. 
poles, 24 50 ft. poles, or 10 70 ft. poles, at a cost of $32.80. 
10% should be added for foreman's wages which are $3.28, the 
total being $36.08, averaging $1.03, $1.50 and $3.61 respectively. 

On another job there were five men at $2.50. a lineman at $3.75 
and a foreman at $4.25 which constituted an ordinary pole setting 
gang, making a daily cost of $20.50 per day. This outfit set twenty 
30 to 35 ft. poles per day at a cost of about $0.95 and $1.03 re- 
spectively. This same gang set 30 25 ft. poles at a cost of 70 cts. 
per pole. 

Painting. One man at $4.00 per 8 hr. day using 8 gals, of paint 
at $.70 ($5.60) can paint 12 35 ft. poles at a total cost of $9.60 
averaging $.80 per pole. Add 110% for 50 ft. poles and 213% 
for 70 ft. poles. 25 ft. and 30 ft. poles cost about 51 to 57 cts. 
per pole. 

Boring and Placing Steps. One man at $2.40 per day can bore 
for steps at a cost of 16 to 20 cts. per pole and same man can 
place them for 12 to 16 cts. per pole. 

Table IV gives a summary of the approximate detail cost of 
different sizes of poles, the cost being taken from several large 
jobs on the Pacific Coast. 

TABLE IV. DETAIL. COS^^F WOOD POLES * 

Length of pole, ft 25 30 35 40 50 70 

Cost of pole $1.70 $2.70 $3.05 $4.00 $5.50 $9.80 

Freight 35 .23 .26 50 3.00 

Unloading 03 .05 .05 .06 .09 .14 

Shaving 42 .48 .60 .80 1.20 2.40 

Gaining 04 .05 .05 .08 .07 .12 

Roofing 04 .05 .06 .08 .08 .14 

Hauling to job 40 .84 .85 .93 1.68 3.36 

Digging hole 50 1.33 1.33 .90 1.65 2.10 

Setting and tamping 70 .95 1.03 1.13 1.50 3.61 

Hauling surplus earth 02 .04 .02 .02 

Total, unpainted and un- 

stepped $4.18 $6.68 $7.30 $8.02 $12.29 $24.69 

Painting . $0.51 $0.57 $0.80 $1.88 $2.50 

Boring for steps 16 .... .20 

Placing steps 12 .... .16 

Galvanized steps 24 .... .36 

Wood steps 10 10 

Total painted and 

stepped $5.31 $8.92 

Total, painted only $4.69 $7.25 $8.10 $14.17 $27.19 

* Add $1.50 for each pole set in pavement. 



882 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Digging Holes and Setting Poles. The following data 
were taken from a recent appraisal in South California, Table V 
gives the number of holes dug in dry earth by a gang of 1 fore- 
man and 10 groundmen and the number of poles set per day by 
the same gang with the addition of 1 lineman. The cost given 
was determined by the following scale of wages : 

1 Foreman at $4.20 |4.20 

10 Groundmen at $2.25 22.50 

Total cost per day for gang digging holes. ... $26.70 
1 Lineman at $3.75 3.75 

Total cost per day for gang setting poles. .. .$30.45 
TABLE V. DIGGING HOLES AND SETTING POLES 

DRY EARTH 

Poles 40 ft. and over set with derrick. 

, Digging holes ^ , Setting poles > 

Total 
Ht. of Number Cost Number Cost labor cost 
pole, ft. per day per hole per day per pole per pole 

in place 
20 45 $0.59 38 $0.80 $1.39 

25 45 0.59 31 0.98 1.57 

30 36 0.74 26 1.17 1.91 

35 36 0.74 23 1.32 2.06 

40 32 0.83 29 1.05 1.88 

45 29 0.92 25 1.22 2.14 

50 25 1.07 22 1.38 2.45 

55 21 1.27 19 1.60 2.87 

60 18 1.48 14 2.18 3.66 

65 14 1.91 9 3.38 5.29 

70 11 2.43 8 3.81 6.24 

75 9 2.97 7 4.35 7.32 

80 8 3.34 6 5.08 8.42 

85 7 3.82 5 6.09 9.91 

90 6 4.45 4 7.62 12.07 

OTHER SOILS 

Additional cost digging holes and setting poles over dry earth: 

iM-Qfor-ioi Maximum Minimum Average 

i!a.d.\.*irid.i percent. percent. percent. 

Hardpan 44.3 36. 40.0 

Roc'r^^"^ ^^^^^1 } 116.5 104. 110. 

Wet earth 72.5 68. 70. 

Note. The above costs do not include any allowance for teaming. 

Improved iVlethod of Stenciling Poles. The Telephone Review, 
Dec, 1914, describes a method and equipment for stenciling poles 
by which 200 poles may be shaved and stenciled per day. The 
stenciling outfit consists of a short canvas apron equipped with 5 
hooks and 2 pockets. Each hook carries 2 numerals and the 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 883 

pockets carry a can of stencil paint, an extra can of paint and a 
rag- Tlie method of holding the stencil has been simplified by 
placing a hook on one end and a handle on the other. The old 
and slower method was to strap or tack the stencil to the 
pole. 

As the stencil marking is placed at a height of about 5 ft, and 
and the usual method is to carry the paint, brush, and stencil 
plates in a basket which is set at the butt of the pole, it requires 
for every pole stenciled 10 separate movements of 10 ft. each. 
For an average day's work using a basket, these long moves 
introduce about one mile of unnecessary motion. 

Labor Costs of Pole- Line Construction. T^ouis W. Moxey, Jr., in 
Electrical World. Dec. 18. 1915, gives the following data (Table VI) 
showing the general range of labor costs for ordinary transmission 
lines. The labor items vary considerably according to the number 
of poles to be erected and the amount of wire to be strung. 

TABLE VI. LABOR COST OF POLE-LINE CONSTRUCTION 



Description Cost 

SHAVING POLES 

25-ft. pole $0.60 — $1.20 

.30-ft. pole 0.80— 1.60 

3 5 -ft. pole 1.00— 2.00 

40-ft. pole 1.20— 2.40 

50-ft. pole .1.40— 2.80 

ERECTING WOOD POLES 

25-ft. pole 0.90— 2.70 

30-ft. pole 1.20— 3.60 

35-ft. pole 1.80— 5.40 

40-ft. pole 2.70— 8.10 

50-ft. pole 3.90 — 11.70 

ERECTING IRON POLES 

25-ft. pole 2.00— 8.00 

30-ft. pole 3.00 — 12.00 

35-ft. pole 5.00 — 20.00 

40-ft. pole 8.00 — 32.00 

50-ft. pole 12.00 — 48.00 

DIGGING HOLES 

25-ft. pole 0.60— 3.00 

30-ft. pole 0.75— 3.75 

35-ft. pole 0.90— 4.50 

40-ft. pole 1.05— 5.25 

50-ft. pole 1.20— 6.00 

STEPPING POLES 

25-ft. pole 0.50— 1.00 

30-ft. pole 0.75— 1.50 



Description 
35-ft, pole 
40-ft. pole 
50-ft. pole 



Cost 
1.00— 2.00 
1.25— 2.50 
1.50— 3.00 



GUYING POLES 

25-ft. pole 3.00— 9.00 

30-ft. pole 4.00 — 12.00 

35-ft. pole 5.00 — 15.00 

40-ft. pole 6.00 — 18.00 

50-ft. pole 7.00 — 21.00 

ERECTING CROSS-ARMS, BRACES, 
PINS AND INSULATORS 

$0.50 — $1.00 



Z-pm cross-arm 
3-pin cross-arm 
4-pin cross-arm 
6-pin cross-arm 
8-pin cross-arm 

STRINGING WIRE, 
WEATHERPROOF, 

No. 8 



0.60— 1.20 

0.70— 1.40 

0.90— 1.80 

1.10— 2.20 

TRIPLE-BRAID, 



No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 



6 
5 

4 
3 
2 
1 

00 
000 



No. 0000 



■ER 1000 
$2.50 — 
2.60 — 
2.80 — 
3.10 — 
3.50 — 
4.00 — 
4.60 — 
5.20 — 
6.00 — 12.00 
6 90 — 13.80 
7.90 — 15.80 



FT. 

$5.00 
5.20 
5.60 
6.20 
7.00 
8.00 
9.20 

10.40 



Cost of Butt Treatment. The following prices from a bulletin 
prepared by Page and Hill Co. were current in the .spring of 1916. 

The height of treatment is about 1.5 ft. above the ground line of 
poles set at the average depth. 

The different types of treatment all require a seasoning of the 



5 $0.35 


$0.45 


6 0.40 


0.55 


6 0.70 


0.90 


7 0,85 


1.10 


7 1.00 


1.25 


7.5 1.05 


1.35 


7.5 1.20 


1.50 


RED CEDAR POLES 




7.5 1.20 


1.50 


7.5 1.35 


1.75 


8 1.60 


2.00 


8 1.85 


2.50 


8 2.00 


3.00 


8.5 2.50 


3.50 



884 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE VII. COST OF BUTT TREATMENT 

Height of 
Length of Diam. of of treat- Cost of treatment 

pole, ft. top, ins. ment, ft. AA A B 

WHITE CEDAR POLES 

20 5 

25 5 

6 6 0.70 0.90 $1 30 

30 6 7 0,85 1.10 1.85 

1.95 
35 6 7.5 1.05 1.35 2.05 

2.35 



35 8 7.5 1.20 1.50 2.25 

40 y 7.5 1.35 1.75 2.50 

45 8 8 1.60 2.00 2.75 

50 8 8 1.85 2.50 3.00 

55 8 8 2.00 3.00 3.75 

60 8 8.5 2.50 3.50 4.50 

poles for a period of four months. In arriving at a seasoned month, 
the calendar months are rated as follows : 

Equivalent in Equivalent in 

seasoning months seasoning months 

January % July 1 

February % August 1 

March i/4 September 1 

April Vz October % 

May % November % 

June 1 December % 

" AA " and " A " treatments are identical except that in the " AA " 
treatment creosote is used while in the " A " treatment carbolineum 
is used. Both treatments are made in open tanks and are for a 
period of 15 mins. if the temperature is below 70 degs. F. or more. 
If the temperature is below 70 deg. F. the time of treatment is 
increased proportionally. During the treatment the bath must be 
maintained at a temperature of not less than 180 deg. F. nor more 
than 230 deg. F. and must be heated to a temperature of 215 deg. F. 
at least once in 4 hrs. 

The " B " treatment is done in open tanks using an alternate hot 
and cold bath of creosote. The hot bath, having a max. temper- 
ature of 230 deg. F. and a min. temperature of 180 deg. F., must 
be heated to 212 deg. F. at least once in every 4 hrs., is for a period 
of 4 hrs. The cold bath, which must be below 112 deg. P., is then 
used for a period of 2 hrs. 

Cost of Creosoting Poles. R. A. Lundquist in Western Engineer- 
ing. Jan., 1913, gives following table of costs and quantities of 
creosote required for butt treatment of various kinds of poles. 

Value of Treating Poles and Equipment. In a paper read before 
the Minnesota Electrical Association, abstracted in Electrical World, 
May 26. 1916. S. B. Hood of the Minneapolis General Electric Com- 
pany said, that the average life of a pole which has had a good 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 885 





Size of pole Amt. cresote 


Cost 


of 




Top applied. 


treatment c 




diani., Length, lbs. per 


Preserva- 


Total 


Species 


ins. ft. pole 


tive 


cost 


Chestnut 


7 30 25 


$0.30 


$0.75 


Northern white cedar 


7 30 50 


0.60 


1.05 


Western yellow pine a 


8 40 37.5 


0.90 


1.35 


Western yellow pine b 


8 40 62.5 


1.45 


1.90 


Western red cedar a . 


8 40 39 


0.90 


1.35 


Lodge pole pine ...... 


7 35 35 


0.80 


1.25 


a — 6 lbs. per cu. ft. 








b — 10 lbs. per cu= ft. 






c — Cost of operation $0.45 per pole. . 







open-tank treatment with a high -distillate creosote oil will be 20 
years, as compared with 8 to 10 years for untreated poles. As an 
example of the economy of pole treatment, take a 35 ft. pole 
costing when it is set in position untreated $10 and having a life 
of 8 years. Compare this with a treated pole costing in position 
about $11.50 and having at least 20 years of useful life. With 
interest at 6%, the annual cost for the untreated pole is $1.85 and 
for the treated pole $1.26, a decrease of nearly one-third in the 
annual fixed charges. 

If the life of the poles is increased, it is necessary to get an 
equal life from the various pole fittings. In the case of hardware 
this has been accomplished by using a zinc coating, the hot 
galvanizing process having been proved the best. For cross-arms 
an equal life can be obtained by open-tank impregnation similar 
to that used for the pole butts. The life of the arm as well as its 
strength can also be increased considerably by using one of the 
several forms of metal pin which clamp around the arm. Where 
the cost of these is not warranted metal pins with a small shank 
may be used. The old-style wood pin, requiring the removal of a 
large part of the arm to provide a sufficiently large hole, should 
have no place in modern overhead construction. 

For low-tension circuits, principally secondary work, where the 
maximum voltage does not exceed 750 volts between wires, cross- 
arm construction .should be abandoned entirely for galvanized-steel 
racks or brackets. These co.st less than good cross-arms with their 
fittings, and there is practically no limit to the useful life that can 
be had from them. In addition, they make it possible to support 
the wires in a vertical plane on short centers. In this position 
there is no tendency for the wires to swing together, and if the 
circuit carries alternating current the inductive drop is materially 
reduced by the close spacing. This method of construction permits 
taking off service drops without using an unsightly buck-arm. The 
general appearance of a line constructed with these brackets or 
racks is all that can be desired and .should reduce the growing 
demand for underground construction in congested districts. 

Cost of Concrete Bases for Wood Poles. Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Aug. 28, 1908, give's the following: Fig. 2 shows a con- 
crete base for transmission line poles invented by M. H. Murray 
of Bakersfield. Cal., and used by the Power Transit & Light Co, 



886 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of that city. These bases are molded and shipped to the work 
ready for placing. They weigh about 420 lbs. each. One base 
requires 37.5 lbs. of 2 x 0.25 in. steel bar, 40 lbs. of Portland cement, 
3 cu. ft. of broken stone or gravel and enough sand to fill the form 
or mold, which is 10 x 10 ins. by 4.5 ft. Unskilled labor is em- 
ployed in the molding and two men can mold ten bases per 8 hr. 
day. The cost of molding is as follows per base : 

2 men at $2 per day $0.40 

Brace irons per set 2.50 

1/9 cu. yd. stone at $4.05 0.45 

40 lbs. cement at 1.5' cts 60 

Sand 0.15 

Total cost $4.10 

In the work for the company named above two men at $2 per 
day each set 5 bases in 8 hrs., making the cost of setting 80 cts. 
per base. The bases were sunk to a depth of 3 ft. 3 ins. In many 



k'BolfsJ 



Bo/f3; 




W-/0 -J 



Fig. 2. Concrete base for wooden poles. 



cases they were placed under poles without interrupting service by 
sawing off the pole, dropping it into the ground, placing the new 
base and setting the sawed-off pole on it and bolting up the straps. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 887 

Cost of Reinforcing Wood Poles with Concrete. Red-Cedar poles 
which had been in service for nearly 17 years were recently rein- 
forced with concrete by the Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power 
Company. The line is 7 miles long and is a main power line serv- 
ing the American Smelting & Refining Company's plant at Tacoma, 
Wash. The following costs are given in Electrical World, May 
19, 1917. 

First the earth around the ground line was removed. Then iron 
rods with the ends bent at right angles were driven into the poles 
around the weakened section and expanded-metal strips wrapped 
around the rods. After a piece of sheet metal had been placed 
inside the hole around the pole butt to serve as a form the concrete 
was poured. About 7 rods were used on each pole. The cost of 
reinforcing the 259 poles on this line cost was $2,355.14, making 
the total cost per pole $9.10 and the material cost per pole $3.59. 
The following table gives the unit amount of each kind of material 
used, and the cost thereof as well as the labor cost. 

Material : Cost per pole 

6.1 No. 1 iron rods $1.40 

1.7 No. 2 iron rods 0.49 

1.16 expanded metal 0.246 

0.21 cu. yds. sand 0.304 

0.38 cu. yds. pea gravel 0.612 

1.83 sacks cement 0.933 

Tools, etc 0.633 

Labor : 

Hauling (including rent of wagon) 0.71 

Reinforcing 3.59 

Moving poles 0.05 

Guying 0.042 

Cleaning up 0.05 

Miscellaneous 0.043 

Total $9.10 

Concrete Settings for Wooden Poles. We quote the following 
communication from Page & Hill Co. in regard to concrete settings 
for wooden poles. 

"A careful examination following the storms (Autumn of 1915) 
at Houston showed that most of the poles that went down were 
set in concrete. The same condition was observed a few years ago 
after a severe storm at Fargo. N. D. 

" This would tend to show that a concrete setting adds nothing 
to the strength of a wooden pole. 

•' There is no preserving value in a concrete setting. In fact, 
the concrete may hasten decay by retaining the moisture in the 
wood, thereby creating the most favorable conditions for the growth 
of the wood-destroying fungi." 

Joint Pole Construction at Los Angeles, Calif. J. E. MacDonald 
in the Transactions of the A. I. E. E., April, 1912. gives a series 
of curves. Fig. 3, showing the market prices of poles at tidewater 
points, from which points distribution is made loca,lly. Supple- 
menting this, is the curve showing the valuations according to the 



888 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

joint schedule for new poles set, painted and stepped. It will be 
noted that this gives a valuation of 35 cts. per pole foot for poles 
30 to 60 ft. in length. Poles which have been set less than 3 years 
are assumed to be of the same value as new poles. Poles set from 
3 to 6 years are assumed to be of the same value as new poles, but 
no value is given to that portion of the pole which is in the ground. 



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/ 
/ 


ao 
















^ 


/ 


./ 












.4 


.-J> 


^ 


/ 




'r 








«?< 




^ 




y/ 


/ 




J 1^ 

O 

O 








,0^^''^ 


7^ 


M'^ 


^ 


y 






10 










..,oX 


E^ 


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p\ 


X 










5 




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, 


p.. 


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30 



3J 



CO' 65' 



Fig. 3. 



40 45 50 i 

LENGTH. IN FEET 
Joint pole charges and market prices of round cedar poles. 



Poles set over 6 years are assumed to depreciate at the rate of 3.5 
cts. per ft. per annum, but no value is given to that portion of 
pole which is in the ground. During 5 years' operation under this 
schedule, it has been found that the valuations are approximately 
coi-rect. The values given for 50 ft., 55 ft. and 60 ft. poles are 
lower than they should be, but inasmuch as such poles are usually 
set by the party desiring the top position and the added length is 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 88d 

often solely for this party's benefit, it has not been found that the 
charges prove inequitable. 

During the 5 years under discussion no individual, save a newsi» 
paper reporter, has precipitated the query "Does it pay?" It 
should not be necessary to furnish exact data on this point. The 
reduction in investment, that is, the difference between the purchase 
and installation cost of over 50,000 poles independently and oper- 
ated, as against 21,270 combination poles, is subject to exact deduc- 
tion. The difference in the maintenance and depreciation charges on 
them represents a quantity which may also be arrived at very 
closely. The saving in the maintenance and depreciation charges, 
at joint expense, of the combination poles for one year exceeds the 
cost of maintaining the office of the committee for the entire period 
of 5 years. In addition to this there are the intangible quantities, 
such as the saving which results from such a project as a matter 
of public policy ; also the saving due to the entire absence of acci- 
dents on joint poles, on account of superior construction. Some 
of us might even figure on the conservation possibilities, taking the 
entire United States as a basis of action. 

Cost of Setting Wood Poles. Tables VIII and IX give the esti- 
mated cost of setting poles, taken from " Data." 



TABLE 


: VIII. COST OP s 


!ETTIN( 


^ WOOL 


) POLES. AVERAGE 






CHICAGO CONDITIONS (1900-1910) 






Length. 


Top, 


Cost in 


Shaving, Haul- 




Paint- 




Total 


ft. 


ins. 


rough 


etc. 


ing 


Setting 


ing 


Paint 


costt 


10 


8 


$0.75 


$0.40 


$0.30 


$2.50 


$0.20 


$0.08 


$4.23 


15 


8 


1.00 


.50 


.30 


2.50 


.20 


.08 


4.58 


20 


8 


1.25 


.60 


.35 


3.00 


.24 


.10 


5.54 


25 


6 


1.98 


.90 


.395 


3.24 


.31 


.16 


6.99 


25 




2.72 


.90 


.395 


3.24 


.31 


.16 


7.73 


25 




4.00 


.90 


.395 


3.24 


.31 


.16 


9.01 


30 




3.06 


1.10 


.450 


3.50 


.35 


.16 


8.62 


30 




5.00 


1.10 


.450 


3.50 


.35 


.20 


10.60 


30 




6.25 


1.10 


.450 


3.50 


.35 


.20 


11.85 


35 




8.00 


1.30 


.481 


3.75 


.42 


.20 


14.15 


35 




8.10 


1.30 


.481 


3.80 


.42 


.24 


14.34 


40 




9.10 


1.55 


.600 


4.25 


.50 


.24 


16.24 


40 




10.05 


1.55 


.600 


4.38 


.50 


.28 


17.36 


45 




11.81 


1.80 


.640 


5.10 


.58 


.28 


20.21 


45 




14.00 


1.80 


.640 


5.25 


.58 


.28 


22.55 


50 




13.43 


2.10 


.750 


6.50 


.64 


.33 


23.75 


50 




15.57 


2.10 


.750 


6.70 


.64 


.33 


26.09 


55 




16.00 


2.30 


.869 


8.62 


.72 


.38 


28.89 


55 




21.00 


2.30 


.869 


8.90 


.72 


.38 


34.17 


60 




22.00 


2.75 


.948 


9.41 


.80 


.44 


36.35 


65 




27.07 


3.10 


.980 


10.19 


.88 


.52 


42.74 


70 




35.00 


3.40 


1.050 


10.97 


.96 


.60 


51.98 



Foreman's wages included, 
charges included. 



No supervision or other overhead 



Table IX is from the Valuation Report of the Calumet Electric 
Street Ry. Co. and South Chicago Ry. Co. as prepared by the 
Traction Valuation Commission, Chicago. 



890 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE IX. COST OF SETTING WOOD POLES, CHICAGO 
TRACTION VALUATION COMMISSION (1911) 

Diam. Price Cost Total cost in place for different settings 



Length 


top 


of 


of 


Heeled and Set in 


Set in 


In 1 cu. yd. 


ft. 


ms. 


pole 


labor 


breasted barrels 


rock 


concrete 


30 


7 


$5.20 


$2:80 


$8.75 $9.50 


$10.00 


$11.50 


35 


7 


8.10 


2.90 


11.75 12.00 


13.00 


14.50 


40 


8 


11.45 


3.05 


15.20 15.50 


16.50 


18.00 


45 


8 


15.10 


3.25 


19.10 19.35 


20.35 


21.85 


50 


8 


15.40 


3.60 


19.75 20.00 


21.00 


22.50 


55 


8 


17.60 


4.00 


22.35 22.60 


23.60 


25.10 



Cost of Setting Chestnut Poles. As an example of the basis for 
computing the costs of pole setting, a member of the Ohio Electric 
Light Association furnished the following data given in Electrical 
World, Feb. 24. 1917. 

The costs given are for 2 lines built through a hilly country. The 
poles used are chestnut and vary in length from 45 ft. to 60 ft. 
The average length of the poles was 48 ft. 

Number of poles 328 485 

Labor per pole (hauling, trimming, setting and cross- 
arming) $18.78 $15.88 

Extra teaming (hauling men and material) 2.59 2.86 

Miscellaneous 1.10 4.43 

Insurance 95 .78 

" It will be noted that the miscellaneous charges in the second 
column of the table are rather high. This is due to the many 
incidentals that happen in the building of any transmission line 
occasioned by unforeseen difficulties, of damages and other diffi- 
culties that impede construction work. These figures are mean- 
ingless to anyone not familiar with the type of construction. 
Chestnut poles of class ' A ' specifications were used, which are 
nearer sawlogs than they are poles. Each pole was equipped with 
an angle-iron bayonet and with 2 wood crossarms 4 in. by 5 in. by 
8 ft. These in turn were equipped with three strings of suspension 
insulators 5 units per string." 

Rapid Erection of 50-Ft. ^Cedar Poles. Electrical World, April 7, 
1917, gives the following data on setting poles by the use of a 
Matthews pole erector. The San Diego, Cal., Consolidated Gas and 
Electric Company has been able to raise poles on 3 transmission 
lines in an average time of 12 mins. per pole. One line consisted 
of an 18-mile stretch of 66,000 volt circuit, and the other two were 
11,000 volt circuits. 12 miles and 16 miles long respectively. Most 
of the poles were 50 ft. Western red cedar, with not less than 9 in. 
tops and an average weight of 1600 lbs. each. In some places 55 ft. 
and 60 ft. poles were used. All of the lines stretch across rough, 
brush-covered country. 

The equipment which was used consisted of a Matthews pole 
erector with an extension built on the peak of the gin. It was 
found necessary to increase the effective height of the gin because 
of the 55 ft. and 60 ft. poles, which had to be raised occasionally, 
and because, in rough country, it is not always possible to place 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 891 

the bed of the pole-erector wagon on a level site and thus obtain 
the advantage of the full normal height of the gin. At first the 
increased height was obtained by putting a channel-iron extension 
on the peak of the gin. Later, when this extension was bent, it 
was replaced by another made from two pieces of Douglas fir 
measuring 3.75 ins. by 5.75 ins. by 10 ft. 

Experience with this outfit has shown that it is advisable to 
haul the pole-erector wagon with a team and to use an automobile 
truck for pulling the rope. Where the earth is soft the wagon has 
to be blocked up so that the feet of the erector will have a solid 
bearing. In speaking of the use of this apparatus under severe 
conditions in rough country, L. M. Klauber, superintendent of the 
electrical department for the San Diego company, pointed out that 
even on the first day this outfit was used the line crew required an 
average of only 13 mins. from pole to pole, including the time 
consumed in setting the erector and in traveling from hole to hole. 
The pole spacing was 350 ft. 

The pole erector was made by W. N. Matthews & Bro., of St. 
Louis. 

Cost of Setting Poles by Block and Tackle. E. B. Hook, super- 
intendent of construction, Georgia Railway & Power Co., gives the 
following data in Electrical World, Feb. 24, 1917. 

We have set quite a number of poles in north Georgia during 
the past few years, and by using a block and tackle method of 
our own design have been able to set a large number of 50 ft. 
creosoted poles in a day's time with a minimum number of men 
at a cost of 60 cts. to 75 cts. per pole. This figure, of course, does 
not include anything but actually setting and tamping in the poles. 
The cost of compiling the figures is negligible, as it required merely 
the scanning of a few daily field reports selected at random. We 
have used the block and tackle method for a couple of years and 
employed a pair of mules and 9 or 10 men to set poles. Recently 
a 1.5 ton truck has been substituted for the mules and the services 
of 6 or 7 men dispensed with. In other words, we are now setting 
from 25 to forty 50 ft. and 60 ft. creosoted poles, weighing ap- 
proximately 2 tons each, in a day with 3 men and the truck at a 
cost which is approximately 33 cts. per pole. 

Cost of Chestnut Poles and Pole Line. The report of the Board 
of Public Utility Commissioners of New Jersey on the application / 
of the Jersey Power Company to issue capital stock, abstracted in 
Electrical World, Aug. 8, 1914, states that, the contract with the 
Hopatcong Mountain Lake Land Development Company for 516 
poles showed the following prices: Six 70 ft. long at $18.50 each; 
ten of 65 ft. at $15 each; fifty of 60 ft. at $11.50; eighty of 55 ft. 
at $8.75 ; 120 of 50 ft. at $8 : 250 of 45 ft. at $5.50. The average 
price was $7.50; the average height was 49 ft. 

The cost of poles from Boonton to Millbrook, N. J., is figured by 
the commission at $2,660. This allows for 406 poles with a total 
of 19,250 ft., or an average of 47.3 ft. and an average price of 
$6.55 per pole. This estimate is based on an average number of 
45 poles per mile. The commission's engineer, H. E. Carver, testi- 



892 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fied that in his judgment $4.10 was an adequate price for setting 
a pole. Tlie engineer for the company, Mr. Lowe, testified that 
the cost of stringing wire would average about $25 per mile of wire. 
The commission allowed $45 per mile for stringing wire from Mill- 
brook to Dover owing to the conditions under which this wire must 
be strung. 

In general, on the figures of the company the commission esti- 
mated the average price of poles delivered on the cars at $7.50 each. 
It allowed on the basis of the evidence $7.50 as the average cost for 
unloading, teaming, hauling, digging, locating, framing, setting and 
tree-trimming, including necessary guys and anchors for poles. 
The commission allowed for wire 5% more than the estimate of 
the company inasmuch as the estimate allowed nothing for sag. 
For braces, insulators and cross-arms on poles the commission 
allowed only $7 between Boonton and Millbrook. To the total net 
cost of physical construction, as estimated, the commission added 
13% for engineering and contingencies. The testimony as to the 
cost of right-of-way showed an outlay of roughly $8,000 therefor. 

Detail Cost of Cross-Arms. The following is taken from cost 
data compiled by Mr, Burroughs, engineer of Washington State 
Commission. 

Placing Arms. One line man at $3.75 per day will tack on from 
20 to 30 6-pin arms in one day. Considering 25 as an average, 
the cost would be 11 cts. each. An average of fifteen 10- and 
16-pin arms can be placed at a cost of 25 cts. each. 

Fitting up Arms. One man at 35 cts. per hr. can fit up 10 10-pin 
arms per hr.. a cost of 3.5 cts, each. On this basis a 6-pin would 

TABLE X. SINGLE CROSS ARM PRICES 

6 10 16 10 20 Back Extra 

Material pin pin pin knob knob brace brace 

Cross arm $0.30 $0.43 $0.44 $0.30 $0.30 

2 30-in. braces 18 .18 .18 .18 .18 $0.18 

1 machine bolt, % ins. by 

12 ins 05 .05 .05 .05 .05 

2 car bolts % ins. by 4 ins. .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 02 

1 lag screw i^-in. by iVo 

ins 01 .01 .01 .01 .02 

Locust pins 1 % ins. by 8 

ins 09 .14 .23 

No. 4 knobs 05 .10 

3-in. No, 15 screws 03 .06 .... 

1 angle iron back brace $0.09 .... 

4 machine bolts Vi-in. by 

4 V2 ins .' 09 .... 



$0.65 $0.83 $0.93 $0.64 $0.73 $0.99 $0.20 

Labor 

Fitting up arms $0.03 $0.04 $0.05 $0.08 $0.10 .... 

Distributing arms 03 ,03 .03 .03 .03 

Placing arms 11 .25 .25 .25 .25 $0.35 $0.15 



$0.17 $0.32 $0.33 $0.36 $0.38 $0.35 $0.15 
Total cost $0.82 $1.15 $1.26 $1.00 $1.11 $1.34 $0.35 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 893 

TABLE XI. DOUBLE CROSS ARM PRICES 

6 10 16 10 20 

Material pin pin pin knob knob 

2 cross arms $0.60 $0.86 $0.88 $0.60 $0.60 

4 30-in. braces 36 .36 .36 .36 .36 

1%-in. by 18-in. machine bolt 08 .08 .08 .08 .08 

4%-in. by 4-in. car bolts 04 .04 .04 .04 .04 

4%-in. by 18-in. double arm bolt.. .24 .48 .48 .48 .48 

2 1/2 -in. by 41/2 -in. lag .screws 03 .03 .03 .03 .03 

1 M by 8-in. locust pins 17 .28 .45 

Knobs 10 .20 

Screws 06 .12 

$1.52 $2.13 $2.32 $1.75 $1.91 
Labor 

Fitting up arms $0.08 $0.12 $0.14 $0.20 $0.25 

Distributing arms 04 .04 .04 .04 .04 

Placing arms 37 .65 .65 .65 .65 

$0.49 $0.81 $0.83 $0.89 $0.94 

Total cost $2.01 $2.94 $3.15 $2.64 $2.85 

cost 2.5 cts. and a 16-pin 4.5 cts. Placing knobs will cost at least 
7.5 cts. lor a 10-knob and 10 cts. for a 20-knob. 

Distribution. A team at $6 and a ground man at $2.50 (a total 
charge of $8.50 per day) will distribute all the arms that an 
ordinary gang can use. Hence the cost of distributing will depend 
entirely upon the number used. Considering a 10-man gang as 
placing 200 arms per day, and this team and ground man requiring 
one-half day to load and distribute them, the cost will be 2.1 cts. 

Creosoted. Creosoting will cost 13 cts. for a 10-pin and 14 cts. 
for a 16-pin arm. These prices are based on a cost of $15 per 
M. ft. b. m. for creosoting lumber. 

Brackets. Cost of oak bracket 1.5 cts. ; cost of spikes, 1 ct. ; 
labor, considering 15 brackets placed per hour, 3 cts. ; making a 
total 5.5 cts. 

Labor Cost of Stringing Guys. The data given in the following 
table were obtained in connection with an appraisal on the Pacific 
Coast. 

LABOR COST OF STRINGING GUTS 

Guys Cost Average Cost 

Class Size per day per guy length, ft. per ft. 

Head or stub #8 galv. iron 9 $1.11 163 $0.0068 

14 -in. g. i. 

Head or stub %-in. g. i. 6 1.66 160 0.0104 

Anchor #8 g. i. 8 1.25 39 0.0321 

1/4 -in. g. i. 

Anchor %-in. g. i. 5 2.00 58 0.0345 

Bridle Guy %-in. g. i. 4 2.50 75 0.0333 

In the above table the cost per guy is based upon the average 
number of guys placed per day by the following gang: 

2 linemen at $3.75 per day $7.50 

1 groundman at $2.50 per day 2.50 

Total labor co.st per day $10.00 



894 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Detail Cost of Single Anchor Guys. The following costs are 
taken from a recent Pacific Coast appraisal. 

Digging holes at $1.98 each: 

6 laborers. 8 hrs. at 30 cts. dig 8 holes at a cost of. .$14.40 
Add 107o for foreman's wages = 1.44 

Cost of 8 holes « $15.84 

Placing and refilling at $1.11 each: 

1 man, 8 hrs. at 50 cts $ 4.00 

3 laborers, 8 hrs. at 30 cts 7.20 

Place and refill 11 holes at a cost of $11.20 

Add 10% for foreman's wages 1.12 

Cost for 11 holes $12.32 

Placing strand at $0.93 each: 

4 linemen, 8 hrs. at 50 cts $16.00 

2 helpers, 8 hrs. at 30 cts 4.80 - 

Place 24 guy strands at a cost of $20.80 

Add 10% for foreman's wages 2.08 

Cost for 24 guy strands $22.88 

The average cost for teaming is approximately $0.25 per guy. 

The average cost of tying in an insulator is $0.07. 

Cost of Anchor Logs and Guys. The following data are from a 
recent Pacific Coast appraisal. 

Anchor logs are frequently made from old poles cut in 6 to 8 ft. 
lengths. Two men will cut, dig holes for and place one such 
anchor log in about 5 hrs. Two linemen will place a single guy 
in 1 hr. and a double guy in 2 hrs. An iron wire guy takes 2 men 
about .5 hr. to complete. Comparative costs are as follows: 

COST OF ANCHOR LOGS AND GUYS 

Single Double Wire 

guy guy guy 

Cutting anchor log, 6 ft. at 7 cts $0.42 $0.42 

Digging holes and placing log, 10 hrs. at 25 cts. 2.50 2.50 .... 

Teaming 25 .25 $0.10 

Placing strand 1.00 2.00 .50 

Cost complete $4.17 $5.17 $0.60 

Detail Cost of a 50 Ft. Single Anchor Guy. The following is from 
a recent Pacific Coast ai)praisal. 

Cost 

50 ft. of 5/ir,-in. strand, at $0.14 $0.57 

2 guy hooks, at $0.06 12 

1 bolt % ins. by 12 ins 05 

1 thimble 02 

2-3 bolt clamps at $0,123 25 

2 strain plates. 4 by 8 ins. at $0.042 08 

Nails 01 

Total cost of ^16-in. guy complete $1,10 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 895 

For %-in. strand add $0.55 

Total cost of %-in. guy complete $1.65 

For Vi6-in, strand add $0.60 

Total cost of viG-in. guy complete $2.25 

For a double guy, add another clamp and an extra 
thimble, a total of $0.14 

And in addition, for strand : 

%6-in. : 45 ft' X $0.0114 = $0.51 
9i6-in. : 45 ft. x $0.0223 rr $1.00 
7^6-in. : 45 ft. X $0.0342 -. $1.54 

TABLE XII. COST OF SINGLE HEAD GUYS 145 FT. LONG 

%6-in. %-in. %6-in. 

strand strand strand 

Strand, 145 ft. long 1.65 3.23 4.96 

Guy hooks $0.12 $0.12 $0.12 

Machine bolts 05 .05 .05 

Guy clamps 25 .25 .25 

Strain plates .IT .17 .17 

Nails 01 .01 .01 

$2.25 $3.83 $5.56 

Iron wire 145 ft. long co.sts for No. 6, $0.57 and for No. 9, $0.30. 

Cost of Head Guys. The following is from a recent Pacific Coast 
appraisal. 

Two men and a helper will place 3 head guys in 2 hrs. The 
following are costs for insulated and uninsulated head guys. 

Insulated Uninsulated 

guy guy 

72 ft. of %-in. strand at $0.012 $0.86 $0.86 

1 wood insulator 23 .... 

Placing strand 95 .95 

Distributing : 10 .10 

Tying in insulator, each 07 .... 

Cost, complete $2.21 $1.91 

Concrete Poles. The principal advantages of concrete poles are 
greater strength and length of life. The principal disadvantages 
are difficulty in setting due to weight, greater first cost, although 
in many cases the annual cost of concrete poles is less than for 
wood, and in some cases the fir.st cost is even lower than for wood 
poles of equal strength. Another disadvantage claimed by ex- 
ponents of the wooden pole is that a lineman working on the wires 
on a concrete pole is grounded, which is not the case on a wood 
pole. 

However, due to the greater durability of the concrete pole, its 
greater reliability in times of severe stress and the constantly 
increasing cost of wood pales, the concrete pole is often to be 
preferred. 

Cost of 30 Ft. Concrete Poles. The following is abstracted from 
a letter by F. S. Hunt to Engineering & Contracting, Feb. 26, 1908. 



896 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The prime factors in the construction of concrete poles are the 
materials forming the grout. Unless the best quality of crushed 
stone and sand is used, desired results cannot be obtained. 

The steel reinforcing rods are placed 1 in. from the surface of 
the pole in 3 sets : 4 rods extend to the top of the pole, 4 rods two- 
thirds of the length of the pole and 4 rods one-third of the length. 
In testing the finished pole to destruction this distribution of the 
steel was found to be practical, giving a uniform stress from top 
to ground line. A 30 ft. pole with 6 in. top and 9 in. base deflected 
3 ft. at the top from a plumb line, and straightened when the load 
was removed without any apparent damage to the pole. A 30 ft. 
pole must stand a strain of 2,500 ft. lbs. at the groundline. The 
feature to be reckoned with in the building of a line of concrete poles 
is the transportation and erection. A 30 ft. pole, with a 6 in. top, 
will weigh 2,000 lbs. It is a practical proposition to build this 
length pole in a yard, in forms on the ground. A pole of any 
greater length should be built in place, fi-om the ground up, although 
there have been erected 4.5 ft. poles that weighed 5,600 lbs. The 
.30 ft. reinforced concrete pole can be built in Chicago for $7.50 
and erected with proper equipment for $1 each. 

The reinforced 30 ft. concrete pole with 6 in. top and 10 in. 
base, and corners chamfered to 1 in. radii contains .5 cu. yd. of 
concrete and 200 lbs. of steel, the cost being as follows: 

200 lbs. of steel at $1.85 per 100 lbs $3.70 

Yz cu. yd. concrete at $7.50 per yd 3.75 

Total $7.45 

The estimate of the cost of the finished pole is based on the 
following prices: Crushed stone $1.25 per cu. yd., sand $1.10 
per cu. yd., cement $1.75 per bbl., and labor 20 cts. per hr. 

Reinforced-Concrete Poles. J. G. Jackson in Electrical World, 
Jan. 17, 1914, gives the following. ' Perhaps the largest installation 
of concrete poles is that of 25,000 poles installed in connection with 
the municipal street lighting and general light and power distribu- 
tion system of the Toronto Hydro-Electric System in Toronto, 
Canada. 

In the design and construction of the poles employed in this in- 
stallation an effort was made to eliminate unnecessary details and 
to render the manufacture as simple as possible in order that poles 
might be turned out rapidly and at low cost. A pole of solid 
square cross-section with beveled edges was adopted. As the ma- 
jority of these poles were intended to carry an ornamental lighting 
bracket and tungsten lamp, they were provided with a .5 in. iron 
pipe cast in the pole with lower outlet at the lamp and upper 
outlet under the line wires. 

The earlier poles of the installation were provided with three 
galvanized -steel cross-arms cast to the pole and having a hole at 
each end for a steel core pin. This arrangement of cross-arms was 
not found sufficiently flexible in obtaining clearances of the lines 
and was later discarded. Holes were provided through the pole 



OVERHEAD ELECTRIC AE TRANSMISSION 897 

with a slot on either face so that brackets of any desired length 
could be bolted to the pole. 

The poles ranged from 24 ft. to 35 ft. in length, the majority- 
being 24 ft. long. Standard poles were made with 8-in. by 8-in. 
base and 5 -in. by 5 -in. top, for 24 ft. poles, with 9 -in. by 9 -in. base 
and 6-in. by 6-in. top for 30 ft. poles, and with 10-in. by 10-in. 
base and 6-in. by 6.5-in. top for 35 ft. poles. The longitudinal rein- 
forcement consisted of four deformed or square twisted steel bars 
of high elastic limit set at the corners of the pole and 0.5 in. from 
the surface. Three-eighth-in. bars were used in the 2 4 -ft. poles 
and 0.5 in. bars in the longer ones. 

The plant employed in the manufacture of these poles consisted 
in the main of parallel horizontal forms arranged in rows with a 
runway at one end of the forms for the delivery of concrete, to- 
gether with concrete mixer and special wagons for placing the con- 
crete in the poles. All forms were constructed of finished Southern 
pine, as more satisfactory results were obtained with this wood 
than with the less dense and resinous Northern variety. Bases of 
forms were spaced 2 ft. apart with wooden rails between, one pair 
of sides being provided for each three bases. A very wet mixture 
of concrete in the proportions of one part cement to two parts of 
sharp sand and four parts of crushed limestone of less than 0.5-in. 
size was used. The quality of sand used was found to have an 
appreciable effect on the characteristics of the pole, a sharp sand, 
as would be expected, tending to produce the more elastic concrete. 
Gravel instead of crushed stone was found to give satisfactory 
results. 

In casting the poles, sides were set up and forms poured on 
every third base during the first day. On the following day the 
side walls were removed from the first poles and advanced to the 
second base, and the operation was repeated. On the fourth day 
the first poles cast were removed from the forms and the cycle of 
operations was started again. The removal of poles from the 
forms was accomplished by sliding the pole endwise from the form 
in stages a distance slightly greater than its length every third 
day, until sufflciently set for handling. 

Vertical reinforcement was placed by laying it in the form on 
wire hangers suitably spaced and with open hooked portions to 
carry the reinforcing bars. The lateral reinforcerrient intended to 
take up the vertical shear and to prevent failure by buckling con- 
sisted of a series of short bars with hooked ends dropped diagonally 
across the longitudinal members at intervals and for a distance 
above and below the ground line proportioned to the strain to be 
provided for. No effort was made to bind the longitudinal rein- 
forcement in a cage by means of the suspension wires or together 
by means of the cross-reinforcing bars except by hooking together 
as noted and depending on the setting of the concrete to complete 
the bond, and lock the reinforcement in place. 

Cost of Concrete Electric Railway Trolley Poles. The Fort 
Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction Co., operating some 150 miles of 
street and interurban trolley line, proposes to make its renewals 



898 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE Xlll. COST OF STREET-LIGHTING POLES DESIGNED 
TO CARRY SIX WIRES AND ORNAMENTAL TUNGSTEN- 
LAMP BRACKET WITH CONDUIT CONNECTION 

24-ft. pole, 8-in. by 8-in. base, 5-in. by 5-in. top ; volume of concrete, 

7 cu. ft. 

Cement, at 40 cents per bag $0.70 

Stone, at $1.33 per ton 0.40 

Sand, at $1.15 per cu. yd 0.15 

%-in. steel reinforcing bars, at $1.95 0.89 

Suspensions for reinforcing bars 0.06 

Lateral reinforcing bars 0.10 

V, -inch pipe and fittings 0.27 

Three galvanized-steel cross-arms 0.26 

Miscellaneous material 05 

Depreciation of forms 0.40 

Mixer and other plant 0.12 

Preparing yard 0.08 

Total $3.48 

Labor 1.05 

Total labor and material, etc $4.53 

Adding for engineering supervision, office expenses, 10% 0.45 

Total $4.98* 

30-ft. pole, 9 -in. by 9-in. base, 6-in. by 6-in. top; volume of con- 
crete 12 cu., ft. 

Cement $1.20 

Stone 0.71 

Sand 0.26 

V-i-in. steel bars, at $1.85 1.89 

Suspensions 0.07 

Lateral reinforcing bars 0.14 

i/^-inch pipe and fittings 0.43 

Galvanized cross-arms 0.26 

Miscellaneous 0.06 

Forms 0.50 

Mixer and other plant 0.12 

Yard 0.08 

Total $5.72 

Labor 1.31 

Plus 1076 0.70 

Total cost $7.73* 

* This includes the iron conduit pipe and galvanized steel cross- 
arms, so that the cost of a plain 24-ft. pole would be $4.39 and 
that of a plain 30^ft. pole would be $6.97. 

with concrete poles of the construction shown by Figs. 4 to 7. The 
weight and dimensions of the pole and the bill of material required 
are given for each size. Regarding the construction of these poles 
H. L. Weber, chief engineer of the road, writes : 

" The cost of constructing concrete poles depends so much upon 
the location of the materials with respect to the points where the 
poles are to be erected that general figures are difficult to state. 
Having several good gravel banks at convenient points along our 
right of way. which is 120 miles in length, and having our road 
already built and the equipment ayailable for handling materials 



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Fig. 4. Trolley pole 42 ft. long. 

Fig. 5. Trolley pole 32 ft. long. 

Fig. 6. Trolley pole 30 ft. long. 

899 



900 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



and poles, we have been able to build concrete poles for about the 
same cost as a wooden pole all fitted up and painted. We figure 
that a 33-ft. pole costs $7.50 and a 45-ft. pole costs $15, at pit. 
It is difficult to figure the cost of molds, as one mold .should be 
good for a number of poles, depending on the care that is taken 
of it. I 




Pig. 7. Concrete telephone pole. 



BILL. OF MATERIAL^ 42 FT. POLE 

Item Lbs. 

4 pes. %-in. X 42 ft. twisted'steel bar 321.2 

8 pes. i^-in. x32 ft. twisted steel bar 217.6 

8 pes. %-in. x 16 ft. twisted steel bar 61.2 

20 pes., total weight of steel 600.0 

Concrete, 237 cu. ft., weight 3,030.0 

Approximate weight of pole 3,630.0 

Surface area of steel 14,176 sq. in. 

Base area of steel 5,375 sq. in. 

BILL OF MATERIAL, 32 FT. POLE 

Item Lbs. 

12 pes. %-in. x 30-ft. twisted steel bar 172.0 

8 pes. %-in. X 20 ft. twisted steel bar 76.6 

8 pes. %-in. X 10 ft, twisted steel bar 38.3 

28 pes. total weight of steel 286.9 

Concrete, 13.7 cu. ft 1,758.0 

Approximate weight of pole 2,044.9 

Surface area of steel 10,800.0 sq. in. 

Base area of steel 3.93 sq. in. 




Crois5echo/7 af 

Ground 

£^nci-Conrr ' Copper PJa^e 

Fig. 8, Concrete trolley pole. 



901 



902 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

BILL OF MATERIAL, 30 FT. POLE 

Item Lbs. 

4 pes, i/^-in. X 30-ft. twisted steel bar 102.0 

12 pes. %-in. X 20 ft. twisted steel bar 114.7 

8 pes, %-in. x 10-ft. twisted steel bar 38.3 

24 pes., total weight of steel 255.0 

Conerete, 13.7 cu. ft., weight 1,758.0 

Approximate weight of pole 2,013.0 

Surfaee area of steel 10,560 .sq. in. 

Base area of steel 3,812 sq. in. 

No records of cost were kept. 

Cost of Reinforced Concrete Telephone Poles. (Engineering-Con- 
tracting, March 11, 1908.) The possibilities for reinforced con- 
erete poles in transmission line work were very carefully investi- 
gated by the Richmond, Tnd.. Home Telephone Co., which has con- 
structed a line across the Whitewater River, using poles ranging 
from 45 to 55 ft. in height of the construction shown by Pig. 8, 
invented by Wm. M. Bailey, vice-president and general manager 
of the company. The following account of these investigations and 
of the studies made by the American Concrete Pole Co., Richmond, 
Ind., which has been organized to market the poles, has been com- 
piled from information given us by Mr. Bailey. 

For poles 30 ft. long and under, the molding is done horizontally 
on the ground and the pole erected when hard like a wooden 
pole ; for poles over 30 ft. long the molding is done in forms set 
vertical in the pole hole. The following figures. Table XIV, are 
given as the cost without royalty of concrete poles molded as 
described. These costs are for poles erected, excluding the material 
cost of steps but including labor cost of setting steps, and they are 
based on the following wages and prices : 

Foreman, per day $3.00 

Laborers, per day 1.75 

Cement, per barrel 2.00 

Stone, gravel or sand, per cu. yd 1.00 

For sake of comparison, the cost of cedar poles has been added 
to the table ; these costs include poles, unloading, dressing, gaining, 
roofing, boring, hauling and setting. All figures are as furnished 
by Mr. Bailey. Regarding the methods of constructing concrete 
poles, Mr. Bailey says : 

"All of the larger concrete poles (that is, poles over 30 ft. in 
height) are built upright in position ready for use, the forms being 
set perpendicularly over the hole in which the pole is to be placed, 
the hole having been dug to conform with the size pole prior to the 
setting of form ; thus when the concrete is .poured in at the top 
of form, the hole is entirely filled and tlie conerete knit firmly to 
the solid earth that has never been disturbed. There is no replacing 
of earth or tamping required." 

Cost of 35 Ft. Concrete Poles. Electrical World, Nov. 2, 1912, 
gives the following: The 800-kw. water-power plant of the Rocky 
Ford Power Company is connected to the Manhattan (Kan.) Ice, 
Light & Power Company's plant by a 6-mile transmission line 
using concrete poles. These 35-ft. structures are rectangular in 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 903 







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904 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

section, with 45-deg'. corners to prevent cracliing, and measure 
15 in. at the base and 7 in. at the top. They are set at 260-ft. 
Intervals, The solid concrete is reinforced by four .75-in. steel rods. 
Four-by-four-inch galvanized .1875-in. angle-arms are used, carry- 
ing cast-iron pins through-bolted in place. The braces are formed 
of single, specially bent angles of smaller section. Built in a cen- 
tral yard after some experimentation, these 120 poles cost $22 each. 
They were hauled to their sites and erected with gin poles at a 
cost of $5 additional per pole, considerable unforeseen difficulty 
having been experienced in transporting the heavy structures 
through the soft marsh -» land which the line traverses. After 3 
years' service the line gives every evidence of complete durability 
and satisfaction. 

Cost of Manufacturing Reinforced Concrete Trolley Poles. During 
the season of 1910 the Syracuse Rapid Transit Railway Company 
manufactured 100 reinforced concrete poles. An analysis of the 
cost of construction of this class of pole was given in Engineering 
Record, June 24, 1911, as follows: 

The standard 30-ft. concrete pole is reinforced with four .625-in. 
twisted steel rods 29 ft. 6 in. long, one placed near each corner; 
four .5 -in. twisted rods 29 ft. 6 in. long, one placed in each side of 
the pole and four .5-in. twisted rods 18 ft. long extending from the 
butt upward, one on each side of the pole between the other rods. 
The butt of the pole measures 11 in. square and the top 6 in. square, 
a .625-in. hole being cast in the pole 3 ft. below the top for the 
span-wire eye-bolt and a cross-arm gain 12 in. below the top for 
a feeder-cable cross-arm. The corners of the pole are given a 2-in. 
bevel extending from the top of the pole to within 6 ft. of the 
butt. The concrete mixture is formed from one part Portland 
cement and two parts sand and two parts ,375 to .75-in. broken 
stone. 

The unit cost for one pole, taken from the total cost for a lot of 
fifty, including all labor and material except cost of forms and 
installation of plant, was: Labor, $2.81; material, $7.04; total, 
$9.85. 

The forms built were of hard pine 2 in. thick and cost $19.16 each. 

The cost of installing the plant, including derrick, concrete casting 
sills and cement shed with pump, etc., was $401.96. 

It is expected that the forms will suffice for the casting of 50 
poles each, without much repair. Depreciating the plant at 20 
per cent, per annum and assuming 500 poles built per year, the total 
cost per pole would be : 

Initial cost of pole $9.85 

Forms $19.16 for 50 poles 0.38 

Depreciation of plant per pole 0.16 

Total cost per pole $10.39 

The quantities used in the construction of one pole are : Cement, 
4.5 bags; sand, \'z cu. yd.; stone, \'z cu. yd.; steel, .625 in.; 118 ft. 
or 156.7 lbs., and .5 in.. 190 ft. or 161.5 lbs. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 905 

These poles are intended to be used instead of 7-in., 6-in. and 
5-in. wrough iron tubular poles computed for a safe load of 985 
lbs. and costing about $35 each, or instead of wooden poles costing 
$7.50 each. 

The weight of these poles complete is 2,550 lbs. and their erec- 
tion is accomplished, as illustrated, with a steel derrick wagon which 
was constructed by the company, using the frame of an old road 
scraper and a wooden boom made from a wooden trolley pole. 

Cost of Hollow Concrete Poles. Hexagonal shaped poles, hollow 
through the center, used by the Oklahoma Gas and Electric Com- 
pany are described in Engineering Record, Oct. 30, 1909, as follows: 
A 3 5 -ft. pole measures 7 in. across at the top and 16 in. across 
at the butt. They are molded in forms made up of 5 -ft. sections 
so that it is possible to cast a pole of practically any length. Steel 
rods are placed symmetrically about the central axis and at the 
top and bottom project through holes in steel plates. The rods are 
bent over at each end and securely fastened. The core, which is 
wrapped with one thickness of building paper, is suspended within 
the form by wires at intervals along its length. The concrete used 
consists of a mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts, sand and 3 parts 
chats or zinc tailings, which can be obtained in large quantities 
from the zinc mines of southwestern Missouri. With cement costing 
$1.50 per barrel, sand at $2 per cubic yard, chats at $2 per cubic 
yard and labor at $2 per day of eight hours, the cost of manu- 
facturing a 35-ft. pole 7 in, across at the top averages $10. Three 
men can make three poles per day. according to J. M. Brown, 
superintendent for the company. A 35-ft. pole molded, hauled to 
place and set, with steel cross-arms and pins mounted ready for 
stringing wires, costs $18. It is claimed that concrete poles are 
more rigid than wooden poles, their maintenance cost is small, and, 
being hollow, wires can be run inside of them. 

Cost of Concrete Electric- Lamp Poles for St. Mary's Falls Canal. 
L. C. Sabin gives the following costs in Engineering News, March 2, 
1911. The poles are 11 ins. square at the base, and 6 ins. at the top, 
with the corners chamfered by inserting in the corners of the mold 
triangular strips 1 in. on a side. The reinforcement consists of one 
.625-in. square, twisted bar, 35 ft. long, in each corner, extending 
from about a foot above the base to the top, and two similar bars 
.5-in. square, 25 ft. long, in each side, extending to within 9 ft. of 
the top, so that the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement for 
the bottom part of the pole is 3.56 sq. ins., but for the top 9 ft. 
of the pole it is but 1.56 sq. ins. The bars were tied together at 
intervals of 4 ft., with two turns of No. 6 soft-steel wire, bent to a 
square, within which the rods are placed and secured at proper 
spacing by winding with stove wire. (Fig. 8.) 

In the center of each pole is placed a standard black gas pipe, 
1.25 ins. diameter, in two lengths of 15 ft., to lead the wires from 
the cutout box, near the base, to the top crook or goose neck. At 
the upper end of this pipe is placed a 2xl.25-in. reducer to con- 
nect with the 2-in. pipe forming the goose neck, and at the bottom 
it terminates In a 1.25-in. bend leading through the concrete to the 



906 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cutout box The top of the pole is finished with a special top 
casting, inclosing the upper end of the gas pipe, the reducer and 
the lower end of the goose neck. Fitted above this is a special 
conical watershed casting so made that an annular space between 
the latter and the lower part of the goose neck may be calked with 
lead or asphalt insulating compound. The cast-iron cutout box, 
of special design, covers the series cutout and the outlets of both 
ducts. The pole steps are of .625-in. round galvanized iron, 10 ins. 
long, projecting 5 ins., and are bent near the end in order to clear 
the central pipe. 

The poles were molded in a horizontal position and the forms 
for the concrete are shown in Fig. 8. In order to support the pole 
uniformly without an excessive amount of blocking, the foundation 
timbers were of 12 by 12 in. fir, 36 ft. long, which were on hand. 
Six of these were planed on one side, and framed, and the remainder 
of the mold was made in duplicate. This permitted one pole to 
be made each day, and provided for removing the sides 24 hrs. 
after being made and leaving the pole on its firm support for about 
a week. The forms for the sides, secured by cleats bolted to the 
12 by 12 in. timber, were so prepared as to be readily removed 
and placed on another timber. The method of supporting the pole 
steps shown was a little device that saved much time, and permitted 
the side pieces of the mold to be removed without disturbing the 
steps. 

The concrete aggregate was of limestone screenings passing a 
screen having 1-in. square openings. The proportions used were 
1.125 bbls. of cement, 7 cu. ft. of river sand and 14 cu. ft. of 
screenings. This batch made about 15 cu. ft. of concrete, or suffi- 
cient for one pole. It was mixed by hand, quite wet, and well 
puddled about the reinforcement. The top surface, forming one 
side of the pole, was finished as soon as ready. The following day 
the sides of the mold were removed and the two sides of the pole 
finished. After about a week, the pole was carefully tipped over 
on another 12 by 12 in. timber so that the remaining side could 
be finished, and when this was completed the pole was moved to 
storage. For finishing the sides the film of neat cement was re- 
moved by rubbing with a flat piece of sandstone and water, leaving 
a " sand " finish. Later, carborundum blocks were found well 
adapted to this purpose. 

When not governed by some special conditions, the poles are set 
31.5 ft. back from the face of the canal wall, in a block of mass 
concrete 3 ft. square by about 4 ft. deep. The method of setting 
was as follows : After digging the hole for the base, a flat stone 
was placed in the bottom, at the desired elevation, to receive the 
bottom of the pole. The pole was then laid at right angles to the 
canal wall, with the butt over the hole and the top extending away 
from the canal. Along the lower side of the pole was secured an 
8 by 8 in. timber, in which was cut. transversely, a semi-circular 
groove to fit over a timber roller about 6 ins. in diameter. This 
roller rested in two similar grooves, cut in 12 by 12 in. blocks 
staked to the ground, and formed a hinge about which the pole 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 907 

could revolve in a vertical plane at right angles to the canal wall. 
This hinge was so set that when the pole touched the stone at the 
bottom of the excavation it would be at an angle of about 45 deg. 
A floating derrick, with 45-ft. boom, lying in the canal opposite 
the pole, was used to hoist it into position, the pole first turning 
about the hinge and later about the lower corner resting on the 
stone. Some poles, set nearer the canal wall than the above, were 
hoisted into position with the derrick without using the hinge. 
After the pole was in place and secured by guy lines, the concrete 
was mixed by hand and filled around it. Where the sides of the 
excavation stood up well no forms were used below the ground 
surface, but in case much caving had taken place, a rough mold 
was used for the lower part of the base. A plank form was used 



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Fig. 9. 



Forms and reinforcement for reinforced concrete electric- 
lamp poles, St. Marys Falls Canal, Michigan. 



for the upper part above the ground surface, and this part was 
finished as usual after the removal of the form. After the concrete 
in the base had set the guys were removed and the pole wired for 
service. This consisted in laying, in a shallow trench, 2 in. gal- 
vanized duct from the manhole of the main conduits opposite the 
light to the 2 in. bend or crook imbedded in the base, and leading 
the necessary wires from this manhole to the outlet bell at the 
extreme end of the goose neck. 

The material and labor required in the construction of one pole, 
and the cost, are given in Table XV. The wages paid for eight 
hours' work were as follows: Foreman, $3; carpenters, $2.25 to 
$2.75 ; cement finisher, $2.25 ; common labor, $2 per day. The en- 
tire cost of forms is included in the cost of 42 poles, although much 
of the material is good for further use. 

For comparison with these reinforced-concrete poles, an estimate 
may be made of the cost of a wooden pole, with a pipe leading up 



908 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the outside, with a goose neck at the top, and set in a concrete 
base, as follows : 

1-12 by 12-in. 36-ft. stick of fir at $30 per M. ft. b.m.. .$12.96 

Pipe, .steps and top casting- . 3.37 

4 man-days labor trimming pole at $2.25 9.00 

Cost of pole in yard $25.33 

Transportation of pole to site 3.00 

Erection, including concrete base 22.00 

Wiring, etc., same as for concrete pole 25.67 



Total cost of wooden pole in place and wired $76.00 

TABLE XV. COST OP RETNFORCED-CONCRETE ELECTRIC- 
LAMP POLES FOR ST. MARY'S FALLS CANAL 

CONSTRUCTION 

(Based on 40 poles.) 
Materials — Reinforcement. 

350 lbs, cold twisted steel at 2.7 cts $9.45 

4 lbs, wire .10 

$9.55 
Pipe, etc., built into the pole. 

26 ft. 11/4 -in. steel gas pipe at 4.2 cts $1.09 

1 2 X 1^4 -in. reducer (at top to attach crook) ..... .10 

1 1 V4-in. bend (at bottom of pipe in pole) .32 

22 10-in. galv, pile .steps at 3 cts 66 

1 top casting 1.20 

$3.37 
Concrete, 

1 Vs bbhs. cement at $1.44 $1.62 

0.26 cu. yd. sand at 55 cts 14 

0.52 ou. yd. screenings at $1.10 .57 

$2.33 
Forms (for 42 poles). 

Lumber $75.12 

Bolts, pail and iron 10.45 

Labor, building 189.67 

Total $275.24 

Labor and Transporting Materials. 

Superintendence $1.42 

Hauling material, labor and tug service 2.85 

Assembling forms 1.55 

Assembling reinforcement 1.53 

Concreting, stripping and dressing 4.18 

Miscellaneous, blacksmith and contingencies 3.14 

Total labor and tug service $14.67 

Total cost of pole in yard $36.47 

TR AN SPORTATION 

Labor $0.63 

Tug (estimated) 3.00 

Total $3.63 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 909 

ERECTION 

(Based on 15 poles and including concrete base.) 
Materials. 

1% bbls. cement at $1.44 $1.99 

0.46 cu. yd. sand at 55 cts .25 

0.46 cu. yd. screening at $1.10 .50 

1.15 cu. yds. broken stone at $1.10 1.26 

Transporting, 3 tons, at 50 cts 1.50 

$5.50 
2-in. bend and coupling $ .92 

Labor. 

Superintendence $2.81 

Excavation and backfill 2.54 

EJrection with derrick ' 5.97 

Mixing and placing concrete, including forms 4.17 

Miscellaneous and contingencies 2.20 

$17.69 
Total, base and erection $24.11 

WIRING AND FITTING 

(Based on nine poles.) 
Materials. 

1 watershed $0.12 

1 2-in. crook or goose neck 1.25 

1 outlet bell 0.20 

1 cutout box 1.25 

1 pothead and cutout 4.40 

80 ft. No. 6 rubber covered wire, with weatherproof 

braid at 16 1/4 cts 13.00 

Miscellaneous supplies 0.30 

Total, material $20.52 

Labor, etc. 

Labor of wiring and fitting $3.63 

Transportation of materials and contingencies. ... 1.52 

$5.15 

Total, wiring and fitting $25.67 

SUMMARIZED COSTS 

Pole as molded, including materials used $36.47 

Transportation of pole to site 3.63 

Erection, including concrete base 24.11 

Wire, cutout, and other accessories through base and 

pole to lamp 20.52 

Wiring and fitting up pole 5.15 

Total cost in place and wired $89.88 

Tubular Iron Poles. Figs. 10 and 11 give the weight of standard 
and extra heavy poles for various safe loads, applied as a maximum 
side strain near the top without causing permanent deflection with 
the poles set 6 ft. in the ground. The weights are for poles with- 
out sleeves. With protecting sleeves the weight is increased from 
6 to 10%. 

In general the poles are made up of 3 sections of standard or 
extra heavy tubing as indicated in Fig. 11. 

The cost varies from about 2.75 cts. to 3.5 cts per lb. 



010 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Unit Costs of Tubular Iron Poles in Place. We have taken the 
following from the report of the Traction Valuation Commission, 



1.200 
-^1.000 



'%800 
%i?00 



% 



400 
200 











1 1 1 1 








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400 m m m 1200 m m im 2jm 2:200 zm 

3a fe load in Lbs 



Fig. 10. Standard tubular iron poles (without sleeve). 



2.000 
iSoo 

l.bOO 

r\lfiOO 



^1.000 

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400 





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ZOO bOO 1.000 I.400 (600 ZOOO 2,600 4000 ^200 

3ofe load in Lbs. 
Fig. 11. Extra heavy tubular iron poles (v/ithout sleeve). 

consi.sting of Bion J. Arnold, Mortimer E. Cooley and A. B. du Pont, 
Chicago, 1906: 



30 ft. poles, average weight 913 lbs. each, at 2% ct.s $25 10 

Labor and concrete, etc., erecting 5.50 



Total per pole in place $30.60 

From report of Traction Valuation Commission, consisting of 
Bion J. Arnold and Geo. Weston, Chicago, 1908 : 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 911 
Length, Weight, Cost Labor and Total in 



ft. 


lbs. 


pole 


concrete 


place 




35 
35 
30 
30 
30 
25 


1479 
1220 
1322 
1100 
525 
450 


$51.76 
42.70 
46.27 
38.50 
18.37 
15.75 


$9.24 
8.55 
8.73 
8.25 
6.81 
6.62 


$61.00 
51.25 
55.00 
46.75 
25.18 
22.37 




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Fig, 12. Construction of a tubular iron pole. 

From report of Traction Valuation Commission, consisting of 
Bion J. Arnold. Geo. Weston and Glenn E. Plumb, Chicago, 1908 : 

Length, Weight, Cost Labor and Total in 

ft. lbs. pole concrete place 

30 1000 $30.00 $9 $39.00 

28 690 20.20 9 29.20 

From appraisal in Detroit in 1909, by F. T. Barcroft: 

30 ft. poles, average weight 586 lbs. each, at 2% cts $16.12 

Labor erecting 9.78 

Total average in place $26.90 

Cost of Stringing Bare Wire. Table XVT is based upon labor con- 
ditions on the Pacific Coast, using different sized gangs in wire 
stringing in flat country. 

The Economic Design of a Distributing System. M. D. Cooper in 
Electrical World, March 7, 1914, gives the following. The deter- 
mination of the amount of money which can profitably be invested 
in a new electrical distribution system or in the reconstruction of 
an old one is a problem which can often be solved in very definite 
terms. Its solution is dependent upon the considerations which 
govern all commercial and engineering problems : " How can the 
most be got out of a dollar?" or "Will it pay?" These questions 
can be answered only when it is known how much income can be 
derived from the investment and how much the charges against 
the investment and the operating expenses will be. 

It is not proposed to treat quantitatively the fixed charges and 
expenses of a distribution system, for they depend largely upon 
local conditions. The point it is desired to emphasize is that often- 
times a much greater investment in lines can be justified on an 
economic and commercial basis than could be justified by the method 
of analysis heretofore largely used. 

Kelvin's Law of Investment and Losses. This analysis is based 
on Kelvin's laws, which may be stated as follows : " An electric 
line is built and operated at the least total expense when the fixed 
expenses on the investment in copper are equal to the cost of the 
line losses." 



912 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XVI. COST OF STRINGING WIRE 

r" GANG A , , GANG B > 

Copper Aluminum Copper Aluminum 

Size Miles Cost Miles Cost Miles Cost Miles Cost 

B. & S 1-wire per 1-wire per 1-wire per 1-wire per 

Gauge line mile line mile line mile line mile 

orcir. per 1-wr. per 1-wr, per 1-wr. per 1-wr. 

mils. day line day line day line day line 

12 2.95 $9.49 2.95 $9.49 5.14 $7.26 5.14 $7.26 

10 2.87 9 76 2.87 9.76 4.98 7.49 4.98 7.49 

9 2.83 9.89 2.83 9.89 4.90 7.61 4.90 7.61 

8 2.77 10.11 2.77 10.11 4.86 7.67 4.86 7.67 

7 2.68 10.45 2.68 10.45 4.74 7.87 4.74 7.87 

6 2.60 10.77 2.60 10.77 4.61 8.09 4.61 8.09 

5 2.50 11.20 2.50 11.20 4.43 8.42 4.43 • 8.42 

4 2.33 12.02 2.33 12.02 4.24 8.80 4.24 8.80 

3 2.23 12.56 2.23 12.56 3.98 9.37 3.98 9.37 

2 2.04 13.72 2.04 13.72 3.71 10.05 3.71 10.05 

1 1.87 14.97 1.87 14.97 3.40 10.97 3.40 10.97 

1/0 1.70 16.47 1.70 16.47 3.06 12.19 3.06 12.19 

2/0 1.49 18.79 1.49 18.79 2.68 13.92 2.68 13.92 

3/0 1.30 21.54 1.33 21.05 2.27 16.43 2.32 16.08 

4/0 1.12 25.00 1.14 24.58 1.91 19.53 1.95 19.13 

250000 0.965 29.02 1.00 28.00 1.63 22.88 1.69 22.07 

275000 0.892 31.39 0.932 30.04 1.49 25.04 1.56 23.91 

300000 0.830 33.73 0.880 31.82 1.37 27.23 1.45 25.73 

325000 0.773 36.22 0.820 34.15 1.27 29.37 1.35 27.63 

350000 0.725 38.62 0.775 36.13 1.18 31.61 1.26 29.61 

400000 0.639 43.82 0.676 41.42 1.05 35.53 1.11 33.61 

450000 0.571 49.04 0.620 45.16 0.93 40.11 1.10 36.94 

500000 0.506 55.33 0.555 50.45 0.84 44.41 0.92 40.55 

Gang- A consisted of: 

1 foreman at $4 per day $ 4 

4 linemen at $3.75 per day 15 

4 groundmen at $2,25 per day 9 

Total, Gang A $28 

Gang B consisted of: 

1 foreman at $5.80 per day $ 5.80 

6 linemen at $3.75 per day 22.50 

4 groundmen at $2.25 per day 9.00 

Total, Gang B $37.30 



The following example illustrates the truth of this law. Suppose 
that with an investment in copper of $100,000, the cost of energy 
consumed in the line amounts to $20,000 per year. If the fixed 
charges — interest, depreciation, taxes, etc. — are 20% of the invest- 
ment, these fixed charges amount to $20,000 per year, an amount 
equal to the cost of the line losses. If the copper were increased 
twofold the line losses would be cut in half, and conditions would 
be as follows : 

Investment in copper $200,000 

Fixed charges on copper (20%) 40,000 

Cost of line losses 10,000 

Total annual expenses $50,000 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 913 

This amount is seen to be more than in the former case, when 
the fixed charges were equal to the cost of the line losses. Table 
XVII shows what conditions would prevail with various changes 
in the copper investment. It is seen that the most economical 
operation of the line is secured when the copper investment is such 
that the fixed costs and the cost of the line losses are equal. 

This analysis is based on the primary assumption that a given 
amount of energy is to be transmitted from one place to another. 



TABLE XVII. 



LOSSES AND CHARGES WITH VARIOUS 
COPPER INVESTMENT 



Investment 

in 

copper 

$50,000 
75,000 
100,000 
150.000 
200.000 



Annual 
Relative fixed 

investment charges, 20 
per cent. 



0.50 
0.75 
1.00 
1.50 
2.00 



$10,000 
15,000 
20,000 
30,000 
40,000 



Relative 

line 

losses 

2.00 
1.33 
1.00 
0.66 
0.50 



Cost of 

line 
losses 

$40.G00 
26,666 
20,000 
13.333 
10,000 



Total 
annual 
expense 

$50,000 
41,666 
40,000 
43.333 
50,000 



and therefore that any decrease of line losses wnll decrease the 
coal con.sumption correspondingly. Such a method of analysis can 
be applied only to problems in transmission. When we come to 
consider distribution, there enter other factors which modify the 
application of the analysis. 

As applied to the distribution system as a whole, Kelvin's law 
can still be applied to give approximate results, for an increase 
in the copper inve.stment would decrease the line losses and allow 
the maintenance of the same average delivered pressure with a 
reduction in the station voltage. The intangible but positive value 
of good regulation as an asset in favor of greater line investment 
makes it impossible, even in this case, to make strict application of 
Kelvin's law. As applied to a single feeder (without a regulator) 
or to a limited district, an increase in copper investment will de- 
crease the line losses by some certain amount, but if the same 
total amount of energy is delivered to the feeder or district, the 
energy sales must be increased by the amount of the decrease 
in losses. 

Decrease of Wattage with Terminal Pressure. Direct-current 
motors, incandescent lamps, flatirons and all energy-consuming 
devices of the resistor class decrease in wattage consumption as 
the applied voltage is decreased. For this kind of load, therefore, 
the effect of line loss between the station or the center of distribu- 
tion and the load is to cause not only a loss of energy in the line 
but also a decrease in the energy con.sumed by the load. Moreover, 
an increase of voltage means a more than proportionately increased 
energy consumption by the load itself; hence in this case the in- 
crease in copper investment results not only in a saving of line 
loss or a transfer of part of the loss to the energy sold, but also 
in the sale of additional energy over and above the transfer of line 
loss. 



914 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The question of how much the total increase in energy sale will 
amount to depends upon the characteristics of the load. If the load 
is a constant resistance, for which the wattage varies- as the square 
of the voltage, the total increase in energy consumption will be 
twice as great as the decrease in the line losses. If the wattage 
varies directly with the voltage, the transfer from line loss will 
constitute the whole of the increased energy consumption. 



o r 

5 

4 

3 

:z 



13 



15 



1 3 5 7 9 11 

Fig. 13. Curve showing most economical copper investment 



17 



TABLE XVIII. RELATION BETWEEN WATTAGE AND 
VOLTAGE 

Load Exponent n 

Direct-current motor (constant torque load) 0.8 to 1.0 

Direct-current motor (generator load) About 1.0 

Alternating-current motor About 1.0 

Fiatiron 1.9 

Toaster 2.0 

Arc lamp 2.0 to 2.2 

Incandescent lamp, carbon 1.9 

Incandescent lamp, metallized filament 1.8 

Incandescent lamp, tungsten filament 1.6 



Table XVIII gives data showing the relation between wattage 
and voltage for various classes of load. The second column, giving 
empirical exponents in the assumed relation wattage, varies as 
(voltage)'^. This table establishes the fact that about 1.5 is a 
conservative figure for the average exponent in the assumed rela- 
tion of wattage to voltage. 

In general it can therefore be said that a line reconstruction 
which decreases the energy loss in the lines by a certain amount 
in k.w.-hrs. will increase the energy sales by about one and one- 
half times that amount. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 915 

The effect of this reconstruction is, therefore, not only to de- 
crease the losses but to increase the sale of energy. In applying 
Kelvin's law the decreased loss is taken into account but no con- 
sideration is given to the increased energy sale. Since the sale 
price of energy is often many times the direct or increment cost 
of generation, it is evident that a most important item has thus 
been neglected, 

TABLE XIX. RELATION BETWEEN COPPER INVESTMENT 
AND COSTS 

Relative copper investment 

1.00 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 

(1) copper investment. $100,000 $175,000 $200,000 $225,000 $250,000 

(2) Fixed charges 20,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 50,000 

(3) Cost of line losses.* 20,000 11,430 10,000 8,888 8,000 

(4) Total expense ... 40,000 46,430 50,000 53,888 58,000 

(5) Transfer from 
losses to energy 
sales, $20,000 minus 

(3) 8,570 10,000 11,111 12,000 

(6) Extra energy gen- 
erated and sold, 

half of (5) 4,285 5,000 5,555 6,000 

(7) Total increase in 
energy sales (5) 

plus (6) 12,855 15,000 16,666 18,000 

(8) Gross profit on 

same, two times (7) 25,710 30,000 33,333 36,000 

(9) Net expense, (4) 

minus (8) 40,000 20,720 20,000 20,555 22,000 

* The values given neglect the extra line loss due to the increase 
in line current. This affects the final result less than 1 per cent. 

Returning to the previous example, Table XIX is given to de- 
termine the most economical copper investment, assuming that the 
selling price of energy is three times the direct or increment cost 
of generation. 

This table shows that when the sale price of energy is three 
times the direct or increment cost of generation the most economical 
copper investment is twice as much as the amount that would be 
indicated by applying Kelvin's law. 

It can be shown that if the ratio of sale price of energy to the 
direct cost of generation is p, then, considering this fact, the ratio / 
of the actual economical copper investment to the apparent eco- 
nomical copper investment as derived by Kelvin's law is given by 
the relation 



V- 



3p 



The accompanying curve shows this relation in a graphical form. 
The advisability of investing more money in copper in the I'e- 
construction of old lines and the determination of the amount of 
copper to use in new lines are problems which require study from 
several standpoints, one or more of which may govern the final 



916 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

solution. As has been brought out in this article, ordinary con- 
ditions of operation will almost always commercially justify a 
much greater investment in copper than could be justified on the 
basis of Kelvin's law. 

Cost of Constructing Pole Lines. J. M. Drabelle in a paper on 
factors determining rural line extensions states that the cost of 
constructing pole lines and stringing wires for 2,300-volt to 6,600- 
volt systems is from $325 to $425 per mile. 

H. W. Garner states that the style and cost of construction of 
small lines should to a certain extent depend on the probable amount 
of revenue obtainable from the localities supplied and advises the 
use of wooden-pole single phase lines costing from $500 to $1,200 
per mile complete for lines radiating from one small locality to 
other small towns. 

Cost of 2,300- Volt Line. Rufus E. Lee gives the cost of con- 
structing a 2,300-volt line on steel tripartite poles set in concrete 
as $600 per mile on the first 15 miles and $800 per mile on the 
last 17 miles of a 32 mile line. Long haulage of poles and con- 
struction supplies is said to account for the increased cost on the 
latter part of the work. 

Labor Cost of Building a Transmission Line. A power transmis- 
sion line described in Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 5, 1908, 
was to be run about 20 miles. ' For all but 9,500 ft. of this distance 
poles were up and being used for other purposes. For the distance 
named an entirely new line had to be built along a public road. 
The poles and cross arms were delivered at one end of the line 
by railroad, so the average haul on material was about one mile. 
The poles were from 30 to 33 ft. long, measuring from 5 to 9 ins. 
at the top and from 12 to 18 ins. at the butt. 

The wages paid for a 10-hr. day on the work were as follows: 

Foreman $3.00 

Laborers 1.50 

Lineman 2.50 

Team 2 horses and driver 4.50 

Hauling. The poles were hauled on a two-horse wagon, one man 
assisting the driver in loading and unloading them. Naturally a 
large per cent, of the cost of hauling was in taking the poles from 
the cars and unloading them from the wagon. The poles were of 
chestnut, fairly light, and 8 to 10 poles could be hauled at a trip. 
The cost of hauling the poles was : 

Team $22.50 

Laborers 7.50 

Total $30.00 

Digging Holes. In digging the holes for the poles, one man 
worked on a hole. He used a digging bar, a shovel with extra long 
handle and a spoon with same length handle. The holes were dug 
5 ft. deep and were 30 ins. in diam. at the top and about 18 ins, 
at the bottom, making an average diameter of 3 ft. From each 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 917 



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linois . 
linois . 


^^ 


CCEmR 





918 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

hole was excavated 0.58 cu. yd. The material was a red sandy- 
clay, and the holes were all dry. There were 74 holes dug. The 
cost was : 

Foreman $17.25 

Laborers 55.50 

Total $72.75 

The cost per hole was as follows : 

Foreman $0.23 

Men 0.75 

Total $0.98 

The cost per cu. yd. was as follows: 

Foreman , $0.40 

Men 1.30 

Total $1.70 

It will be noticed that one man dug 2 holes per day. On another 
job holes 5 ft. in diameter and 5 ft. deep were dug at the rate of 
two per man-day, at the same rate as thege holes were dug. On 
these larger holes about 6 times as much earth was handled at the 
same cost, thus showing how much cheaper earth can be handled 
from a hole large enough to admit of a man working in it. The 
hole poles had to be dug by the man standing over the hole. 
Another item that affects the cost is that on the larger diameter 
holes, two men worked together, while on the pole holes only one 
man worked on a hole, which meant a slow pace. 

Raising Poles. The pole raising was done by hand. A deadman 
and a jenny were used, these being manipulated by two men. The 
foreman or a lineman held a metal slide in the hole for the butt 
of the pole to slide against, keeping it from gouging into the side 
of the hole. The rest of the crew used pikes to lift the top of the 
pole, and place it in the hole. The crew consisted of the foreman, 
one lineman and about 7 men. 

The method of operation was as follows : The pole was rolled 
to the hole by means of bars and cant hooks. The slide mean- 
time was placed in the hole. Then the crew lifted the small end 
onto the jenny which held it until the deadman was put in place. 
With the pole resting on the deadman, the pikes were brought into 
play, and as the pole was lifted the deadman was moved up under 
the pole until the final lift came that sent the pole into the hole. 
Then it was turned and lined up, the lineman assisting the foreman 
in this work, after which the refilling of the hole was done. 

A record of this work was kept in detail on a number of poles, 
from which it was found that the average time consumed in the 
work was as follows : 

Getting ready to set pole, 3 min. ; raising pole, 6 min. ; lining 
pole, 2 min. ; filling and tamping earth in hole, 1 man shovelling 
and 3 tamping, 10 min., several men standing by the pikes to 
steady the pikes; moving to next hole, 4 min.; total time, 25 min. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 919 

When everything is working well this average can be maintained, 
but a little time is occasionally lost due to unforeseen obstacles that 
prevent this speed. The cost of raising the poles was : 

Foreman $10.50 

Laborers 37.50 

Lineman 8.75 

Total $56.75 

This, for the 74 poles, gives a cost per pole of the following: 

Foreman $0.14 

Laborers 0.50 

Lineman 0.12 

Total $0.76 

Cross Arms. Before raising the poles, and while the laborers 
were digging the holes, the linemen were at work dapping the 
poles to receive the cross arms. The cross arms used were 8-pin 
arms, two being placed on each pole. At all times in the line, 
double cross arms were used, that is, a cross arm was put on each 
side of the poles. This was the case for nine poles. For future 
needs the poles were dapped in 3 places. This made 240 days 
necessary. The poles, as stated, were chestnut. The cost of 
dapping the poles was $22.62, making a cost per dap of 9.8 cts. 

One lineman placed the cross arms, the team hauling them along 
as needed, and the driver acting as the lineman's " ground hog." 
The sketch shows how these arms were placed, and braced with 
two pieces of galvanized iron. In all, 166 cross arms were used. 
The cost of this work was : 

Hauling with team $21.37 

Lineman 6.25 

Total $27.62 

The high cost of this was due to the fact that the team was 
charged to this work for the entire time of placing the cross arms, 
as it waited at each pole while the arms were being put in place. 
The cost per cross arm was 17 cts. 

One lineman and a helper placed the insulators. The cost of this 
was : 

Lineman $3.75 

Helper 2.25 

Total $6.00 

Only six insulators were put on a cross arm, thus making 12 to 
a pole, except at the turns, as the line was to carry 12 wires. In 
all 996 insulators were used, hence the cost per unit was 0.6 ct. 

Guy Poles. In building lines with a number of wires on them, 
it is necessary to guy all poles where there are turns in the line, 
and on long straight lines some of the poles must also be guyed. 



920 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The sketch shows the method used in guying this line, and is one 
frequently used. The guy pole holes were dug of about the same 
dimensions as the holes for the line poles. The cost was : 

Foreman $1.50 

Laborers 6.75 

Total $8.25 

The cost per pole was : 

Foreman $0.17 

Laborers 0.75 

Total $0.92 

The raising of the poles cost : 

Foreman $3.00 

Laborers 9.00 

Total $12.00 

This makes a cost per hole of $1.S3. This is large, owing to the 
fact that the men lost considerable time moving from pole to pole 
and carrying their tools, also to the fact that each pole had to be 
cut and trimmed, as these guy poles were made from rejected 
line poles. 

The method of placing the guy wires to the poles was as follows : 
The wire was fastened to each of the two poles, and then brought 
to the tightening block as shown in the sketch. With blocks and 
tackle fastened to the two poles, the poles were brought to a snug 
bearing and the wires were made fast around the tightening block, 
shown in the sketch. The wires go around the block in grooves 
made for the purpose at right angles to each other. While the 
linemen and their helpers are doing this work, the laborers are 
digging the anchor hole and placing the anchor rod. To this is 
fastened a turn buckle, and a wire is run from the guy pole to the 
turn buckle. The blocks and tackle are then fastened to a handy 
tree or stump, or if necessary to the anchor rod and the guy pole 
is pulled back, tightening the guy wire between the two poles, while 
the turn buckle is screwed up, thus making all the guy wires taut. 
At times, instead of making an anchor as shown, the anchor wire 
can be fastened to a convenient tree. Both kinds of anchors were 
used in this case. The cost of this work was : 

Foreman $1.50 

Linemen 3.75 

Laborers 3.75 

Total $9.00 

This made a cost of $1.00 per pole, making a total cost per guy 
pole of $3.25. 

About one-half of this line ran through the edge of woods or 
by shade trees. A few trees had to be cut down and a number 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 921 

trimmed ; some tall bushes were also cut down. The foreman 
looked after this work part of one day when all his force was at 
work upon ^t, but for the most part linemen were in charge of 
several laborers doing this work. The cost of it was as follows : 

Foreman % 2.25 

Lineman 18.12 

Men 13.13 

Total $33.50 

Stringing the Wires. As previously stated, 12 wires were strung 
on the poles. The wires were light weight. The team hauled the 
wire, and one horse was used in helping to string it, the other 
horse standing idle. In line work, a team is nearly always neces- 
sary, yet there are times that it may stand idle for hours, thus 
increasing the cost of that item to which it is charged. When there 
is nothing else for the wagon to do it is used to carry the tools 
along the line as the men work. In stringing the wire the horse 
pulled a rope fastened to two strands of wire at one time, thus 
running out two wires, and making six trips of the horse to string 
out the 12 wires. For this work 3 linemen were used, but in 
fastening the wires to the insulators only 2 linemen were used, and 
the wires were pulled tight by the helpers with blocks and tackle. 
The cost was : 

Foreman $ 18.00 

Linemen 37 50 

Laborers 27.00 

Team 36.00 

Total $118.50 

In all 21.6 miles of wire were strung and this made a cost of $5.50 
per mile of wire. 

Changing Poles. At the ends of the line, where connections were 
made with the old line of poles, some poles had to be changed to 
make them suitable for the new service. There were 3 of these at 
one end and 1 at the other. The work consisted in taking down 
the old poles and putting in their place poles from 40 to 45 ft. 
long. Cross arms had to be put on the new poles, and the wires 
changed over to the new poles. It took a half day for the crew 
to do each pole, thus spending 2 days on the 4 poles. The cost 
of this was : 

Foreman ' $ 6.00 

Lineman 2.50 

Laborers 39.00 

Team 9.00 

Total $56.50 

This gave a cost per pole of $14.12. In line work the foreman is 
always a lineman, and in doing odd jobs this frequently keeps the 
cost down, as he will often do work that a lineman is called upon 
to do. As the lineman is the higher priced man he should be 
allowed to do only such work as the helper is not able to do. 



922 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Total Cost. The total cost of the entire work was as follows : 

Hauling $ •30.00 

Dig-g-ingr holes 72.75 

Raising- poles 56.75 

Dapping cross arms 22.62 

Placing cross arms and insulators 33.62 

Guy poles 29.25 

Trimming.trees and bushes 33.50 

Stringing and fastening wires 118.50 

Changing old poles 56.50 



Total $453.49 

There being 1.6 miles of line built, the cost per mile for each 
item was : 

Hauling $ 18.75 

Digging holes 45.47 

Raising poles 35.47 

Dapping cross arms 14.14 

Placing cross arms and insulators 21.01 

Guy poles 18.28 

Trimming trees and bushes 20.94 

Stringing and fastening wires 74.06 

Changing old poles 35.31 

Total $283.43 

For the 74 new poles erected this makes a cost per pole for the 
completed line of $6.13. 

Reducing the Cost of Line Construction. Comparative tests con- 
ducted in St. Louis, Mo., and described in Electrical World, May 30, 
1914, seem to show that the cost of overhead distribution line con- 
struction may be reduced to nearly y^ its former value by the use 
of a combination primary-secondary distribution rack. In addition 
to the economic record shown, the distribution rack has the further 
advantage of presenting a neat and finished appearance on th6 
poles. For this reason the alley between Westmoreland and Port- 
land Places, exclusive residence districts in St. Louis, was selected 
as the site for the experimental line. The site of the experimental 
standard line was in another part of the city. In all fairness it 
should be said that the standard line was built on a street free from 
trees and obstructions, under more favorable conditions than was 
the bracket line, where there were alley fences to be climbed and 
carefully kept lawns had to be avoided. Equal numbers of secon- 
dary services were installed on each line, making the necessary 
labor as nearly identical as possible. 

As will be noted from data* in the accompanying tables, the cost 
of building the standard primary-secondary distribution system, 
inclusive of material, labor, painting, extra haulage and overhead 
charges, was $116.13. For the competing line using distribution- 
rack construction the cost was $45.24, no charge being included for 
extra haulage, as the crew were able to carry all material in the 
gang automobile. These figures show that the standard construc- 
tion really cost two and one-half times as much as the distribution- 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 923 

rack construction, although the former was built under the more 
favorable conditions. Data in the accompanying tables show what 
material was used and give total costs. 

The distribution racks, which will be marketed by W. N. Matthews 
& Brother, of St. Louis, consist of a line, while the secondary pins 
are cast integral with the vertical channel. Two through-bolt sus- 
pension has been used in St. Louis, but a single stud bolt with a 
lag screw in the lower hole may be utilized satisfactorily. 

Standard primary-arm construction 
Material : No. of pieces 

Primary arms 15 

24-in. cross-arm braces 30 

0.625-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 15 

0.625-in. by 5-in. lag screws 15 

Pins 30 

Clamps 15 

Square washers 30 

Labor : Hours 

Seven piece, one and one-half hours each 10.5 

Automobile 1.5 

Standard secondary-arm construction 
Material : No. of pieces 

Secondary arms 15 

24-in. bracer 30 

0.625-in. by 14-in. machine bolts 15 

0.625-in. by 5-in. lag screws 15 

Pins 60 

Through-point spreaders 30 

Malleable pole-back brackets 15 

2-in. by 0.25-in. lag screws 60 

Labor : Hours 

Seven piece, one and three-quarter hours each. . 12.25 

Automobile 1.75 

Extra team to haul arms 21.00 

Driver 21.00 

Material and labor to apply on cost of lead and oil paint 

Material : Amount 

White lead in oil, 1 lb 10.0 

Boiled linseed oil, gal 1.5 

Turpentine, gal 0.5 

Japan drier, pt. . . *. 0.25 

Dry red mineral, lb 4.33 

Labor : Hours 

One man painting 2.5 

Two men fitting up 5.0 

Total cost $116.13 

Combination distribution-rack construction 
Material : Number of pieces 

Brackets complete 15 

0.625-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 30 

Square washers 30 

0.375-in. by 2-in. machine bolts 15 

Western Union pins 30 



924 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Labor : Hours 

Three men, two hours each 6 

Automobile 2 

Total cost $45.24 

Itemized Cost of Two Telephone Lines. Data for telephone con- 
struction are given in Engineering-Contracting-, July 24, 1907, for 
two short lines, one 10 miles long and the other 14 miles long. 
The cost of the 10 mile line was as follows per mile: 

Labor : 

1.7 days foreman at $4.00 $ 6.80 

1.7 days sub-foreman at $3.00 5.10 

4.0 days climbers at $2.50 10.00 

10.5 days groundmen at $2.25 23.63 

17.9 days total at $3.10 $55.53 

Materials : 

28 poles at $1.50 $ 42.00 

28 cross arms at $0.15 4.20 

28 steel pins at 0.04 1.12 

28 glass insulators at 0.04 1.12 

56 lag screws and washers at 0.015 0.84 

305 lbs. No. 9 galv. wire at 0.042 12.81 

Total materials $ 62.09 

Total labor and materials $117.62 

More than 90% of the poles were 25 ft. long. The rest were 30 
to 40 ft. in length. 

The cost of the 14 mile line was as follows per mile : 

Labor : 

2.2 days foreman at $3.50 $ 7.70 

2.2 days sub-foreman at $3.00 6.60 

5.3 days climber at $2.75 14.58 

11.4 days groundman at $2.25 25.64 

21.5 days total at $2.54 $54.52 

Materials : 

32 poles at $1.50 $48.00 

32 brackets at 0.015 0.48 

380 lbs. No. 8 galv. wire, 0.042 15.96 

10 lbs. No. 9 galv. wire, 0.042 0.42 

IV2 lbs. fence staples, 0.025 0.04 

32 insulators, 0.04 : 1.28 

Total materials $66.18 

Total labor and materials $120.70 

2 telephones at $12.50 25.00 

200 ft. office wire 1.40 

Considering the low cost of telephone lines of this character, it 
is surprising that they are not more frequently built for use on 
construction work. For temporary purposes, a much cheaper kind 
of poles could be used. For example, a very substantial pole could 
be made by nailing together two 1 x 4-in. boards, so as to form a 
post having a T-shaped cross-section. Such a pole would contain 
pnly two-thirds of a foot, board measure (% ft. b. m.) per lineal 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 925 

foot of pole. At $24 per M for the boards, a pole 20 ft. long- would 
cost 32 cts. 

Hence the poles would cost less than $10 per mile of line. The 
No. 9 wire would ordinarily cost less than $13 per mile, and $3 
more would cover the cost of the remaining line materials, making 
a total cost of $26 per mile for materials. "We have no data as to 
the labor of erecting such a line, but it would certainly be less 
than $15 per mile; and in soil where post hole diggers could be 
used, the cost would be considerably less. In fact, a telephone line 
built for $35 a mile might easily be obtained under fairly favorable 
conditions. Moreover it could be taken down and used many times 
on subsequent construction. 

Itemized Cost of a 28-Mile Telegraph Line. Data given in En- 
gineering and Contracting, July 10, 1907, relate to a telegraph line 
28 miles long, built in British Columbia. There were 32 poles to 
the mile, strung with a single No. 8 B. B. galvanized iron wire. 
The cost of the poles v*^as very much less than it would be in most 
localities, but, sinc« quotations on poles are readily secured, proper 
substitutions can be made in the following tabulated values for 
any particular case. 

Size and Weight of Telegraph Wire. Until recently the size of 
wire commonly used for lines of medium length, up to 400 mile.s, 
was No. 9. weighing 305 lbs. per mile, but No. 8 is now used more 
frequently. There are two grades commonly used : the E. B. B., 
or " extra best best " ; and the B. B., or " best best." A third grade 
S, or " steel," is also used for short circuits. The following are 
the weights of galvanized wire : 

Size No. Lbs. per mile Lb. per ft. Ft. per lb. 

6 570 0.108 9.2 

7 450 0.085 11.7 

8 380 0.072 14.0 

9 305 0.058 17.4 

10 250 ^ 0.047 21.2 

The itemized cost of this 28 mile line was as follows: 

Labor : 

1.0 day, foreman at $3.50 

1.0 day, sub-foreman at $3.00 ^ 

2.7 dav.s, climber at $2.50 

2.5 days, fraraer at $2.25 

0.7 day, blacksmith at $2.25 

4.6 days, groundman at $2.00 



% 3.50 


3.00 


6 75 


5.62 


1.58 


9.20 



12.5 days total at $2.40 $29.65 

Materials : 

32 poles (25-ft.) at $1.25 $40.00 

32 wooden brackets at 1 ^4 cts. 0.40 

32 glass insulators at 0.4 cts 1.28 

5 lbs. nails at 2 Vo cts 0.12 

% lb. staples at 0.3 cts 0.02 

380 lbs. No. 8 BB galv. wire at 5 cts 19.00 

2 lbs. tie wire at 3 cts 0.06 



Total materials $60.88 

Total labor and materials $90.53 



926 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The labor includes the cost of digging holes, erecting poles, 
stringing the wire, etc. The poles were distributed by train, and 
the price of $1.25 per pole does not include the train service. 

Cost of Telephone Lines. The costs in Table XXI are estimates 
based on averaere conditions in the Middle West. 

TABLE XXI. COST OF BARE COPPER AERIAL LINES 

50 wire line 100 wire line 200 wire line 
40 ft. poles 45 ft. poles 60 ft. poles 

Poles, cedar, 35 per mile $208 $290 $590 

Poles, setting 87 105 165 

/ Cross-arms, 10 pins 77 154 306 

Cross-arms, attaching to poles 26 53 105 

Braces and screws 13 26 53 

Pins 14 26 36 

Pins, attaching to arms. ... 2 4 8 

Insulators 17 35 70 

Insulators, attaching to pins 8 18 35 
No. 14 B. «& S. G. hard 

drawn cop. wire 488 97S 1,950 

Labor, stringing wire 250 500 1,000 

Total $1,190 $2,186 $4,318 

Cost of Telephone Toll Pole Lines. The average costs for New 
England States given below are from Data, Feb., 1912, and are 

25 FT. POLES, HEAVY CONSTRUCTION 

Average 
cost per mile 

Poles $125 

Guying 7 

Cross arms 32 

One circuit No. 12 wire 68 

Sundries 20 

Teaming 20 

Labor cross arming 7 

Labor poles -. 105 

Labor wire 7 

Labor trimming trees 15 

Sundry 35 

Right of way 50 

Average for New England States $491 

Cost of Rural-Service Line. The following is taken from Elec- 
trical World, Jan. 16, 1915, Lines of the Noblesville, Ind., Heat, 
Light & Power Company constructed along country roads to supply 
the farmers of Hamilton County with electric service are built of 
25-ft. poles spaced 200 ft. apart. Following the company's standard 
practice, using No. 8 bare hard -drawn copper wire and 30-in. tele- 
phone cross-arms, the average cost of a mile of line is as shown in 
Table XXII. 

This table of expense includes nothing for supervision, use of 
tools, insurance or interest, and it is estimated that the actual 
cost, including everything, is about $300 a mile. The company 
therefore starts with an initial investment of $100 a mile, since the 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 927 

farmer customers deposit $200 a mile, and the company's in- 
vestment is later increased to $300 a mile when it acquires the 
line. 

Assuming that 60% of the gross revenue from this line is used 
in operating expenses, then 40% is left for interest, depreciation 
and profit. If interest is assumed at 7% and depreciation at 5%, 

TABLE XXII. COST OF A MILE OP RURAL-SERVICE LINE 

Unit Item 

price cost 

27 poles (25 ft, high with 5-in. top) $1.15 $31.05 

10,560 ft. No. 8 copper wire 0.16 126.40 

27 telephone cross-arms 0.13 3.51 

27 through bolts 0.05 1.35 

54 locust pins 0.013 0.70 

54 insulators (porcelain) 0.03 1.62 

54 .square galvanized washers 0.009 0.50 

Guy anchors (average) 5.00 

Labor and hauling 72.00 

Total field expense for material and labor $242.23 

then 12% of $300. or $36, will need to be charged against each mile 
of line. Table XXIII, worked out on this basis, shows how much 
revenue must be received from each customer before his account 
is profitable. 

TABLE XXIIL FINANCIAL DATA ON RURAL-SERVICE LINE 



Average 


Annual 


Annual 






monthly 


gross 


net 


Annual 


Annual 


bill per 


revenue 
per mile 


revenue 


interest 


surplus 


customer 


per mile 






$1.00 


$48 


$19.20 


$36 


—$16.80 


1.50 


72 


28 80 


36 


— 7.20 


2.00 


96 


38.40 


36 


+ 2.40 


2.50 


120 


48.00 


36 


+ 12.00 


3.00 


144 


57.00 


36 


21.60 


4.00 


192 


76.00 


36 


40.80 


5.00 


240 


96.00 


36 


60.00 



From these data it w^ill be seen that until the customer's bill 
averages nearly $3 a month rural lines are not a paying experiment 
under these conditions as the interest and depreciation charge in- 
cludes nothing for the generating station. After the customer has 
passed the $3 a month average bill, however, he becomes a profitable 
patron. During the development period the deficit shown is some- 
what offset because of the interest charge being lower as the 
customer has had only a part of his advance payment refunded. 

Cost of Steel Tower Lines. T. A. Worcester in a paper before 
the A. I. E. E.. May 17, 1912, says: The size of conductor de- 
pends on electrical considerations, except where the length of span 
is the governing feature. 

The length of span, except in river or gorge crossings, is de- 
pendent upon the designer and must be chosen so as to give the 



928 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

line the least cost. As the span increases, the number of towers 
and insulators per mile decrease, but on the other hand the height 
of the towers must be increased to care for the greater sag and 
at the same time they must be made proportionately stronger and 
heavier to care for the greater loads per span. The effect of these 
changes on the cost of a line is shown by the curve, Fig. 14. The 
length of a span affects the loads in the vertical direction and in 
the horizontal direction across the line and not that parallel to the 
line, since the latter is governed by the size of the conductor, it 
being necessary to adjust the sag so as not to exceed the safe 
stress for the wires. 



3000 
2900 



a 






< 2800 
^ 2700 
9 2600 
|}^ 2500 
8 2400 

^^^500 600 700 800 900 1000" 

SPA^.FEET 

Fig. 14. Cost per mile of towers and insulators erected. 



For every size of conductor there is a practical limit of the length 
of span beyond which the sags and height of tower becomes ex- 
cessive and there is danger of the wires swinging together. For 
the smaller sizes of conductor this limit is ^uite low — 300 ft. for 
No. 4 cable — and in many cases it will be found more economical 
to increase the size of conductor so as to permit using a greater 
span as illustrated in Table XXIV. 



TABLE XXIV. RELATION BETWEEN SPAN AND WIRE 



Case I 
No. 4 B. & S. 

Case II 
No. 2 B. & S. 



Span, 
ft. 



300 
360 



Sag, 
ft. 



10.5 
10.5 



SIZE 

No. of 
towers 
per mile 



17.6 
14.7 



Cost of 

towers and 

Insulators 

per mile 

erected 

$3,080 

$2,570 



Cost of 
wire and 

freight 
per mile 

" $322 
$514 



Total 
per 
mile 



$3,402 
$3,084 



Saving per mile $318 



These figures are based on the assumption that the same towers 
and sags would be used in both cases, giving the same clearance 
to ground. The sag in Case I is the minimum sag at which wires 
may be strung on the basis of deg. Fahr., 8 lb. wind, and .5 in. 
sleet and with these same conditions and sag the span for No. 2 
wire is calculated and found to be 360 ft. With this tower spacing 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 929 











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8^5 



930 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and No. 2 cable the cost of the line is $318 less than with No. 4 
cable and 300 ft. span. It is allowable to assume that the same 
towers can be used in the second case as in the first since the 
lightest tower which it is practicable to build would be sufficiently- 
strong- for the second case. However, it would be possible to put 
$20 more into the cost of each tower and still have the cost of 
the second line a trifle less than that of the first and the gain 
would accrue from the electrical advantages of the larger size of 
conductor. 

A span of 360 ft. is not necessarily the most economical span 
for the No. 2 conductor. Further calculation indicates that a 500-ft. 
span could be used with only a very slight increase in the cost of 
the towers. This limit cannot be extended beyond 500-ft. even 
though the line with greater spans would have a less cost. Here 
again the limit depends on mechanical considerations rather than 
on costs and is governed by the danger of lashing together of the 
wires in gusty winds. 

Tower Line Cost in Calif. In Chap. I, last part, will be found a 
detail estimate of the cost of a high voltage tower line, made by 
H. P. Gillette, based on actual costs. 

Ratio of Labor to Material Costs in Steel-Tower Transmission- 
Line Construction. A. B. Cudebec in Electrical World, July 17, 
1915, states that the cost of a heavy tower line may vary from 
$4,000 to $12,000 per mile of which the materials pt construction 
alone aggregate between 70 and 80%. 

Towers for Transmission Lines. Data on dimensions and 
weights for a number of towers are given in Table XXV. Gal- 
vanized towers cost from 2.5 to 4 cts. per lb., f. o. b. factory. 
Galvanizing costs from 0.5 to 1 ct. per lb., this cost being included 
in the figures given. 

TABLE XX VT. DATA ON TYPICAL TOWER FOUNDATIONS 
(Used in connection with the first four towers listed in Table XXV.) 

Height, ins.. Base, Lb. of Cu. yd. of 

Type (over-all) ins. steel concrete 

Reinf. cone 78 60 by 60 500 4.4 

Reinf. cone 96 96 by 96 1,584 14.4 

Steel 90 44 by 45 1,285 

Steel 88 52 by 52 1,865 

There are 4 foundation blocks per tower designed to project 6 ins. 
above the ground surface. 

Cost per IVlile of Pole Lines, for 3-Phase 2,300 to 6,000 Volts. 
The data in Table XXVI I, from six north-central and south-western 
states. 1909, are from Data. It will be noted that certain items 
under minimum costs are higher than the average and others under 
maximum are less than average. These are not errors, but are 
due to local conditions of each installation. " Installation of Mini- 
mum Cost " gives itemized costs of that one of the six installations 
referred to, the total cost of which was the least ; " Maximum " that 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 931 



one, the total cost of which was greatest 
of equipment for all six installations. 



" Average," average cost 



TABLE XXVII. COST OF POLE LINES PER MILE 

Installation of Installation of 

minimum maximum 

cost cost Average 

50 30-ft. poles $171 $200 $219 

50 sets pole hardware .... 8 16 10 

50 2-pin cross arms 17 11 14 

150 insulators 7 11 9 

Labor setting 55 200 109 

Labor stringing wire 30 40 35 

Incidentals 10 50 30 

$298 $528 $426 

Above figures are exclusive of painting, copper, engineering and 
general expense. 

Comparative Cost of Transmission Lines. C. D. Gray in En- 
gineering News, July 20, 1911, gives the cost per mile of several 
different types of construction for a three phase, 60,000-volt line, 
60 cycle circuit, with No. 1 copper wire and suspension insulators, 
using four 10-inch discs, together with a suitable grounded con- 
ductor carried above the circuit. These figures do not include 
the cost of right of way, surveys, engineering or contractors' fees. 



















8-phase overhead, 2300 volts at sending end» 




















lOO) 






















Curves showing distance that power can be transmittpd 
uith 5% tine loss; 100% power factor is assumed 

Transmission distance for (a) other power fac- 
tors: Multiply value from curve bv power factor 
expressed as a percentage- (b) Other percentage 
drop: Multiply value from curve by percentage 
factor in table below: 

Per cent. drop. Percentage factor. 

5 100. % 

4 80.3% 

3 6! .4% 

2 41 .8% 

1 21 .3% 




900 \ 


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aon \ 


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600 




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Fig. 15. 



The estimated costs are based on the use of 40 ft. 8 in. top chest- 
nut poles, spaced 175 ft. apart, the grounded wire consisting of No. 
8 copper clad wire with the main wires supported on steel cross 
arms and the grounded wire on the top of the pole. The single 
circuit steel towers have bases about 14 ft. square and the lower 



932 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

wires 50 ft. from the ground, spaced 500 ft. apart with No. 4 copper 
clad grounded wire. The double circuit steel towers have the same 
characterisiios as the single circuit. 

Cost per mile 

One single circuit, wood pole line $2,550 

Two siiittle circruit wood pole lines 5,100 

One single circuit steel tower line 2,950 

Two .-^insle cun-uit steel tower lines 5,900 

One double circuit steel tower line 4,600 

One dtnible circuit (witli one circuit installed) . . 3,700 



3-PHASE OVERHEAD. 13.000 VOLTS AT ■ 
SENDING END 

Curves showing di.>itanre that power can be 
Jransimtu-d with 10% liuc loss; 100% power 
factor 13 .issunied. 

Transmi.-vsion distance for (a) Other power 
fapto>>: Multiply value fronv curve by power 
factor expressed as a iirrcentaRe. (h) Other per- 
ccutaKo drop: Multiply value from curve by 
porcentape factor in table below: 

% Drop Factor 

10 100 O'";, 

7 74 4>;, 





Cur\-es showing distance that power can b« 
transmitted with 10% line loas, 100% power 
factor 13 assumed. 

Transmission distance for: 

(a) Other power factors; multiply value from 
curve by nower (actor exprcssi-d as a percentage. 

(b) Other percentage drop, multiply value 
from curve by percentage factor in table below: 

% Drop Factor 
10 100.0% 

7 
5 



MJLES. 



Fig. 17. 



Cost of 3-Phase, Single Circuit. High Tension Transmission 
Lines. Table XXVIII is from Burch's Electric Traction for Rail- 
way Trains. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 933 

TABLE XXVIIL COST PER MILE TRANSMISSION LINE 
Type of construction 
Voltage 

Support, 50 poles or 12 towers. . 

Cross arm 

Telephone line material....',*.'.*.* 

Oround wire material 

Insulator pins 

Insulators * ' .' 

Three No. wires, erected .....'. 

Installation of wires, guys and 

insulators 



, — Wooden poles — ^ 


Steel towers 


13,000 60,000 


60,000 


$350 $650 


$1,800 


100 380 


Included above 


50 50 


75 


35 40 


100 


35 130 





30 550 


155 


1,000 1,000 


1,000 


200 200 


270 



Total $2,000 $3,000 $3,400 

Towers for a 6-wire transmission line cost about $2,400. 
Estimate omits cost of right-of-way. 15% for contractor's profits, 

57o for engineering and 5% for contingencies. Change for actual 

size of wire to be used. 

3-pha;;e ovcrhi'ail, 33,000 volls at <:pn(iine rnd 



— r 

14000 I 


\ \ 
\ 


r 


^ 


\ 
\ 


/\ 


Curvc-i ^h.M 
V with IJ'7, 


ing distance t ha 
hue loss, 1G0% 


puaer cmhc tratirrrnlttd 
power factor is assumed. 


lecoo ' 


\ 


\ 


\ 


K^ 1 


\ 


\ 


Iran.'misnon distance for (ai other power fac- 
tors; ^lllltlplv value from eurvc by power factor 
. expressed as a prrcentage <\>i other per- 


10000 


\ 
\ 




" 


■e 


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by per 


- "rop: 

-mtage 


Hiiiupiy value Irom ciirvu 
actor in table below : 

%Drop Fart..r 


8000 




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5 

L_L 


fS r/4) 
54. G% 
35 2% 


6000 


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dO 


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m) 


000 


leo 


000 >. 


lt,0 


000 


c^OO 


000 


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000 


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TAIUCe 


IN <(j 


-rp r AI 


WlLCb 










"H 



Fig. 18. 




Curves showing distance that power cum bo 
trarismiited with 10% line loss; 100% 
power factor is assumed. 

TrausmiKsioii distance for (a) other power 
factors, multiply value from curve by power 
factor expressed as a percentage. 

(Ij)Other per ceht drop: multiply valuefrom 

curve by percentage factor III table below; 

% Drop Factor 

10 100.0^ 

Ml t-H 7 73.3^ 



LE5 



Fig. 19. 



934 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

steel Towers vs. Wooden Poles for Electric Lines. G. Nagele 
gives the following in Lefax : The time is drawing near, when 
wooden poles will be very expensive. A curve recently published 
by the United States Government showing the amount of lumber 
used in the last ten years has no depression showing a temporary 
decrease of consumption and every year denotes a marked increase 
in consumption. 

Semi-flexible steel structures have many advantages over the 
wooden pole, and will soon become a standard construction for 
transmission lines. Some of the advantages of semi-flexible steel 
poles are : 

Long life ; 

Ability to stand heavy strains ; 

Will not snap off, but bend to meet the different strains ; 

Best in swampy grounds ; 

Less poles to the mile, which means a great reduction in the cost 
of right-of-way ; 
. Offers protection to the public and property owners. 

Herewith is a comparison of the cost per mile of both types of 
construction of two lines recently constructed in the Middle West. 

Cost of Transmission Line per Mile, Wooden Poles. 33,000 volts 
w^orking pressure, No. 2 B. & S. copper wire; 120-ft. pole spacing, 
one pole line; 44 poles per mile; pin type insulators; "Bo-Arrow" 
cross-arms; 35-ft. poles, 7-in. top diam. ; .375-in. ground wire (for 
standard galvanized wire). 

Material, labor, etc. 

44 Poles, 35-ft., 7-in. top diam, at $8 f.o.b. Ohio $ 252.00 

44 Cross-arms " Bo-Arrow" galvanized complete at 

$3.79 166.76 

44 Telephone brackets at 10 cts 4.40 

Bog shoes at 15 cts. per pole, average 6.60 

Guying m.aterial at 50 cts. per pole 22.00 

Pole steps and hardware at 75 cts 33.00 

Framing and trimming of poles at 50 cts 22.00 

Creosoting of poles at 20 cts 8.80 

Cartage at 70 cts. per pole 29-?2 

Hauling (railway) at $1.20 per pole 52.80 

Digging of holes at $1.20 per pole %^„7i 

Setting of poles at $1.80 per pole 79.20 

3 Miles hard drawn copper strand No. 2 B. & S. at 

$181.20 per mile • • • •. ^|?nS 

1 Mile %-in. Siemans-Martin steel strand wire 54.00 

2 Miles Tel. wire No. 10 B. & S. copper clad 307r at 

$25.00 per mile • ^O.UU 

44 Ground ware connections at 35 cts. per pole 15.4U 

132 Porcelain pettycoat insulators at 50 cts ^.cn 

Tie wire '*-^" 

88 Telephone insulators at 2 cts. v • • •;;; .HS 

Stringing 3 miles No. 2 B. & S. strand at $15 ...... 45.00 

Stringing 2 miles No. 10 copper clad wire at $10.. 20.00 

Stringing ground wire t'lm 

Soldering materials »•"" 

Miscellaneous material c'nn 

Damage, expense to property of owners o"" 

Clearing of branches and trees ff^ 

Tools ,|"J 

Camp expenses xo.uu 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 935 

Materials deposited along the lines for repairs $ 19.20 

Wasted materials 18.00 

Contingencies and incidentals, 7% 121.25 

Supervision and inspection, 5% 92.67 



Total construction cost per mile with wooden poles ex- 
clusive of right of way $1946.04 

Right of way at $8 per pole 352.00 

Total cost including right of way $2298.04 

Cost of transmission line per mile, semi-flexible steel structures ; 
33000 volts working pressure, No. 2 B. & S. copper wire; 400-ft. 
pole spacing, one pole line; 13 poles per mile; 3-disc suspension 
type insulators; Vie-in, ground wire (standard galvanized wire). 

Material, Labor, etc. 

13 Towers (steel frames) 43-ft. high with cross arms, 
telephone clips and pole steps, complete, f.o.b. cen- 
tral Ohio at $53.00 per tower $ 689.00 

Cartage at 80 cts. per frame 10.40 

Hauling (railway) at $1.25 per frame 16.25 

Digging of holes at $1.50 per frame 19.50 

Erecting of frames at $2.00 26.00 

Concrete foundations for curve frames and frames in 

swampy ground 40.00 

Guying of pules 30.00 

Crushed stone for regular foundations 6.00 

3 Miles No. 2 B. & S. copper wire at $181.20 543'.60 

2 Miles No. 10 B. & S. copper clad at $25.00 50.00 

1 Mile 7/i6-in. S.-M. steel strand wire 75.00 

39 Suspension insulator.s, porcelain 3-disc unit sets in- 
cluding suspension hooks and wire clamps at $3.50 136.50 

26 Telephone insulators and pins at 20 cts 5.20 

Stringing 3 miles No. 2 B. & S. at $18 54.00 

Stringing 2 miles No. 10 B. & S. at $12 . . . 24.00 

Stringing ground wire 20.00 

Miscellaneous material 10.00 

Painting of structures at $1.60 each 20.80 

Soldering material 5.00 

Clearing and trimming of trees 4.50 

Damage, expense to property owners 20.00 

Camp expenses 16.00 

Wasted materials 5.00 

Contingencies and incidentals, 6% 109.61 

Supervision and inspection, 5% 96.82 

Total con.struction cost per mile with steel towers exclu- 
sive of right of way ^^^'^'rAn 

Right of way at $15 per frame 19500 

Total cost including right of way $2228.18 

Cost of Labor and Materials of 6,600 Volt Transmission Line 4.6 
Miles Long.* 

Item Material Labor 
Poles, crossarms, pins, etc. 

196 poles $1,673 

202 cross arms 125 .... 

202 sets hardware ' 53 

1,030 pins (locust paraffined) 43 

Labor distributing $140 

Labor digging holes 293 

* These data are for construction done during 1913. 



036 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Item Material Labor 

Labor setting and tamping $293 

Labor gaining and roofing 72 

Labor erecting ci-oysai-niK 62 

Guying and bracing 4.6 miles $275 27 

Engineering 4.6 miles 92 

Wire, labor, etc. 

27,075 lbs. #6 ins. two-braid wire 4,642 

1,850 insulators 186 

Solder, tape, etc 14 

4 lightning arresters 22 

Miscellaneous 64 

Labor stringing 

Labor tieing in 55 



Total $7,097 $1,753 

The total cost for labor and material but not including overheads 
was $8850, or $1924 per mile. 

Cost of Material for 6,600- Volt Line Construction. Electrical 
World, May 17, 1913, gives the following data bearing upon the 
cost of line-construction material taken from a tabulation of ex- 
penses prepared by the Harvard, Mass., Gas & Electric Company in 
connection with the erection last year of 6 miles of 6,600-volt line 
and 12 miles of 2,300-volt distributing system, carrying about 75 
miles of copper wire on 628 chestnut poles of from 30-ft. to 45-ft. 
length. The total cost of material for the work was $13,128.03, 
and of labor $5,925.69. Including the use of a motor truck for 
3713.4 miles at a charge of 20 cents per mile and the time and 
expenses of engineers making plans and surveys and obtaining 
public and private rights-of-way, the total cost of the work, with 
a 15 per cent, commission to the interests in charge of the con- 
struction, was $23,542.48. 

The detailed items given herewith were selected as of practical 
value to small companies facing the need of making estimates of 
line-construction costs elsewhere. The 6,600-volt line was built 
for the double purpose of enabling the central stations of the 
Massachusetts lighting companies at Ayer, Leominster and Clinton 
to interchange energy and to supply local service in Harvard. The 
above total costs include the construction of a transformer and 
meter house in Harvard for a small local business. 

Cost and Operating Data on 6,600-Volt Lines. Electrical World, 
July 3, 1915, gives the following data from a paper on distribu- 
tion conditions presented at the recent convention of the National 
Electric Light Association by J. C. Martin and relate to two 6,600- 
volt rural-service lines now in operation in the State of Washing- 
ton. The first case is that of a line about 17.5 miles long, on which 
there are thirty-two telephone and railway crossings, and the second 
case is that of a line about 14.5 miles long on which there are nine 
telephone and railway crossings. These lines were built with the 
expectation of developing new business in the future and with the 
knowledge that the return in the first few years of their life would 
perhaps not be sufficient to pay all charges. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 937 

TABLE XXIX. REPRESENTATIVE LINE-CONSTRUCTION 
COST ITEMS, HARVARD, MASS., CONDITIONS, 1912 

3 13,000-volt disconnecting- switches $17.60 

1 5-amp. 2300-volt single-pole line switch complete with 

eig-ht day clock .... 23.35 

1 double-pole horn-gap arrester 4.56 

2 single-pole, single-throw knife switches IA'2. 

2 eight-point receptacles and four-point plugs ; one am- 

meter plug 11.10 

1 9.95-kva automatic induction regulator 670 85 

3 15-kva. transformers, 13,200 to 2,200 volts, 60 cycles 435.00 

16 %-in. by 5-in. machine bolts 0.83 

16 i/^-in. by 3-in. lag bolts 0.30 

100 IV2 B. & D. single-wire cleats 3.00 

500 ft. No. 14 single-braid, rubber-covered wire 4.13 

90 lb. No. 00 weatherproof wire 12.68 

4 2300-volt primary cut-outs with plugs 2.71 

523 six-pin cross-arms 351.61 

98 eight-pin cross-arms 81.95 

254 four-pin cross-arms 111.84 

72 %-in., 6-ft. guy anchor rods 21.25 

5000 ft. i>ic-in. seven-strand guy wire 32.65 

1200 ft. 1/4 -in. seven-strand guy wire 6.36 

228 guy thimbles 5.92 

36 two-bolt guy clamps 2.31 

196 three-bolt guy clamps 10.34 

12 tree blocks 0.72 

390 %-in. by 12-in. machine bolts 20.16 

102 %-in. by 14-in. machine bolts 6.00 

22 %-in. by 8-in. eye-bolts 2.28 

261 %-in. by 16-in. spacing bolts 22.96 

12 %-inch. by 22-in. spacing bolts 1.74 

8 1-in. by 14-in. galvanized rock eye-bolts - 3.28 

2830 21/4 -in. by 214 -in. by i/4-in. square-cut washers 28.08 

1494 %-in. round-cut washers 2.71 

130 7-ft. alley-arm braces 97.50 

744 pairs cross-arm braces 90.76 

960 13,000-volt No. 2 Crown insulators 131.52 

55 No. 14 Electrose strain insulators 36.03 

6 No. 270 Victor insulators 5.86 

5068 locust cross-arm pins 73.33 

42 No. 14 Pierce steel-clamp pins 4.54 

42 galvanized-iron insulated clamps 29.57 

259 30-ft. poles 906.50 

338 35-ft. poles 1,859.00 

23 40-ft. poles 172.50 

8 45-ft. poles 72 00 

35 street series brackets 187.70 

1 pole-line switch 51.00 

26 compression-type multigap arresters 77.45 

22,840 lbs. No 6 triple-braid weatherproof wire 3,982.28 

463 lbs. No. 8 triple-braid weatherproof wire 87.55 

7380 lbs. No. 8 duplex metal wire 55.65 

6980 lbs. No. 6 medium copper wire 1,169.15 

160 lbs. No. 6 soft-base wire 28.32 

175 ft. two-conductor cable. No. 10 27.81 

248 lbs. No. 4 bare copper wire 50.34 

3 No. 61 Beardsley break arms 1.02 

43 No. 220 Pierce brackets 12.47 

12 copper sleeves for No. 6 to No. 4 v,^ire 4.42 

27 copper sleeves for No. 6 to No. 6 wire 2.97 

Services of construction foreman, 74 days at $4.17 308.58 

Services of superintendent, 10 days at $5.77 57.70 

Labor cost 5,429.58 



1)38 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The figures shown do not take into account the cost of energy 
lost between power house and customer and, therefore, show a loss 
that is less than the actual. The losses shown in these cases, it 
is stated, are typical of those that are likely to be sustained in the 
early life of very many similar lines in the rural territory of 
Western States. 

TABLE XXX. COST OF 17.5-MILE, 6,600-VOLT LINE — 
THIRTY-TWO CROSSINGS 

Actual cost of line $26,463.00 

Additional cost for crossing construction, 1911 N.E.L.A. 

specifications , 2,553.28 



Total $29,016.28 

Actual annual revenue $4,350.35 

Operation and fixed charges : 

(a) Line as built : 

Depreciation (average 5.2%) $1,378.15 

Operating 948.86 

Maintenance 194.94 

Taxes 105.63 

Interest, 8% 2,117.04 

Total operating cost for year $4,744.62 

LO.SS per year $394.27 

Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line 1.49 

Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 9.10 

(b) With crossing construction included: 

Depreciation $1,531.35 

Operating 948.86 

Maintenance . . . , 19 4.9 4 

Taxes 105.63 

Interest, 8 per cent 2,321.30 

Total operating cost for year $5,102.08 

Loss per year $751.73 

Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line, plus crossing con- 
struction costs 2.6 

Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 17.3 

Number of crossings 32 

Total estimated cost of crossing construction $2,533.28 

Average cost i)er crossing $79.79 

TABLE XXXI. COST OF 14.5-MILE, 6,600-VOLT LINE — 
NINE CROSSINGS 

Actual cost of line $18,829.00 

Additional cost for crossing construction, 1911 N.E.L.A. 

Specifications 886.86 

Total $19,715 86 

Actual annual revenue $3,727.45 

Operation and fixed charges: 
(a) Line as built : ' 

Depreciiition (average 5.35%) 1,006.31 

Operating 1,006.95 

Maintenance 245.20 

Taxes ^ 90.77 

Interest 1,506.32 

Total operating cost per year $3,855.55 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 939 

Loss per year $128.10 

Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line 0.68 

Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 3.44 

(b) With crossing construction included: 

Depreciation $1,069.48 

Operating- 1,066.95 

Maintenance 245.20 

Taxes 90.77 

Interest 1,577.27 

Total operating cost • $4,049.67 

Loss per year $322.22 

Loss in per cent, of actual cost of line, plus crossing con- 
struction costs 1.63 

Loss in per cent, of annual revenue 8.65 

Number of crossings 9 

Total estimated cost of crossing construction $886.86 

Average cost per crossing $98.54 

Cost of Construction a Short 11,000-Volt Transmission Line. 

With the extension of central -station service into rural territory 
the construction expense of moderate voltage transmission lines 
becomes of interest. The accompanying cost data given in Electri- 
cal World, May 15, 1915, are from the construction sheets of a 
Massachusetts central station which recently built an 11,000-volt 
single-r)hase transmission line across a portion of Cape Cod 8.1 
miles long, pole location rights being secured from real-estate 
owners en route : 

539 35-ft. poles, at $6 $3,234.00 

1204 Victor insulators, at 20 cts 240.80 

539 pair brace.s, at 26 cents each 140.14 

11,843 Ib.s. bare copper wire. No. 4, at 16.75 cts 1,983.70 

Carting poles 650.00 

130 guys, at $1.14 148.20 

424 lb. No. 6 bare wire, at 18 cts 76.32 

1095 two-r)in cross-arms, at 40 cts 438.00 

2190 ly^-in. by 12-in. locust pins, at 4 cts 87.60 

2 transformer towers 348.00 

5 11,000-volt lightning arresters, at $43.50 217.50 

2 11,000-volt air-break switches, at $100 200.00 

1 2,300-voU oil switch 89.20 

Right-of-way 345 00 

Freight 183.00 

Labor 4,800.00 

Total $13,181.46 

Per mile of line $1,620 

The company obtained the permits for running the wires and 
al.so for the pole locations, the erection work being by contract. 
The contractor trimmed all poles, which averaged 125 ft. in spacing. 
Poles were head-guyed every half-mile, all guys being provided 
with porcelain insulators, and every twelfth pole was double-armed. 
Tree trimming was done by the contractor. 

Cost of 11,000-Volt 3-Phase Transmission Line. H. W. Garner 
gives the cost of constructing a 11,000-volt 3-phase line, 16 miles 
long, on steel tripartite poles, as $982 per mile. 

Cost of 19,000 Volt Transmission Lines in New England. The 



940 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

following costs cover the recent construction of transmission lines 
by the Connecticut River Power Company in New Hampshire and 
Vermont, as given in Electrical World. July 17. 1915. One line 
was built from Brattleboro to Bellows Falls, Vt. Tlie poles used 
were standard class B chestnut, with wish-bone arms and 10-in. 
disc insulators carrying three No. 2 three-strand copper wires for 
operation at 19,000 volts. A No. 6 copper telephone circuit was 
installed on steel cross-arms, with a special side bracket on alter- 
nate poles for transi)ositions. Each pole was provided with a 
metal cap. from which the ground wire runs to the bottom of the 
pole. Construction costs for 21 miles of the line are as follows: 

Rights-of-way. surveys, etc. $23,181.32 

Clearing right-of-wav 7,281.72 

Tools ■ 657.72 

Hauling and delivering 2,977.94 

Excavation 2,556.43 

Setting and guying, fiaming and treating 4,796.98 

IMacing iiiyulatoi's and stiinging wires 1,955.31 

Poles " 4.926.90 

Wire 14,881.49 

Insulators. pin.s, arms and hardware 6,872.73 

Engineering, supervision, and general charges 4,890.00 

Tran.sformers and switch equipment 5,415.98 

Interest during construction 2,400 00 

Total $82,794.52 

Another line of the same construction known as the Vernon Sta- 
tion-Massachusetts line, 8.5 miles long, has also been built recently 
and the following costs cover its construction details : 

Lands and rights-of-way $17,387.50 

Tower-line construction 28,038.92 

Switches and special construction at power house 11,507.10 

Engineers' and contractors' fees * 5,931.90 

Legal expen.se, office expeiuses, taxes and miscellaneous.. 1,784.58 
Interest during construction 3.000.00 

$67,650.00 

* Represents the overhead expense of the contractor. The line 
was built on a flat-fee basis, by the Power Construction Company. 

Method and Cost of Erecting 20,000-Volt Transmission Line Tow- 
ers in Assembled Condition by Means of Gin Poles. The follow- 
ing is condensed from an article by W. R. Strickland in Electrical 
World, June 13, 1908. The towers were built to carry two three- 
phase 20,000-volt circuits of No. 4 hard-drawn copper wire, the 
insulators being triple petticoated and tested to 60,000 volts. A 
ground wire is placed in the center on the upright pipe for light- 
ning protection, and two telephone wires are carried on insulators 
mounted within the steel pole structure. They are of structural 
steel heavily galvanized, and were shipped in bundles, most of which 
could be handled by four men. There were four similar pieces for 
one tower, the large cross arm and the pipe for ground wire, being 
very heavy, were shipped separately. The towers were assembled 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 941 

in the field with bolts and nuts heavily galvanized over the threads. 
The net weight of each standard tower is 2,200 lbs. 

Several methods of erection were considered, the most popular 
suggestion being the movable A-frame. This method, as w^ell as 
others, could not be used for several reasons. The center of gravity 
of the towers is very high, and the steep slopes upon which they 
had to be erected would have made it necessary for the A-frame 
to work at right angles to the line, in which case the tower would 
have had to be turned after erecting owing to the necessity of 
assembling it with the cross arm lying flat upon the ground. Some 
of the hills were so steep that the towers had to be cut away to 
fit before erection, and separate concrete anchorages were used for 
laterals and horizontal braces. There were few level spots. The 
weight of an A-frame would have been too great In one piece, as it 
had to be carried by hand from tower to tower, because of the 
broI<en character of the country. Moreover, the bottom legs of the 
tower were too flexible for the weight thrown on them sideways 
during election in a manner not contemplated in the design. While 
the lateral braces were large enough for the tension which will 
come on them after erection by reason of the pull due to wind pres- 
sure, they ct)Uld not carry the compret^sion which would have come 
on them in resisting the stresses developed by the eccentric loading 
at the end of the leg during erection. 

As a result of these conditions peculiar to the tower and the 
country, the following method was employed for application by an 
American general foreman, all of the rest of the labor, with one 
exception, being Porto Rican. 

One gang in charge of a Porto Rican engineer dug the holes, 
put in the concrete footings, and cut off or lengthened the lower 
legs to corre.sjjond to the slope of the hillside. Another gang as- 
sembled the towers with the exception of the lower leg pieces, 
while another gang erected the small gin-pole. Then came the 
main erecting gang carrying large gin-poles, blocks, tackle, dead- 
men, tools, etc. The small gin-pole being in place, the last gang 
quickly erected the first large gin-pole, which in turn was used 
to erect the second. 

The most difficult problem at each tower was the anchoring of 
the many guy lines needed. For this purpose trees were occa- 
sionally used, but in most cases steel dead-men had to be driven 
in the ground ; in some cases the ground was so soft that two 
dead-men had to be used. The erecting of the main poles was in 
charge of a mate from a Porto Rican sailing vessel, as sub-foreman, 
his principal assistants being six .sailors whose carefulness and good 
judgment were such that only twice did the gin-pole break away. 

At each angle point, the tower was set to bisect the angle in 
the transmission line, a supporting guy being held by concrete 
anchorage. Four or five towers were erected per day. After the 
men had gained a little experience the cost of erection, including 
all labor and material, sub-delivery of towers and concrete, cement 
at $3 50 per barrel at the tower, assembling, erecting and concrete 
footings and casing, was brought down to from $25 to $27 per 



942 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tower. Owing to special work, and some towers in exceptionally 
bad locations, which required more care and more concrete, and 
owing to delays caused by right of way fights, the average cost was 
considerably higher. Each common laborer was paid 75 cts. per 
day, the sub-foreman receiving $2 or $3. 

Method and Cost of Constructing 22,000-Volt Iron-Wire Steel- 
Poles Transmission Line. M. D. Leslie in Electrical World, Feb. 
10, 1917, gives the following data on the methods and cost of con- 
structing a 22,000-volt, 3-phase, 60 cycle transmission line of rela- 
tively inexpensive type. 

The line as constructed consists of three No. 6 E. B. B. galvan- 
ized iron wires mounted horizontally 4 ft. apart on steel arms. 
Bates expanded steel poles, 4 in. diam. and 30 ft. long, set in 
concrete 300 ft. apart, and head guyed both ways in the direction 
of the line every ..half mile are employed except at railroad cross- 
ings, where 35 ft. poles are used. At corners and crossings the 
poles are double-armed. 

Experiments were carried on to determine the most satisfactory 
way of setting the poles in concrete. The manufacturers of the 
poles supply H-shaped forms, which require about 2 ft. of con- 
crete. The form itself requires a hole about 17 in. in diameter, 
but the ordinary hole digger cannot be depended upon to center 
the hole exactly, so it is necessary to dig a much larger hole in 
order to " line up " the poles properly. It was also found difficult 
to place concrete in such a small form at the bottom of a hole. 
Old-fashioned posthole diggers were then tried. Two holes were 
dug side by side and joined, thus giving a hole about 6 in, by 12 in. 
in cross-section. This method of construction was satisfactory in 
some soils, but was abandoned in favor of digging with ordinary 
tools, which were trimmed down on the sides so that a small rec- 
tangular hole could be made. These holes were easily dug, and 
required from 5 to 6 cu. ft. of concrete to the pole. 

Cross-arms were distributed with the poles, and a definite quan- 
tity of sand left at each pole. The cement was stored along the 
way, a day's supply being carried by the pole-raising gang. From 
two to five diggers were employed, according to the nature of the 
ground. The assemblers were accompanied by a wagon, in which 
was carried all the necessary material, including insulators. 

At the time the line was built it was very difficult to get labor 
of any kind. Consequently it was necessary to work part of the 
time with a " short " crew, and to leave the wire stringing for the 
return trip. A cook shack was maintained for feeding the men 
and tents provided for them to sleep in. The camp was moved along 
as the work progressed. 

A full raising crew consisted of a driver, two concrete mixers, a 
" jinney " man, four " pikers " and a foreman. The outfit which 
was used consisted of one team, a water tank and a sled. The 
cement was carried on the tank and the sled served to carry the 
tools from pole to pole and as a mixing box for the concrete. The 
concrete was usually mixed by the time the pole was set. The 
poles were raised by ordinary methods, plumbed with a level and 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 943 

tamped in. Poles tamped in with the concrete were stable enough 
to be left at once. An oval form, 4 in. deep, was made to shape 
the base above the top of the ground. While the majority of the 
gang moved up along the line to the next pole site, one man stayed 
behind to trowel off the top of the base and remove the form for 
use on the next pole. The best day's work by the raising gang 
was to set 34 poles in 11 hrs. 

The guying and stringing was done on the return trip. Two 
men dug the slug holes and set the concrete slugs. Two men with 
a . single-horse wagon installed the guys. Four linemen and a 
teamster did the stringing and tying in. Three coils of wire were 
distributed every Ys mile and picked up by the stringing gang. All 
three wires were strung at one time from reels mounted on a 
wagon. The wire was pulled at intervals of about 1 mile, using 
permanently guyed poles. The usual high-tension tie of No. 8 
iron wire was employed on this line. 

Five-inch neck-soldered Western Union splices were used, solder- 
ing being done with a pot and ladle. Sample splices made by dif- 
ferent linemen gave the following results under test : 

Sample Maximum strength (lbs.) Cause of failure 

1 1,850 Splice slipped 

2 1,870 Wire broke, splice held 

3 1,810 Wire broke, splice held 

The line has been in satisfactory operation for about three months 
with five interruptions, caused by an insulator being shot off 
in one case, a wire thrown onto the line in two others, and broken 
wires, due to defects in the wire itself, in the remaining cases. 

The item of engineering given in Table XXXII includes con- 
siderable of the writer's time and expenses as well as those of the 
surveyor. The item of total labor includes all labor, of all classes. 



TABLE XXXII. DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE 
COSTS 

(Distance Dodge City to Bucklin, Kan., approximately 31 miles.) 

Total Per Mile 

Engineering and survey $828.50 $26.73 

Pole rights 238.30 7.69 

Total labor 2,619.59 84.50 

Camp expenses and meals 592.54 19.11 

Teaming 717.49 23.15 

River sand, gravel and cement 356.81 11.51 

Insulators 840.03 27.10 

Pins 469.30 15.13 

Wire (95 miles No. 6 EBB) 3,368.93 108.67 

Steel poles (total, 557, including twenty-three 

guy stubs) 7,856.31 253.43 

Guying material 380.31 12.27 

Wood poles and line material . .' 287.90 9.28 

Transformers, switches and arresters 2,739.63 88.37 

Substation material 193.11 6.23 

General expense 107.25 3.46 

Total $21,596.00 $696.64 



944 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Distribution of labor 

Rebuilding- of wood-pole line in town to accommodate high- 
tension line from city limits to plant $391.30 

All work connected with setting 539 steel poles ready for 

wire 1,133.95 

Stringing- wire setting- anchors and attaching guys to above 

poles (about 29 miles of line) 470.64 

Building towers and finishing up last mile of steel line. . . . 623.30 

Total . $2,619.59 

including the foreman on the job, with the exception of some of the 
teamsters who were hired at a flat rate per day with their teams 
and wagons. The item of camp expenses is the net cost after 
deducting the amount charged the men for meals. Laborers were 
paid 25 cts. per hr. and linemen 40 cts. per hr. and all were 
charged 20 cts. per meal, which amount covered less than half the 
cost. The item of teaming includes all expense of teams for haul- 
ing various materials and carrying on the work, a charge being 
made for the use of company teams, as well as those hired. 

Labor expenses are distributed in the lower part of the table, 
so that the actual cost of pole setting is shown. This line, like 
most others, had special features which made it expensive. One 
of these was the rebuilding of about a mile of wood pole line in 
order to provide a connection with the power house where the 
transformers are located. The other condition that affected the in- 
stallation cost was the finishing up of the last mile on the Bucklin 
end at a later time with a small crew. This was made necessary 
by a lack of necessary material, and the expense was entirely out 
of proportion to the work done. Some of the men on this section 
of the line also built towers, so it is not possible to give an 
accurate division of this labor. 

The expense given for setting 539 steel line poles and the neces- 
sary guy stubs includes all labor connected with such work as 
digging holes, assembling arms, pins and insulators, setting poles 
and concreting their bases, as well as the foreman's time and 
other labor that was paid for. 

Cost of Constructing Wooden Towers for a 60,000-Volt Trans- 
mission Line 25 iVliies Long. The method of constructing the 60,- 
000 volt wooden tower line of the California-Oregon Power Co., 
which involved several interesting and novel features, is described 
by Mr. O. G. Steele in the Journal of Electricity Power and Gas 
for May 4, 1912. The details of the tower are shown by Fig. 
20. Spans vary from 450 to 1,000 ft., one span being 1,465 ft. 
across Jennie Creek canyon. 

Cast iron anchor plates were used in the foundation work while 
3 in. channel iron was employed for the cross-arms. These arms 
are 16.6 ft. long and are painted with P. & B. paint to prevent rust- 
ing. Angle iron 2.5 x 2.5 ins. was used to bind the poles to the 
concrete bases shown in the illustration. Insulators of the Locke 
suspension type are employed. Each insulator, composed of three 
units, clasps the conductor by means of a straight line clamp. At 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 945 

the point where angles are necessary in the transmission line four 
units are employed in the insulator. 

Every fifth tower is so constructed as to take up the strain; 
at these strain towers four anchors are employed with guy wires 
crossed, while for standard towers only two anchor plates are 
employed. 

Raising the towers proved an interesting problem, due to the 
roughness of the country. While the hillside, composing a portion 
of the transmission line, made only one method applicable, it was 
not at all times practicable to deliver the tools required. A creW 
of 12 to 15 men was employed. 



,<- ^-O- 



' 4-0 — *| 







Top Vie// 

1^"... 



Channels 
-I 



6-0- 



Tel Insulator^ 




/nsu/afors'"' 



tf 



^ Eye Bolt 



u « • a 

r ' Angle Hn 



Fig. 



'^^S-SI ' Anchor Bolt ^^ 

Anchor Plate 6 undei 
Oround 



20. Details of wooden tower for high tension transmission 
line. 




The poles were first placed on supports about 7 ft. above the 
ground. The guy wires were next passed over the fork and with 
the aid of a block and tackle the poles were pulled into place, dur- 
ing which process men with pike poles guided the poles. After the 
poles were set on their bases the guys were pulled through the eye 
of the anchor row and tightened by hand and another crew follow- 
ing put the guy wires in final taut condition. 

Later in the progress of the work it was found that a horse 
could be used to raise the towers and this method proved satis- 
factory. As many as 25 of these towers may be thus raised in 



046 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

one day. Referring to the guy clamps, the ordinary three-bolt 
galvanized type was employed, but in the future the combination 
clamp will replace the three-bolt design. 

An average of 10 towers per mile were necessary in the con- 
struction of the transmission line, although this varied somewhat 
wherever rolling country prevailed. Thus in crossing canyons, 
spans were made of full length in most cases. 

The cost of construction is estimated from the unit costs to be 
about as given in Table XXXIII, assuming 10 towers per mile. 



TABLE XXXIII. AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF WOOD 

TOWER TRANSMISSION LINE. 10 TOWERS PER MILE, 

24.6 MILES 

Materials : 

Wire 3 No. 2 copper, 3,242 lbs $0,155 $502.51 

Wire 2 No. 9 iron, 1,053 lbs 05 52.65 

Insulators, 100 suspension units 775 77.50 

33 suspension eyes 125 4.13 

7 strain clamps 74 5.I8 

30 straight line clamps 364 10.91 

Channel iron arms, 10 sets of 2,132 lbs 033 43.56 

Angle iron, 338 lbs 0298 10.00 

Cement, 4.35 lbs 3.74 16.30 

Gravel, 6.3 25 1.57 

Telephone insulators, 21 No. 26 05 1.05 

. Pole line hardware — 

24 bolts, % X 8 ins 088 20.00 

20 bolts, %xl% ins 0368 7.72 

50-3 bolt %-in. guy clamps 151 7.55 

50 y2-in. thimbles 0312 1.56 

250 ft. %-in. strain guy cables 016 40.00 

25 guy rods, i^-in. x 6 f t 36 9.00 

450 lbs. anchor plates 03658 16.36 

Poles, 20 40-ft. red fir 1.629 32.58 

Right of way, average cost of securing 16.85 

Camp outfit and tools, proportional cost per 

mile 20.00 

Total materials $896.78 



Labor : 



Surveying right of way $ 64.00 

Clearing right of way 148.20 

Hole digging, 20 foundation holes, 2 ft. deep, and 25 

guy holes, 5 ft. deep 79.00 

Powder 6.95 

Tower framing, 10 towers, at $2.29 22.90 

Haulage, including cost of teams, hay and grain ; 20 

poles, average 2 miles, at $3,037 60.74 

Wire, average cost per mile 20.51 

Channel iron arms, including painting 14.50 

Foundation materials 25.80 

Setting 20 foundations (cone), at $5.51 110.20 

Raising 20 towers, at $5,538 110.76 

Wire stringing 3 copper transmission and 2 iron tele- 
phone 73.60 

Extras, blacksmithing, coal and labor 10.00 

Warehouse man 4.00 

Time-keeping and books 14.00 

Superintendence 28.50 

Total labor $ 783.66 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 947 

Miscellaneous : 

Camp expense, moving, depreciation in maintenance of 

automobile $ 86 00 

Loss on cook house after serving- 14,930 meals at 35 cts. 7.56 
Numbering, repairing and distributing material for fu- 
ture repairs 25.80 

Total miscellaneous $ 119.36 

Total cost per mile, complete $1,799.80 

Cost of 66,000-Volt Transmission Line. An extended discussion 
of the cost of a 66,000-volt transmission line was a feature of a 
recent hearing given by the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
Commission to the Turners Falls Power & Electric Company, of 
Greenfield, Mass., is abstracted in Electrical World, Apr. 10, 1915. 
The line was built from Turners Falls to Springfield, Mass., and 
is 42.88 miles long. Ittis designed for ultimate service at 110,000 
volts, and the total cost is shown in the following table : 

Clearing right-of-way |13,898 

Contractors' general expense 9,151 

Transportation of materials 6,072 

Excavation for standard anchors 14,913 

Setting standard anchors 10,443 

Steel towers 73,526 

Assembling and erecting towers 22,861 

Insulators installed 20,536 

Wire 127,122 

Hardware 6,557 

Changes in line 6,803 

1311,882 

Special river crossings 35,218 

Special towers at substations 2,627 

Special concrete footings 13,057 

Grand total §362,784 

The first section above totaled covers the so-called standard con- 
struction used on the line and figures $7,296.68 per mile, or $672.16 
per tower. The total cost, including special work as listed but 
not including real estate and right-of-way, was $8,465.11 per mile, 
or $781.86 per tower. 

The line was built by F. T. Ley & Company, Springfield, Mass. 
The power company bought the material, furnished the towers, 
wire and insulators, and purchased the right-of-way. The right- 
of-way is 150 ft. wide and cost about $250 an acre. Since the line 
was built, about a year ago, the right of eminent domain has been 
granted to transmission companies in Massachusetts, which would 
unquestionably have greatly reduced the cost of the right-of-way 
had it been operative during the preliminary period. Where the 
line traverses level and fairly firm soil the towers are secured by 
anchors 7 ft. long with 1-ft. cross-pieces, set in the earth, one 
anchor being provided at each corner of the tower. At railroad 
crossings, marshy and wet places the anchors are in.stalled in con- 
crete legs about 2 ft. square and 8 ft. deep, except where the towers 
are lifted considerably above the ground level. One such concrete 
footing is used at each leg of an angle tower in crossing the West- 



948 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

field River, and for 2 miles between the Agawam substation and 
Springfield. Across this portion of the line the country is flooded 
from 5 ft. to 15 ft. deep in the spring. 

There are three special river crossings, where the towers cost 
$1,250 apiece at the factory and are 100 ft. high. It cost from 
$1,000 to $1,200 to erect these on the ground. The foundations cost 
from $1,800 to $2,500 each for these crossings, except where the line 
crosses the Connecticut River and enters Springfield. Here the 
cost was $4,000. Copper-clad steel wire is used on the long spans. 
The item " contractor's general expense " includes the cost of main- 
taining camps, transportation of general superintendents, etc. 
" Changes in line " covered relocations in the field after a portion 
of the construction was in. From Turners Falls to Amherst heavy 
timber was encountered. The total cost of the right-of-way was 
$200,695. 

Excluding right-of-way and not including special river crossings 
and concrete footings, the line cost $7,296.68 per mile, or $672.16 
per tower, compared with $8,280 per mile and $900 per tower on 
similar lines built in the same general territory. The Turners 
Falls towers weigh about 4000 lbs. each, compared with 5700 lbs. for 
the standard towers of an adjacent system. River-crossing towers 
were built of structural steel and riveted on the job, the standard 
towers being only bolted together. The neighboring system (Con- 
necticut River Transmission Company) spaces its towers 9.2 per 
mile and uses No. 00 wire, compared with a spacing of eleven per 
mile and No. conductor on the Turners Falls system. The former 
also uses six suspension insulator disks per wire, while the latter 
employs four, costing $1 per disk. Each tower carries two three- 
phase circuits, and the standard towers are approximately 75 ft. 
high and about 17 ft. square at the base. To change the line for 
110,000-volt service the only alteration necessary on the line proper 
will be the addition of insulator disks. 

Cost of Erecting 110,000-Volt Transmission Lines. Electrical 
World, June 7, 1913, gives the following labor costs on four differ- 
ent 110,000-volt lines in this country. All are six-wire, two-circuit 
tower lines on standard suspension insulators arranged on either 
side of standard Millikan towers spaced ten to the mile. None of 
the towers possesses concrete footings, but connecting the top of 
each in all cases is a Siemens-Martin stranded-steel ground wire. 
The costs included everything except general office expense and 
supervision, which should not exceed $50 a mile. Of course, the 
cost of the towers, insulators, wires and right-of-way is not in- 
cluded ; neither is the cost of clearing the right-of-way. The figures 
given include wages, commissariat, team hire and transportation 
of material from the railroad to the right-of-way. 

Line No. 1 passes through a high grade of country, necessitating 
more stub holes, angles and guying than Line No. 2, which passes 
through a wooded section most of the way. It will be noticed that 
the cost of distributing and stringing the wire in Line No. 1 is 
greater than in Lines 2, 3 and 4, This is due to the fact that only 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 949 

one three-phase line was operated at first, the other three-phase 
line having been strung- afterward and while the first line was 
alive. In some of the more recent lines erected in this country, 
notably that of the Central Georgia Power Company, the insulators 
were attached to the towers before the latter were hoisted into 
position so that a saving in the fifth item, " hanging insulators," 
would be effected. All of the lines traverse fairly rolling country, 
dotted here and there with heavily wooded sections, and copper is 
used as a conductor for the most part, although sections of lines 
No. 3 and 4 are of aluminum. None of the lines parallels any 
railroad system for any distance, and the distribution cost has been 
approximately $5 a tower. Where concrete footings are provided 
for the towers, a practice which obtains in many transmission 
systems, the labor costs are considerably increased. 



TABLE XXXIV. COST PER MILE OP ERECTING TWO- 
CIRCUIT, 110,000-VOLT TOWER LINES 

Line ' Line Line Line 

No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, 

Operation 49 miles 34 miles 129 miles 181 miles 

Distributing towers $47.16 $48.48 $49.15 $53.68' 

Assembling towers 92.66 101.23 94.79 98.06 

Erecting towers 77.90 75.15 70.44 77.77 

Digging stub holes 99.93 23.10 27.67 54.36 

Hanging insulators 55.53 32.04 42.00 44.72 

Distributing wire 48.84 17.21 27.20 30.84 

Stringing wire 202.29 107.62 124.35 150.53 

Digging holes for towers 169.59 143.23 156.79 166.00 

Total per mile $793.90 $548.06 $592.39 $675.96 



Cost of Line Materials. From data recently prepared by the 
Amesbury, Mass., Electric Light Company covering 13,200-volt line 
material costs since Jan 1, 1917, the following extracts are printed. 
The figures reflect the present high levels of equipment prices among 
small companies. Besides being interesting in connection with 
making estimates they have record value : 

Quantity Items Cost 

158 30-ft. poles, chestnut, B $727 

24 35-ft. poles, chestnut, B 146 

20 40-ft. poles, chestnut, B 165 

8 45-ft. poles, chestnut, B 88 

8 50-ft. poles, che.stnut, B 136 

287 2-pin cross-arms (special) 172 

4 4-pin cross-arms 5 

8 8-pin cross-arms ^ Al 

15,223 lbs. No. 2 bare H. D. copper wire 5,147 

373 lbs. No. 4 bare S. D. copper wire 137 

381 lbs. No. 2 bare stranded copper wire 137 

532 lbs. No. 2 W. P. wire 147 

500 ft. i/>-in. 7-strand guy wire 7 

5,250 ft. 5/^G-in. 7-strand guy v^ire »9 

850 ft. Vio-in. 7-strand guy wire 15 

50 No. 58,160 line wire protectors ^10 

100 No. 2 copper splicing sleeves 32 



950 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Quantity Items Cost 

90 6-ft anchor rods $53 

19 Anchor planks 7 

356 ft. 12-in. by 2-in. spruce planking 15 

10 gals. Creosote 6 

4 600-kw., 13, 200/2200-volt transformers 7,550 

6 300-amp., 13, 200-volt choke coils 229 

2 3-phase, 13,200-volt lightning arresters 752 

6 300-amp. 13,200-volt disconnecting switches,... 60 

Setting 200 poles (by contract) 3,770 



TABLE XXXV. ANCHOR OR GUY RODS 



Diam., ins. 

V' 



Length, ft. Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 



8 
10 
10 
12 



295 

340 

395 

415 

500 

590 

680 

770 

595 

730 

840 

950 

1,080 

1,210 

2.350 

2,900 

4,650 

7,950 



$16.50 
18.35 
21.00 
21.00 
23.00 
25.50 
29.25 
33.00 
27.35 
32.25 
36.75 
42.00 
47.25 
52.50 
90.75 
108.00 
181.50 
305.25 



Prices do not include washers. 

Galvanized anchors cost 30 to 35% more and on lots of 500 to 
1,000 is a discount of 10%. 



TABLE XXXVL MATTHEW'S SPECIAL GUY ANCHORS 
Diam. 



rich or, ins. 


Weight, Ib.s. per 


100 


Price per 100 


5 


250 




$42 


6 


450 




75 


5 


650 




69 


6 


1,000 




135 


7 


1.500 




270 


8 


3,800 




450 


10 


5,000 




675 


12 


8,000 




900 



Diameter of rods for above anchors are as follows: 5 in. anchor 
has .5 in. rod, 6 in. a .625 in. rod. 7 in. a .75 in. rod, 8 in. a 1.125 
in. rod, 10 in. a 1.25 in. rod, and 12 in. a 1.5 in. rod. 

Galvanized anchors cost 20 to 30% more than those given. 

TABLE XXXVIL BOLTS FOR DOUBLE CROSS ARMS 



Diam. ins. 


Length, ins. 


Weight, lbs. per 100 


Price per 100 


% 


12 


86 


$5.60 


i/„ 


14 


93 


6.15 


V2 


16 


100 


6.65 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 951 



Diam., ins. 


Length, ft. 


Weight, lbs. per 100 


Price per 100 


V2 


18 


107 


$7.10 


% 


20 


115 


7.50 


V2 


22 


123 


7.90 


% 


12 


129 


8.55 


% 


14 


143 


9.15 


16 


157 


9.75 


% 


18 


171 


10.35 


% 


20 


186 


10.95 


% 


22 


201 


11.55 


% 


24 


216 


12.15 


1 


26 


231 


12.75 


14 


198 


12.00 


16 


219 


12.75 


% 


18 


240 


13.50 


% 


20 


261 


14.25 


% 


22 


282 


15.00 


% 


24 


324 


15.75 



Prices Include 4 nuts, but no washers. 

Galvanized bolts cost 30 to 35% more. Lots of 500 to 1,000 have 

discount of 10%. 

TABLE XXXVIIL BOLTS AND LAG SCREWS 





t 


Price per 100 




Length, ins. 


y4-in. 


%-in. 


1-in. 


31/2 


$1.17 


$2.40 


$5.00 


4 


1.25 


2.55 


5.25 


4y2 


1.33 


2.70 


5.50 


5 


1.10 


2.85 


5.80 


6 


1.58 


3.20 


6.40 


7 


1.73 


3.50 


7.00 


8 


1.82 


3.85 


7.60 


9 


2.05 


4.10 


8.20 


10 


2.25 


4.45 


8.75 


11 


2.40 


4.70 


9.30 


12 


2.60 


5.00 


9.90 




, 


Price per 100 




Length, ins. 


%-in. 


1/2 -in. 


%-in. 


4 


$0.74 


$1.22 


$2.86 


5 


83 


1.36 


3.15 


6 


0.92 


1.52 


3.50 


7 


1.22 


1.65 


3.75 


8 


1.34 


1.80 


4.25 


9 


1.45 


1.95 


4.50 


10 


1.55 


2.20 


4.75 


12 


1.75 


2.40 


5.25 


14 


1.90 


2.70 


5.90 


15 


2.05 


2.85 


6.25 


18 


2.40 


3.25 


7.20 


20 


2.60 


3.50 


7.75 



Cost of Lead Covered Telephone Cable. Prices of 19 and 22 
gauge lead covered cables based upon the 10 year average cost of 
materials immediately preceding the Great War were as follows : 

Copper 15.4 cents per pound 

Lead 4.6 

Tin 36.5 



952 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXXIX. WEIGHTS AND PRICES — SINGLE. FLAT 

DUPLEX AND TRIPLEX LEAD COVERED, INSULATED 

CABLES 



O m 


^ 


fl Ol C 


0) m 






Price per ft., cents. 
(Lead taken at 5 


f '^.^ 


q_, O 


oo^ 


-' S 




u 


Ct£ 


!. per lb.) 




^1 

u 3 


m g5 


ii 




ft . 


Base price of 
Copper 


-o^l 


1" 


^It 


|i 




14c. 


16c. 


18c. 


|cq^ 


Is 


2 m O 


l« 


t- 
> 


'^^ 








M 


z 


H 


B 


^ 


^ 








#4s. 


2 


%2 V. C. 


1 


2,300 


1.87 


16.2 


16.8 


17.3 


#6s. 


1 


%2 V. C. 


2,300 


0.89 


7.68 


7.86 


8.03 


250,000 


2 


%2 V. C. 




2,300 


4.78 


30.7 


40.8 


54.2 


500,000 


2 


%2 V. C. 


Vs 


2,300 


7.20 


78.5 


85.1 


91.8 


500,000 


1 


%2 V. C. 


%4 


600 


3.59 


39.0 


42.4 


45.7 


1,000.000 


1 


%4 V. C. 




600 


6.26 


71.0 


77.7 


84.4 


1,500.000 


1 


''/32 V. C. 


Vs 


250 


8.48 


100.8 


110.8 : 


120 9 


1,000,000 


1 


%4 V. C. 
%2 P. 


% 


250 


6.26 


71.0 


77.7 


84.4 


1,000,000 


1 


Vs 


250 


6.15 


65.4 


72.1 


78.7 


750,000 


1 


%2 P. 


%4 


250 


4.71 


49.9 


54.9 


59.9 


500,000 


1 


%2 P. 


%4 


250 


3.59 


36.2 


39.5 


42.9 


300,000 


1 


%2P. 




250 


2.62 


24.7 


26.7 


28.7 


500,000 


1 


%4 P. 


%4 


600 


3.68 


36.7 


40.0 


43.4 


1,000,000 


1 


',k P. 




600 


6.26 


65.9 


72.6 


79.2 


500,000 


2 


%2 P. 


% 


2,300 


7.86 


76.0 


82.6 


89.3 


250,000 


2 


%2 P. 


Vs 


2,300 


5.08 


44.7 


48.0 


51.3 


#4s. 


2 


%2 P- 


%4 


2,300 


2.11 


15.7 


16.2 


16.7 


#6s. 


1 


5/^2 P. 


3/b 


2,300 


1.00 


7.60 


7.78 


7.95 


250,000 


3 


^%4 P. 


lA 


13,800 


9.92 


83.0 


87.9 


92.8 


500,000 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%4 


250 


3.68 


42.2 


45.6 


49.0 


350,000 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%4 


250 


2.96 


32.5 


34 9 


37.2 


300,000 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%4 


250 


2.71 


29.1 


31.1 


33.2 


250,000 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%4 


250 


2.44 


25.8 


27.4 


29.1 


# 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 




250 


1.37 


13.8 


14.5 


15.3 


# 1 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


.H^2 


250 


1.24 


12.2 


12.8 


13.3 


# 6 


3 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%4 


250 


1.93 


18.44 


18.96 


19.49 


#12s. 


3 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%2 


250 


0.98 


8.98 


9.12 


9.25 


500,000 


1 


NE.C.R.,T. 


%4 


600 


3.68 


42.2 


45.6 


49.0 


250,000 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%1 


600 


2.44 


25.8 


27.4 


29.1 


#1 


1 


N.E.C.R., T. 


%2 


600 


1.24 


12.2 


12.8 


13.3 


#4/0 


2 


%4 R-, T. 


14 


2,300 


4.35 


45.4 


48.2 


51.0 


#18s. 


3 


%4B.,T. 


%2 


2,300 


1.42 


11.79 


11.84 


11.93 


1 All conductors are stranded 


except ^ 


where 


indicated as 


being 


solid by the letter S. 














2 V.C.- 


-Varnished cloth, 


, P. = paper; R. T.- 


-New 


code rubber, 


taped. 




















TABLE XL. COST OF LEAD COVERED CABLE 




Number 


of pairs 




Weig-ht per 








of conductors 




ft., lbs 




Price per ] 


ft. 






22 


B. and 


[ S. Gauge 










^ 






0.49 

0.745 

1.02 

1.45 

2.12 

2.48 

3.10 

4.06 

6.21 

8.31 




$0,046 
0.071 
0.101 
0.157 
0.236 
0.273 
0.368 
0.455 
0.768 
1.049 




15 . . 









30 








60 * '. 








100 . . 









120 . . 


'.,.*,. 






180 . . 








200 . . 








400 








600 . . 


.'.!!.! 







OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 953 



Number of pairs Weight per 
of conductors ft. lbs. 

19 B. and S. Gauge 

15 0.970 

30 1.39 

60 2.22 

90 2.81 

120 4.21 

180 5.44 

300 7.59 



■ice per ft. 


$0,097 


0.146 


0.180 


0.350 


0.475 


0.644 


0.966 



TABLE XLI. CROSS ARMS 
Weight per lin. ft., lbs. 



Cross-section, ins. 


Fir 


Yellow pine 


2%x3% 


2.50 


3.25 


3x3% 


2.70 


3.60 


3 X 4 


3.00 


3.90 


3 x4^ 


3.20 


4.10 


3y4x4% 


3.40 


4.40 


3^x41/2 


3.75 


4.70 


31/.J XIV2 


4.00 


5.00 


3% X 4% 


4.20 


5.30 


3 1/> X 5 


4.40 


5.57 


3%x4% 


4.-50 


5.67 


3% x5 


4.70 


5.95 


3%x5% 


5.40 


6.80 


4 x5 


500 


6.33 


4%x5i4 


5.-55 


7.00 


4y2 xSVa 


6.15 


7.63 


4 x6 


6.00 


7.52 


4%x53^ 


6.70 


8.50 


5 X 6 


7.30 


9.29 



Cents per lin, ft. 
10.00 
10.83 
11.51 
12.18 
13.12 
13.85 
14.84 
15.62 
16.40 
16.66 
17.50 
20.00 
18.59 
20.62 
22.76 
22.13 
25,00 
27.34 



The following discounts are applicable to the above 
price to obtain net prices for lots of from 1.000 to 3,000 lin. ft. 

Yellow pine — 
Location Fir 75% heart 

Pacific coa.st mills 70% .... 

Mi.ssi.ssippi mills 65% 

Chicago warehouse 50% 55% 

New York warehouse 40% 45% 

On large orders these prices may be bettered by from 10 to 20%. 

Prices include boring holes for bolts and pin-s. 

Thus the price of a 6 ft. 6 pin fir cro.ss-arm with a cross-section 
of 3.25 X 4.25 ins., f. o. b. Chicago Warehou.se would be — 

13.12 X 6 =r 79 cents less 50% =: 39.5 cents, neL 
And the weight would be 3.4 X 6 -: 20.4 lbs per cross-arm. 

An 8 ft. 8 pin — 3.25 x 4.25 ins. fir cross-arm, f. o. b. New York 
Warehouse would cost 

13.12 X 8 - $105 less 40% --- 63 cents, net. 
and the weight would be 3.4 X 8 :~ 27.2 lbs. per cross-arm. 

Rules for Figuring Prices on Special Sized Arms. Add '/4-in. to 
depth and width of finished size required to get " rough size." If 
length required runs into ins., take next higher ft. length. This 
gives the " rough " size and length of the block from which the arm 
Is made. 



954 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Multiply depth by width (rough size) in ins., divide by 12, and 
multiply by length in ft. This gives number ft. b. m. in block. 

Multiply ft. b. m. by 10 to get base price at mill in cts. 

To get weight, find ft. b. m. as above, except use actual length 
required and multiply by 2.7 for fir and 3.4 for yellow pine. 

For carbolineating, or immersion for 5 mins. in carbolineum oil, 
heated to 200 deg. Fahr., add 20% to list prices. 

For painting two coats red paint, add 20% to list prices. 

For creosoting full vacuum treatment, 

12 lbs. per cu. ft., add 50% to list price. 

10 lbs. per cu. ft., add 45% to list price. 

8 lbs, per cu. ft., add 40% to list price. 

For example, to find cost of special size 7x6 ins. 

(7 + % X 6 -I- 1/4 ) -- 45.31 sq. ins. 

10(45.31 -T- 12) X =: base price at mill in cents, 
where X = number of feet in length. 

Cost of Malleable Iron Feeder Arms. Malleable iron feeder arms 
have one to six pins complete with bolts and for 3, 4, 4.5, 5,. 6, and 7 
in. poles cost per lb. of iron from 7 to 10 cts. 

Malleable iron triangle, three pin high tension pole arms for 
high tension light and power wires and having 30 ins. between pins, 
cost approximately 10 cts. per lb. and weigh 33 lbs. each without 
pins. 

TABLE XLir. CROSS ARM PINS 

American Telegraph and Telephone Co., " standard." 
Steel pin with wood head. 



Size, ins. 


Weight per 100 lbs. 


Price 
Plain 


per 


100 lbs. 
Galv'd. 


% x54 
% X 1 ij 


62 
82 
57 

77 


$5.00 
5.80 
4.80 
5.60 




$7.40 
8.50 
7.20 
8.00 



The above size is the diameter and length of bolt. First two are 
for wood cross arms. The last are for steel channels or angle 
iron cross-arms and are without washers. 

High Tension Insulator Pins. Malleable iron head and pin on 
piece with steel bolt with short stud for use on channel and angle 
iron cross-arm. 











, Price 


per 


100 , 


Size, ins. 


Weight 


per 100, 


lbs. 


Jap'd 




Galv'd 


4% 




170 




$20.80 




$26.50 


51/2 




190 




21.60 




28.00 


6 




190 




22.40 




29.00 


71/2 




215 




24.00 




31.25 


9 




300 




30.00 




39.00 


10 




340 




32.00 




45.00 


18 




600 




48.00 




68.00 



The above size is the length of pin plus height of head. 
Head diameter is 1 in. for the first four sizes and 1.375 ins. for 
last three. 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 955 





WOOD PINS, PAINTED OAK 




Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Price per 1,000 


1^ x8 
11/^ X 9 


300 
400 


$12.50 
15.00 



The above prices are for lots of less than 250. For lots of 250 
to 1,000 a discount of 30% is given and 40% on lots of 1,000 to 2,500 
on those given above. 



TABLE XLIII. 


CROSS-ARM BRACES C 


Length, ins. 


Weight, lbs. per 1,000 




Size of steel, 1 x %6 ins. 


20 
22 


1,000 
1,100 




Size of steel, 17^2 x l'z2 ins. 


20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 


1,420 
1,560 
1.700 
1.840 
1,980 
2,120 




Size of steel, 11/4x^4 ins. 


20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 


1,670 
1,835 
2,000 
2.165 
2,335 
2,500 



Price per 1,000 



$33.75 
37.12 



42.48 
46.65 
50.85 
55.10 
59.20 
63.30 



49.95 
54.93 
59.85 
64.69 
69.90 
74.80 



Guy Clamp. The following are costs of guy clamps. 



Matthews Boltless Guy Clamp 
Size of guy strand, ins. Weight, lbs. per 100 

1/4 -yi6 50 

%-7i6 130 



Price, each 
$0.10 
.15 



Prices are on lots of less than 500, 15 to 20% off on 1,000 lots 
and over. 

Galvanized Rolled Steel Guy Clamp 

Size, ins. No. of bolts Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 

3 2 110 $12.00 



150 
210 



17.00 
19 50 



* A. T. & T, standard. 

Prices are on lots of 50 to 100 ; discount of 9% on lots from 100 
to 250 and special prices on lots over 250. 

Universal guy clamp, galvanized malleable iron 
No. of bolts Weight, lbs. per 100 Price per 100 

2 100 $12.00 

3 100 17.50 

Prices are on lots of 100 to 300; discount of 9% on lots from 
300 to 500 and special prices on lots Over 500. 



956 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XLIV. PIN TYPE INSULATORS (WESSELHOEFT) 



Operating 


Test Voltage 


Diam,Height, ^?- 
ins. ins. p^;^^ 


Weigh 
, lbs. 


it ^ 


Material voltage, 
volts 


Wet 
volts 


Dry 
volts 


•8 


Glass 110-2,200 
Porcelain 13,200 
Porcelain 22,000 
Porcelain 33,000 
Porcelain 44,000 
Porcelain 50,000 
Porcelain 60,000 


40,000 
•45,000 
60,000 
80,000 
95,000 
115,000 


■80,000 
72,000 
90,000 
110,000 
120,000 
150,000 


314 4 1 

6y2 3% 2 

7 5 2 

9 8 2 or 3 

101/2 10 3 

12 11 3 

14 13 4 


' Vi 

8 
13 

18 

27 


$0.03 
0.18 
0.50 
0.75 
1.20 
1.50 
2.00 


TABLE XLV. SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATORS 
(WESSELHOEFT) 




^"^- parts ins. 


Test Voltage 


Ul timate Working™-^, _v, ^ 

strength, stress, ^flg^^ 

lbs. lbs. ^*^»- 




Wet 
volts 


Dry 
volts 


• Cost 


10 1 51^2 
12 1 6i/o 
14 2 9 


50,000 
50,000 
65,000 


75,000 
75,000 
90,000 


8,000 4,000 

9,000 4,500 

12,000 6,000 


11 
13 

20 


$1.00 
1.40 
2.00 



TABLE XLVL HIGH VOLTAGE PORCELAIN INSULATORS 



lane voltage 


Weight, lbs. 


Price 


6,600 


1.0 


$0.10 


7,500 


1.125 


.12 


8,000 


1.2 


.13 


10,000 


1.6 


.18 


11,000 


1.8 


.20 


13,000 


2.3 


.26 


15,000 


2.6 


.31 


18,000 


3.3 


.40 


20,000 


3.8 


.46 


23,000 


4.5 


.55 


25,000 


5.0 


.64 


27,000 


5.5 


.70 


30,000 


6.1 


.82 


33,000 


7.0 


.95 


36,000 


7.8 


1.10 


40,000 


9.0 


1.20 


45,000 


10.5 


1.45 


50,000 ■ 


20,0 


2.80 



TABLE XLVII. 



WOOD STRAIN INSULATORS WITH 
GALVANIZED ENDS 



?th, ins. 


Diameter, ins. 


Price per 100 


5 




$21.00 


9 




25.00 


12 




30.00 


15 




32.25 


5 


m 


27.35 


9 


30.00 


12 


1% 


35.00 


15 


lU 


39.35 


24 


114 ^ 


52.50 


36 


1^ 


65.00 


48 


'1% 


77.50 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 957 

The average breaking strain for the 1 in, diam. is 2500 lbs. and 
for 1.25 in. diam. 10.000 lbs. 

The above length is the length of wood insulaton and the diam. 
is that of the wood at the ends. The distance between centers of 
eyes is 4 to 5 ins. greater than that of the wood insulation. 

For insulators having clevis at one end there is an increase of 
10% and for those having tapped boss at one end ther« is an increase 
of 157o to 20% on the above prices. 

TABLE XLVIII. GLASS INSULATORS 

Weight, lbs. 

Size, ins. per 1,000 Price per 1,000 

Pony 2^x314 700 $28.80 

Pony double petticoat . . 2% x 314 950 33.60 

Pony double groove 2 x 3^^ 760 28.80 

Regular insulator 2%x4 1,100 36.00 

Std. Western Union dou- 
ble petticoat 314x4% 1,700 52.80 

Long distance pattern . . 27/i6x3% 1,000 43.20 
Western Union single 

petticoat 2%x4 1,450 60.00 

Deep groove pattern ... 3 x 4 1,275 52.00 
Large double groove ... 3 x4^ 1,700 60.00 
Deep groove double pet- 
ticoat 3% X 4 1,475 52.80 

Extra deep groove double 

petticoat 31/3 x 3% 1,375 52.80 

The sizes given are the maximum diam. and heights. 

TABLE XLIX. PORCELAIN STRAIN INSULATORS 

Size Dimensions, ins. Weight per 100 lbs. Price per 100 

1 314x414 162.5 $12.00 

2 3%x5i^ 275.0 16.00 

3 278x3% 137.5 10.00 

4 2% X 3 87.5 8.00 

5 11/2x2% 25.0 4.50 

No. pieces 
Size Test voltage Line voltage Tensile strength per package 

1 24,000 8,000 15,000 125 

2 21,000 8,000 20,000 100 

3 24,000 7,000 15,000 250 

4 20,000 5,000 12,000 350 

5 telephone work low voltage 1,000 



GIANT STRAIN INSULATORS 

Diam. of body, ins. Length Breaking strength lbs. Price per 100 

1% 3% 3,500 $24.85 

2 47/16 5,000 27.00 

2% 4i%6 7,000 31.50 

2% 6 10,000 42.75 

For clevis at one end there will be an increase of $5.50 for the 
1.75 and 2 in. sizes and $8.25 increase on 2.25 and 2.5 in. sizes. 

For insulators with clevis at both ends, the increase will be twice 
as much as for one clevis. 



958 MPXIJANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The length given above is distance between centers of eyes ; there 
is a slight increase in length in the case of clevis and eye or two 
clevises. 

Comparison of Aluminum and Copper Wire. We have taken the 
following information frotn American Handbook for Electrical En- 
gineers: The following table compares the various Items for wires 
having the same length and same resistance and is based on the 
following assumptions : 

Copper Aluminum 

Per cent, conductivity 98 61 

Tensile strength, lbs. per sq. in 55,000 25,000 

Density 8.89 2.70 

Price per pound P P 

COMPAPJS(^N OF COPPER AND AT.ITMINUM WIRES FOR 
EQUAL RESISTANCES PER UNIT LENGTH 

Item Copper Aluminum 

P 

Cost 1 0.488 X — 

P 

Cross-section 1 1.G.3 

Diameter 1 1.28 

Weight 1 488 

Breaking str-erigth 1 0,7;a 

Carrying capacity 1 1.13 

Disadvantdf/e of Low Tensile Strength. The lower tensile 
strength of aluminum for ernjal length and conductance as compared 
with copper affects the cost of an aerial line in two ways; 1st. by 
making it necessary to erect the s])ans with a greater sag or less 
length in order to reduce the stresses, thereby either increasing the 
height or the nujnber of poles, and 2nd. by making it necessary to 
increase the distance between wires on account of the increased 
sag. The increase in the height of poles for the same si)acing 
amounts to about 10%. (C. L. Johnson.) 

Example of Relative Cost. According to the official publications 
of the Ontario Jlydro-Electric Commission on a line consisting of 
two three-!)haHe circuits, each comprising three 4/0 American wire 
gage cables, the six cables cost $1,450 per mile as comijared with 
.$2,050 p(^r mile for co))per cables (copper being at 16 cts. per lb. and 
aluminum at 23.5 cts. per lb.) showing a saving of nearly 30% on 
the cables alone. This saving was reduced to 5.6% only on the 
total cost of the line, partly because the actual towers weighed 1.72 
tons against 1.57 tons for towers for an equivalent copi)er line, and 
partly because the cost of cables was only 30% of the total cost 
of the line, including erection but excluding rights-of-way. (C. L. 
Johnson.) Owing to a tariff of 3.5 cts. per lb. the price of aluminum 
is higher in the U. S. than in Canada and Europe, so that the saving 
would have been considerably less at U. S. prices. 

Weatherproof Copper Wire. The cost of triple braid wire solid 
conductor is " Base " * for B. & S. gHge sizes 4/0 to 8/0 inclu- 

* " Base " cost on copper wire is usually about 1 ct. per lb. higher 
than the market price of ingot copper or " wire-bar." 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 959. 

sive with an increase of 1 ct. for each size smaller than the 
No. 8. Double braid wire costs .5 ct. more per lb. than triple braid, 
as does also triple braid fire and weatherproof and Underwriter's 
slow burning wires. 

Twisted conductors cost about 1 ct. per lb. more than for single 
conductor. 

Stranded conductors cost .25 ct. more than the above, for sizes 
1,000,000 circular mils, to No. 2 B. & S. gauge inclusive; .5 ct. more 
for No. 3 ; 1 ct. more for Nos. 4 to 6 inclusive ; and 1.5 cts. for No. 8 ; 
2 cts. for No. 10 and 5 cts. for No. 12. 

Thus with a base price of 16.5 cts. per lb., No. 10 wire, solid 
conductor, triple braid would cost 17.5 cts. ; No. 10 wire, solid con- 
ductor, double braid would cost 18 cts. per lb. ; if the latter were 
stranded it would cost 20 cts. per lb. This would make No. 10 wire, 
solid conductor, triple braid, cost $9.28 per 1000 ft. 

In figuring prices of wire it must be remembered that a charge 
of from $5 to $10 is made for the reels on which the wire is de- 
livered. This amount is rebatable, however, upon the return of the 
reels in good condition. 

Weights of Copper Wire. In Tables L to LV are given the 
weight per mile of base, double braid weatherproof and triple braid 
weatherproof wire, both for solid and stranded conductors, and 
with allowances of 0%, 2.5% and 5% for sag and waste. 

TABLE L. WEIGHT PER MILE OP BARE SOLID CONDUCTOR 







2%>%forsag 


5% for sag 




No sag or waste 


and waste 


and waste 


Size B. & S. gauge Weight, lbs. 


Weight, lbs. 


Weight, lbs. 


0,000 


3,382 


3,467 


3,551 


000 


2,682 


2,749 


2,816 


00 


2,127 


2,180 


2,233 





1,687 


1,729 


1,771 


1 


1,337 


1,370 


1,404 


2 


1,061 


1,088 


1,114 


3 


841 


862 


883 


4 


667 


684 


700 


6 


420 


431 


441 


8 


263 


270 


276 


10 


166 


170 


174 


12 


104 


107 


109 


14 


66 


68 


69 


TABLE LL WEIGHT PER MILE OF BARE CONCEI 




STRANDED 


CONDUCTOR 




Circ. mils. 

and 

B. &S. 


No sag or 


2%% sag 


5% sag and 


waste 


and waste 


waste 


Weight 
in lbs. 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Weight, 
lbs. 


2,000,000 


32,757 


33,576 


34,395 


1,750,000 


28,665 


29,382 


30,098 


1,500,000 


24,568 • 


25,182 


25,796 


1,250,000 


20,475 


20,987 


21,499 


1,000,000 


16,378 


16,787 


17,197 


750,000 


12,276 


12,583 


12,890 


600,000 


9,821 


10,067 


10,312 


500.000 


8,173 


8,377 


8.582 



960 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Circ. mils. 


and 


B. &S. 


450,000 


400,000 


350,000 


300,000 


250,000 


0,000 


000 


00 





1 


2 


3 


4 


6 



No sag or 


2V27c sag 


5% sag and 


waste 


and waste 


waste 


Weight 


Weight, 


Weight, 


in lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


7,355 


7.539 


7,723 


6,536 


6.699 


6,863 


5,718 


5,861 


6,004 


4,905 


5,028 


5,150 


4.087 


4,189 


4,291 


3,448 


3.534 


3,620 


2,729 


2,797 


2,865 


2,164 


2,218 


2,272 


1,721 


1,764 


1,807 


1,361 


1,395 


1,429 


1,072 


1,099 


1,126 


848 


869 


890 


672 


689 


706 


423 


434 


444 



No sag or 


214% sag 


5% sag and 


waste 


and waste 


waste 


Weight 


Weight, 


Weight, 


in lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


3,817 


3.912 


4,008 


3,098 


3,175 


3,253 


2,467 


2.529 


2.590 


1,989 


2,039 


2.088 


1,553 


1,592 


1,631 


1,264 


1,296 


1,327 


977 


1,001 


1,026 


795 


815 


835 


529 


542 


555 


349 


358 


366 


241 


247 


253 


158 


162 


166 


107 


110 


112 



TABLE LIT. WEIGHT PER MILE OP DOUBLE BRAID 
WEATHERPROOF SOLID CONDUCTOR 

Size 
B. &S. 

Gauge 

0,000 

000 

00 



1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 
10 
12 
14 

TABLE LTIL ^V^ETGHT PER MILE OF DOUBLE BRAID 
WEATHERPROOF STRANDED CONDUCTOR 

2 % % sag and 5% sag and 

waste waste 

Weight, Weight, 

lbs. lbs. 

36.206 37.089 

31.897 32,675 

27.588 28,261 

23.079 23,642 

18.702 19,158 

14,261 14.609 

11,328 .11,605 

9,551 9,784 

8,663 8,875 

7,774 7,963 

6,754 6,918 

5,864 6,007 

4,908 5,027 

4,033 4,132 

3.270 3.350 

2,608 2,671 

2,102 2,154 

1,639 1,679 



Circ. mils. 

and 
B. & S, Nos. 


No sag or 

waste 

Weight, 

lbs. 


2.000.000 


35,323 


1,750.000 


31,119 


1,500.000 


26,9J5 


1,250.000 


22,516 


1,000.000 


18.246 


750.000 


13,913 


600,000 


11,052 


500,000 


9,318 


450,000 


8,452 


400,000 


7,584 


350,000 


6,589 


300,000 


5,721 


250.000 


4,788 


0,000 


3,935 


000 


3.190 


00 


2,544 





2,051 


1 


1,599 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 961 

Pirp TYin«! No sag or 2%% sag and 5% sag and *» 
*^irc. mufa. waste waste waste 



J WdJSCC WcXiSUC WO.OLC 

^ «? Tsjn«5 Weight, Weight, Weight. 

2 1,301 1,333 1,366 

3 1,004 1,029 1,054 

4 820 841 861 
6 544 558 571 



TABLE LIV. WEIGHT PER MILE OP TRIPLE BRAID 
WEATHERPROOF SOLID CONDUCTOR 

q:„„ No sag or 21/2% sag 5% sag 

■D o a waste and waste and waste 

n^^^^ Weight, Weight, Weight, 

Lrauge j^jg j^jg j^g^ 

0,000 4,050 4,151 4,253 

000 3,320 3,403 3,486 

00 2,650 2,716 2,783 

2,150 2,204 2,258 

1 1,670 1,712 1,754 

2 1,370 1,404 1,439 

3 1,050 1,076 1,103 

4 865 887 908 
6 590 605 620 
8 395 405 415 

10 280 287 294 

12 185 190 194 

14 130 133 137 

16 105 108 110 

18 ^ 85 87 89 

20 65 67 68 



TABLE LV. WEIGHT PER MILE OF TRIPLE BRAID 
WEATHERPROOF STRANDED CONDUCTOR 





No sag or 


21/2% sag 


5% sag and 


Circ. mils, and 


waste 


and waste 


waste 


B. & S. Nos. 


Weight, 


Weight, 


Weight, 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


2,000,000 


37,000 


37,925 


38,850 


1,750,000 


32,700 


33,518 


34,335 


1,500,000 


28,400 


29,110 


29,820 


1,250,000 


23,800 


24,395 


24,990 


1,000,000 


19,400 


19,885 


20,370 


750,000 


14,900 


15,273 


15,645 


600,000 


11,800 


12,095 


12,390 


500,000 


10.000 


10,250 


10,500 


450.000 


9,100 


9,328 


9,555 • 


400,000 


8,200 


8,405 


8,610 


350,000 


7,100 


7,276 


7,455 


300,000 


6,200 


6,355 


6,510 


250,000 


5,200 


5,330 


5,460 


0,000 


4,220 


4,326 


4,431 


000 


3,450 


3,536 


3,623 


00 


2.760 


2,829 


2,898 





2,240 ■ 


2,296 


2,352 


1 


1,735 


1,778 


1,822 


2 


1,425 


1,461 


1,496 


3 


1,090 


1,117 


1,145 


4 


900 


923 


945 


6 


610 


625 


641 



52 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE LVI. COST PER CABLE FOOT OF ERECTING AB 






CABLE, CHICAGO 








C«st of 


Cost 






Size, pairs 


Gauge 


cable 


material 


Labor 


Total 


5 


22 


$0.0489 


$0.0133 


$0.0400 


$0.1022 


10 


22 


.0597 


.0133 


.0400 


.1130 


15 


22 


.0707 


.0134 


.0353 


.1194 


20 


22 


.0812 


.0155 


.0358 


.1325 


25 


22 


.0917 


.0166 


.0292 


.1375 


50 


22 


.1377 


.0179 


.0331 


.1887 


100 


22 


.2374 


.0272 


.0434 


.3080 


150 


22 


.3140 


.0278 


.0510 


.3928 


200 


22 ♦ 


.4401 


.0283 


.0540 


.5224 


15 


19 


.0900 


.0135 


,0292 


.1327 


25 


19 


.1250 


.0181 


.0330 


.1761 


50 


19 


.2125 


.0190 


.0421 


.2736 


100 


19 


.4926 


.0277 


.0510 


.5713 


150 


19 


.6000 


.0281 


.0530 


,6811 


200 


19 


.7478 


.0292 


.0560 


.8330 


5 


18 


.0700 


.0135 


.0400 


.1235 


10 


18 


.0950 


.0135 


.0280 


.1365 


15 


18 


.1200 


.0167 


.0290 


.1657 


20 


18 


.1400 


.0175 


.0312 


,1887 


25 


18 


.1620 


.0184 


.0405 


.2209 


50 


18 


.4250 


.0277 


.0501 


.5028 


100 


18 


.6450 


.0297 


.0530 


.7277 



Supervision and other overhead costs not included. Labor costs 
on small sized cables are high because they involve short lengths. 



TABLE LVII. WEIGHT AND COST OF STANDARD PLAIN 
GALVANIZED STEEL STRAND CONDUCTORS 

(For guys, signal strand, trolley line span wire and other pur- 
poses. Composed of 7 wires twisted together) 



Diameter, 
ins. 

%2 



Wt. per 1,000 


Approx. break 


ft., lbs. 


strain, lbs. 


510 


8,500 


415 


6,500 


295 


5,000 


210 


3,800 


125 


2,300 


95 


1,800 


75 


1,400 


55 


900 


32 


500 


20 


400 



Price 
per 100 ft. 
$2.20 
1.80 
1.40 
0.90 
0.70 
0.60 
0.50 
0.46 
0.40 
0.32 



The prices given are for single galvanized and are approximately 
average for lengths of from 1,000 to 2,500 ft. ; with large orders 
more favorable prices can be obtained under normal conditions. 
For double galvanized wire the prices will be about 10% more than 
those given. 

The weight of Siemens-Martin strand is approximately the same 
as for the standard galvanized strand. Prices given are for orders 
of from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. 

The following notes on the uses of " Strand " wires are taken 
from the 1915 Year Book of the Western Electric Company. 

Guy Strand. Extra galvanized Siemens-Martin strand is fre- 



OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 963 

TABLE LVIII. COST AND STRENGTH OF EXTRA GAL- 
VANIZED SIEMENS-MARTIN STRAND CONDUCTORS 

Diameter, Tensile strength Net price 

ins. lbs. per 100 ft. 

% 19,000 $3.90 

1^ 11,000 2.50 

7/i6 9,000 . 2.05 

% 6,800 1.60 

5/i6 4,860 1.30 

%2 4,380 1.00 

14 3,050 0.90 

%6 2.000 0.75 

% 900 0.50 

quently employed to guy electric railway, telegraph and telephone 
poles. 

Messenger Strand. For .3125 in. diam. extra galvanized Siemens- 
Martin strand, .375 in. or .4375 in. diara. extra galvanized high 
strength strand is stretched from pole to pole, and from this mes- 
senger strand, so called, the heavy lead-encased telephone cable is 
suspended by means of clips, wire or cord at short intervals. A 
messenger strand thus sustains the stress due to weight of cable, 
wind or ice load. Comm.on galvanized strand should never be used 
for this purpose, as it does not possess the requisite strength. 

Catenary Method of Supporting Trolley Wires. One or more mes- 
senger strands are stretched from the center of the tracks. Every 
few feet along this messenger strand are pendent hangers that 
clamp on to the trollej' wire, detaining it in a rigid, straight, hori- 
zontal line. For a single messenger strand carrying 4/0 copper 
trolley wire, in spans of 125 to 150 ft., .375-in. or Vie-in. diam., extra 
galvanized Siemens-Martin strand is frequently used. For longer 
spans, up to 225 ft. the .376-in. or .4375-in. extra galvanized high 
strength strand is preferable. 

Lightning Arrester for Transmission Lines. To protect high-ten- 
sion current transmission lines from destructive lightning a .375-in. 
diam. extra galvanized Siemens-Martin strand, known as an " over- 
head ground strand," is strung at the highest point on the sup- 
porting towers, this " overhead ground strand " being connected at 
frequent intervals with the ground. The extra galvanized Siemens- 
Martin strand, because of its great conductivity, is employed almost 
exclusively for the " overhead ground strand." 



CHAPTER XII 

UNDERGROUND ELECTRECAL TRANSMISSION AND 
DISTRIBUTION 

Many of the data which follow have been abstracted from Clar- 
ence Mayer's Telephone Construction — Methods and Cost, and the 
reo.der who desires a much more detailed analysis of this subject 
than can be giv'^en here, is referred to Mr. Mayer's book. 

For very complete detail costs of concrete, of paving and re- 
moving pavements, and of trench excavating, see Gillette's Hand- 
book of Cost Data. 

Underground Conduit. The following labor costs of construct- 
ing conduit are from Maj'er's Telephone Construction. McRoy tile, 
cement, vault frames and cover, creosoted plank and pump log 
were shipped in cars and unloaded and distributed by the conduit 
gang. All other material was bought delivered on the job. 

The method of installing McRoy tile, Class " A " construction, 
shall" be as follows : The trench shall first be prepared with a foun- 
dation of 3 ins. of concrete, leveled and tamped. Upon this the tile 
shall be laid. Insert the necessary dowel pins and place the next 
tile in line, centering the tile by means of the dowel pins. Cover 
the top and sides of each joint with a strip of burlap 6 ins. wide 
to prevent the entrance of concrete into the duct. 

The successive length of tile shall then be laid in similar man- 
ner. When two or more sections are laid side by side all joints 
shall be staggered. In joining 2, 3 or 6-duct sections at least one 
dowel pin shall be used, or if the duct is designed for more than 
one. two shall be used. When the tile is laid it is enclosed at the 
sides and top with a wall of concrete 3 ins. thick and well tamped. 

If the conduit has a lai'ge cross section it will be built up in 
tiers. When the first tier is laid and lined up the sides of the 
trench shall be filled in with well tamped concrete to a thickness of 
3 ins. and to a height flush with the top of the tile. The upper 
tiers shall then be laid successively, one upon the other, in a man- 
ner similar to the first tier. The complete section shall be covered 
with 3 ins. of well-tamped concrete, after which the trench shall 
be refilled. In dumping concrete into the trench and in laying tile 
care should be taken not to knock off earth into the trench. Any 
dirt falling onto the work shall be carefully removed before pro- 
ceeding with the construction. 

In refilling the trench the better part of the material excavated 
shall be used. It must be well tamped into place and the trench 
covered with a crown of 3 or 4 ins. If the street is paved, all 

9G4 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 965 

surplus must be gathered up and carried away, and the displaced 
paving material shall be replaced temporarily. After conduit runs 
are completed all ducts shall be closed with wooden plugs. 

Concrete may be mixed by hand or by machine. If mixed by 
hand it shall be done on a timber platform to prevent waste of 
water and material, except where the following pavements are en- 
countered : (1) asphalt; (2) brick; (3) macadam; (4) creosoted 
wood block. When mixing concrete on any of these pavements the 
street shall be swept clean for a place sufficient to allow for mixing 
the concrete. The stone or gravel shall first be placed in a layer 
about 4 ins. thick ; sand or screenings added and .spread out evenly, 
and the cement added and evenly distributed. The dry mixture 
shall be turned over by shovels at least three times so that it is 
thoroughly mixed. Sufficient water shall be used so that when 
placed in a wheel-barrow the concrete shall be very moist and in 
a semi-fluid condition. All concrete shall be free from dirt or 
any foreign material. Concrete shall be used within 2 hours of the 
time it is mixed. 





Fig. 
Fig. 



1. McRoy tile, 4-duct conduit, class 

2. McRoy tile, 4-duct conduit, class 



" A " construction. 
" B " construction. 



The proportions of materials to be used in mixing, concrete for 
conduit construction shall be as follows : If crushed stone con- 
crete is used. 1 part of American Portland cement, 4 parts V4-in. 
screenings and 8 parts No. 3 (%-in. ) stone. If gravel concrete is 
used, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts sand and 8 parts 
gravel ; 1 bag of cement shall be considered 1 cu. ft. 

The method of installing class " B " construction shall be the 
same as described for class " A," except in the following particulars ; 

The tile shall be laid on a 3-in. bed of concrete. Upon the top 
of the tile there .shall be placed 2 in.s. of earth, which shall be 
free from large stone. Upon this layer of earth a 1.5-in. creosoted 
plank shall be laid of the same width as the conduit formation. 
The tile joints shall be closed by means of strips of burlap which 
shall be placed around the tile, so as to cover the top and sides. 
The burlap shall be saturated with a thin, neat cement mortar, 
and shall be plastered on the sides and top with %-in. of cement 
mortar mixed in the proportion of 1-2. The burlap shall be 6 ins. 
wide and of sufllcj^nt length to overlap the width of the tile. 



9G6 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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2237 
2025 
2654 
3315 


3969 
3313 
2386 
.2890 


3491 
2922 
3330 
3890 
3610 


o 
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0372 
0386 
0426 
0447 


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0574 
0457 
0417 
0481 
0449 


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8 

O 
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1 


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0422 
0201 
0384 


0602 
0396 
0350 
0521 


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0199 
0190 
0296 
0322 


0330 
0316 
0190 
0201 


0242 
0211 
0342 
0387 
0364 


o 

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cot^cio-.- 

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0560 
0526 
0294 
0282 


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8 


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1601 
1237 
1121 
1507 
1314 




o 

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pq 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 967 



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OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO oooocoo o© 



coco -^coeoec ««■*'«•* •»*i ■*! -^t" -ii* •^•^•^\Dia-^\a usio 



ITS t- «C » W ^ t- ?C t- <r: t- t- t- C- CC «C t- »:- Oi OC t- OS OO CO 
OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo OO 



iHC^J eOClt-O -fOOi-ff C1C-5CCCO r-T-irHCCt-oo-^ l-HT-t 
lO 00 00 t~ Irt CO I- t- t- t~ ^ CO C- t> C» CO 00 CO Oi OC t^ Oi O CJ 
OO OOOO OOOOO OOoO OOOOOOO rHO 



•»• 00(M OeOeCO eo Oi i-l Cl «C t>Mt-'M CO t-I ec r-l t- w oo t^N 

13 s^ii-i coM-^te iHcc^-oto ciPScoo Mt^-oiooie^iov tHjH 
^ OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo o© 



p^ T-io Mcoc-jLO ocooiooo oiic-tc-i aic-icoi-coocc-i tcoi 

J 5*«> lOlrtCJC-l C1CI«C<CC- <C«Ct-C- «C t^ 00 l^ OO t- 00 t-t- 

2 OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo OO 



^-^ OCCCIOO COCvC-IOi-l' OOOUSO OO'l-CO'l-lCiar-l c^ie<5 
CiCO OC)tH-*< lOrO-r-r-iU^ l-'l'ClCC t- »A -*- CO tC -f OJ ,-100 
OtH l-lTHrH,H ,-) 1-1 r-l tH 1-1 ,-( ,-1 T-i rH tH r-l tH rH ,-1 rH rH e<l T-( 



-f-r-l t--i-IU5«S OOt-Wf r-l-<*'T-!a- i-IOCli-IMNt^ «DN 

COO Oir-MOV OOCCO-^OO O'fT-iCV t^tCOOlftMr-l t-t- 

cico co^^MC■l cocccocicc -i-cccoci -*• tc -i- 1» -i- -r- lo ■«i<-*' 

OO OOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooooo o© 



• >. ■ 

'. ^ '. 



Si: "^ ^ > Si: - rt >• « 5i2 - « >• SiS '^ rt > ^iS > ii2 ^ ^ > 



t-00 oj 1-1 w 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



o 
u 

O 

M 

Q 

H 

S 

B 
a 

H 

O 

W^ 

^5 

^' 

gS 

^3 

o 

w 

o 
u 

Q 
Z 
< 

m 



m CO in M 00 «o M Oioa • • 

m Tf 00 <o o s^ <£> -^ OJ • • 

<^^OOOOOiH 0(nOO • • 

^ ^. ^ ' 

CD 00 CD T-( t- in lO c~-00xN^ 

mto^O'^^^oo c<i moo-^cD 

Cv5P3TtiOTH!MT-imC<ICOCr>OTHa500 

OOOOOO OOdOrHrHO 

64- ® e«- * 



t- 1-1 eo u5 o CO m t-oo • 

■^t-^u3C~«D M moo • 

M <C rH i-H CO U5 eo ■* (M CO 05 O iH • 

tHOOOOtH 0!MOt-I • 



coinot-THCD o> Tt<oO'-^a5 

'PQcOOTHiHrH-^rHiHCOOUSCOm 
-OOOOOO OCOOrHi-IO 



Tt<ooo 
woo 

(MOO 



iMt-C<I(MOT-l'<*<t>-0»'<*< 

L3CO->S<00O5t-U5t-IM«D 
COCOCO-rHTfOOeOi-HUSC^I 
OOOOOOC<li-|Tt<c<l 



cDintooc^jcoinusoeo 
t^t^t-oicqooocit-oco 

tHCDi-HtH-5J<COOCC><?5;0 
OOOOOOlMO'>*<rH 



J>C<1CD 
00 t>rH 
COCOtH 
(MOO 



e£)->*it~-omooeO(3jeo(M 
oot-eoo5mo5t-u5eoTH 
r-(«o-*rHcoeoe<it^T-(f 

OOOOOOC^OUSr-l 



t-.comiHoom(Mcou5eo 
(M(^q(M(^q■«J<■^tl<^5t>t~■^ 

07-|0000(M0Uir-l 



t^7-ieou3oco o> CO-* • • 

■* c- ■* in t>- CO o -^loo • • 

■* <3 iH iH CO in 00 -^ tH tH CO o m • • 

iHOOOOrH OCOOrH • • 

CO 00 CD tH c~- m c- (ioco^o- 

intoeO(M'^oo iH -:t<t>-T-NcJ5 

«opqTt<OT-i'MrHiniM(Mir~ococoin 

OOOOOO OC0O(MiHO 



THin^n 

OC-iM 
iHC-iH 



ooino 

cqOCO 
coco rH 
COOO 



eot>«o«ocoineooooot^ 
T-iTti«<iiHa5THi-((MTt<eo 
co<^]lncocotQCooomco 

OtHOOOOCOOCOtH 



Oi35O>0ic0 00(M(MrHC<l 
eOOjCOcOOCOt^lHrHin 

eocoiMfot^cococoiniM 

OiHOOOOeOOC-r-( 



t^OOC-iMt--^ t^ ooco 

. C^ 35 OJ TjH -M O iH ■* C- 

«o<;coT-icocoTt<c»(Mc^i>oco 

rHOOOOi-t OC0O(M 

€4- 'R ae- 

00 «0 rH Tl< 05 CO m COOO 

• t^cot-coocQ c<> ooco 
oo<3in'M'*'t>>inocococoo7H 
iHOooo?q ocooco 
^ o ^ ■ 



•OO tH t^ CO CO eo t> ■* Ol Tf< rH 

'OOOO r-l(X300(Mcv]COa>-*(Mr-l 

•iH<0 CO (M m CO C^ CO 00 CO CQ CO 

•OO OrHi^OOOCOOOOrH 



oCQfcH 






l-Co 



. 1-H C 

doc 






• coco 

•<MO 

•OO 



rH(rci'*Mt-in'*(Mino 

M<oo'C>co(MO>ncococo 
co-*«c>cot-t^c-iinoo(M 

OrHOOOO-*005r-l 



B^ 
^a 



o > o 



o o o 



— v^ '^ 

-C OJ O W fl 

M X M -^ dl 

o ° o o ^ 



3 c^3 


o 


ii 


^ 


t3 


l-l 




f) 




3 




1 


<1) !^ 






73 


Ph« 


o 


f^2 






O 


H 





bD . pj (U 

^ o rf f^ >>— ' a s- i-( ^ ^ 

O X q;J3 oS:;: :3 C> 2 cij d 
J JJEhH 



"'fc. tH ;- "^ 

PH OJ 0) (D t< 

§afta« 






UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 969 

The rates of wages on which the data given in Tables I-V are 
based are as follows : 

Per day of 9 hrs. 

Foreman $3.50 to $4.00 

Assistant foreman 2.50 to 3.00 

Timekeeper 2.00 to 2.50 

Watchman 2.00 

Waterboy 1.00 

Laborers 2.00 

Teams 5.00 

Per hr. 
Bricklayers $0.65 to $0.75 

The regular hourly rate was paid for overtime. These tables 
comprise data on the labor cost of constructing over 250,000 ft. of 
conduit and lateral. 

McRoy tile, used in building main conduits, is made of vitrified 
clay in 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6-duct sizes. The 1, 2 and 3-duct are 2 ft. 
long and the 4 and 6-duct 6 ft. long. The approximate weight is 
8% lbs. per duct foot. 

Methods of Laying. Mayer says that two 4-ducts are laid 
with greater facility, form a more stable construction and cost less 
for material and labor than a 6-duct and a 2-duct formation, and 
in deciding whether to lay two 4-ducts side by side or one on top 
of the other, the preference should be given to the former, because 
work is easier in a wide trench; and, as a rule, it is cheaper to dig 
wide than deep even if the street is paved — repairing contractors 
charge for a yard although the trench may be 15 ins. wide. 

Underground Toll Conduit. The following data .from Mayer's 
Telephone Construction give the costs of one of the largest multi- 
ple duct conduits ever installed. It comprises 824,862 duct feet of 
conduit and 318 vaults. In securing these data special attention 
was paid to accuracy and uniformity. A competent cost man was 
assigned to each gang, and in some cases, where gangs were large, 
two men were engaged in keeping costs. Reports were made daily 
to the cost statistician who had an office on the ground and who 
personally supervised the taking of the costs. The work was di- 
vided into three divisions, each division being subdivided into two 
or three sections with a separate gang for each section. The work 
commenced in June, and with the exception of a small part, delayed 
on account of right of way trouble, was completed by November 
1st. 

Table III is a summary of the entire work, showing in detail 
average costs of each of the three divisions of the job. The un- 
loading and distributing cost on Divisions 1 and 3 were higher than 
Division 2 on account of having been further away from the freight 
depat. The freight on material for Division 1 was high on account 
of being further away from* the shipping point than either Divisions 
2 or 3, and also on account of t]cie quantity of creosote plank used, 
on which freight rates are high. The supervision, traveling and 
livery under the heading of expense were incurred by right of way 
men, superintendent of construction and assistant superinten- 
dents. 



970 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE III. COST OF TOLL CONDUIT (MCROY TILE) 
(Divisions 1, 2 and 3.) 

Cost of Constructing Conduit and Vaults 

Cost of 
handling, 
mixing and 
Cost of dumping 



Average No. of 
Division cross lin. 
number section trench 
ft. 
1 3.31 76,262 



excavating concrete 
per per per per 



Cost of 
teaming 
No. of per per 

duct ft. lin. duct lin. duct lin. duct 
laid ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

$ $ <P $ V ? 

252,759 .0200 .0061 .0747 .0226 .0190 .0057 

2 6.77 53,3721/2 361,271 .0449 0066 .1543 .0228 .0448 .0066 

3 4.78 44,104 210,832 .0233 .0049 .1478 .0309 .0332 .0069 

Total .. 4.75 173,738y2 824,862 .0285 .0060 .1177 .0248 .0305 .0064 





Cost of 












laying tile 








Cost of 




conci 


■ete and 


Cost of 


Total cost Co! 


St of 


vaults 




plank 


filling in 


of duct vaults and trench 




per 


per 


per per 


per per per 


per 


per per 


Division 


lin. 


duct 


lin. duct 


lin. duct lin. 


duct 


lin. duct 


number 


ft. 


ft. 


ft. ft. 


ft. ft. ft. 


ft. 


ft. ft. 




$ 


$ 


$ $ 


$ $ $ 


$ 


$ $ 


1 


.0175 0053 


.0340 0102 


.1652 0499 .0490 


.0147 


.2142 .0646 


2 


.0411 .0061 


.0774 .0114 


.3625 .0535 0685 


.0102 


.4310 .0637 


3 


.0309 .0065 


.0435 .0091 


.2787 .0583 .0574 


.0120 


.3361 .0703 


Total .. 


.0282 .0059 


.0497 .0105 


.2546 .0536 .0571 


.0120 


.3117 .0656 








"DIo/^i^fY- T\To+Qr-;r.l i-vn T/-.VV 






' 




Unloading 


■ 




^ 






and 




Total cost of 






distributing 




placing 






material 


Freight 


on job 


Division 




per 


per 


per per 


per 


per 


number 




lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


lin. ft. duct ft. 


lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


1 


. . . . 


$.0277 


$0084 


$.0152 $0046 


$.0429 


$ 0130 


2 .... 




.0271 
.0499 


.0010 
.0105 


.0139 .0021 
.0073 .0015 


.0410 
.0572 


.0061 


3 




.0120 


Total . . 




.0332 


.0070 


.0128 .0027 


.0460 


.0097 


















Right of way 














supervision, 














traveling. 














livery, 


Total 






Repaving 


incidental 


expense 


Division 




per 


per 


per per 


per 


per 


number 




lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


lin. ft. duct ft. 


lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


1 


. . . . 


$.0013 


$.0004 


$.0378 $.0114 


$.0391 


$.0118 


2 


. . . . 


.0005 


.0001 


.0600 .0088 


.0605 


.0089 


3 . . . . 




.6667 


.6662 


.0396 .0083 
.0451 .0095 


.0396 
.0458 


.0083 


Total .. 


.'..'. 


.0097 






Total 


labor 












and 












expense 


Material 


Total cost 


Division 




per 


per 


per per 


per 


per 


number 




lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


lin. ft. duct ft. 


lin. ft. 


duct ft. 


1 


. . . . 


$.2962 


$.0893 : 


$.4735 $.1429 


$.7697 


$.2322 


2 




.5325 


.0787 


.5082 .0750 


1.0407 


.1537 


3 




.4329 


.0906 


.4878 .1020 


.9207 


.1926 


Total .. 




.4035 


.0850 


.4878 .1027 


.8913 


.1877 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 971 

Pump Log Conduit. Mayer in Telephone Construction says 
creosoted pump log is used in building conduit where the soil is 
very wet and frequent excavations liable. It is made of yellow or 
Norway pine, creosoted. The section is 4.5 ins. square, with a 3-in, 
bore. Each log is provided with mortise and tenon. Its length is 
2 ft. to 8 ft. 

The trench for pump log shall be excavated in the same manner 
as described for McRoy tile conduit construction. Pump log shall 
be laid directly upon the bottom of the trench. Where two or more 
ducts are used they shall be laid so as to break joints. When the 
pump log is laid and well settled in position, a creosoted plank ly^ 
ins. thick and of the width of the conduit shall be laid on top of the 
ducts. There shall then be driven one on -either side. 3 in. x 1.5 in. 
X 3 ft. creosoted stakes. The stakes shall be sharpened to a point 
and driven at intervals of 6 ft. with a 3-in. face parallel to the line 
of the conduit. The tops of the stakes shall be fastened together 










Fig. 3. Method of laying pump log. 



by a cleat, of the same size as the stakes, cut to length and drilled 
for two 31/^ -in. wire nails. The trench shall then be refilled. The 
method of laying pump log is shown by Fig. 3. 

Lateral Conduit. Mayer's Telephone Construction says lateral 
conduit, sometimes called subsidiary conduit, is so named from 
the direction in which it runs to the main conduit. Laterals are 
built to carry subsidiary cable under ground to a building or pole. 

Sewer tile is used in lateral construction because it serves the 
purpose better than either McRoy tile or pump log and because it is 
cheapest to install. Whereas the McRoy tile requires a foundation 
in order to keep its alignment — dowel pins not entirely serving 
this purpose — and both pump log and McRoy tile require a trench 
that has a level bottom and is wide enough to permit foot room ; 
sewer tile requires no concrete foundation, as the bell joints when 
cemented hold the alignment sufficiently well for lateral construc- 
tion, it may be laid in a trench that is excavated in a V-shape, 
thereby saving time in excavating. The bottom of the trench may 



972 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

be very uneven as the bell ends of sewer tile bridge the parts be- 
tween joints, and the only requirements in laying are that the end 
of one tile shall flt into the bell end of another. This may readily 
be done by scraping away any excess earth with a stick of wood. 
On account of the usual small diameter of lateral cable the lateral 
conduit may be installed without special regard to alignment, 
except w^hen the lateral is very long; whereas if McRoy tile is laid 

TABLE IV. AVERAGE COST OF PUMP LOG CONDUIT 
CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 



1 

3 




g 


c 

> 


be 


c 
bo 


C 
o 


Id 




"d 




s 


c 


c 




"rt C 


«S 


o 




% 




i 


^ 


3 


o — 


o-^ 


^ 




^ 


H 


J 


fa 


m 


^ 


H 


1 


Sand and 


















water. $0.0304 


$0.0612 


$0.0177 


$0.0314 


$0.0240 


$0.1647 


$0 1647 




Clay . . . 


0.0281 


0.0574 


0.0189 


0.0247 


0.0262 


0.1553 


0.1553 




Clay and 


















water . 


.0331 


.0818 


.0213 


.0386 


.0341 


.2089 


.2089 




Av 


.0305 


.0668 


.0193 


.0316 


.0281 


.1763 


.1763 


2 


Sand and 


















water. 


.0334 


.0843 


.0278 


.0397 


.0299 


.2151 


.1076 




Clay and 


















water. 


.0317 


.1054 


.0262 


.0411 


.0352 


.2396 


.1198 




Av 


.0325 


.0949 


.0270 


.0404 


.0326 


.2274 


.1137 


4 


Sand and 


















water. 


.0412 


.1401 


.0411 


.0519 


.0496 


.3239 


.0810 




Clay . . . 


.0487 


.1482 


.0490 


.0537 


.0512 


.3508 


.0877 




Av 


.0449 


.1442 


.0451 


.0528 


.0504 


.3374 


.0844 



TABLE V. 



AVERAGE COST OF SEWER TILE LATERAL 
CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 









tuD 


cS'O 




c 


^ 


.^J 








g 


sc» 




o 


^^%^ 


^'^ 


2 




bfl 


^-> 


"^ ^ oJ 


c 


w 


§c 


1" 


3 
6 


11 


a 


><1 


Hi 


1 




|| 


!5 


55 


M 


h 


a 


H^ 


§ 


w 


H 


h^ 


1 


Sand . . . 


$0.0099 


$0.0364 


$0.0201 


$0.0219 


$0.0291 


$0.1174 


$0.1174 


1 


Clay . . . 


.0167 


.0467 


.0156 


.0260 


.0327 


.1377 


.1377 


1 


Hard 


















clay. . . 


.0234 


.0581 


.0198 


.0293 


.0302 


.1608 


.1608 


1 


Very hard 
















clay. . . 


.0408 


.0720 


.0178 


.0311 


.0414 


.2031 


.2031 


1 


Av 


, .0227 


.0533 


.0183 


.0271 


.0333 


.1547 


.1547 


2 


Clay . . . 


.0201 


.0709 


.0223 


.0502 


.0390 


.2025 


.1013 



without care being u.sed in alignment the armor of the cable would 
probably be cut or caught on the ends of the ducts when pulling 
in the cable. 

Underground Construction. The following is abstracted from an 
article by L. W. Moxey, Jr., in Electrical World. Dec. 18, 1915. 

The first item to be considered in underground construction is 
the cost of excavating, which should be figured per cubic yard. 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 973 

Every contractor should know what these costs are under various 
conditions, such as a sand or clay soil, rotten or solid rock, etc. 
The average laborer is capable of excavating about 180 cu. ft. of 
clay soil per ten-hour day. 

Brief specifications follow : Laterals when laid in the main 
trench, or in a separate trench, shall be single duct, 3-in. sewer 
tile. Connections between lateral laid in the main trench and 
lateral laid in a separate trench shall be made with standard 
bends of sewer tile. Where lateral is laid in the main conduit 
trench it shall be located at the top of the conduit formation and 
shall be included in the enclosing concrete. 

Where lateral is laid in separate trench the trench shall be wide 
enough to permit convenient laying and of sufficient depth to make 
the completed lateral with its protecting plank at least 18 ins. below 
the grade of the street. Joints of lateral shall be well protected 
with cement mortar or concrete. Over the lateral, when laid in 
separate trench, shall be placed about 3 ins. of earth, which shall 
be free from large stones. This earth shall be well tamped, and 
on top of this shall be placed a creosoted plank, 1.5 ins. x 9 ins., to 
prevent injury in subsequent excavations. 




Fig. 4. 

The dimensions are usually as follows : inside diam. 3 ins. ; shell 
0.5 in. : length 2 ft. 

Manholes must also be taken into consideration. If the man- 
holes are to be brick-lined, the cost will vary from 40 cents to $1 
per cubic foot of brickwork. Such miscellaneous items as the cost 
of labor for manhole drains, etc., must be figured for each job, 
since it seems impossible to obtain any fair average of costs on 
these items. 

Only average figures for labor cost are given, and the range of 
variation in many cases will be found to be greater than that 
presented in the table. 



TABLE VI. OUTSIDE DIMENSIONS OF VITRIFIED DUCTS 

Bore, round Outside 

Type or square dimensions, ins. 

Single-way 3 % -ins. 5 by 5 by 1 8 

Two-way ..." 3 1/2 -ins. 4 by 9 by 24 

Three-way 3 ^ -ins. 5 by 13 by 24 

Four-way 3i^-ins. 9 by 9 by 24 

Six-way 3y2-ins. 9 by 13 by 36 

Nine-way 3%-ins. 13 by 13 by 36 

Nine-way 2 -ins. 9 by 9 by 36 



974 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE VII. LABOR COSTS PER FOOT FOR LAYING DUCTS 

Item Cost 
Laying duct and cementing joint : 

Single-way $0.03 -$0.06 

Two-way 0.05 - 0.10 

Three-way 0.08 - 0.16 

Four-way 0.10 - 0.20 

Six-way 0.14 - 0.28 

Nine-way 0.20 - Q.40 

Laying conduit or pipe : 

1/2 -in. conduit : $0.03 -$0.05 

%-in. conduit 0.04 - 0.06 

1 -in. conduit 0.05 - 0.07 

IVt-in. conduit 0.06 - 0.08 

1%-in. conduit 0.065- 0.09 

2 -in. conduit 0.07 - 0.10 

2i/>-in. conduit 0.075- 0.11 

21/3-in. conduit 0.08 - 0.12 

3 -in. conduit 0.09 - 0.14 

4 -in. conduit 0.12 - 0.18 

Cost of Transmission Conduit Installed. The following data, 
presented in the Boston Edison street-lighting case by the company 
for the consideration of the Massachusetts Gas and Electric Light 
Commission, were published in Electrical World March 31, 1917. 

In the compilation. Table VIII, the significant data are the 
types of construction and the unit costs, which are given in the 
first and last columns. In presenting the data to the commission 
the unit costs given, which are the result of the company's extended 
experience, were applied to the quantities in the second and third 
columns, and later the prorated cost of conduit for street-lighting 
service only was deduced. The quantities are printed in connec- 
tion with the unit costs in the third column to show the relative 
importance of the various types of duct construction for under- 
ground transmission work in Boston proper. The prices include 
engineering, incidentals and contractor's profit. 

Fiber Duct, Advantages and Materials Required for Installing. 
The following has been abstracted from an article in Electrical 
World, March 10, 1917. Fiber duct consists of wet wood pulp or 
fiber which is wrapped about a mandrel in a thin film while under 
pressure. When built up to the proper thickness it is dried and 
then saturated with a bituminous compound. The conduit is manu- 
factured with four general types of joints, the use and nature of 
which is implied in the name. These are the socket, the drive, 
the screw and the sleeve. The socket type is generally used with 
the concrete envelope, while the other types have no form of pro- 
tection, being laid directly in the earth. 

The advantage of light weight stands out primarily for fiber duct, 
and due to this the freight and cartage rates per foot are much 
lower than for other types of materials. Approximately three times 
as many duct feet of fiber duct may be carried in the same car as 
of tile duct. Likewise in handling the duct, one man can carry 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 975 



TABLE VIII. 



COST OF INSTALLING DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
DUCT 



Under the heading " Material," F. stands for fiber, V.C. for vitri- 
fied clay, C-L.I.P. for cement-lined iron pipe, and I. for iron. 



] 


Ducts Diam- 








Average 




per 


eter of 


Material 


Conduit 


Duct 


cost per 




con- 


ducts 


feet 


feet 


duct ft. 




duit 


(ins.) 








(cts.) 


Under dirt side- 














walk 


6 


31/2 


F. 


9312.0 


55,872.0 


45 


Under dirt 


8 


3^2 


F. 


4502.1 


36,016.8 


30 




10 


3y2 


F. 


16.3 


163.0 


30 




12 




F. 


402.2 


4,826.4 


30 




16 


3% 


V.C. 


58.5 


936.0 


25 


Under granite 














blocks with ce- 














ment grout and 














concrete base. 


8 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


1705.8 


13,646.4 


60 




12 


3 


C.-L.I.P. 


25.0 


300.0 


45 




20 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


245.0 


4,900.0 


35 




30 


3% 


V.C. 


584.0 


17,520.0 


30 


Under wooden 














blocks with 














concrete base. 


4 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


1319.6 


5,278.4 


80 




6 


3% 


V.C. 


141.7 


850.2 


75 




8 


SVa 


F. 


7702.3 


61,618.4 


60 




12 


31/2 


F. 


953.5 


11,342.0 


45 




14 


3% 


V.C. 


929.1 


13,004.6 


40 




24 


3% 


V.C. 


802.9 


19,269.6 


30 


Under bitulithic 














cement 


4 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


1365.3 


5,461.2 


80 




6 


3% 


V.C. 


1467.3 


8,803.8 


75 




8 


3 % 


V.C. 


1467.3 


8,803.8 


75 




8 


3% 


V.C. 


90.6 


724.8 


60 




9 


3% 


V.C. 


3899.0 


35,091.0 


45 




10 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


400.1 


4,001.0 


45 




12 


3y2 


F. 


171.8 


2.061.6 


45 




12 


3% 


V.C. 


153.1 


1,837.2 


45 




15 


3% 


V.C. 


280.7 


4,210.5 


40 




18 


3 % 


V.C. 


77.3 


1,391.4 


35 


Under macadam 


2 


3% 


V.C. 


319.9 


639.8 


60 




4 


31/2 


F. 


394.5 


1,578.0 


50 




4 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


829.1 


3,316.4 


50 




4 


3% 


V.C. 


160.0 


640.0 


50 




6 


zv, 


F. 


8812.2 


52.909.2 


45 




8 


3% 


V.C. 


3579.1 


30,632.8 


30 




8 


31/2 


F. 


9634.0 


77,072.0 


30 




10 


31/2 


F. 


3306.6 


33,066.0 


30 




12 


31/2 


F. 


8171.9 


98,062.2 


30 




12 


3 


C.-L.LP. 


846.8 


10,161.6 


30 




12 


3% 


V.C. 


56.7 


680.4 


30 




14 


31/2 


F. 


2096.9 


29,356.6 


25 




14 


3 % 


F. 


182.1 


2.549.4 


25 


. 


16 


31/2 


F. 


727.4 


11,638.4 


25 




20 


3% 


V.C. 


9.1 


182.0 


25 




24 


31/2 


F. 


239.8 


5.755.2 


25 




.30 


31/2 
3% 


V.C. 


196.4 


5,892.0 


25 




67 


V.C. 


6.0 


402.0 


25 


Under asphalt . . 


6 


3% 


V.C. 


28.0 


168.0 


75 




6 


31/2 


F. • 


330.2 


1,981.2 


75 




7 


31/2 


F. 


87.5 


612.5 


60 




8 


31/2 


F. 


230.5 


1.844.0 


60 




10 


31/2 


F. 


1534.2 


15,342.0 


45 




12 


3% 


V.C. 


591.7 


7,100.4 


45 




15 


3% 


V.C. 


11.2 


168.0 


40 




18 


3y2 


F. 


14.4 


259.2 


35 



976 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Ducts Diam- 
per eter of 
con- ducts 
duit (ins.) 



Under granite 
blocks 



Under granite 
blocks with 
p i t c h-joints 
and concrete 



30 
32 

3 

4 

4 

6 

6 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

14 

15 

15 

18 

18 

24 

24 

30 



8 
10 
11 
12 
12 
18 
24 
30 



3% 
3% 

3 

31/2 
3% 
3 

3y2 

3% 

3 

3% 

3 

31/2 

3% 

3 

31/2 



V2 



3% 

3% 

31/2 

3% 

31/2 

3 

31/2 

3% 



3 
3 

3% 

3% 

3 

3% 

3 

31/2 

3 

3y2 

3% 



Material 



V.C. 
V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

F. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

F. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

F. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

F. 

F. 
V.C. 
V.C. 
F. 

V.C. 
F. 

C.-L.I.P. 
F. 
V.C, 



C.-L.LP. 

I. 

V.C. 

V.C. 

I. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

F. 

C.-L.LP. 

F. 

V.C. 

C.-L.I.P. 

C.-L.I.P. 

C.-L.I.P. 

V.C. 



Conduit 
feet 

126.0 
16.0 

68.4 

10.3 

1509.7 

715.3 

270.3 
7212.2 
7059.4 
2417.2 
71.5 
1396.4 
2189.5 
7882.7 
4904.8 
4904.8 
20.3 
6753.7 

154.1 

193.5 

344.5 

249.3 

223.5 

586.4 



4960.3 

19.6 

216.6 

216.6 

147.6 

1092.8 

9673.9 

8089.8 

120.7 

346.6 

5165.8 

208.1 

205.0 

101.4 

237.0 



Average 
Duct cost per 
feet duct ft. 
(cts.) 
3,780.0 30 

512.0 30 



205.2 

41.2 

6,038.8 

4,291.8 

1,621.8 

57,697.6 

56,475.2 

21,754.8 

715.0 

13,964.0 

26,274.0 

94,592.4 

58,857.6 

58,857.6 

284.2 

101,305.5 

2,311.5 

3,483.0 

6,201.0 

5,983.2 

5,364.0 

17,592.0 



19,841.2 
117.6 
1,299.6 
1,299.6 
1,180.8 
8,742.4 

77,391.2 

80,898.0 
1,327.7 
4,159.2 

61,989.6 
3,745.8 
4,920.0 
3,042.0 
7,110.0 



50 
50 
50 

45 
45 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
30 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 



80 
75 
75 
75 
65 
65 
65 
45 
45 
45 
45 
35 
30 
.30 
30 



several lengths of fiber duct aggregating manj'- lineal feet as opposed 
to one section of multiple tile duct. In installing the duct one man 
can remain in the trench and another hands him the duct, while 
with other materials it usually takes more than one man to handle 
the material at the top of the trench. 

The breakage and waste is almost negligible with fiber duct, a 
distinct advantage being that broken pieces may be sawed off as 
if of wood and the good section trimmed up and used in piecing 
out the line. If a multiple tile is broken it means a loss of several 
duct feet and little use can be made of the remainder. As the 
sections are long a very good alignment can be secured with fiber 
duct without the use of mandrels. The length also means fewer 
joints and eliminates greatly the danger of particles of concrete 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 977 

sifting through and damag-ing- the cable sheaths at some future 
time. Obstructions can be easily by-passed when in the path of 
the conduit line and when fiber duct is used. 

In constructing conduit lines with fiber duct the construction 
is similar to that shown in the cross-section of Fig. 5. The ducts 
are separated by an inch of concrete and surrounded on the out- 
side by an envelope 3 ins. thick. The trench is dug with sufficient 
width to allow the proper spacing and a 3-in. base of concrete is 
poured. The first tier of ducts is laid and held in place by a 
wooden rake designed to maintain the spacing. More concrete is 




Fig. 5. Section of concrete conduit line using fiber duct. 

poured and tamped into place and the second tier laid, and so 
forth, until the line is constructed. Between the tiers the joints 
are staggered, which tends to increase the strength of the finished 
line. The trench is dug according to the width of the line, so 
that no wooden forms are used and the concrete is poured and 
confined by the sides of the trench. The arrangement of the ducts 
in the line and the outside dimensions for 3.5 in. ducts are shown 
in the accompanying table. 

TABLE IX. DIMENSIONS OF DUCT LINES USING 3.5 IN. 
FIBER DUCTS ARRANGED AS SHOWN IN FIG. 5. 



'umber of 


Number of ducts 


Outside dimension, ins 


ducts 


wide 


high 


width 


height 


4 


4 


1 


25 


10 


6 


3 


2 


20 


15 


9 


3 


3 


20 


20 


12 


4 


3 


25 


20 


16 


4 


4 


25 


25 


20 


4 


5 


25 


30 


24 


4 


6 


25 


35 


30 


6 


5 


35 


30 


36 


6 


6 


35 


35 



The set of curves. Fig. 6. based on a 1 :3 :6 mixture for both 
3-in. and 3.5-in. fiber ducts constructed as illustrated in Fig. 5 has 
been worked up by an Eastern central station company, and is used 



978 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 079 

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980 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 






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UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 981 



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082 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

for estimating? the inattM-ial to bo oi-aoroil for the job. For instance, 
for 100 trench feet of 12 3.B-in. ducts there wouUi be required 8.75 
cu. yds. of concrete made up from 9 barrels of cement, 4.25 cu. yds. 
of sand ajui 8.1 cu. yds. of stone. 



1 






















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14 
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^ 


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— 


— . 


• >— 


-- 


— >- 


_- 


— 


■/ 




























R, 


"^ 


X, 










/ 


i 


























i 




^ 


^ 


s 




/ 




1 




















Num 


>er of 1 Ducts 






\ 


/ 






i 








1 






M IZ lO iR \b 14 l|? 10 ft 6 4 I 


^ 


yZ 4 6 & , 10 1? 14 16 i& 20 J 








Cul 


MC 


Yar 


ds o-f 


Stone 


/ 


X 
z 

3 

1. 

5 

6 

7 

8 




eflireisi of Cement 


! 


























/ 




\ 






1 


































/. 


-=<-■ 


■a 
.5 


\ 




1 
































/ 






'\ 


^ 


S, 


tiahnal ffequirsd 
Ihsed on 1:3-6- 
ffirfure 


___ 
















/^ 






















/ 


















s 


s. 






















/ 
























\ 


















/ 




























\, 














/ 


..... 






























k 







Figr. 6. 



Diagi-am for dotermininp: material required lor installation 
of conduit using- 1 :3 :t> mixture. 



Cost of Underground Conduit Construction. 'I'lie following data, 
from Klectrical World, Dec. 14, 1912, bearing- upon the cost of 
underground conduit construction in a New Kngland city of 40.000 
inhabitants are of interest, as the work was done with careful 
engineering and completed within the past three years. The total 
cost Avas $141,800. consisting of conduits, manholes and service 
duct."^. $85,000; cables, $48,000. and miscellaneous expen.se.s, $8,854. 
The items in detail were as follows: 

CONOITITS. IMANHOLES AND SRRVIOK DUCTS 

2.S.393 ft. of conduits, containing 257,300 duct-ft. . . $63,940 

141 manholes • • • • 16,600 

8927 ft. of service duct in 270 connections to build- 

ing.s. poles, etc ' '''"^^^ jsH.OOO 

CABLES 

Street lighting : 

104.900 ft. of No. 6 cable $14,400 

Secondary light and motor service: ^ 

18.000 ft. of No. 4-0 cable, 30.000 ft. of No. 1-0 
cable. 8000 ft. of No. 2 cable. 12,000 ft. of No. 
6 cable 13,o00 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 983 

7000 ft. of No. 1 bare wire, 15,000 ft. of No. 2 
bare wire, 4000 ft. of No. 5 bare wire, 6000 ft. 

of No. 8 bare wire $1,100 

Installation of above cables and wires, including 

materials, apparatus and supervision 0,200 



Primary lighting circuits: 

18,530 ft. of No. 2-0 cable, 12,450 ft. of No. 1-0 

cable. 97S0 ft. f»f No. 4 cable |8,100 

Installati«m of the.'^e materials and supervision in- 
cluded 1 .f>00 



$38,000 



10,000 



Miscellaneous expense on service connections to 

73 poles and lamps and rewiring 197 buildings 8,854 



Total $141,854 

The average cost i>f cf)nduit was about 25 cents per duct -foot, 
including excavation, back-filling and conduit complete ready for 
cables, with maintenance of the street above the conduit for one 
year. The manhole walls were of brick, laid In cement, 8 in, to 12 
in. in thickness, varying in dei)th from 3 ft. to 12 ft. Primary 
cables are installed in the same conduits as other service mains 
but in different ducts. Services averaged about 50 ft. in length, 
the individual costs running from 20 to 30 cents per foot. 

Cost of Underground Conduits and Conduit Lines. Tables X 
and XI from I>ata, July, 1915, were contributed by G, D. Wessel- 
hoeft. Tabulations give costs per trench foot of conduit lines under 
city streets, based on costs in New York City. 

Vitrified Clay Conduits. Tables XTT and XITI are from Data, 
September, 1911, contributed by The Clay Products Co. 

TABLE Xin. CONSTRFTCTION COSTS 

PAFtTIAL CONCUKTE ENVELOPK 

Specifications: Top of construction 2 ft. below under surface of 
paving. Trench dug 5 ins. wider than conduit lied of concrete 
2 ins. thick in bottom of trench. .Joints made by linking with two 
dowel pins, .Joint completely wrar»ped with perforated metal wrajj- 
per, cinched over tf)p, sides and top of joint covered 2 ins. thick with 
cement mortar band 8 ins. wide. Lines built up as follows, with 
C. P. C. conduit : 

2 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit. 4 ducts — 1 piece 4-way conduit. 

3 ducts — 1 |)iece triangle 3-way C ducts — 1 piece 6-way conduit. 

conduit. 8 ducts — 2 pieces 4-way conduit 

COSTS i'KR TUENCH AND DUCT KOOT 

2 ducts 3 ducts 4 ducts 6 ducts 8 ducts 

Excavating and refilling... .07540 .08801 .08944 .10036 .11362 

Disposal of extra soil 00551 .00475 .01064 .01539 .02147 

Cost of joint and laying con- 
duit 06990 .04490 .05310 .02867 .03329 

Cost of concrete bed 2 ins. 

thick 02682 .02682 .02682 .02682 .02682 

Cost per trench foot 17763 .16448 .20000 ,17124 .18943 

Cost per duct foot 08881 .05482 .05000 .02854 .02368 



984 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

COMPLETE CONCRETE ENVELOPE 

Specifications : Top of construction 2 ft. below under surface of 
paving. Trench dug 6 ins. wider tlian conduit. Concrete envelope, 
3 ins., entirely surrounding conduit. Two dowel pins to each of 
multiple. Joints of multiple wrapped with burlap saturated in 
creosote. Where line is built up % in. of concrete between pieces. 
Concrete mixture 1, 3, 5. Lines built up as follows, with C. P. C. 
conduit: 

1 duct — 1 square or round-duct 5 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit 

single conduit. below and one piece triangle 

2 ducts — 1 piece 2-way conduit. 3-way conduit above. 

3 ducts — 1 piece triangle 3-way 6 ducts — 1 piece 6-way conduit. 

conduit. 8 ducts — 2 pieces 4-way con- 

4 ducts — 1 piece 4-way conduit. duit. 

COSTS PER TRENCH AND DUCT FOOT 

1 2 3 4 6 8 

duct ducts ducts ducts ducts ducts 

Excavating and refilling. . .05330 .07540 .08801 .08944 .10036 .11362 

Disposal of extra soil 00266 .00551 .00475 .01064 .01539 .02147 

Laying of conduit in con- 
crete 14125 .18188 .16500 .22100 .25535 .31382 

Total cost per trench foot .19721 .26279 .25776 .32108 .37110 .44891 
Total cost per duct foot. .19721 .13139 .08592 .10703 .06185 .05611 

Vitrified Clay Conduit. Mr. C. H. Judson gives comparative cost, 
maintenance and depreciation on one mile of 400 pair telephone 
cable, underground construction vs. aerial construction. 

Construction Cost : 

Four-duct conduit with manholes and distribut- 
ing poles, with total capacity of 2,000 pairs. .$5,300.00 

Forty-five-foot pole line with V^-in. messengers 
and distributing poles, with capacity 800 
pairs 2,200.00 

Extra cost of underground over aerial $3,100.00 

One four-hundred-pair cable installed in duct . $6,000.00 

Two two-hundred-pair cable installed on mes- 
senger 6,000.00 

Maintenance, Depreciation and Interest (Annual). 

2% depreciation, l^ of 1% maintenance on con- 
duit line 120.00 

10% depreciation, 1% maintenance on poles and 

messengers 242.00 

Extra cost of maintenance of aerial over con- 
duit line 122.00 

Depreciation of aerial cable at 5% more than 

underground 300.00 

Annual extra maintenance cost of aerial over 

underground $422.00 

If the added construction cost for underground 

was borrowed at 6%, or 186.00 

The conduit line would show an annual net sav- 
ing of $236.00 

The conduit line will be ready to receive 1,600 pairs more at a 
slight cost any time in the next hundred years, and the aerial line 
will need rebuilding at least twice, 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 985 

Vitrified Clay Conduit. Data gives the following compara- 
tive costs of 3 -duct line showing economy of triangle 3 -way. 

Flat Flat 3- Tri- 

Single 3-way way laid angle 

duct laid flat on edge 3-way 

Excavating and refilling $0.16822 $0.18698 $0.18720 $0.15080 

Disposal of extra soil 02223 .03097 .02907 .01558 

Cartage of conduit to trench.. .01800 .01500 .01500 .01200 

Cost of laying in concrete 15607 .26454 .25319 .10959 

Cost joint material per trench 

foot 00000 .00750 .00750 .00500 

Cost per trench foot $0.36452 $0.50499 $0.49196 $0.29297 

Cost per duct foot 12151 .16833 .16399 .09766 

Underground Conduit. Mr. Edward N. Lake gives the following 
comparative costs of using single duct vitrified clay tile, in the 
Journal of Western Society of Civil Engineers, June, 1910. 

















^nnr 






fcliCj^^iili-l 







Fig. 7 



Fig. 8. 



Fig. 9. 



Comparative estimates of cost per duct foot in cents, 
conditions. 



Chicago 



Conduit Section 4 

Std. single duct (Fig. 7).. 27.6 
Single duct in multii^le 

(Fig. 8) 27.6 

Single duct in tiers (Fig. 9) 28.1 



6 8 9 iO 

22.0 19.3 18.3 18.0 



22.1 
23.0 



19.7 
20.4 



19.3 



19.6 
19.2 



12 
16.4 



17.7 
17.5 



15 
15.0 



16.3 



Conduit Section 

Std. Single duct (Fig. 7) 

Single duct in multiple (Fig. 

8) 

Single duct in tiers (Fig. 9). 



16 
14.9 



15.6 
16.0 



18 
14.6 



15. 



20 
14.2 



15.1 
15.3 



24 
13.3 Average 17.60 



14.3 
14.5 



18.96 
18.68 



Cost of Electric Conduits for Various Conditions. Mr. L. A. 
Ferguson in Proceedings National Electric Light Association, 1911, 
has given the following costs. Table XIV, for several types of 
conduit laid under different kinds of pavement and in various 
groups. 

Underground Conduit: Electric Costs — 1913 — Panama Pacific 
Exposition. The following unit costs are the actual contract prices 
quoted and accepted, and were compiled from Electrical Record 
by Krehbiel Co., Chicago, 



986 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIV. COST PER DUCT FOOT IN DIFFERENT GROUPS 



NATIONAL. CONDUIT 

Groups 

Groups of Groups of of 12, 

Kind of pavement 2 or 4, 6 or 9, 16 or 20, 

cents cents cents 

No pavement 16.74 16.74 16.74 

Cedar 22.81 19.27 18.07 

Cedar, cone, base 26.86 20.95 18.94 

Granite 26,86 20.95 18.94 

Granite, cone. base... 36.99 25.17 21.14 

Macadam 21.46 18.70 17.77 

Asphalt 57.24 33.61 25.55 

FRANCIS CONDUIT 

No pavement 14.66 14.66 14.66 

Cedar 20.73 17.19 15.99 

Cedar, cone, base 24.78 18.87 16.86 

Granite 24.78 18.87 16.86 

Granite, cone, base 34.91 23.09 19.06 

Macadam 19.38 16.62 15.69 

Asphalt 56.16 31.53 23.47 

CAMP TILE 

No pavement 14.14 14.14 14.14 

Cedar 20.21 16.67 16.47 

Cedar, cone, base 24.26 18.35 16.34 

Granite 24.26 18.35 -16.34 

Granite, cone. base. .. . 34.39 22.57 16.54 

Macadam 18.66 16.10 16.17 

Asphalt 54.64 31.01 22.95 

LITHOCITE CONDUIT 

No pavement 15.18 16.16 15.18 

Cedar 21.25 17.71 16.51 

Cedar, cone, base .... 25.30 19.39 17.38 

Granite 25.30 19.39 17.38 

Granite, cone. base.. 35.43 23.61 19.58 

Macadam 19.90 17.14 16.21 

Asphalt 55.68 32.05 23.99 

THREE-INCH IRON PIPE 

No pavement 25.5 25.5 25.5 

Cedar 31.57 28.03 26.83 

Cedar, cone. base.... 35.62 29.71 27.70 

Granite 35.62 29.71 27.70 

Granite, cone. base... 45.75 33.93 29.90 

Macadam 30.22 27.46 26 53 

Asphalt 66.00 42.37 34.31 





Groups 


Groups of 


of 40, 


25 or 30, 


50 or 60, 


cents 


cents 


16.74 


16.74 


17.56 


17.31 


18.11 


17.69 


18.11 


17 69 


19.49 


18.64 


17.28 


17.18 


22.24 


20.66 


14.66 


14.66 


15.48 


15.23 


16.03 


15.61 


16.03 


15.61 


17.41 


16.56 


15.30 


15.10 


20.16 


16.48 


14.14 


14.14 


14.96 


14.71 


15.51 


15.09 


15.51 


15.09 


16.89 


16.04 


14.78 


14.68 


19.64 


17.96 


16.18 


15.18 


16.00 


15.75 


16.55 


16.13 


16.55 


16.13 


17.93 


17.08 


16.82 


16.62 


20.68 


19.00 


25.5 


25.5 


26.32 


26.07 


26.87 


26.45 


26.87 


26.45 


28.25 


27.40 


26.14 


25.94 


31.00 


29.32 



EXHIBITS BUILDING SECTION 



Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre direct in standard 
concrete construction, conduit section 12 to 24 ducts, at 11 cts. per 
duct foot. 

Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 
box construction: conduit section 18 to 21 ducts, at 8.65 cts. per 
duct foot. 

Installing 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 087 

box construction; conduit section 10 to 15 ducts, at 9.91 cts. per 
duct foot. 

Installing- 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre duct in adopted wood 
box construction; conduit section 4 to 8 ducts, at 12.33 cts. per 
duct foot. 

The average cost of installing 3-in. wood fibre duct in wood box 
construction is 10.3 cts. per duct foot. 

The above prices are based on approximately 25,000 trench feet 
of conduit consisting of 281,000 duct feet of 3-in. wood fibre duct 
and 1,700 ft. of 3-in. black iron pipe. Of this amount of conduit, 
2,700 conduit feet, or 59,300 duct feet, will be laid in standaid 
concrete construction, the remainder excepting the iron pipe will 
be installed in the adopted box construction. 

Average depth of concrete construction will be 4 ft. 3 ins. to 
center of lowest duct ; cross section will run from 4 wide and 3 
high to 4 wide and 6 high in concrete; and from 2 wide and 2 high 
to 7 wide and 3 high in wood construction. 

In the wood box construction adopted, the duct will be aligned 
by filling the box with sand, except for a distance of 4 ft. at man- 
holes where concrete will be used. Box will be covered with plank- 
ing-, well nailed and running across the short dimension of the 
box. The bottom boards will be reinforced by means of splice 
plates and tied together with corner straps of sheet metal. 

STATES AND FOREIGN SITES SECTION 

Installing twelve 2-in. and six 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
duct in wood box construction at $1.47 per conduit foot. 

Installing six 2-in. and three 3-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
duct in wood box construction at 76.5 cents per conduit foot. 

Installing three 4-in. and three 2-in. inside diameter wood fibre 
duct in wood box construction at 76.5 cents per conduit foot. 

The average cost, in place, for installing 3-in. wood fibre duct 
ranging in sections as given above, is 13 cents per duct foot. 

The above costs are based on 10,000 trench feet of conduit com- 
posed of 2-in. and 3-in. wood fibre duct with .125-in. walls and slip 
sleeves. It will require approximately 41,000 duct feet of 2-in. 
and 31,000 duct feet of 3-in. duct. The average section will be 
three ducts wide and two ducts high. 

EXHIBITS BUILDING SECTION 

Manholes of timber construction ranging in size from 5 by 6 ft. 
and 5 ft. deep at $36.00 each to 7 by 8 ft. and 6 ft. deep at $65.00 
each. Average $49.30 each in place. 

Manholes of concrete construction ranging- in size from 7 by 7 ft. 
and 7 ft. deep to 8 by 8 ft, and 7 ft. deep, average $129.30 each in 
place, exclusive of cast iron cover which is furnished by the Expo- 
sition Company. 

STATES AND FOREIGN SITES SECTION 

The actual prices of the shallow type of wooden manholes used 



D88 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



in this section range from $20.00 to $27.00 each, and average $25.00 
each in place. 

In the general system for the exposition there will be approxi- 
mately 150 manholes. Thirteen of this number will be of standard 
concrete construction with cast iron covers. The remainder will 
be of wood construction. Maximum duct in any conduit run to 
manholes — 24. 

Cost of Repairing Openings in Pavements, 
are from a report on Pavements of Akron, 
Municipal University of Akron and were published in Engineering 
and Contracting, Oct. 7, 1914. 



The following data 
Ohio, made by the 



TABLE XV. COST OP REPAIRING OPENINGS MADE IN 

CINCINNATI PAVEMENTS, ACCORDING TO SIZE 

OF OPENING AND TYPE OF PAVEMENT 



o o 
o o 



go c3 
P -ij rj 

h a ^ 

S Oh 






50 



50 






304.8 
502.4 
805.9 
354.5 
732.1 
3,784.1 



6,483.8 

33.5 
80.6 

123.1 
77.1 

219.1 
1,419.0 

1,952.4 

54.0 
106.7 
209.0 

73.5 
207.1 
140.2 

790.5 

683.0 
1,071.1 
1,832.8 
1,189.7 
3,193.3 
29,202.4 

37,172.3 



t>^ ^ 

O H 

63.95 $928.51 

116.69 1,396.22 

176.74 1,530.07 

67,83 623.90 

65.50 885.72 

131.15 3,385.88 

621.86 $8,750.30 

8.21 $92.57 
13.18 223.18 
24.93 317.20 
16.79 137.34 
22.09 377.24 
1,632.88 

85.20 $2,780.42 

$88.96 

133.22 

237.39 

77.23 

...... 214.28 

111.72 

$893.80 

55.67 $1,236.13 

146.03 2,120.21 

238.13 3,352.84 

135.82 1,947.15 

208.56 3,839.75 

727.53 20,547.63 

1,511.74 $32,953.71 






(A >» 

^ CD 



<y 



$3.67 $1.83 

1.68 

.67 

69 

74 

89 

$3.67 $~85 

$1.39 

1.85 

$8.75 1.06 

56 

15.05 1.12 
44.00 1.12 

$67.80 $1.18 

$18.76 $1.30 

29.51 .97 

52.00 .89 

15.25 .84 

46.75 .95 

38.00 .53 

$200.27 $ .88 

$18.82 $1.38 

33.99 1.20 

51.77 1.07 

43.08 .96 

90.16 .84 

569.95 56 

$802.27 $ .65 



73 S- T3 

^-d-2 

c? cu 



$2.29 

2.10 

.84 

.86 

.93 

1.11 

$1.16 

$1.74 
2.31 
1.33 
.70 
1.40 
1.40 

$1.48 

$1.63 
1.21 
1.11 
1.05 
1.19 
.66 

$1.10 

$1.66 
1.50 
1.34 
1.10 
1.05 
.70 

$ .81 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 989 



0) O* 



w 



i^ 
•M 

344.5 
. 2,080.6 
. 2,926.9 

619.9 
. 1,127.1 
.14,237.6 

21,336.6 

. 133.1 
531.4 

. 279.2 
392.3 

. 621.6 

. 2,297.3 



o« 

$331.65 
1,412.61 
1,450.38 
341.66 
515.33 
3.809.83 



-a 



$108.02 

472.43 

474.21 

76.55 

190.63 

1,110.65 






.65 
.45 
.33 
.43 
.29 
.19 



a. CJZ 
O o 






; 167.71 
528.67 
809.17 
193.95 
533.95 

1,506.69 



$3.85 
14.81 
20.78 
7.52 
27.20 
52.51 



$1.23 
.95 
.81 
.67 
.82 
.63 






$7,861.46 $2,432.49 $ .25 $ .31 



$1.54 
1.21 
1.01 

.84 
1.03 

.79 



4,834.2 

304.9 
816.5 

1,066.8 
39 3.2 
700.3 

5,720.3 



$3,740.14 $126.67 $ .75 $ .94 



41.78 
117.29 
149.17 
55.66 
97.38 
96.59 



$786.81 
1,691.26 
1.360.54 
612.79 
1,078.14 
5,224.20 



$15.43 
17.63 
45.51 
15.13 

25.26 
228.43 



$1.76 
1.24 
.92 
.73 
.78 
.82 



$2.20 

1.55 

1.15 

.91 

.98 

1.03 



9,001.1 



557.87 $11,253.74 $347.39 $ 



$1.11 



Notes. — (1) Material chargeable to party permit, is Issued to 
through material being destroyed or misplaced when cut is made 
in pavement. (2) Includes only direct cost of labor and material 
actually ai)]>lied on the job, as .shown by the foremen's reports, 
which are made daily to office. During 1913 all new material was 
used in mixing concrete, no old material being used. The price of 
concrete varied from $7 in the small cuts to $6 per cu. yd. in the 
larger size. The prices given arrived at by deducting cost of con- 
crete at above mentioned prices from total cost, which remainder 
represented actual direct cost of restoring pavement surface. (3) 
The same as preceding column, with addition of 25 per cent, over- 
head, which represents difference between the total expenditures of 
depa.rtment and amount expended directly for labor and material, 
as shown by reports of foremen doing work. 



Cost of Trench Work Through Brick Pavement for Wire Conduit. 

An article in Engineering and C:;ontracting, June 2, 1915. by Mr. 
F. L. Shidler, says : The trench was as near as possible to the 
curb and crossed under two sets of street car tracks and two street 
intersections. The costs given are for tearing up brick pavement 
down to grout base, trenching sand cu.shion and replacing same, 
relaying brick pavement and slushing with cement filler for laying 
a wire conduit for ornamental street lights. They also include the 
co.it of sixteen 1 ft. 4 in. square holes about 16 ins. deep, cut 
through cement and stone sidewalks, filling these holes with con- 



900 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Crete and setting four base bolts in each hole. The cost for the 
post holes, etc., was as follows : 



Item Total 

Labor cutting:, 25 hrs. at 50 cts $12.50 

Labor concreting 5.00 



Per hole 

$0.78 
0.31 



Total labor $17.50 $1.09 

12 wood templets for base bolts 3.00 0.19 

2 cu. yds. concrete at $3.60 7.20 0.45 

Miscellaneous 1.12 0.07 

Total materials, etc $11.32 $0.71 

Grand total $28.82 $1.80 

ft. wide and 1,130 ft. long was as 



The cost of the trench li^ 
follows : 

Item Total 

Tearing up and cleaning brick $21.37 

Relaying brick 27.95 

Teaming 4.00 



Total labor $53.32 

2 cu. yds. cushion sand 3.00 

4 bbls. cement 6.00 

300 new brick 4.00 

Miscellaneous 5.00 



Lin. ft. 

$0,019 

0.025 

0.004 

$0,048 



Total materials $18.00 



Grand total $71.3: 



$0,016 
$0,064 



Armored Cable Versus Conduit Systems. Electrical World, 
Jan. 11, 1913, saj^s : Conduit systems have long occupied an almost 
exclusive field whenever overhead lines were to be placed under- 
ground, no other underground method being available. Armored 
cable, however, is beginning to get a foothold, not as a dix'ect sub- 
stitute for the conduit system but rather in a field of its own which 
covers one particular phase of underground systems. This field 
includes the smaller cities, suburban districts, parks, private resi- 
dences and manufacturing plants where the buildings are spread 
over a considerable area. The tungsten lamps in the New York 
City parks, for instance, are fed with energy through armored 
cable laid in the ground. Installations of this sort where the 
service rendered is comparatively small do not warrant a large 
expenditure to increase the fixed charges. The following figures 
recently submitted by the Simplex Electrical Company of Boston 
show the cost of the lead-covered cable in ducts and also of the 
armored cable laid directly in the ground : 



COST OF LEAD-COVERED CABLE LAID IN DUCTS 

1000 ft. No. 6 three-conductor, rubber insulated, lead-covered 

c:>.ble (600-volt service) $175 

1000 ft. conduit 55 

Cost of laying, including cost of two ^anholes and drawing 

in and splicing cable 450 

$680 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 991 

COST OB" STEEL-TAPED CABLE LAID IN GROUND 

1000 ft. No. 6 three-conductor, rubber-insulated, lead-covered 

steel-taped cable (600-volt service) $240 

Cost of laying 50 

$290 

The figures do not include the cost of relaying the pavement. 
This, while approximately the same in either case, will be somewhat 
more for the conduit installation than for the armor cable, because 
the trench for the ducts would need to be wider and deeper in order 
to have the ducts far enough underground. 

As noted in the table, the difference in cost is mainly due to 
the much larger expenditure needed for the installation of the duct 
system. The armored cable itself costs only a nominal sum more 
than the regular lead-covered cable and its installation is very 
simple, consisting merely of laying this ready-made conduit system 
directly in a shallow trench and replacing the earth over the cable. 
The construction of conduit system with its necessary manholes 
requires plans from which to work and expert superintendence 
during its construction. In addition to this the cost which is in- 
volved by drawing the lead cable into the ducts must be taken 
into consideration. 

Comparative Costs of Tile and Fiber Conduit. From Electric 
Railway Journal, Dec. 16, 1911, we take the following: William 
D. Ligon has prepared the comparison of costs of tile and fiber con- 
duits presented in Tables XVI to XVIII. These figures are 
based upon actual conditions in St. LouivS, Chicago and other cities 
of the Central West. As shown in the Tables the cost of con- 
structing multiple duct tile is less than that of constructing single 
duct tile, owing principally to the less amount of excavating, re- 
filling, paving, dirt disposal and concreting. This saving ranges 
from $0,031 to $0,285 and even more per trench foot, according to 
the number of ducts. Table XVIII, however, shows that much 
greater economy is possible by using fiber conduit, the cost per 
trench foot of one pipe to sixteen-pipe installations ranging from 
$0.44 to $2,422, as compared with $0,483 to $2,723 for the multiple 
duct tile. This saving is due to the lower cost of the fiber conduit 
as delivered, to its greater ease in installation, to the elimination 
of breakage losses and to the simpler connections. 

Cost of Manholes. The following is taken from cost data com- 
piled by Mr. Borroughs, Engineer of the Washington Commis- 
sion. 



Cubical contents 


Cu. 


yards, concrete 


Ratio, concrete to contents 


47 




1.0 


.021 


84 




2.0 


.024 


104 




2.5 


.024 


144 




.4.6 


.032 


182 




5.0 


.027 



Say, 0.025 cu. yd. of concrete or brick masonry per cubic foot of 
inside measurement. For this purpose all masonry will be con- 



992 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Q 
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Km 

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OH 

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OOCCO^tHOOO 


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05 TJH o CO r-( O O O 


coco 
useo 
wco 


6^ 


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rH 


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tHMOOOOOO-* 
t^COOOCOOOOO 


t-co 




CO 


oooq^oooo-^ 

miHCOOOOO^-^tM 

oo-*oo-*oooo 


ooo 

rHO 
C-JO 


€«■ 


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HO 

^^ 

Ig 

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&^ 


CO 


t-ai«ooooooo 

COCOfO^COCOfCTH 

CO M ?c c<i o o o o 
so- 


05T-I 




oooooooooooo 

OO-^-^COCOCOCOiH 

oeococooooo 

€(9- 


rHeO 


a> ^ c<i CO ^ M c<i ^ 


Tt<«D 
iHCO 
rHCO 

05 


00 
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(?.H>(MOOIOU5U3 
C-7 00 CO Tf ^ M M rH 

t-(rq^(MOOoo 


coc^ 

rH05 


Oi CO iH 00 !M ,H iH rH 

ooiHoqooooo 


69- 

o«^coooc^<MO 

CO as rH ir<I C<l rH rH rH 
Tt<rHC<IrHOOOO 


rH 

cooo 

t>00 

OO 


€«• 


60- 


rH 


corqosousooo 

Tt^USmCOi-liHTHiH 
UiiHiHOOOOO 


t-eo 

OO 


CO 


^lOc^lOUSOOO 
as 00 CO Oi rH rH rH rH 
■^rHrHOOOOO 


eooi 

t-Tt< 

OO 


€«■ 


tH 




6^ 


rH 


r-lT-ICOOOt-OO 
CO CO O ■* tH O rH tH 
COtHtHOOOOO 


(Mt- 
OI>- 


c^ 


fOWiOOOOt-OO 
lO '^ O CO r-< O r-l rH 
COrHrHOOOOO 


coco 


€«■ 




m- 




O^fOOlOUiOO 
ro O ic CO o o 1-1 iH 
(MtHOOOOOO 


coco 
cooo 
o^ 




iH 


oiio^tiousinoo 

lO O lO CO O O r-i rH 
C<Ii-IOOOOOO 


COrH 
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g5 

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oO 

O . 

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g| 



c 
C 






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a; 



'413 > m a> 

H 0UH:i0t^^ 



c > be ft 
wM E-i 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 993 







(W> M U5 O IM C<I M t- 


OS(M 




rHr-t-ini«0?D«OCO 


Tt<00 


S 


US 


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M'* 


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< 




&9- 




^ 








CU 




ooooooooo 


us OS 






'*05<MOUSlftUSeO 


0-* 


w 


o 


00-*OiMOOOO 


(Mas 



Q 

wO 
^W 
H^ 

S^ 

P§ 
H 

^a 
OH 

oo 

H 

O 
U 



«Or^«DOOOO-<i< Oi(M 

iH tH iH CO -^ •^ T)H (M «ci(rq 

t-"*00iHOOOO T-l-«** 



us-^s^oooooo oot- 

US-^THiMfOCOCOrH COt^- 
«>05«3iHOOOO iHOi 



rHCOOOOOUSUSUS 

<X)iM'*iOOOOO 



rHUS'^OOiMiMO CO t- 
00 t- O ■* iH iH tH rS CDO 
COtHMOOOOO OOl 



7-IOOCOOt— OOO i-IUS 
00 «0 US CO O iH iH iH COC- 
■^tHtHOOOOO ooo 



eococqoust-oo i>o 

-*«OOCvJOOl-lrH TfC- 
COiHiHOOOOO OCO 



OOtHOCOUSOO tHO 
CO Oi us iH O O iH T-l CO-* 
C-3 0000000 0-* 



fl ■ 
o 

3 oi o 



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. ft . 



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oS : 

-rg a ."2 • o 



• <u 

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1 s cj 






994 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

sidered as concrete. Considering concrete proportions as 1-2.5-5 
one yard of concrete will call for, — 

1.13 barrels of cement @ $2.85 $ 3.22 

0.40 yards of .sand " 1.25 50 

0.80 yards of gravel " 1.50 1.20 

Incidentals, such as lumber, etc 3 00 

Labor 2.08 

$10.00 

0.025 yards at $10.00 gives $.25 per cubic foot of contents as the 
cost of concrete. 

Excavation in gravel will be taken out one foot larger all around 
than the outside measurements, and two feet more in depth than the 
minimum inside depth. For the manhole whose contents = 104 
cu. ft. the excavation will be : — 

9 ft. 2 ins, X 6 ft. 8 ins. equals 13.5 cubic yards. 

It will be necessary to shore the excavation with 3 in. x 12 in. 
planks, 8 ft. long. Thirty-six planks will be needed and the sal- 
vage will be 50%. Hence the expense will be, — 

18 ft. 3 ins. X 12 ins. x 8 ft. equals 432 F. B. M. 
The total expense will be, — 

Excavating and removing 13.5 cu. yds. of gravel @ $1.50 $20.25 
Shoring in place, 432 ft. B. M. . ., @ 25.00 10.80 

$31.05 
Plus 10% for teaming, etc 3.10 

$34.15 

$34.15 divided by 104 equals .328 per cu. ft., say 35 cents. This, 
added to the cost of masonry, gives a total of 60 cents. The rule 
used will be: 

The cost of manholes in gravel will be 60 cents per cubic foot 
of the contents, using minimuin inside dimensions. To this must 
be added $15.10 for cover and casting. 

In rock excavation it will be impossible to take out the material 
to neat lines, hence, two feet over the outside measurements will be 
used, with 2.5 feet more depth than the minimum inside depth. 
The excavation will be, in this case, 

11 ft. 2 ins. X 8 ft. 8 ins. equals 23.1 cu. yds. 
No shoring will be necessary, so the cost will be : 

Excavating and removing 23.1 yds. of rock (a) $3.00 $69.30 
Plus 10% for teaming, etc 6.93 

$76.23 

$76.23 divided by 104 equals $.733 per cu. ft. of contents. Calling 
this 75 cents and adding 25 cents for masonry, gives a cost of $1.00. 
The rule used will be : — ■ 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 995 

The cost of manholes in rock will be $1.00 per cubic foot of 
contents, using minimum inside dimensions. To this must be added 
$15.10 for cover and casting-. 

Vault or Manhole Construction. Telephone Construction, by G. 
Mayer, has the following: The location of a vault shall be barri- 
caded and excavation then made to such a depth as to bring the 
bottom of the concrete top 17.5 ins. below street grade. If the 
vault is built in advance of street improvements, the necessary 
information as to grade shall be obtained from the city engineer. 
The excavation for brick vaults shall be sufficiently wide and long 




'^^^.^,','1 J 







10 11 

Fig. 10. Vault size 1 to be used on runs of 1 to 3. Ducts of 

conduit when not intersected. 

Fig. 11. Vault size 2 to be used on run.s of 1 to 3 ducts of conduit 

when intersected. 



enough to leave a space of 6 ins. around the outside of the wall 
of the manhole when finished. 

In stiff clay, the excavation may be made of the outside dimen- 
sions of the vault. The standard manhole or vault shall be of 
either brick with a concrete bottom, concrete top and cast iron 
frame and cover, or of concrete throughout, with cast iron frame 
and cover. In size it shall be approximately of the inner dimen- 
sions specified on the plan of the work. For straight runs the 
long dimensions of the vault shall be in the line of conduit. For 
intersections the long dimension of the vault shall be in the line 
of the heavier run. Fw different cross sections of conduit the 
desirable forms and dimensions for vaults are shown by Figs. 
10 to 20 inclusive. 



990 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In constructing- n vault the bottom of the excavation shall fii'st 
be tamped and a layer of concrete of the depth shown on vault 
drawing, and of sufficient width and lengtli to project 2 ins. beyond 
the foundation courses of brick, or the bottom of the concrete wall 
shall be placed, tamped and graded for drainage. A sewer con- 
nection or other means of drainage shall be provided wherever 
possible. If the vault is located on high, well-drained, sandy soil, 
drainage may be secured by placing one or two lengths of 6-in. 
sewer tile perpendicularly into the ground from the bottom of the 
vault. Where possible the vault shall be drained by a 6-in. sewer 




Fig. 12. Vault size 3 to be used on runs of 4 to 8. Ducts of con- 
duit when not intersected. 
Fig. 13. Vault size 4 to be used on runs of 4 to 8 duets of conduit 
when intersected. 



" P " trap in the bottom of the vault with 6-in. sewer tile connection 
to the sewer. If the water level of the sewer is higher than the 
bottom of the vault, sewer connections may be made through the 
wall of the vault using a running sewer trap. A back water trap 
shall be installed in all cases where the bottom of the vault is 
less than 3 ft. above the top of the sewer, by which the vault is to 
be drained. All drainage oiienings shall be provided "with cast 
iron strainers set flush with the floor or wall of the vault. Where 
the vault is drained through the floor, the floor shall be laid so as 
to drain to the trap with a fall of nAt less than 1 in. in 10 ft. 

Tn the case of brick vaults, the wall of the vault shall be built 
up of hard burned sewer brick laid in cement mortar. In dry 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 997 

weather brick shall be well moistened before using-. Walls shall be 
9 ins. thick. The wall shall be built up, every sixth course being 
laid as headers, to the height required. The top course shall be 
laid as stretchers. The horizontal mortar joints shall not exceed 
.5 in. and the vertical joints .375 in. in thickness. 

The brick work shall be racked away around the entrance of the 
ducts to afford room for turning: cables when installed. As the 
walls are built up cable support nipples of approved type shall be 
installed in all vaults. No less than two supports shall be set in 
the walls parallel to the conduit run on a level with each layer of 




^o|| ' / I — i— 




Fig. 14. Vault size 5 to be used on runs of 9 
conduit when not intersected. 
Fig. 15. Vault size 6 to be used on runs of 9 to 12 
duit when intersected. 



to 12. Ducts of 
Ducts of con- 



ducts in non-intersected vaults. The supports shall not be nearer 
than 1 ft. from the end of the conduit and shall be placed sym- 
metrically. All pipes entering the vaults shall be well cemented 
into the brick work and the inside of the vault walls well pointed up. 

When vaults are intersected at least one support nipple shall 
be set in each wall between conduit runs on a level with each 
layer of ducts and set as nearly as practicable at the central point. 

The walls of all concrete vaults .shall be 6 ins. thick. The con- 
crete in the roof and floor .shall be thoroughly tamped. The con- 
crete in the walls .shall be uniformly and equally distributed within 
the forms, in layers not exceeding 6 ins. in thickness, each layer 
being thoroughly tamped in place. After this the succeeding layer 



998 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 




^JT 



Fig. 16. Vault size 8 to be used on runs of 13 to 24 ducts of 
conduit when intersected. 



I6"l'l0v", ^ '" |1'iOm'i6i-' 








Fig. 17. Vault size 9, to be used on conduit runs — ? 
Fig. 18. Vault size 10, used for installing 6 loading pots on con- 
duit runs when not intersected. 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 990 

shall be at once applied, and the operation continued until the walls 
have reached the required height 

When the walls of the vault are finished and filled in and around 
the outside, the wood form for the concrete top shall be placed. 
The form shall be placed so as to make the center of the manhole 
opening as nearly as possible over the center line of the ducts, 
going both ways, and midway between the ends of the vault ; the 
long edge of the opening being parallel to the main line of conduit. 

In case a vault top is 7 ft. or more in length it shall be 




,. ...-..,.- ,.! I* 



J I 3z3x% T.SSlb.T'B" 1 r~T S.\, 






'VX ' ' "' ' 




19 



20 



Fig. 19. Vault size 11, used for installing 8 loading pots on conduit 
runs when not intersected. 

Fig. 20. Vault size 12, used for installing 6 to 8 loading pots on 
conduit runs when intersected. 



strengthened by .375-in. x 3 x 3-in. T-iron or other equivalent rein- 
forcing irons, placed approximately 2 ft. apart and parallel to the 
short side of the vault top. Where T-irons are used they shall be 
imbedded in the concrete with the stem of the T up and the bottom 
of the bar within 1 in. of the lower side of the concrete. An alterna- 
tive method for reinforcing concrete roofs of vaults shall be as 
follows: .5-messenger strand shall be cut to the outside width 
and length of the vault roof and shall be set in the concrete on 4-in. 
centers about 1 in. from the bottom of the concrete roof, both 
across the length and width of the roof. Immediately under the 
center of the bearing surface of the vault frame shall be placed 



1000 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

two pieces of .5-in. strand side by side both lengthwise and across 
the width of the vault roof. 

The forms used for building vault tops are shown by Fig. 21. 
In the case of concrete vaults openings for the entrance of the 
ducts shall be made with the forms shown by Fig. 22. These forms 
are made in two styles, collar and block. The collar form shall be 
used where the ducts are already installed, and the block form, 
where it is desired to leave an opening for the entrance of future 
ducts. The collar form shall be placed just over the ducts and 
against the vault form as shown on Fig. 21, and shall be removed 
after the vault form has been removed. 

The forms shown by Fig. 23 shall be used to form openings for 
the entrance of sewer tile where it is desirable to have a beveled 



r — ^] 



n/ttefwifJtemerefe 



.^ , 




Fig. 21. Forms for building vault tops. 



opening as in some cases where large cable is to be installed in the 
sewer tile. These forms are also used to form openings for the 
entrance of circular ducts. 

The method of mixing concrete shall be the same as described 
for conduit. The proportions of concrete mixtures for vaults shall 
be as follows : If crushed stone concrete is used : For floors of 
vaults, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts .25-in. screenings 
and 8 parts No. 3 (.75-in) stone; for roofs and sides of vaults, 
1 part American Portland cement, 3 parts .25-in. screenings, and 
5 parts No. 3 (.75-in.) stone. If gravel concrete is used: For 
floors of vaults, 1 part American Portland cement, 4 parts sand 
and 8 parts of gravel ; for roofs and sides of vaults, 1 part American 
Portland cement, 3 parts sand and 5 parts gravel. 

Cement mortar shall be mixed on a closely laid timber platform 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1001 

or in a wood box. The sand shall be spread on the mixing plat- 
form to a thickness of 2 ins., the cement added and evenly dis- 
tributed and the materials turned over 3 times with hoes. Sufficient 
water to make the mortar into a stiff paste shall then be carefully 




Al 



'K 



\ 


< 


/ 


o'. 


I 

V 

. — 9*4-. 


y. 


/ 


5^ 

• 


\ 


.^s^V 



Section C'C 



Section 1>D 



Fig. 22. Forms for constructing openings for the entrance of ducts 
into concrete vaults. 

added and the mixture turned over 3 times with hoes to thoroughly 
mix the material and dampen every particle of cement. Mortar 
shall be used within 30 mins. of the time of adding the water. 
Cement mortar shall be mixed in the proportion of 1 part American 
Portland cement to 3 parts sand. 




5ecf(on F-F. 



Fig. 23. Forms for constructing openings for the entrance of cir- 
cular ducts into concrete vaults. 

The wages per hour were: Bricklayers, 70 cts.; common labor- 
ers, 22 cts. ; team and driver. 56 cts. Cost of foreman and time- 
keeper is included. 

TABLE XIX. AVERAGE COST OF BRICK VAULT 
CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 



Kind of soil q^ 

^^ 

xn 

Sand 1 

Clay 1 

Hard clay. . 1 
Average . . 1 





bo 


o 




a 


c 




bo 


fi 


<n 


u 


o 


'w 




^.s 


<M^ 


bo 


<w bo 


bo 


^1 
P 




o p 




% 


o fl 


5^ 


1° 


2.80 


$3.69 


$0.94 


$11.23 


$3.18 


$2.87 


$24.71 


3 28 


4 56 


0.73 


11 39 


3 69 


3.04 


26.69 


3.27 


5.64 


1.04 


10 86 


3.82 


3.16 


27.79 


3.12 


4.63 


0.90 


11.16 


3.56 


3.02 


26.39 



1002 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Kind of soil 



Sand . 
Clay . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay .. 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay .. 
Average 
Sand . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average 
Clay . . 
Clay . . 
Hard clay 
Average . 



^■I 


00 


-1 


fafl 


.a 


^> 


°s 


= « 


<=o 


O C 




1.^ 


6« 


It 




2 


2.97 


3.81 


1.15 


10.71 


2 


3.47 


4.48 


0.92 


11.22 


2 


3.49 


5.52 


1.14 


11.46 


2 


3.31 


4,60 


1.07 


11.13 


3 


2.62 


3.85 


1.12 


12.63 


3 


3.64 


4.52 


1.26 


11.47 


3 


3.01 


5,71 


1.34 


13.89 


3 


3.09 


4,69 


1.24 


12.66 


4 


3.62 


4,54 


1.82 


14.41 


4 


4.06 


5.78 


1.76 


14.28 


4 


4.85 


7.51 


2.23 


14.12 


4 


4.17 


5.94 


1.94 


14.27 


5 


3.48 


4.69 


2.04 


14.47 


5 


4.17 


5.54 


1.93 


14.32 


5 


3.83 


5.12 


1.98 


14.39 


6 


4.01 


4.76 


2.33 


14.35 


6 


3.90 


5.71 


2.04 


14.57 


6 


4.46 


7.42 


2.11 


13.86 


6 


4.12 


5.96 


2.16 


14.26 


8 


6.27 


6,27 


3.06 


18.27 


8 


6.90 


8.04 


2.87 


18.94 


8 


6.59 


7.15 


2.97 


18.60 


9* 


2,49 


4.01 


1.19 


11,63 


9* 


3.57 


4.72 


1.21 


11,22 


9* 


3.68 


5.43 


1.07 


11,56 


9* 


3.40 


4.72 


1.16 


11.47 


9t 


3.19 


4.27 


1.26 


12,04 


9- 


3.39 


4,63 


1.19 


12.83 


9t 


3.29 


4.45 


1.23 


12.43 


10 


7.94 


16.43 


3.96 


26.14 


10 


9.12 


18.74 


4.67 


24.82 


10 


9.53 


22.04 


4.09 


25.32 


10 


8.86 


19.07 


4.24 


25.4 3 


11 


10.52 


26.02 


5 34 


30.9 6 


12 


9.93 


25.64 


5.83 


32.11 


12 


10.14 


28.89 


5.15 


31.07 


12 


10,03 


27.27 


5.49 


31.59 



Op. 

o 

3,34 
3.48 
3.67 
3.50 
2.55 
3.76 
3.58 
3.30 
4.07 
5.83 



32 

74 

16 

94 

05 

34 

66 

5.81 

5.27 

5.98 

6.40 

6.19 

3.43 

3.59 

3.86 

3,62 

4.01 

4.32 

4.17 

7,27 

8,02 

7,73 

7,67 

8 62 

8.36 

8.84 

8.60 



6" 

3,01 

3.41 

3.28 

3.23 

3.10 

3.56 

2.93 

3.20 

4.12 

4.57 

4.98 

4.56 

4.21 

4.86 

4.54 

4.51 

4.22 

4.91 

4.55 

5.64 

6.87 

6.25 

3.12 

3,44 

3.52 

3.36 

3.61 

3.97 

3.79 

10.74 

12.02 

13.81 

12.19 

15,11 

14.04 

14.41 

14.23 



1° 

24.99 
26.98 
28.56 
26.84 
25.87 
28.31. 
30.46 
28.18 
32.58 
36.28 
38.01 
35,62 
33,05 
36 76 
34.91 
34.30 
36.10 
38.57 
36.32 
45,49 
50.02 
47.75 
26.32 
27.75 
29.12 
27. 73 
28,38 
30.33 
29.36 
72.48 
77.39 
82,52 
77,46 
96,47 
95 91 
98,50 
97.21 



* For 8 ducts or less, t For 9 ducts to 12 ducts. 



TABLE XIXA. AVERAGE COST OF CONCRETE VAULT 
CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES 









bD 


o 


^ 


B 








m 




C 


(C 


"w 


3 


c 




Kind of soil 


ll 


Is 


> 


he 


o '^ 




t 

<D 

a 

3 


So 




M 


u 


u 


u 


o 


u 


w 


H 


Sand 


. 1 


$2.44 


$3.79 


$1.02 


$4.41 


$2.44 


$2.11 


^Hl 


Clay 


. 1 


3.16 


4.38 


0.87 
0.95 


4.58 


2.83 


2,46 


18.28 


Average . . .. 


. 1 


2.80 


4.08 


4.50 


2.63 


2.29 


17.25 


Sand 


. 3 


2.78 


3.91 


1.22 


5.79 


2.22 


2.51 


18.43 


Clav 


. 3 


3.23 


4.60 


1.14 


5.48 


3.51 


2.87 


20.83 


Hard clay. . 


. 3 


3.54 


5.83 


1.18 


5.64 


3.42 


2.82 


22.43 


Average . . . 


. 3 


3.18 


4.78 


1.18 


5.64 


3.05 


2.73 


20.56 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1003 



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1004 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXI. QUANTITIES AND COST OF MATERIALS AND 
LABOR REQUIRED IN CONCRETE VAULT CONSTRUCTION 

Size No. of vault 1 3 

Bags cement for bottom (g) .4325 1% li^ 

Yds. sand for bottom @ 1.90 2222 .2222 

Yds. gravel for bottom® 1.90 4444 .4444 

Total cement, sand, gravel for bottom 7221 .7221 

Yds. concrete for bottom 4814 .4814 

Cost concrete for bottom © $3.98 $1.92 $1.92 

Bags cement for sides and top @ .4325 7.60 8.02 

Yds. sand for sides and top @ 1.90 8368 .8820 

Yds. gravel for sides and top @ 1.90 1.3908 1.4670 

Total cement, sand, gravel for sides and top 2.5091 2.6460 

Yds. concrete for sides and top 1.7556 1.8518 

Cost concrete for sides and top $7.55 $7.94 

Cost frame and cover 11.74 11.74 

Total cost material per vault 21.21 21.60 

Cost unloading and distributing cement 0.21 0.22 

Cost unloading and distributing frame and cover. . . 38 0.38 

Total cost unloading and distributing material.... 0.59 0.60 

Cost of teaming 2.80 3.18 

Cost of excavating 4.08 4.78 

Cost of mixing and placing bottom 0.95 1.18 

Cost of mixing and placing sides 4.50 5.64 

Cost of mixing and placing top and frame 2.63 3.05 

Supervision and exnense 2.29 2.73 

Total labor cost per vault 17.25 20.56 

Total cost per vault 39.05 42.76 



Construction Costs of Telephone Cable Manholes. 
1911, gives the following: 



Data, July, 



BRICK MANHOLE 
Concrete Top and Bottom 



Size 

te ft. ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 
t4 ft. ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
$4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
t3 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
t3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
$3 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 
$2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 



m, Barrel Shape 






Ducts 


Not 


Brick 


inter- 


inter- 


Am't 




sected 


sected 


No. 


Cost 


over 18 


over 30 


1807 


$16.26 


18 


30 


1674 


1507 


10 


20 


1261 


11.35 


8 


12 


1171 


10.54 


4 


8 


805 


7.25 


2 


4 


700 


6.30 


Handhole 


530 


4.77 



t6 ft. 

fi ft. 
t4 ft. 



BRICK MANHOLE 
Concrete Top and Bottom, Barrel Shape 



Size 



Cement 



Am't Cost 
bbls. 



Sand 
Am't 



ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 7.1 $16.69 



ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 5.4 12.60 

ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 3.9 9.16 

13 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 3.0 7.05 

is ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 2.2 5.17 

t3 ft ins. by 4 ft. ins. bv 4 ft. ins. 2.0 4.70 

$2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 1.6 3.76 



cu. 
yds. 
2.5 
1.8 
1.3 
1.0 
0.8 
0.7 
0.5 



Cost 

$2.25 
1.62 
1.17 
.90 
.72 
.63 
.45 



Gravel 
Am't 

cu. Cost 
yds. 

2.3 $2.05 

1.7 1.53 



1.0 
0.8 
0.7 
0.6 
0.5 



.90 

.72 



.54 

.45 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1005 



BRICK MANHOLE 
Concrete Top and Bottom, Barrel Shape 



Size 

Miscel. Labor 

t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. $28.60 $61.50 

t4 ft. ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft in.s. 27.75 46.00 

J4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 26 75 35.00 

:|:3 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 26.75 34.00 

$3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 26.75 24.50 

$3 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 26.50 20.00 

$2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 2 ft, 6 ins. 25.75. 18.00 

* Inter-Mountain Data 

t Bottom 6 ins. thick, top 8 ins. thick. 

% Bottom 4 ins. thick, top 6 ins. thick 



Gen'l 

exp's Total 

10%. cost 

$12.74 $140.09 

10.47 115.13 

8.43 92.76 



8.00 
6.50 
5.87 
5.32 



87.96 
71.52 
64.54 
58.50 



CONCRETE MANHOLE 



Size 



Barrel Shape 



ins. by 8 ft. ins. by 6 ft. ins. 
ins. by 7 ft. ins. by 5 ft. ins. 
ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 
6 ins. by 6 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
6 ins. by 5 ft. ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 
ins. by 4 ft. ins. by 4 ft. ins. 



Ducts 
inter- 
sected 
over 18 

18 

10 



Not 
inter- 
sected 
over 30 
30 
20 
12 



4 
2 
Handole 



Cement 
Amt Cost 
bbls. 

9.6 

7.2 
4.7 
3.3 
2.4 
2.8 



1.6 



$22.80 
16.90 
9.05 
7.75 
5.65 
6.60 
3.76 



CONCRETE MANHOLE 





Barrel Shape 












Sand 


Gravel 






Am't 




Am't 




Size 




cu. 
yds. 


Cost 


cu. 
yds. 


Cost 


t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. 


ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 


.. 4.0 


$3.60 


6.7 


$6.03 


••4 ft. Oins. by 7 ft. 


ins. by 5 ft. ins. 


.. 3.1 


2.80 


5.1 


4.50 


|4 ft. ins. by 6 ft. 


ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 


.. 2.0 


1.80 


3.4 


3.05 


13 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. 


ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 


.. 1.5 


1.35 


2.3 


2.05 


§3 ft. 6ins. by 5 ft. 


ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 


. . 1.0 


.90 


1.7 


1.55 


§3 ft. Oins. by 4 ft. 


ins. by 4 ft. ins. 


.. 1.2 


1.08 


2.0 


1.80 


§2 ft. 6ins. by 4 ft. 


ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 

CONCRETE MA 
Barrel Sha 


. . 0.7 

NHOLE 

pe 


.63 


1.1 


1.00 


Size 








Gen'l 


Total 






Miscel. 


Labor 


expen's 


cost 


t6 ft. ins. by 8 ft. 


ins. by 6 ft. 6 ins. 


$29.70 


$63.00 


$12,35 


$135.85 


•4 ft. Oins. by 7 ft 


ins. by 5 ft. ins. 


28.30 


41.00 


9.35 


102.85 


::4ft. in.s. by 6 ft. 


ins. by 4 ft. 9 ins. 


27.19 


31.00 


7.21 


79.30 


tZ ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft. 


ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 


27.15 


24.00 


6,23 


68.53 


§3 ft. 6 ins. by 5 ft. 


ins. by 3 ft 6, ins. 


27.05 


19.00 


5,42 


59,57 


§3 ft. Oins. by 4 ft. 


ins. by 4 ft. ins. 


26.95 


20,00 


5.64 


62,07 


§2 ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. 


ins. by 2 ft. 6 ins. 


26.20 


14.00 


4.56 


50.15 



Miscellaneous, includes all the reinforcing wire and steel, the 
frame and cover, lumber, and other small items. 



1006 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Labor, based on $2.25 per day for laborers and $3.00 per day for 
foremen. ^ 

Concrete, mixture : 1:3:5: 

Brick, $9.00 per thousand. 

Cement, $2.25 per barrel. 

Sand and Gravel, $.9 per cubic yard. 

Labor for laying brick, $12.00 per thousand. 

* Inter-Mountain Data, 

t 6 in. Bottom, 8 in. ' Top. 8 in. Walls. 

% 4 in. Bottorti,. 6 in. Top, 6 in. Walls. 

§ 4 in. Bo^ttom, 6 in. Top, 5 in. Walls. 

Cost of Brick Manholes for Electric Conduit. The following, 
taken from Data, April, 1913, was compiled from data collected 
by a large central station located in the Middle West. 

Ced. on Gran. 





Street 


Cedar 


6-in. 


Granite 


on 


Maca- 


As- 


Size. ft. 


^mmp. 


pavmg 


cone. 


pavmg 


paving 


dam 


phalt 


2 by 3 by 3 


'$31.04 


$32.18 


$32.94 


$32.94 


$34.83 


$31.92 


$38.63 


3 by 3 by 4 


41.12 


42.52 


43.46 


43.46 


45.80 


42.21 


50.48 


3 by 4 by 4 


47.54 


49.21 


50 32 


50.32 


53.10 


48.84 


58.67 


4 by 4 by 4 


53.47 


55.45 


56.78 


56.78 


60.08 


55.01 


66.70 


4 by 5 by 5 


64.75 


67.05 


68.58 


68.58 


72.44 


66.54 


80.08 


5 by 5 by 5 


109.06 


111.67 


113.50 


113.50 


117.94 


111.13 


126.82 


6 bv 6 by 6 


133.13 


136.57 


138.87 


138.87 


144.60 


135.81 


156.08 


6 by 7 by 6 


142.76 


146.62 


149.19 


149.16 


155 63 


145 76 


168.50 


7 by 7 by 7 


160.06 


,164.38 


167.27 


167.27 


174.47 


163.42 


188.89 


8 by 8 by 8 


189.16 


194.65 


198.19 


198.19 


207.03 


193.48 


224.72 



Cost of Brick Manhole for Telephone Cables, Chicago. The costs 
given below, published in Data, June, 1911, do not include super- 
vision or other overhead expenses. 

Dimensions: 3 ft. by 5 ft. by 4 ft. 6 ins. high. Brick walls, concrete 
top and floor 

Materials : 

1100 brick at $8.00 per M $ 8.80 

14 bags of cement at 41c. per bag 5.75 

1% cu. yds. sand at $1.75 per cu. yd 2.19 

11^4 cu. yds. gravel at $1.65 per cu. yd 2.06 

110 ft. hemlock lumber at $22.50 per M. ft 2.48 

1 frame and cover 12.00 

2 lbs. nails at 2 Vz cts. per lb 05 

6 nipples at 4^2 cts. each 27 

Wooden form for concrete top 1.50 

Total material $35.10 

Labor and Teaming : 

Excavating 4.00 

Backfilling 75 

Bricklaying — 1100 brick at $10.00 per M 11.00 

Labor mixing and placing concrete 2.50 

Hauling away earth 3.50 

Total labor and teaming 21.75 

Total cost of manhole $56 85 

Cost of sewer connection where required 20.00 

Cost of Constructing 15 Brick Vaults for Underground Conduit. 

Mr. Clarence Mayer in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 28, 1908, 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1007 

gives in somewhat more detail the labor costs on brick vaults. 
(Fig. 12.) The costs show separately the costs of placing floors 
and tops and also the cost of board and car fare. They also show 
work done in paved streets. The paving was cedar blocks in clay 
and the costs given include the cost of replacing same. 

TABLE XXII. LABOR COST OP (CONSTRUCTING 15 BRICK 

VAULTS 3 FT. 6 INS. x 4 FT. 6 INS. x 4 FT. ,6 INS. FOR 

UNDERGROUND CONDUIT 





..1 


60 


1 

bo 


o 


B 

bD 


o 
'm 










o g 

P 


5' 


^1 

5^ 




f'3 


6" 


1 


^1 




Min. 


$2.85 


$4.05 


$0.65 


$11.50 


$4.60 


$2.65 


$0.15-, 


$0.03 


$27.80 


Av. 


3.04 


4.33 


0.79 


12.35 


5.16 


2.89 


0.24 


0.05 


28.85 



Max. 3.30 5.00 0.90 15.00 5.80 3.10 0.35 0.08 30.41 

Main Underground CabJe. Mayer's Telephone Construction says: 
Underground cable is of the following kinds : 50 pr., 22 ga. and 
19 ga. ; 100 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 200 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 300 pr., 
22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 400 pr., 22 ga. ; 600 pr., 22 ga. ; 150 pr., 16 ga. ; 
toll cable, and 120 pr., .5-14 ga. and .5-16 ga. toll cable. The 
specifications for underground cable work are as follows : 




Fig. 24. Diagrams showing method of passing cable through vaults. 



The cable may be pulled by capstan, by winch, by horse power 
or by hand, at a speed not to exceed 50 ft. per minute. In setting 
up, the reel should be as nearly in line with the diict as possible 
and ahead of the vault rather than back of it, so that the cable 
will feed from the top of the reel. To the end of the No. 12 steel 
wire which is pulled in when rodding the duct, shall be fastened a 
steel rope which in turn shall be fastened to the cable by means of 
a cable clamp, wire hitch or other approved method. Skids and 



1008 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

sheaves shall be set up as nearly as possible in a straight line from 
the mouth of the duct. The cable should be fed in at a uniform 
speed and the armof carefully inspected. Where the cable is 2 ins. 
or more in diameter, the ducts should be swabbed with soapstone, 
mica or graphite, except in the case of short straight runs. Cable 
in passing through vaults shall be divided so that cable entering 
the vault on either side of the center of the vault shall be carried 
around that side .of the ' vault to the duct where it leaves vaults 
again, as shown in Fig. 24. 

The rates of wages on which the following costs of underground 
cable work are based are as follows : 

Station gangs : 

Foremen, per month $90.00 to $100.00 

Timekeeper, per 8-hour day 2.25 to 2.50 

Linemen, per 8-hour day 2.95 to 3.25 

Combination men, per 8-hour day 2.25 to 2.50 

Groundmen, per 8-hour day 2.00 to 2.15 

Teams, per 8-hour day 4.00 to 4.50 

Floating gangs : 

Foremen, per month and board 65.00 to 75.00 

Timekeeper, per 8-hour day and board 1.25 to 1.40 

Linemen, per 8-hour day and board 1.80 to 2.00 

Combination men, per 8-hour day and board 1.25 to 1.40 

Groundmen, per 8-hour day and board 1.00 

Teams, per 8-hour day and board 3.00 to 4.00 

From 50 to 75 cts. per day are allowed for board of team and $1 
per day, including Sundays, is allowed for board of each man. In 
the cost data given, the rate for men in floating gangs is found by 
dividing the board per month, $30 or $31, by the number of working 
days, 26 or 27, and adding the aiuount to their rate per day. Mis- 
takes in construction such as digging a hole in the wrong location 
are not included in these averages. 



TABLE XXIIL COST OF UNDERGROUND CABLE (MAIN) 

Average 
cost per 
foot 
$0.0161 
0.0162 
0.0172 
0.0175 
0.0184 
0.0217 
0.0220 

0.0349 

0.0396 

Note: The weight of a reel of 120 Pr. — 1/1.-14 Ga. and %-16 Ga. 
averages between 3 % and 5 tons. The cable grip shown in Fig. 
26 was used on some jobs in pulling in the cable. It reduces the 
cost, as it may be connected and removed instantly, whereas a 
wire hitch takes some time to attach and remove. It also is su- 
perior to a wire hitch because it does not injure the cable and will 
not pull off. 





Teaming 






Supervi- 




and labor 


Rodding 


Pulling 


sion and 




in haulmg 






expense 


50 


Pr.—19 Ga... $0.0048 


$0.0034 


$0.0061 


$0.0017 


100 


Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0042 


0.0037 


0.0065 


0.0018 


100 


Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0051 


0.0039 


0.0062 


0.0019 


200 


Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0057 


0.0036 


0.0067 


0.0015 


200 


Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0061 


0.0031 


0.0071 


0.0021 


300 


Pr.— 22 Ga... 0.0066 


0.0036 


0.0097 


0.0018 


300 


Pr.— 19 Ga... 0.0073 


0.0030 


0.0093 


0.0024 


150 


Pr.— 16 Ga. Toll 










Cable 0.0101 


0.0058 


0.0147 


0.0043 


120 


Pr.— 1/2-14 Ga. 
and i/,-16 Ga. 










Toll Cable . . 0.0122 


0.0068 


0.0158 


0.0048 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1009 



TABLE XXIV. 



COST OF UNDERGROUND CABLE 
(LATERAL) 



25 Pr.- 
50 Pr.- 



22 Ga. 

22 Ga. 

50 Pr.— 19 Ga. 

100 Pr. — 22 Ga. 

100 Pr.— 19 Ga. 

200 Pr.— 22 Ga. 

200 Pr. — 19 Ga. 



fi rt o 

Eh-""" 
,$0.0044 
, 0.0063 
0.0071 
0.0068 
0.0111 
0.0109 
0.01.38 



^ u 

$0.0112 
0.0198 
0.0226 
0.0220 
0.0316 
0.0310 
0.0354 






as <v 
3 oj a 
w 

$0.0029 
0.0042 
0.0062 
0.0059 
0.0064 
0.0061 
0.0076 




Note: 25 Pr. — 22 Ga. costs much less to install than other cable, 
as it is always pulled in by hand, and its small diameter and light 
weight make it easily handled. 

Lateral Underground Cable. Lateral underground cable is of the 
following kinds: 25 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 50 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. ; 
100 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga., and 200 pr., 22 ga. and 19 ga. The 
specifications for this work are as follows : 

Lateral cable shall be set up and pulled in the same manner 
as main cable. Where the cable is 1 in. or over in diameter, the 
duct should be swabbed with soapstone, mica or graphite, except 
in the case of short, straight laterals, 100 ft. or less. 

Podding Underground Cable. The duct in which cable is to be 
placed shall first be rodded. To the end rod shall be attached a 
length of No. 12 steel wire, which shall be used to pull into the 
duct the steel rope, used in pulling the cable. 



City . . 
County 



TABLE XXV. COST OF RODDING 



Teaming and 

labor in 

hauling 

. . $0.0010 

. . 0.0018 



Rodding 

$0.0036 

0.0061 



Supervision 

and 

expense 

$0.0016 

0.0019 



Average 

cost 

per foot 

$0.0062 

0.0098 



Table XXVI shows the labor co.st in detail of pulling in 120 pr. 
one-half 14-gage and one-half 16-gage toll cable. The expense of 
hauling reels was large, as the distance from the freight depot 
averaged 3 miles, the roads were deep in clay mud, and on account 
of their great weight a special team and wagon at $7 per day was 
used to haul the reels. The expense of pumping water was high 
on account of the vaults being full of water. In one section of 
conduit, cable was pulled in twice, as the first cable had flaws in 
the armor. The cable was pulled in by horsepower. 

Removing Underground Cable. All underground cable to be re- 
moved must be cut at each splice and have the ends of the .sections 
sealed, before they are removed from the duct, unless the cable is to 



1010 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XXVI. COST OF PULiLING UNDERGROUND CABLE 

(MAIN). 

120 Pr., Yz 

N«. men 
No. ft. Cost of used in < 
pulled pulling pulling 
18,992 $333.40 93 , 



Average 



No. 

reels 

hauled 

39 



Average 



Per ft. 

$.0175 



6 1-5 



.-14 Ga. 

Cost of 
rodding 


and %-16 

Cost of 

pumping 

water 


Ga. 

No. 
sections 
pulled 


Cost 

of pulling, 

rodding and 

pumping 


$90.90 


$79.60 


38 


$503.90 


Per ft. 


Per ft 


Per day 


Per ft. 


$.0048 


$.0042 


2 8-15 


$.0265 



Hauling Reels Returning Reels 

No. men No. men Total cost 

Cost of used in No. reels Cost of used in of 

hauling hauling returned returning returning all work 
$211.60 67 39 $65.10 23 $780.60 



No. men 
Per reel, per reel, 

S5.40 2 



No. men 
Per reel, per reel. 
$1.67 23-39 



$.0411 



TABLE XXVII. 



50 Pr.— 22 Ga. 

50 Pr. — 19 Ga. 
100 Pr.— 22 Ga.. 
100 Pr. — 19 Ga. 
200 Pr. — 22 Ga. 
200 Pr.— 19 Ga. 
300 Pr. — 22 Ga. 



COST OF REMOVING UNDERGROUND 
CABLE (JUNKED) 



Teaming and 




Supervision 


Average 


labor in 




and 


cost 


hauling 


Removing 


expense 


per foot 


. . .$0.0038 


$0.0072 


$0.0019 


$0.0129 


. .. 0.0043 


0.0079 


0.0021 


0.0143 


. .. 0.0041 


0.0075 


0.0017 


0.0133 


. . . 0.0054 


0.0083 


0.0024 


0.0161 


. .. 0.0056 


0.0086 


0.0019 


0.0161 


. .. 0.0061 


0.0094 


0.0026 


0.0181 


. .. 0.0073 


0.0108 


0.0029 


0.0210 



TABLE XXVIII. COST OF REMOVING UNDERGROUND 
CABLE (RECOVERED) 

Teaming and Supervision Average 

labor in and cost 

hauling Removing expense per foot 

25 Pr.— 22 Ga $0.0034 $0.0073 $0.0018 $0.0125 

50 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0041 0.0079 0.0017 0.0137 

50 Pr — 19 Ga 0.0044 0.0084 0.0022 0.0150 

100 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0050 0.0086 0.0023 0.0159 

100 Pr. — 19 Ga 0.0053 0.0093 0.0026 0.0172 

200 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0058 0.0089 0.0022 0.0169 

200 Pr. — 19 Ga 0.0064 0.0099 0.0028 0.0191 

300 Pr. — 22 Ga 0.0077 0.0115 0.0033 0.0225 



be junked. The apparatus is placed at the vault from which the 
cable is to be pulled. In place of the steel rope used in pulling 
in, a manila rope is used on account of its greater flexibility. The 
vault skids and sheaves are placed in the same manner as for 
pulling in cable, and the manila rope passed over them in the 
usual manner. To the end of the rope is attached a servage strap 
made of manila strand about 1 in. in diameter. This strap is 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1011 

placed on the cable in the form of a noose which grips the cable 
when pulled one way, but may be pushed along the cable in the 
reverse direction. The strap is then slipped around the end of 
the cable as close to the duct as possible, and power applied to the 
pulling line. After the cable has beeQ moved a foot or two the 
rope is slackened off and the noose is again pushed forward against 
the duct. This process is known as "lufRng." The " lufRng " is 
continued until the cable is removed from the duct. As the cable 
is pulled out, if it is to be recovered, it is reeled upon a reel placed 
back of the manhole, so as to avoid unnecessary sharp turns. If 
it is to be junked the cable is usually cut with an axe into 5 or 6 ft. 
lengths as it is being pulled out. 

Method and Cost of Cable Splicing. Of all outside construction 
the most delicate work is cable splicing, and it requires the most 
skilled and careful labor. The careless removal of the insulation 
from conductors has been known to cause crosses which cost hun- 
dreds of dollars to locate and clear. A splice when not properly 
made is always a source of " trouble cases " which are difficult to 
locate and expensive to clear ; but even the cost of locating and 
clearing is small in comparison with the loss of revenue and the 
annoyance to subscribers caused by the interruption of service, 
especially when a main cable is in trouble. Above all things, good 
splicing requires conscientious work, and on the personnel of the 
men depends the quality of the splice. Cheap splicing is not gen- 
erally good splicing ; therefore in estimating the cost of splicing, 
no attempt should be made to force quick work, which is nearly 
always expensive in the end. 

The organization of splicer gangs is somewhat different from 
line gangs ; the gangs being composed of a head splicer, one or two 
splicers, and an equal number of helpers. Each gang is assigned 
to a district and is stationed in the principal town in the district. 
When necessary a gang is increased by drawing from other gangs, 
and all men receive board when working outside of the town in 
which they are stationed. The head splicer usually splices or tests 
out when the gang is small, little supervision being necessary. 

A great deal of overtime is worked because of most splices which 
cause interruption of the service being made at night and also on 
account of splices being often worked on until finished. This some- 
times makes a splicer's wages per one-half month between $60 and 
$100 dollars. 

Systematizing the costs of cable splicing is more difficult than 
in any other branch of telephone construction ; first, because of 
the general confusion in the names of the different splices, and 
second, because of the endless combinations in splicing. In order 
to avoid confusion, a leg of a cable box will be referred to as a 
cable and two sections of a cable not already spliced will be called 
two cables; thus if two sections of a 100-pr. cable are to be spliced 
they will be referred to as two 100-pr. cables. For our purposes 
the splicing of conductors will be used to indicate the kind of 
splice, and splices will be referred to as follows. 

Straight Splices. (1) "When all the conductors of two cables are 



1012 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

spliced together, each 'joint of conductors being composed of two 
wires, (2) when the conductors of one cable are spliced into a 
cable containing a larger number of conductors, part of which 
are left " dead," each joint of conductors being composed of two 
wires; and (3) where either part or all of the conductors of two 
or more cables are spliced into part or all of the conductors of 
another cable, each joint, of conductors being composed of two 
wires and the conductors not spliced being left " dead." 

Bridge Splices. .(1) When all the conductors of three or more 
cables are spliced 'together, each joint of conductors being composed 
of the same number of wires; (2) when all the conductors of a 
cable are spliied into a cable composed of one-half, one-quarter, 
etc., the number of conductors, each joint of conductors being com- 
posed of like number of wires. 




Pig. 25. Sequence of operations in making straight splices. 

Straighl-Brid(jc Splices. "When some of the conductors of a cable 
are spliced, as described under " Straight Splice " and some as 
described under " Bridge Splice." 

There are endless combinations in splicing, as for example, into a 
100-pr. cable may be spliced a 10, 15, 25, 50 or 100 pr. cable, etc., 
or a 10, 15, 25 and 50-pr. cable, etc. Also the splice may be straight, 
bridge, straight-bridge or change of count ; it nray be tagged or 
not tagged. In estimating it is not necessary to have data on 
every possible splice. If data showing the average cost of common 
and usual splices is accessible a veiT close estimate of any splice 
may be made. 

For construction details and instructions for making the various 
kinds of splices mentioned above the reader is referred to Mayer's 
Telephone Construction from which these data and costs ai'e taken : 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1013 

Cable splicing- costs are based on the following- rate of wages : 

Per 8-hour day- 
Head splicers $3.40 to |3. 70 

Splicers 3.00 to 3.20 

Helpers ^ 1.75 to 2.00 

Rigs (usually single) 2.50 to 3.00 

Time and one-half is paid for overtime. There being practically 
no difference between the cost of splicing- 19 gage and 22 gage 
cables they are not separated in the following cost data. The costs 
of making- several splices of the same kind and size have been 
found to vary very little. Except when the splicing is done by 
splicers who have worked all night, usually splices of the same 
kind and size will not vary more than 10 per cent. 




Fig. 26. Completed cable splices. 

The cost of splicing into working cable is kept separate on 
account of being more expensive than splicing into other cable. 
The difference is caused by it being necessary to test and tag all 
cables spliced, the care used to prevent unnecessary interruption of 
service and also because the splice is often worked on after regular 
hours for which splicers are paid time and one-half. 

The cost of blowing the joint of a working- cable and the cost 
of cutting the sheath off of cables in preparing for a splice, are 
about equal. 



TABLE XXIX. 



COST OF STRAIGHT SPLICES, 
GROUND 



UNDER- 



(Cost of splicing 60 prs. from each of two 120 pr. %-14 gage and 
%-16 gage toll cables into a 120 pr. 18 gage cable terminating in a 
loading pot, and splicing the balance straight through.) 



-a 


















d) cj 














01 


^ 


3i3 

c3 w ^ 

^1! 


he 


^ 


^ 


bfl 


tyo 


cS 






c 


p. 


S 


'■♦J 


o 


"^ c 


O/'O 


^•u 


I&5 




3 
Oh 


J^ 
fe 




m 


%■- 


p 


5=- 


14 Gage . 


. .$1.04 


$0.62 


$1.68 


$1.80 


$8.69 


$1.82 


$6.47 


$22.12 


16 Gage . 


.. 1.01 


0.64 


1.64 ' 


1.86 


8.88 


1.79 


6.52 


22.34 



Note : This class of work is generally done in the country. 
The supervision of a head splicer and board for the gang make the 
cost of " Supervision and Expense " high. 



1014 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XXX. 



COST OP STRAIGHT SPLICES, UNDER- 
GROUND. NOT TAGGED 



Number and size of ^ 

cables spliced -3 

1 

0) 

2- 50 Pr $0.46 

2-100 Pr 0.59 

2-200 Pr 0.59 

2-300 Pr 0.61 

1-25 Pr. into 1-50 Pr., ' 

25 Prs. Left Dead. 0.40 
1-50 Pr. into 1-100 Pr., 

50 Prs. Left De^d. 0.52 
1-100 Pr. into 1-200 

Prs., 100 Prs. Left 

Dead 0.58 



be 


bo 


CI 


id 






ft 

s 


S 
c3 


3 


u 


^ 


h 


$0.53 


$0.49 


0.56 
6.58 


0.60 


0.87 


0.55 


0.91 







0% 


8?^ 


be 


^^ 




g5 CO 





U 




< 


$0.80 


$0.45 


$0.60 


$3.33 


1.42 


0.49 


0.86 


4 52 


2.86 


0.57 


1.38 


6.85 


3.67 


0.61 


1.59 


8.04 


.065 


0.42 


0.54 


2.87 


0.84 


0.49 


0.72 


3.60 



0.42 0.44 
0.51 0.52 



0.57 0.76 1.51 0.54 0.94 4.90 



TABLE XXXL COST OP STRAIGHT SPLICES, UNDER- 
GROUND, TAGGED 

Number and size of ^ ^ c tr.^ ^ w. -I ?^^ 

cables spliced | I | ^-S .g ^^ > ^ ^g 

I I I "^1 ;^ US S-g ^^ 

2- 50 Pr $0.42 $0.49 $0.51 $0.98 $0.78 $0.42 $0.64 $4.24 

2-100 Pr 0.56 0.54 0.62 1.58 1.37 0.51 1.11 6.29 

2-200 Pr 0.59 0.58 0.85 2.80^.78 0.60 1.72 9.92 

2-300 Pr 0.60 0.57 0.89 4.06-^.69 0.62 2.06 12.49 

2-150 Pr. 16 Gauge 

Toll Cable 0.96 0.61 0.92 1.56 2.37 0.63 3.17 10.22 

2-120 Pr. 1/2-14 and 

y2-16Ga. Toll Cable 0.94 0.60 0.91 1.39 1.96 0.66 2.89 9.35 
1-50 Pr. into 1-100 

Pr., 50 Prs. Left 

Dead 0.49 0.50 0.54 1.07 0.84 0.59 0.71 4.74 

2-50 Pr. into 1-100 

Pr 0.57 0.54 0.83 1.62 1.44 0.67 1.16 6.83 

Note : Toll cable is always tested for crosses, grounds and in- 
sulation, but not tagged. Teaming and supervision and expense are 
higher for toll cable than for other cable on account of the work 
being done in the country. 



TABLE XXXII. 



COST OP BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
NOT TAGGED 



c-^ 



'^ ow B -S .S 

S^iS S & S 

5.2a c3 s rt 

^^^ ^ ^ ^ 

Ai H PL| fe 

3- 50 Pr $0.44 $0.50 $0.61 

3-100 Pr 0.53 0.47 0.76 

3-200 Pr 0.58 0.53 0.91 



a 
m 

$1.56 
2.78 
5.37 



$0.65 
0.72 
0.89 



$0.78 
1.18 
1.74 



> o a 

$4.54 

6.44 

10.02 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1015 



TABLE XXXIII. 



COST OF BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
TAGGED 



g-O 



-'I 


C 

S 

i 


(UD 

C 
ft 


bo 
c 

S 
t 
fa 


^&0 
biDfl 

S'Si 


bo 


^1 


■il 


bflft 
c3 m 




S 

3 


|! 


a 


P 




P 


3- 50 Pr. . 


..$0.46 


$0.48 


$0.62 


$1.52 


$1.53 


$0.66 


$1.27 


$6.54 


3-100 Pr. . 


.. 0.42 


0.52 


0.74 


2.39 


2.52 


0.70 


1.58 


8.87 


3-200 Pr. . 


.. 0.63 


0.52 


0.87 


3.72 


4.89 


0.82 


2.02 


13.47 



TABLE XXXIV. 



COST OF BRIDGE SPLICES, UNDERGROUND, 
ONTO WORKING CABLE 



fi o 

Number and size ^ c ^ S,^ bo ,„ 'S 

of cables spliced | "I % ^S c ^i2 t 

Eh Pk fa H M l> w 

1-50 Pr. Bridged onto 

a Splice of 2-50 

Pr $0.69 $0.53 $0.68 $2.26 $0.97 $0.76 $1. 

1-100 Pr. Bridged 

onto a Splice of 

2-100 Pr 0.75 0.49 0.73 3.79 1.82 0.82 1. 

1-200 Pr. Bridged 

onto a Splice of 

2-200 Pr 0.69 0.61 0.86 5.82 3.68 0.81 2. 



® 


_^ 






c 


8?^ 


<u 


ft 




>4 

0) 


•d 


P 


rt 


,27 


$7.16 


83 


10.23 


26 


14.73 



TABLE XXXV. COST OF STRAIGHT -BRIDGE SPLICES, 
UNDERGROUND, NOT TAGGED 



c z "^ a> 

d !::; ft^ 

;! '^ 

-^ 25 Pr. 
- 25 Pr. 



1 

1- 25 



Pr. 
50 Pr. 



1- 

1- 

1- 

1-100 

1-100 Pr. 

1-200 Pr. 



50 Pr. 
50 Pr. 
Pr. 





^ 


B 


bo 


1 


bp„ 


m a 


8S 

boa 


•^ p, o 


i 

Eh 




t 
fa 




C+J 


U ^ 


ri M 


|"sl 


S 


a 
m 


p 






2-50 Pr. 


$0.38 


$0.46 


$0.56 


$1.24 


$0.62 


$0.74 


$4.00 


2-100 Pr. 


0.52 


0.51 


0.70 


1.83 


0.71 


1.06 


5.33 


2-200 Pr. 


0.46 


0.47 


0.78 


3.32 


0.78 


1.48 


7.29 


2-100 Pr. 


0.54 


0.54. 


0.71 


2.10 


0.72 


1.14 


5.75 


2-200 Pr. 


0.47 


0.59 


0.82 


3.58 


0.84 


1.60 


7.90 


2-300 Pr. 


0.60 


0.52 


0.91 


5.95 


0.88 


1.68 


10.54 


2-200 Pr. 


0.64 


0.57 


0.84 


4.03 


0.82 


1.61 


8.51 


2-300 Pr. 


0.57 


0.55 


0.98 


6.21 


0.91 


1.74 


10.96 


2-300 Pr. 


0.59 


0.61 


1.06 


6.86 


0.84 


2.05 


12.01 



1016 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE 



XXXVI. COST OP STRAIGHT-BRIDGE SPLICES, 
UNDERGROUND, TAGGED 



No. and size of 
branch cables 
spliced into mail 
cables 


ll 

2 S I' 




bts 

1 


1 


<rf fan 
face 
.S"S) 


a 


11 


eg 


4-> 

m 

§8 
P 


1- 25 Pr. 


2-50 Pr. 


$0.41 


$0.49 


$0.59 


$1.13 


$1.03 


$0.56 


$1.02 


$5.23 


1- 25 Pr. 


2-100 Pr. 


0.47 


0.53 


0.68 


2.01 


1.69 


0.64 


1.30 


7.32 


1-25 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.51 


0.51 


0.79 


3.16 


2.89 


0.67 


1.71 


10.24 


1- 50 Pr. 


2-100 Pr. 


0.50 


0.47 


0.73 


2.18 


1.82 


0.62 


1.36 


7.68 


1- 50 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.60 


0.54 


0.84 


3.37 


3.16 


0.69 


1.79 


10 99 


1-50 Pr. 


2-300 Pr. 


' 0.5,7 


0.62 


0.94 


4.18 


4.99 


0.78 


2.28 


14.36 


1-100 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.54 


0.56 


0.83 


3.67 


3.61 


72 


1.84 


11 77 


1-100 Pr. 


2-300 Pr. 


0.62 


0.61 


1.01 


4.49 


5.48 


0.66 


2,41 


15.28 


1-200 Pr. 


2-300 Pr. 


0.59 


0.64 


0.99 


4.87 


6.49 


0.71 


2.63 


16.92 


1- 25 Pr. 1 
1- 50 Pr. f 


2-100 Pr. 


0.53 


0.59 


0.82 


2.39 


2.16 


0.83 


1.50 


8.82 


1- 25 Pr.) 
1- 50 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.56 


0.59 


1.03 


3.48 


3.47 


0.91 


1.87 


11.91 


2-25 Pr. 


2-100 Pr. 


0.49 


0.56 


0.75 


2.26 


1.96 


0.87 


1.41 


8.30 


2- 50 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.53 


0,61 


0.97 


3.62 


3.76 


0.91 


1.92 


12.32 


1- 50 Pr. 1 
1-100 Pr. 


2-200 Pr. 


0.61 


0.66 


1.14 


4.04 


4.54 


0.89 


2.20 


14.08 


1- 50 Pr. ] 
1-100 Pr. ( 


2-300 Pr. 


0.64 


0.64 


1.16 


4.68 


5.88 


0.94 


2.68 


16.62 


1- 50 Pr. ) 
2-100 Pr. : 


2-300 Pr. 


0.69 


0.68 


1.37 


5.15 


6.86 


1.17 


2.91 


18.83 


1- 25 Pr. 
1- 50 Pr. y 




















2-200 Pr. 


0.62 


0.73 


1.26 


3.90 


4.07 


1.10 


2.18 


13.86 


1-100 Pr. J 





















TABLE XXXVII. COST OF STRAIGHT-BRIDGE SPLICES, 
UNDERGROUND, ONTO WORKING CABLES 







bo 


&D 


bfi 








(D 

o g 

•Sft 


.2 


No. and 
branch 
spliced 
cable 


c 

1 


•1 
s 




-M fan 


bo 
o 

ft 
m 




5^ 


So, 


1-25 Pr. 


50 Pr. 


$0.46 


$0.52 


$0.53 


$1.36 


$0.72 


$0.64 


$1.08 


$5.31 


1- 25 Pr. 


100 Pr. 


0.51 


0.47 


0.57 


2.74 


0.80 


0.63 


1.29 


7.01 


1- 25 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


0.47 


0.50 


0.64 


3.74 


0.87 


0.71 


1.44 


8.37 


1-50 Pr. 


100 Pr. 


0.44 


0.53 


0.55 


3.06 


1.18 


0.61 


1.39 


7.76 


1-50 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


0.52 


0.49 


0.67 


4.19 


1.23 


0.68 


1.57 


9.35 


1- 50 Pr. 


300 Pr. 


0.54 


0.61 


0.69 


5.30 


1.31 


0.79 


1.80 


11.04 


1-100 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


0.51 


0.58 


0.74 


4.70 


2.06 


0.80 


1.76 


11.15 


1-100 Pr. 


300 Pr. 


0.62 


0.51 


0.72 


5.82 


2.14 


0.74 


1.99 


12.54 


1-200 Pr. 


300 Pr. 


0.57 


0.67 


0.68 


7.06 


3.70 


0.82 


2.52 


16.02 


1- 25 Pr.l 
1- 50 Pr.I 


200 Pr. 


0.54 


0.62 


0.89 


4.33 


1.84 


0.96 


1.63 


10.81 


2-50 Pr. 




















1- 25 Pr. 1 
1- 50 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


0.63 


0.53 


1.01 


4.17 


2.16 


1.01 


1.91 


11.42 


300 Pr. 


0.58 


0.59 


0.96 


5.51 


1.97 


0.97 


2.02 


12.60 


Note : All the data on 


straig 


rht-bri 


dge s] 


plices, 


both 


aerial and 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1017 



r4 S g ac, oc © t-i M t^ od 

3; > W **^ t-< tH iH f-l 

m 5-^1 Si---'-- 



t>rj< 



■ 'TT T-i ^ CC O 

'0000 



.2 bo 



•>* ec Oi 00 iH e<3 
'^ <x> as tH ci us 

tH rH <m" M ui 10 



bo bn 

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1018 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

underground, is based on splicing branch cables on separate counts. 
It makes little difference in the cost, however, whether the branches 
are spliced on the same or separate counts. In all the data on 
straight-bridge splices the two sections of the continuous cable, 
when not already spliced, are entered in the column, " Number and 
Size of Main Cables Spliced." as 2-25 Pr., 2-50 Pr., etc. When the 
cable is already spliced, as in the data under " Working Cables," 
it is referred to as 25 Pr., 50 Pr., etc. 

TABLE XXXVIII. COST OP CHANGING COUNTS, UNDER- 
GROUND, NOT TAGGED 







^ 










^ 


9r. 


4-> 


0)^ 

1^ 


5 
S 


No. of pairs 
spliced stra 

No. of pairs 
bridged 


■ bD 

a 
S 


s 

S 
Oh 


bo 
a 

S 


B 

o 

ft 
m 


faD 

a 




m 


1-25 Pr.* 


100 Pr. 


25 .. 


$0.59 


$0.43 


$1.11 


$1.03 


$0.58 


$0.96 


$4.70 


1-25 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


.. 25 


0.53 


0.52 


1.22 


1.28 


0.67 


1.07 


5.29 


1-50 Pr. 


200 Pr. 


. . 50 


0.67 


0.49 


1.62 


1.91 


0.69 


1.30 


6.68 



t These splices were made onto pairs left dead. 
* The main cable ended at the splice. 



In making a change of count or a cut it is often necessary to 
lengthen the conductors by splicing on a piece of wire of the same 
gage. This adds considerably to the cost of splicing conductors 
together. 

Pulling and Splicing Cables. The following data are from an 
article by L. W. Moxey, Jr., in Electrical World, Dec. 18, 1915. 



TABLE XLL LABOR COSTS FOR PULLING IN AND SPLICING 

CABLES 

Pulling cable. Splicing cables, 
Size, B. & S. or Circ. Mil. cost per ft. cost per splice 

Single-conduit : 

No. 14 $0.02 $1.10 

12 0.025 1.20 

10 0.03 1.38 

8 0.035 1.40 

6 0.04 1.55 

5 0.045 1.70 

4 0.05 1.85 

3 0.055 2.00 

2 0.06 2.20 

1 0.0625 2.40 

0.065 2.60 

00 0.0675 2.80 

000 . 0.07 3.05 

0000 0.0725 3.30 

250,000 0.075 3.55 

300,000 0.0775 3.80 

350,000 0.08 4.10 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1019 



Size, 


B. & S. or Circ. Mil. 


Pulling cable, 
cost per ft. 


Splicing cables, 
cost per splice 


Single-conduit : 








400,000 , 


. . . . 0.085 


4.40 




450 000 , 


09 


4 70 




500,000 


0.095 


5.00 




550,000 


. . . . 10 


5.30 




600,000 


. . . . 0.105 


5.60 




650,000 


, . . . 11 


5.90 




700,000 


... 0.115 


6.20 




750,000 


, ... 0.12 


^.50 




800,000 


. . . . 125 


6.80 




850,000 


, ... 0.13 


7.10 




900,000 


0.14 


7.40 




950,000 •. . 


... 15 


7.70 




1,000,000 


... 0.16 


8.00 


Duplex : 








No. 


14 

12 

10 

8 


. . . $0.03 
... 0.04 
... 0.045 
. . . 0.05 


$1.55 
1.80 
1.95 
2.10 




6 


... 0.06 


2.30 




5 

4 

3 

2 

1 


... 0.07 
... 0.08 
. . . 0.09 
... 0.09 
... 0.095 


2.55 

2.80 
3.00 
3.30 
3.60 






00 

000 

0000 

250,000 


... 0.10 
. . . 0.105 
... 0.11 
... 0.115 
. . . 0.12 


3.90 
4.20 
4.65 
5.00 
5.40 




300,000 


... 125 


5 80 




350,000 


. . . 0.13 


6 20 




400 000 


... 135 


6 60 




450,000 


. . . 0.14 


7 10 




500 000 


... 15 


8 00 


Triplex : 








No. 


14 

12 

10 

8 


... $0.04 
... 0.045 
... 0.05 
. . . 0.055 


$2.20 
2.40 
2.60 
2.80 




6 


065 


3 10 




5 

4 

3 

2 

1 


. . . 0.075 
... 0.09 
. . . 0.10 
... 0.11 
. . . 0.12 


3.40 
3.70 
4.00 
4.40 
4.80 






00 

000 

0000 


... 0.13 
. . .. 0.14 
... 0.15 
. . . 0.16 


5.20 
5.60 
6.10 
6.60 



The figures given for pulling cable do not include rodding or fish- 
ing of ducts, which varies from $0,005 to $0.03 per duct foot. 



1020 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Installing Street Lighting Cables in Boston. Electrical 
World, May 20, 1916, has the following: The Edison Electric 
Illuminating Company of Boston, Mass., has installed 2,644,518 ft. 
of No. 6, lead-covered underground cable in a recent five-year 
period at a total cost of $0.2524 per foot. The cable was insulated 
with %2-in. 30 per cent. Para rubber compound, covered with a 
%2-in. lead sheath without tin, and guaranteed at a working pres- 
sure of 10,000 volts. 

The cost of installation was made up as follows : 

Cost per ft. 
Average cost of cable — 2.442,628 ft. 'purchased. $0.1817 

Installation cost, drawing in (by contract) .... 0.0110 

Miscellaneous construction costs : Total cost 

11.526 bonding connections at $0.63 $7,261 

12,794 cable splices at $2.60 33,264 

102,044 cable protectors at * $0.49 50,001 

350 Rtandpipe collars at $1.61 563 

250 cable .splices at potheads, at $2.60.. 650 

$91,749 0;0347 

Freight, teaming, stockroom expense, inspection 
at factory and after installation, testing, 
duct protectors, racking (with extra hang- 
ers), waste cable, installation under frost 
conditions 0.0250 

Total cost per foot $0.2524 

Telephone Cable. Data, April, 1911, gives the following for 
average Chicago conditions during the 10 years previous. 



TABLE XLTI. ESTIMATED COST PER FOOT OF UNDER- 
GROUND TELEPHONE CABLE IN PLACE 

100 Pr. 150 Pr. 200 Pr. 300 Pr. 400 Pr. 600 Pr. 
19 Ga. 16 Ga. 19 Ga. 19 Ga. 22 Ga. 22 Ga. 
Cost of cable only. $0.4926 $0.9685 $0.7478 $1.0389 $0.7524 $1.1190 
Miscellaneous mate- 
rial 0046 .0118 .0115 .0138 .0142 .0156 

Rodding 0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 .0086 

Pull in 0130 .0150 .0150 .0150 .0150 .0150 

Splicing labor 0131 .0144 .0184 .0211 .0214 .0229 

Total $0.5319 $1.0183 $0.8013 $1.0974 $0.8116 $1.1811 

Market price of copper 18 cents. Average distance between 
vaults, 300 feet. 

No allowance made for freight, cartage, supervision or other 
overhead charges. 

Cost of Underground Telephone Cable, installed. The following 
diagram Pig. 27. reproduced from Data, May, 1911, is based on a 
copper price of 18 cts. 

Cost of Jointing Underground Electric Cables. H. Almert is au- 
thority for the following data collected by a large central station 
in the Middle West, 



UNDERGROUND ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION 1021 



Size Material 

No. 6 — 1/c Straight $0.70 

No. 5 — 1 /c Y 1.20 

No. 2 — 1/c Straight 90 

No. 2 — lie Y 1.30 

1/0 — 1 c Straight 1.15 

1/0 — 1/c Y 1.50 

1/0 — 4 /c Straight 4.15 

2/0 — 3/c (20,000 V.) 5.30 

4/0 — 3/c Straight 4.05 

250 — 3/c Straight 4.25 

4/0 or 250 — 3/c Y 14.20 



Labor 


Total 


$0.90 


$1.60 


1.35 


2.55 


1.05 


1.95 


1.50 


2.80 


1.35 


2.50 


1.80 


3.30 


2.75 


6.90 


5.30 


10.60 


2.75 


6.80 


2.75 • 


7.00 


8.00 


22.20 




WkfUrl+fifl] 

30 to 00 120 150 i&O ZlO 2*0 2?D XA 1:3 360 330 420 450 -WO 510 S40 570 
NO. OF PAIRS. 

Fig. 27. Cost of underground telephone cable, installed. 

Pulling Underground Cables in St. Louis. The following article 
was taken from Electrical World, August 22, 1914. 

Supplying St. Louis with energy from the hydro-electric generat- 
ing station at Keokuk necessitated tying the existing feeders of the 
Union Electric Light & Power Company to the 60,000-kw. sub- 
station which distributes the energy at St. Louis. The point at 
which the two systems are tied together is on the opposite side of 
the city from the main distributing substations, and the most 
modern methods were used to pull the underground cable through 
the conduits between these points. 

The Union Electric Light & Power Company arranged the motors 
on its electric trucks so that they could be utilized in pulling the 
cables through the conduits. The adaptation of truck motors to 
this work, while not entirely new, is interesting in this case because 
of the ease with which the drive can be transposed from the truck 
wheels to the cable-pulling drum. The drum is supported above 
the motor on two rocker arms the common axis of which is 
not concentric with the axis of the drum. The drum is connected 
to the motor by a chain drive.' When it is desired to convert the 
truck into a cable-pulling machine pins in the driving chains con- 
necting the motor with the truck wheels are taken out and the 
chains taken off. The chain which is used to drive the cable drum 



1022 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

hangs on the drum sprocket, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 28, 
when the car is in motion, and by turning the ecceptric which sup- 
ports the drum the chain is made to engage with the motor 
pinion. Bloclis are placed under the rear wheels of the truck to 
assist the brakes in preventing motion of the truck when the cable 
is being pulled. 

After the drag line is threaded through the conduits in which 
the cable is to be placed, the men prepare the cable for pulling. 
This operation consists of slipping a special lubricating funnel over 



Mii ofCaUe-puiling Drum 





PMg. 28. Diagram of truck arrangement. 



the end of the cable and fastening the drawing-in wire grip to the 
cable end. As the cable is being pulled through the conduits, oil 
is poured into the funnel. This lubrication serves to reduce the 
tension on the drawing-in wire and reduces the chances of the cable 
being bruised while it is being pulled through the conduit. The 
cables are all treated with a special flre-proofing material after 
they are installed and are tested for grounds to cable sheath for 
crosses and for continuity. From 4000 ft. to 7000 ft. of cable a 
day can be pulled in by this method, depending on the frequency 
of the manholes. This amount of cable represents a maximum of 
about fifteen reels a day. It is asserted that none of the cable 
which has been put in has been found faulty on account of the 
method of installing. 



CHAPTER XIII 
LIGHTING AND WIRING 

Illumination in the past has been looked upon largely as an 
accessory. Modern illuminating engineering, according to C. E. 
Clewell on Industrial Illumination, June, 1912, is concerned with 
the adaptation of the available types of lamps to certain supply 
circuits, to various classes of service, and to given conditions of 
building construction. 

A few years ago the older type of arc lamp and the carbon 
filament lamp, typifying a large and a small unit, covered the 
range of types of lamps available for illumination work in the 



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Fig. 1. Average candle-power ranges of old and new lamps. 



industries. This limitation in candle-power has gone through an 
evolution by the introduction in more recent years of the enclosed 
arc, the open flame-carbon arc, the metallic flame arc and the 
long burning flame carbon arc lamp, as improvements on the 
original arc lamp ; and the metallized filament, the tantalum and 
the tungsten lamps, as improvements on the original filament lamp. 
The Moore tube, the Nernst and the mercury vapor lamp are also 
available as new types. 

The candle-power values of these various lamps are shown in 
Fig. 1 where, in an approximate manner, the average mean spherical 

1023 



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WORKING'PERIODS IN MINUTES ^ 




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WORKING PERIODS IN MINUTES 


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Fig. 2. Curves showing relation of average wages to lighting costs. 



1024 



LIGHTmC AND WIRING 



1025 



c.p. values of all types, both old and new are indicated. Fig. 2 
shows the over-all dimensions of the various lamps from which 
it is apparent that the dimensions for given c.p. values have been 
modified by changes in design. 

Re-directing the light where most useful should be included in 
development of high efficiency lamps as additional to the matter 
of total light flux per watt. The growing tendency to rate electric 
lamps according to the effective illumination produced on the 
work rather than in terms of the watts per mean spherical c.p. 
is evidence that this item will probably be included in the con- 
siderations of lamp efficiency more in the future than in the past. 

Quantity of light is not the sole criterion of excellence ; uni- 
formity over the work, diffusion, adequate intensities on the sides 
of the work, absence of glare, color values and similar items are 
given an importance almost if not quite equal to vertically down- 
ward intensities. 



? 


",r, 


i„ 


! 
1 


it 


ii 




Fig. 



3. Chart showing relative average overall dimensions of 
various lamps. 



One Candle Power. The recognized unit of lighting measure- 
ment is a candle-power per hour. This is an arbitrary unit, orig- 
inally the light emitted by a spermaceti candle burning 120 grains 
per hour, known as the British standard candle, but later modi- 
fied to the " International Candle," which emits slightly less light 
than the British candle. 

Factory Illumination Costs. Factory work generally speaking 
may be grouped into, (1) work on a horizontal plane, as bench 
work of some kinds which, in the main, requires only downward 
illumination; and (2) other work such as that included under ma- 
chine tool operations, foundry moulds, rolling mills, assembly, and 
the like, where, in addition to vertically downward light, side com- 
ponents effective on vertical pl-anes, as well as shadow elimination, 
play an important part in the excellence of results. 

The height of ceiling, roof or trusses limits in a very large meas- 
ure the size and type of lamp to be employed. Experiment and 
usage demonstrate the disadvantage of using very large lamps 



1026 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

for low ceilings, while lack of economy prohibits the use of small 
lamps for high areas. In former years arc lamps were used for 
low factory bays, while in some extremes no appreciable general 
illumination was possible, due to the absence of sufficient clearance 
between cranes and ceiling for an arc lamp. In like manner very 
high bays have been inadequately lighted, due to the lack of 
lamps possessing sufficient c.p. and suitable distribution char- 
acteristics. To-day, however, lamps of enormously greater c.p. 
and more suitable distribution are available for the higher area, 
while lamps with corresponding advantages are available for low 
areas. 

Open spaces simplify the problem by permitting the use of lamps 
spaced comparatively far apart, while the interference of belting 



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7 





ELAPSED TIME IN DAYS 

Fig 4. Summary of curves of deterioration costs from Figs. 10, 
11. 12, 13 and 14. 



calls for a type and arrangement of lamps which will provide 
diffusion so as to reduce the shadows ordinarily produced by belts. 
In an atmosphere filled with dust and dirt a penetrating light 
should be employed, and in spaces of the latter class the main- 
tenance is apt to be greatly increased with the rapid accumulation 
of dirt on the lamps and reflectors. 

The arrangement of lamps should not be influenced primarily 
by the ceiling construction. Plans made up without regard to the 
ease of installation may sometimes be modified so as to yield 
equally satisfactory results, however, with a considerable reduc- 
tion in first cost for installing, by taking into account certain 
features of the beams or girders. 

The Spacing Distance of lamps is a first consideration. Ex- 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1027 

periments have shown, for example, that in certain office locations 
with moderate ceiling heights, a spacing distance not exceeding 
7 ft. 6 ins. is most advantageous. This results in a uniform illum- 
ination on the desks if the proper reflectors are used, and the 
light from a sufficient number of sources thus secured insures a 
diffusion of the resulting illumination. The direcrtional features 
of the light are furthermore far superior to those cases where 
larger spacing distances are employed. 

The spacing also governs the size of lamp to be used. As an 
illustration, whether one 250-watt or four 60-watt tungsten lamps 
are to be installed for a given area will be determined largely by 
the desired directional features of the light. 

The Mounting Height should be determined on a basis of the 
avoidance of glare and of the ease in getting at the lamps for 
maintenance. The lamps should be mounted high enough to be 
out of the line of vision, and where the ceilings are too low to 
admit this, lamps of small size should be selected to reduce the 
quantity of light flux which enters the eye or is effective thereon 
when looking into any lamp. 

Current Requirements for Lighting. A. L. Cook in Power, May 
4, 1915, states that the usual votages employed for lighting are 
about 120 or 240 with a two-wire system and 120 for each side 
with a three-wire system. Either direct or alternating current 
may be used. Occasionally, three-phase or two-phase alternating 
current is employed for lighting, because of peculiarities in the 
conditions of supply. For alternating-current lighting 60 cycles 
is generally used, since 25 cycles is not as satisfactory owing to a 
flickering of the lights in some cases. It has been found, how- 
ever, that tungsten lamps having a rating of 60 watts or more 
can be employed satisfactorily on 25 cycles. With ordinary in- 
closed arc lamps, 25 cycles is not satisfactory, although flame- 
carbon arc lamps can be used on this frequency. For direct- 
current motors, the standard voltages are 115, 230 or 550, and for 
alternating-current motors, 110, 220, 440 and 550 volts are com- 
monly employed, although in some cases, for very large motors, 
2,200 volts is used. The frequency may be either 60 or 25 cycles, 
and occasionally 40. 

The voltages given for lighting and power service are the values 
at the lamps or motors. The standard generator voltages for 
direct current are 125, 250 and 600, and for alternating 
current, 120, 240, 480 and 600, which allows a reasonable drop 
between the generator and the load. In some cases a multivolt- 
age system is used for motors, in order to give a ready means 
of varying the speed. This is not generally necessary, however, 
since modern direct-current motors permit wide speed variation 
by a change in the field strength. 

The choice of a particular .sy.stem for lighting or power service is 
affected by a number of factors, such as the character of the 
existing system or the central-station source of supply, and the 
relative sizes of the power and lighting loads. When an extension 
is to be made to an existing installation, the same system must 



1028 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

be used for the extension, unless the addition is so large or the 
requirements differ so widely that a change in the system or the 
addition of a different kind of supply can be seriously considered. 
For a new plant more freedom of choice exists, and the relative 
merits of the various systems will therefore be considered. 

Direct vs. Alternating Current. For lighting, either alternating 
or direct current would, in general, be satisfactory, and the ad- 
vantage of easy change of voltage in the case of the former makes 
it preferable in supplying buildings covering large areas. How- 
ever, the lighting load is usually small, 'compared with the power 
load ; hence the choice is fixed by the power requirements. The 
important advantages and disadvantages of alternating and direct 
current for power supply may be summarized as follows: 

DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT 

It is not generally feasible The voltage can be easily 

to use more than 2 40 volts for transformed. using voltages 
lighting. Therefore this limits • suitable for lights and motors, 
the voltage of the system if 
supplied from the same gen- 
erator as the motors. 

2. Maintenance is higher, ow- 2. There is no commutator ; 
ing to commutators. hence the motor is more rug- 
ged. Tt will stand larger mo- 
mentary overloads, there is no 
danger of fire from sparks at 
the commutator and it is more 
reliable. 

3. Wide speed variation of 3. Speed variation is difficult 
motor by simple means, with and the motor is less efficient 
high efficiency. at reduced speeds. 

4. Motors have better start- 4. Operation is not satisfac- 
ing characteristics for cranes tory on high-speed elevators 
and elevators. and large cranes. Starting cur- 
rent is greater. 

5. Starting current is lower 5. Starting current for or- 
for usual types of constant- dinary type is large. Special 
speed motors. arrangements are necessary to 

reduce it. 

6. A .somewhat larger gener- 
ator is required for a given mo- 
tor load. 

The relative sizes of the power and lighting loads will have an 
important bearing upon the selection of the system. In some cases 
of light manufacturing, particularly if all the work is in one 
building, where the feeders would be short, direct current might 
well be used, employing 120 volts two-wire for small .systems, and 
240 volts three-wire, or possibly two-wire, for larger systems. 
If a two-wire system be used, the feeders would be about one- 
fourth as large for the 240 volts as for 120 volts: but. on the 
other hand, the lighting would have to be supplied at 240, which 
would entail somewhat greater cost for lamps and maintenance. 
It is better to operate the motors at 240 volts and supply the 
lights on a 120-240-volt three-wire fjj'stem. By this means, the 
saving in size of feeders is nearly as great as if the entire load 
were supplied at 240 volts and the advantage of the lower-voltage 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1029 

lamps is secured. The additional power-house equipment is of 
small cost. 

For most industrial uses, the alternating-current motor is satis- 
factory, and in some cases almost necessary, either .because of 
the great distances from the power house or the severe operating 
conditions due to dust, moisture, etc. Its principal disadvantage 
is the difficulty in adjusting the speed. With a direct-current 
system it is possible to obtain motors which will allow a speed 
change of three to one. When the speed is adju.sted to a given 
value between these limits, it will reinain practically constant 
regardless of the load. Such motors are extensively used for 
driving lathes and similar machine tools. It is possible to pro- 
vide means by which the speed of an alternating-current motor 
can be adjusted to as wide a range as the direct-current motor, 
but usually at a sacrifice in efficiency ; whereas, the direct-current 
motor has nearly the same efficiency at all speeds. Moreover, the 
variable-speed alternating-current motor, having been adjusted to 
a particular speed, will not maintain this as the load changes ; 
instead, the speed will increase as the load decreases. This wide 
speed variation is objectionable where constant speed with varying 
load is necessary, as in machine-tool driving ; but for some pur- 
poses, such as ventilating fans, centrifugal pumps, paper machines, 
and the like, where the load does not vary suddenly, the use 
of an alternating-current adjustable-speed motor is satisfactory. 
Alternating-current motors are not as satisfactory for cranes and 
elevators, owing principally to the difficulty of control, particularly 
when making stops. For this reason direct-current motors are to 
be preferred for high-speed elevators and large cranes. There- 
fore, in an office building where the elevator load is usually greater 
than the other motor load and the length of the feeders is not 
great, the direct-current system is preferable. For large buildings 
the three-wire, 2 40-volt system should be used, the motors operating 
at 240 volts and the lights at 120. Only in small buildings should 
the 120-volt 2-wire system be used. 

If the building is not supplied from a power plant on the prem- 
ises, but obtains its supply from a central station, the type of 
service will depend upon the system of the supply company. If 
only alternating current is available it will be best to use alter- 
nating-current elevators unless the speed is high (above 300 ft. 
per min.) rather than provide the necessary transforming ap- 
paratus. For industrial establishments in general, the alternating 
current is to be preferred unless the cranes and variable-speed 
tools form a large proportion of the total load. If it is absolutely 
necessary to use direct current for some of the motors, it is better 
to provide alternating-current service for general uses, with a 
direct-current supply for cranes and special work. 

When installing any wiring it is desirable to conform in all re- 
spects to the local rules governing such installations. The rules 
of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, called the " National 
Electric Code," form the basis of most of the regulations which 
have been issued by various cities and other parties interested, 



1030 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and must be followed in order to obtain fire insurance on prop- 
erty. These rules may be obtained gratis from the National Board 
of Fire Underwriters by applying to its New York, Boston or Chi- 
cago offices. The Inspection Department of the Associated Fac- 
tory Mutua'l Fire Insurance Companies, with an office in Boston, 
has issued the " National Electric Code " with explanatory notes, 
thus giving in many cases more specific directions for the proper 
installation of electrical apparatus than isi contained in the " Code." 
In many cases there are rules issued by the city inspection de- 
partments, which are substantially the same as the " National 
Electric Code," but care should be taken to see that the work not 
only meets the code requirements but also conforms to the local 
rules. In the following discussion the rules of the '^National 
Electric Code " are followed. 

Choice and Distrihution of Lamps. The subject of the proper 
illumination of industrial establishments has in the past few years 
been given considerable attention on the part of factory super- 
intendents and managers, who have begun to realize that it pays 
to provide sufficient illumination. Investigations have shown that 
an efficient lighting system increases the output from 2 to 10%, 
and it has also been found that the number of accidents is ma- 
terially reduced when adequate lighting is provided. 

For interior illumination of buildings, there are available the 
following types of lamps : 

Lamp Service 

1. Carbon-filament a.c. or d.c. 

2. Gem- or metalized-filament a.c. or d.c. 

3. Tantalum a.c. or d.c. 

4. Tungsten, including "nitrogen" filled lamps a.c. or d.c. 

5. Inclosed-carbon arc a.c. or d.c. 

6. Metallic-flame or magnetite arc d.c. 

7. Flame-carbon arc a.c. or d.c. 

8. Nernst a.c. or d.c. 

9. Cooper-Hewitt mercury arc a.c. or d.c. 

While all of the foregoing types have been used for interior 
illumination, the practice has now become so standardized as to 
make the tungsten lamp by far the most common for ordinary 
heights of ceilings. The metallic-flame arc and flame-carbon arc 
are used for lighting large floor areas with high ceilings, particu- 
larly where there is more or less smoke and gas. The so-called 
nitrogen-filled lamp, which is a special form of tungsten lamp 
with the bulb filled with nitrogen or a similar gas, is very useful 
where large lighting units can be employed, and the tendency is 
to use this in place of the metallic-flame or flame-carbon arc, owing 
to the reduced cost of maintenance. The mercury arc has also 
been used extensively, principally because of its small power con- 
sumption, but it produces such an objectionable color that it is 
unsuitable for many uses and can better be replaced by the nitro- 
gen-filled lamp. This gives a light even whiter than the ordinary 
tungsten lamp with a power consumption not much greater than 
that of the mercury arc. Present practice, therefore, for rooms 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1031 

of ordinary height, has narrowed down to the use of tungsten 
lamps with glass or steel reflectors, mounted near the ceiling and 
arranged to give sufficient illumination to the entire room. In 
general, drop cords with individual lights have been eliminated as 
far as possible and are used only for special work which cannot be 
lighted from the overhead lamps. Where it is necessary to use 
individual lights, a 16-c.p. carbon-filament or a 40-watt gem lamp 
is used. The latter is preferable as it gives the same candlepower 
as the carbon and requires about 20% less power. The following 
gives data on the various sizes of tungsten lamps : 

DATA ON TUNGSTEN LAMPS * 



Size 




Watts per 




Approximate current, 


rated 


Candle- 


candle- 


Life, 


amperes 


watts 


power 


power 


hours 


120 volts 


240 volts 


25 


24 


1.05 


1000 


0.21 


0.11 


40 


39 


1.03 


1000 


0.33 


0.17 


60 


60 


1.00 


1000 


0.50 


0.25 


100 


105 


0.95 


1000 


0.83 


0.42 


150 


167 


0.90 


1000 


1.25 


0.62 


250 


278 


0.90 


1000 


2.08 


1.04 


400 


445 


0.90 


1000 


3.33 


1.67 


500 


555 


0.90 


1000 


4.16 


2.08 


t200 


222 


0.90 


1000 


1.67 




fSOO 


353 


0.85 


1000 


2.50 


• . • 


t400 


534 


0.75 


1000 


3.33 


! ! ! 


t500 


714 


0.70 


1000 


4.16 


'. '. . 


t750 


1150 


0.65 


1000 


6.25 


'. '. '. 


tiooo 


1665 


0.60 


1000 


8.33 





♦From figures supplied by the National Lamp Works of the Gen- 
eral Electric Co. The above applies to 120-volt lamps; for 240- 
volt lamps the watts per c.p. are about \()% higher. 

fNitrogen-filled lamps of 120 volts only. 

Power Required for Illumination with Tungsten Lamps. The 

power required to light a given floor area as given by A. L. Cook 
in Power, May 4, 1915, varies with the amount of light necessary, 
which in turn will vary with the character of the work carried 
on. Table I gives the number of watts required per sq. ft. of 
floor area for different cla,sses of work, with various arrangements 
of tungsten lamps. These values are based on good practice and 
will give first-class illumination under average conditions. The 
principal item which would affect these values is the color of the 
ceilings and walls. For offices, stores, corridors and drafting 
rooms it is assumed that both the ceilings and the walls are fairly 
light in color, while for factories, warehouses and power houses 
they would be darker and less light would be reflected. The 
figures given for general office illumination are sufficient for usyal 
office work, while those for special illumination should be used 
where bookkeeping or work of a similar nature is carried on. The 
amount of power allowed for a drafting room is sufficient to pro- 
vide suitable illumination without the use of individual lamps. 
For rooms where rough manufacturing is carried on and where 
close application to the work is not required, the figures for gen- 
eral factory illumination should be sufficient ; for fine machine 



1032 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

work, toolmaking and bench work, those for special factory illum- 
ination should be used. The lamps should be provided with suit- 
able reflectors, in order to direct as much of the light as possible 
on the work. There is a great variety of these reflectors, but they 
can all be grouped in a few general classes, each of which is best 
adapted for particular conditions. There are on the market several 
types of glass reflectors which direct most of the light in a down- 
ward direction, but allow a certain amount, to pass through to the 




ceiling. The best example of this type is the prismatic " Holo- 
phane." In order to have a good distribution of light, it is neces- 
sary to employ the proper style of reflector ; hence a different size 
is manufactured for each size of tungsten lamp. It is necessary 
also to use the right type of shade holder in order that the lamp 
may be correctly located in the reflector. 

Since modern systems of illumination are usually laid out to 
give practically uniform lighting over the entire floor area, it is 
necessary to use different types of reflectors for different heights 
of ceilings and spacings between lamps. The Holophane prismatic 
glass reflectors are made in three styles : " Extensive," for low 
ceilings ; " intensive," for medium ceilings ; and " focusing," for 
high ceilings. Glass reflectors are best adapted for oflflces, stores, 
drafting rooms and similar places, where it is desirable to light 
the walls and ceilings, as well as the work. They have also been 
used quite extensively for factory lighting, but are not suitable for 
use where there is danger of breakage. 

Steel reflectors are made in a number of styles, with white porce- 
lain-enamel surfaces, white painted surfaces, or aluminum painted 
surfaces. In general, the porcelain-enameled reflector is better 
than the others, owing to a great reflecting power, and the ease 
with which it can be kept clean. There are two general types 
of steel reflectors — the bowl, shown in Fig. 5-a, and the dome, 
in Fig. 5-&. These reflectors are made in various sizes to suit 
particular tungsten lamps, and in various shapes for different 
heights of ceiling. The dome type (&) should be used generally; 
the bowl type (a), which incloses the lamp more than the dome, 
being used only when the lamps are mounted so low that they 
would be in the line of sight of the workmen. When steel re- 
flectors are used, the ceilings are not illuminated, except by a 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1033 

small amount due to reflection from the benches or tables ; but for 
many industrial applications this is not objectionable. In offices 
the steel reflectors do not give a pleasing effect. Values for 
either glass or steel reflectors are given in column A of Table I, 
since they are both classed as direct illuminants. For the same 
character of walls and ceilings there would be only a slight dif- 
ference in the amount of illumination produced by the two types. 



TABLE I. POWER REQUIRED FOR ILLUMINATION. 
TUNGSTEN LAMPS* 

Watts per square foot 
Direct Indirect 
CJass of work A B 

Office — general 1.00 1.60 

Office — special 1.25 2.00 

Drafting room 2.00 3.20 

Corridors and halls 0.50 0.80 

Factories — general 0.80 

Factories — special 1.50 

Warehouses 0.50 

Stores 1.25 2.00 

Power house 0.80 

Storage 0.30 

*If nitrogen-filled lamps are used, multiply the watts per square 
foot as given above by 0.75. 

Height and Approximate Spacing of Lighting Units. Sizes of 
lighting units for various mounting heights are as follows : 

Height of Unit above Floor Size of Unit, Watts 

Up to 9 ft 40 or 60 

9 to 11 ft 60 or 100 

11 to 16 ft 100 or 150 

16 to 20 ft 150 or 250 

20 ft. and above 250, 400, 500 and nitrogen-filled 

lamps or flame arcs 

Table II gives the approximate spacing distances for lighting 
units. 

Comparison of the Cost of Lighting by Various Systems. R. 

Trautschold in the Scientific American Supplement, March 27, 
1915, states that 5 gals, of kerosene oil is capable of giving out 
4,500 c.p. if all waste is eliminated. With care the waste for 
5 gals, of oil burned should not exceed 5 qts. 

The cost of lighting a small cottage or flat for a year forms a 
very understandable comparison. Taking the average year in and 
year out, such an establishment — if the hall light is turned down 
low, the kitchen light extinguished when the last dish of the day 
has been washed and put away and all the other little economies 
that are insisted upon by the careful housekeeper — would burn 
an equivalent of about 100 c.i). 3 hrs. each day, or 110,000 c.p. 
during the year, illumination that would not be very excessive 
for one fairly large room. 

In the days of the kerosene lamp, the 5-gal. oil can would have 



1034 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE II. . 


A.PPJ 


Elo: 


Kl. 


MATE i 


gPACING 


} DISTA 


NCE 


S FOR 










LIGHTING UNITS 












Watts 












Watts 








Size of 


per 










Size of 


per 








units, 


sq. ft. 


Spacing 


units. 


sq. ft, 




Spacing 


watts 


direct * 


distance 


watts 


direct * 


distance 


40 


0.3 


11 


ft. 


6 


in. 


150 


, 1.5 


10 


ft. 


8 in. 


40 


0.5 


9 


ft. 






150 


2.0 


8 


ft. 


8 in. 


40 


0.8 


7 


ft. 






250 


0.3 


29 


ft. 




60 


0.3 


14 


ft. 


2 


in. 


250 


0.5 


22 


ft. 


5 in. 


60 


0.5 


11 


ft. 






250 


0.8 


17 


ft. 


8 in. 


60 


0.8 


8 


ft. 


8 


in. 


250 


1.0 


15 


ft. 


10 in. 


60 


1.0 


7 


ft. 


9 


in. 


250 


1.25 


14 


ft. 


1 in. 


60 


1.25 


7 


ft. 






250 


1.5 


12 


ft. 


11 in. 


60 


1.5 


6 


ft. 


4 


in. 


250 


2.0 


11 


ft. 


2 in. 


100 


0.5 


14 


ft. 






400 


0.8 


22 


ft. 


5 in. 


100 


0.8 


11 


ft. 


2 


in. 


400 


1.0 


20 


ft. 




100 


1.0 


10 


ft. 






400 


1.25 


17 


ft. 


11 in. 


100 


1.25 


9 


ft. 






400 


1.50 


16 


ft. 


4 in. 


100 


1.5 


8 


ft. 


2 


in. 


' 400 


2.0 


14 


ft. 


1 in. 


100 


2.0 


7 


ft. 






500 


0.8 


25 


ft. 




150 


0.5 


17 


ft. 


4 


in. 


500 


1.0 


22 


ft. 


5 in. 


150 


0.8 


13 


ft. 


8 


in. 


500 


1.25 


20 


ft. 




150 


1.0 


12 


ft. 


3 


in. 


500 


1.50 


18 


ft. 


3 in. 


150 


1.25 


11 


ft. 






500 


2.0 


15 


ft. 


10 in. 



* The figures given apply to ordinary tungst lamps. In general 
the spacing of lamps should be about 50% greater than their 
height above the work illuminated. 



to be replenished every 2 weeks or so, in such an establishment, 
for about 125 gals, of kerosene would be consumed during the 
year. 

Ever since " city gas " first came into general use for lighting, 
the type of burner most commonly employed has been the or- 
dinary open tip ("fish tail") burner, emitting a fan-like flame. 
Such a burner has a lighting capacity of about 20 c.p., and to 
obtain 110,000 c.p. about 27,000 cu. ft. of gas would have to be 
burned, or at least paid for, as there is bound to be a certain 
unavoidable leakage. This quantity would demand the use of un- 
shaded lights only, for shades would, as in the case of oil lamps, 
lead to extra expense. 

The upright Welsbach burner is very much more economical in 
the consumption of gas than the open tip burner for the same 
illumination, consuming only about one-third as much gas. The 
inverted Welsbach mantle is even more economical, due to the 
more efficient mixing of gas and air before it is ignited. This 
type of burner consumes but about one-fifth as much gas as does 
the open tip burner. For domestic purposes the incandescent 
electric bulb is almost universally used, and, until recent years, 
this meant the common carbon filament lamp — the Edison lamp. 
These lamps are made in various sizes, capable of emitting a 
definite amount of light — the usual rated candle-power being 16 
and multiples of 16. The average consumption of electrical en- 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1035 



ergy by such lamps, with clear glass bulbs, is very close to four 
and one-third watts for each actual candle-power, so that for 
110,000 c.p. about 475 k.w. (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) would be 
required. As some shades or frosted bulbs would very probably 
be used in any private apartment or house, a more conservative 
figure would be 500 k.w. 

Cost of 110.000 canSTf-pourer- Obiiari. 



4 
J 

1 



Kerosene Oil Lamp 



■Cify Gc 



i'. Open Tip 



■Cit^G. 



(Fiah Tail) Burn 



a: \ Upnokt Welsbalch. Burnt 



"Ct/'yffQs", IiurerCed WeLkach Burner. 



Incandescent EleotncLiiht, Carbon Filament 



'Edi36n) Butb. 



iQanacscem Electric Light "Tuaostaa', 'Malda' tte. Bid6. 



Coit of 110,000 candle -pourtr-doUai^a. 

Costs based on: — ^Kerosene at 12 cts. per gallon; "City Gas" at 
$1.00 per thousand cubic feet; and electricity at 10 cts. per kilowatt. 

Fig. 6. Comparison of cost of lighting by various systems. 

Bulbs in which the carbon filament is replaced by fine wires 
of a metal that becomes incandescent more easily than the carbon 
filament, known under various trade names, such as " Tungsten " 
and " Mazda," consume but about IVz watts for each actual c.p., 
instead of nearly ^'z watts as do the carbon filament bulbs. 



1036 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Operation of Practical Lighting Systems.- Ward Har- 
rison (Electrical World, November 15, 1913) states that in de- 
termining the total operating cost of any system of lighting, three 
items must be considered : 

1. Fixed charges, which include interest on the investment, 
depreciation of permanent parts and other ^ expenses which are 
independent of the number of hours of use. Frequently this item 
forms the greater part of the total operating expense, yet it is 
only too often omitted from cost tables. 

2. Maintenance charges, which include renewal of parts, repairs, 
labor and all costs, except the cost of energy, which depends upon 
the hours of burning, 

3. The cost of energy, which depends upon the hours of burning 
and the rate per k.w.-hr. 

The life of a lighting system depends not only upon the wearing 
out of parts, but also upon obsolescence. There are no installa- 
tions in this country which have been in use for a period of seven 
or eight years which are not already obsolete. Although the lamps 
may be in good operating condition, economy demands that they 
be replaced by more efficient illuminants. There is every indica- 
tion that the next few years will see even greater progress in the 
development of lamps and the use of light. The rate of deprecia- 
tion on all permanent parts is equal to at least 12.5%. The in- 
vestment required in the tungsten system of lighting is relatively 
very low. 

A table which would show the total operating expense of tung- 
sten lamps for all sizes, with every discount from the list prices, 
for all possible periods of burning per year, and under all cost of 
energy, would be so large as to be entirely impracticable. From 
Table III, however, the operating expense of units under any set 
of conditions may be found with little calculation. 

The total investment includes the cost of lamps, reflectors, hold- 
ers and sockets. The investment in permanent parts is the total 
investment minus the price of lamps. No depreciation is charged 
against the lamps inasmuch as they are regularly renewed. The 
labor item under fixed charges provides for the cleaning of all 
units once each month. For the smaller units with steel reflectors 
the cost of cleaning is taken as $0.02 per unit for each cleaning. 
Data obtained from installations where accurate cost records are 
kept show that this figure is conservative for labor at $0.20 per hr. 
The cost of cleaning other reflectors is taken in prbportion to the 
amount of labor required. Some illuminants require attendance 
at regular intervals. The cleaning is done at the same time and 
is, therefore, included under the maintenance charge. For units 
which require no regular attendance the cleaning expense be- 
comes a separate charge. It will be noted that the fixed charges 
form only a small part of the total operating cost for a lighting 
system. 

The maintenance charge is given for a 1,000-hour period of 
burning. To find the annual charge in any case it is necessary to 
multiply by the ratio of the total hours of burning to 1,000 hours. 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1037 



TABLE III. 



TOTAL, ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS — 100-VOLT 
TO 130-VOLT TUNGSTEN UNITS 



1,000 hours' operation 

per year. 

Lamp.s bought on 

$150 contract 



Energy- 
cost, 
cents 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 
10 



Size of lamp, 
40 
$1.16 



1.56 
1.96 
2.36 
2.76 
3.16 
3.96 
4.76 



100 

$2.24 
3.24 
4.24 
5.24 
6.24 
7.24 
9.24 

11.24 



rated watts 



250 
$4.93 
7.43 
9.93 
12.43 
14.93 
17.43 
22.43 
27.43 



500 

$9.50 
14.50 
19.50 
24.50 
29.50 
34.50 
44.50 
54.50 



1,000 hours' operation 

per year. 

Lamps bought on 

$1,200 contract 



1.13 
1.53 
1.93 
2.33 
2.7J 
3.13 
3.93 
4.73 



2.16 
3.16 
4.16 
5.16 
6.16 
7.16 
9.16 
11.16 



4.73 
7.23 
9.73 
12.23 
14.73 
17.23 
22.23 
27.23 



9.10 
14.10 
19.10 
24.10 
29.10 
34.10 
44.10 
54.10 



4,000 hours' operation 
per year. 
Lamps bought on 
$150 contract 



1 

iy2 

2 
3 
4 



3.24 
4.04 
4.84 
6.44 
8.04 



7.23 

9.23 

11.23 

15.23 

19.23 



17.41 
22.41 

27.41 
37.41 
47.41 



34.46 
44.46 
54.46 
74.46 
94.46 



4,000 hours' operation 

per year. 

Lamps bought on 

$1,200 contract 



1 

1% 

2 

3 

4 



3.10 
3.90 
4.70 
6.30 
7.90 



6.91 

8.91 

10.91 

14.91 

18.91 



16.61 
21.61 
26.61 
36.61 
46.61 



32.86 
42.86 
52.86 
72.86 
92.86 



TABLE IV. 



ANALYSIS OF OPERATING COSTS — 100-VOLT TO 
130-VOLT TUNGSTEN UNITS 



Size of lamp, rated watts 
40 100 250 500 

Cost of lamp, list $0,350 $0,800 $2,000 $4,000 

Cost of lamp, standard-package 

discount 0.315 0.720 1.800 3.600 

Cost of reflector, standard-pack- 
age discount 1.155 1.566 1.653 2.617 

Cost of unit, standard-package 

discount 1.470 2.286 3.453 6.217 

Annual fixed charges : 

Interest on total investment, 

67c $0,088 $0,137 $0,207 

Depreciation on reflector, 12i/>% 0.144 0.196 0.207 

Labor, monthly cleaning 0.240 0.240 0.360 

Total $0,472 $0,573 $0,774 $1,180 

Maintenance cost per 1,000 hours : 
Lamp renewals at standard- 
package discount $0,315 $0,720 $1,800 $3,600 

Lamp renewals at $150-con- 

trac-t discount 0.291 0.664 1.660 3.320 

Lamp renewals at $l,200-con- 

tract discount 0.256 0.584 1.460 2.920 

Energy cost per 3,000 hours at 1 

cent per kw.-hr $0,400 $1,000 $2,500 $5,000 



$0,373 
0.327 
0.480 



1038 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Where lamps are sold at other than the prices given, the proper 
correction should be applied. The renewal of lamps is the only 
maintenance expense. ■ , 

The energy cost is given for a 1,000-hr. period with energy at 
$0.01 per k.w.-hr. 

An example will illustrate the use of Table IV. It is required to 
find the total operating expense per unit per year for lighting a 
mill with 250-watt tungsten-filament lamps. The lamps are burned 
a total of 4,000 hrs. and are purchased at the discount obtained 
on a $150 contract. The cost of energy is $0.20 per k.w.-hr. 

From the table we obtain the following: 

(1) Fixed charges $0.77 

(2) Maintenance. 4.000 X $1,800 7.20 

(3) Energy, 4.000 X 2 X $2.50 20.00 



Total $27.97 

In Table III are included annual operating costs which have been 
calculated for a number of cases frequently met in industrial plants. 

Cost of Street Lighting in Cliicago. Ray Palmer (Electrical 
World, Aug. 9, 1913) states that to light one mile of street, using 
23 flame-arc lamps, with underground wires, costs about $9,000, 
while if the wires are placed overhead the cost is only about $4,000. 
These figures include substation and feeder distribution costs. On 
some of the older residence streets, where the trees are well-grown 
and act as an obstruction to the light from arc lamps, a system of 
underground cables and tungsten lamps mounted in opalescent 
globes on the old gas posts has been installed. This type of con- 
struction costs about $8,000 per mile of street lighted, using 75 
of the tungsten lamps staggered on both sides of the street and 
about 150 ft. apart, measuring on one side of the street. 

Flame-arc lamps on underground circuits cost in 1912 $39.91 a 
year to maintain. To this should be added an interest charge on 
investment of $19.16 and a depreciation charge of $13.67, making 
the total yearly cost, according to Mr. Palmer's figures, $72.74 per 
lamp. While the lamps on overhead circuits cost as much to main- 
tain the interest and depreciation costs are lower, bringing the 
total yearly cost down to $54.57. 

The underground-cable tungsten-lamp street lighting is the most 
expensive form of public street lighting used in Chicago except 
gasoline lighting. The cost per unit is only $13.36 for cash main- 
tenance of this type of lamp, but the interest and depreciation bring 
the total amount to $24.27 per lamp per year. As there are 75 
lamps to a street mile, this means $1,820 a year to light one mile 
of street with series tungsten lamps as against $1,673 for flame-arc 
lamps on underground circuits and $1,255 for flames arcs on over- 
head circuits. The corresponding flgure for gasoline lighting is 
$2,343.75. 

Mr. Palmer made an interesting comparison between street- 
lighting conditions in Philadelphia and Chicago. Philadelphia has 
a population of 1,549,000 (1910), an area of 129 square miles with 



LIGHTING AND WIRING ' 1039 

1,752 miles of streets and alleys. Chicago has a population of 
2,185,000, an area of 194 square miles with 4,400 miles of streets 
and alleys. The annual cost of street lighting in Philadelphia is 
put at $2,472,000, or $1,412 per mile of streets and alleys. The 
corresponding figure for Chicago is $1,038,700, or $234 per mile of 
streets and alleys for public lighting. According to these figures, 
Chicago spends less than 20% (per year i^er mile of street and alley 
lighting) of the similar expenditure in Philadelphia. 

Attention has been given recently to the lighting of street cross- 
ings under the elevated-railroad tracks, or subway crossings, as 
they are called. There are about 625 of these subways in Chicago. 
The railroad companies will be forced to install and maintain 
lamps in 275 of these subways, the city being required to light 
the remaining 350. After an investigation a standard of one 
16-c.p. lamp for each 400 sq. ft. of inclosed subway area was 
decided upon as sufficient. 

Chicago was operating on Dec. 31, 1912, 13,830 arc lamps and 
862 series tungsten lamps. The city also rented 920 arc lamps 
and 63 tungsten lamps from the Commonwealth Edison Company. 
The average number of arc lamps owned and operated wholly by 
the city during the year was 12,735. The average cash cost of 
the operation and #iaintenance of these 12,735 lamps is given as 
$34.26 per lamp per year. This sum does not include interest, 
depreciation, lost taxes, rent of offices in the City Hall, rental of 
poles belonging to other companies, nor the cost of work done for 
the Department of Electricity by other branches of the city gov- 
ernment. Adding these to the " cash cost," the total cost per lamp 
per year is placed at $60.32. Of this $13.52 is credited to depre- 
ciation and $7.65 to interest. The contract price of rented arc 
lamps is $75 a year. 

Analyzing the $34.26 given as the cash cost for operation and 
maintenance, the largest item is $10.60 paid for electrical energy 
to the Sanitary District. The next largest item of cost is $9.39. 
for lamp trimming, while repairs to circuits, conduits and posts 
cost $6.59, and carbons $2.84. The total cost of maintaining the 
municipal electric street-lighting system of the city in 1912 was 
$432,335. 

Depreciation is figured at the following rates applied to original 
cost: Buildings, 1.08%; steam equipment, 4.1%; electrical equip- 
ment, 4.7%; repair-shop equipment, 10%; lamps, 6.66%; circuits, 
4%; conduits, 3%; posts, 3.5%. The general interest charge is 
figured at 4% on the value of the electric-light system less the 
amount payable to the Sanitary District. 

The number of gas lamps in use for street lighting on Dec. 
31, 1912, was 15.740 and the number of gasoline lamps 8,678. The 
total number of municipal street lamps of all kinds in service in 
Chicago on Dec. 31. 1912, was 40.259. 

Cost of Street Lighting in New York City. In his annual report 
for 1914 William Williams, commissioner of the Department of 
Water Supply, Gas and Electricity of the city of New York, shows 
the saving effected in the lighting of streets, parks and public 



1040 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

buildings by the substitution of incandescent for arc lamps. At 
the beginning of 1914 there were 2,643 miles of street and 19 
square miles of parks to be lighted. There were over 40,000 electric 
lamps and 45,000 gas lamps. In round numbers, the cost of light- 
ing the streets and parks of Greater New York was $3,382,000 in 
1913. The city has contracts for street and park lighting with 
the various companies. The term of the contract is limited by 
statute to one year. The rates for nitrogen-filled tungsten lamps 
in Manhattan during 1915 are $70 a year for the 300-watt lamps 
and $77 a year for the 400-watt lamps. The cost of arc lamps was 
reduced from $90 to $85. Rates equally favorable were obtained 
in the other boroughs. At the time of the report over 13,000 gas- 
filled incandescent lamps were burning on the streets of the city, 
including all its boroughs. 

Cost of Installing and Operation of Gas Filled Street Lights at 
Titusville, Pa. Electrical World, November 23, 1916, states that 
very favorable impressions have been received from the installation 
of series gas-filled lamps for street lighting service at Titusville, 
Pa. The old system consisted of Wood double-carbon open-arc 
lamps and some series incandescent and gas-filled lamps supplied 
with energy from a Brush arc machine. The present system, 
which includes the equipment given in Table III, was adopted 
after a study of the results obtained with series and multiple units. 
In this investigation 9.6-amp. nitrogen-filled units were connected 
in series with some of the old open-arc lamps. With this ar- 
rangement, the incandescent lamps were subjected to very un- 
favorable conditions due to the arc lamps sticking and producing 
current surges. Despite this severe test, some of the gas-filled 
lamps operated for eight months without attention or renewal. Al- 
though very satisfactory results were also obtained with multiple 
gas-filled units, the series system was adopted because it did not 
require radical changes in the existing distribution system and 
for other reasons. 

In the new system, which includes 150 400-cp. lamps and 28 
600-cp. units, the larger lamps are placed at points where the 
traflfilc is dense and the shade deep, 112 units being supported on 
mast arms and the remainder on center suspensions. Formerly, 
cables were used to support each lamp, but this has gradually been 
replaced by No. 3 Oneida chain, until now all are so equipped. 
Some of the chain has been in service 7 years without showing 
break or deterioration. 

The use of reels for raising lamps has also been discontinued. 
As a substitute, galvanized iron half cleats have been attached to 
each pole, with the points downward, so galvanized-iron rings linked 
to the lamp chains can be hooked thereto. The weight of the 
fixture is sufficient to secure the ring in place against any or- 
dinary effort to unhook it. To minimize the unauthorized handling 
of the hoisting equipment, the cleats are placed as high on the 
pole as can be conveniently reached, and a window cord with a 
snap hook is used to lower the fixture. With this arrangement 
only about one-half of the amount of chain formerly used is re- 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1041 

quired, resulting in a much safer support and a neater appearance. 
Since the new fixtures are somewhat lighter than the old ones, 
and do not have to be lowered usually more than five or six times 
annually, the strain on the supporting equipment is considerably 
decreased. To make the entire overhead equipment more substantial 
and sightly, . and at the same time facilitate raising and lowering 
of the lamps, the old wooden and pipe mast-arm sets have been 
replaced by " Pierce " galvanized-iron arms 8 ft. in length. 

All lamps burnt out are replaced at once if reported prior to 
9 p. M. The reporting of lamp outrages has been greatly facilitated 
by instructing policemen and firemen and all city employees to 
give the exact location of burned-out lamps as soon as discovered. 
Citizens are requested to do the same. Data regarding the lamps 
are kept in card index files. From a study of past records kept on 
these cards, made after the system had been in operation 252 
nights or 2,520 burning hours, it was found that 21% of the 
lamps originally installed were still in service, and showed no 
marked depreciation in efficiency, despite their having been guar- 
anteed for only 1,350 burning hours. The majority of these lamps 
were 600-c.p. units, indicating that the larger units have the long- 
est life. Ninety-one lamps exceeded the guaranteed life by a tq^al 
of 64,890 hrs., or an average of 713 hrs. each. Eighty-seven lamps 
fell short of the guaranteed life by a total of 20,680 hrs., an average 
of 237 hrs. each. This analysis covers all short-hour lamps, de- 
fective or otherwise. 

Since the new fixtures are somewhat shorter than the old arc- 
lamp fixtures, they hang closer to the pulley, thereby raising the 
source of light somewhat. The average elevation is 25 ft., although 
this figure has been exceeded or decreased at a few points. At 
this height the refractor shades project the light practically to the 
center of the blocks, which are slightly more than 400 ft. long. In 
the alleys the lamps are hung midway between the blocks. Owing 
to the double loop suspension afforded by the use of the absolute 
cutouts in connection with the fixtures, they always hang plumb. 
In addition to installing the regular street lamps an attempt was 
made to encourage the use of ornamental post fixtures in the busi- 
ness district by installing three single-lamp posts with diffusion 
globes in front of the city hall and one in front of the public 
library. The use of natural gas for illuminating the waterworks 
plant has been discontinued and electric service substituted. An- 
other improvement made about the same time was the provision 
of a chemical rectifier for charging storage batteries on the fire 
alarm system. This apparatus, which has been in operation sev- 
eral months, eliminates the necessity of a motor-generator set, re- 
quires very little attention and has been furnishing excellent service. 
The saving in energy expen.se alone has been said to be $8 a month. 

While the fixed expenses of the new system, such as salaries, 
maintenance and operation, average about the same with the old 
system, the wear on lamp suspensions has been considerably re- 
duced and there is a perceptible reduction in the quantity of coal 
consumed during the operation of the lamps. With the old system. 



1042 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

two men at $2 a day each were required^ to trim the arc lamps. 
Including occasional extra help, the labor therefor amounted to 
about $1,500 a year. The supply of carbons, globes, repair parts, 
brush copper, and the constant overhauling and adjustment of the 
fixtures cost $1,500, as near as can be estimated. These items have 
been eliminated, however, with the new system, since the annual 
supply of lamps has been cared for by the contract which calls for 

TABLE V. COST OF EQUIPMENT AT TITUSVILLE, PA. 

Generators and exciters $2,050.00 

Two 900-r.p.m., 3-phase, 60-cycle, 2400-volt revolving 
field, belted type Westinghouse alternators ; and two 
1000-r.p.m., 125-volt, compound wound, multipolar 
belted-type exciters having 25% higher rating than re- 
quired by the alternators. 

Constant current regulators and transformers 1,200.85 

Three 30-35-kva., single-phase, 60-cycle, constant-cur- 
rent regulating transformers, with 2400-volt primaries 
and 6.6-amp., air-cooled secondaries. 

Switchboards and equipment 1,100.00 

Complete station and substation switchboards equipped 
with all necessary instruments, switches, etc. (West- 
inghouse.) 

Street fixtures and cutouts 1,870.00 

180 series incandescent street fixtures (Adams Bagnall 
Abolites) equipped with General Electric absolute cut- 
outs. 20-in. concentric-ring reflectors, and 8.5 in. 
double-prismatic refractors. Fixtures and cutouts both 
wired with 18 ins. of No. 8 high-tension stranded wire, 
and furnished with four brass-wire connectors having 
brass screws. 

Lightning arresters and posts 447.28 

Lightning arresters for station and substation com- 
plete, and four cast-iron ornamental single-lamp posts. 
(Westinghouse and Cutter posts.) 

Lamps 1,107.98 

Two complete installations of 6.6-amp., 400 and 600-cp. 
nitrogen-filled lamps, and 200-watt multiple lamps for 
post fixtures. (Colonial.) 

Installation, including inspection, supplies, readjustment of 
these circuits to balance the phases, labor, building out 
for new lights and the removal of old system 1,214.27 

Total $8,990.38 

their replacement. So far the records indicate that the replace- 
ment of lamps will not exceed $1,600 a year. The city electrician 
now attends to the entire system, excepting the station, additional 
help being employed only for heavy repairs and building lines for 
new lamps. These arrangements have permitted an annual saving 
of $1,4 00 a year aside from that represented by the improved fuel 
economy, the more efficient method of charging storage batteries, 
and lighting of the waterworks, which can be estimated at a total 
of $2,000 annually. 

Between the award of the contract and the arrival of the new 
equipment a new brick and concrete substation was erected in the 
center of the city large enough to accommodate the street lighting 
switching and voltage control equipment, and also an office for the 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1043 



city electrician. The building of the substation was more than 
paid for by the sale of old equipment removed from the street 
lighting system and sold for scrap. The generating equipment was 
installed in the city waterworks building, where a 175-hp. Russell 
steam engine was used to drive the generators. 

Cost of Gas and Electric Lighting Compared. In a large Ameri- 
can city where the price of gas is 80 cts. net and the price of 
electricity 10, 5 and 3 cts. net employees of the electric-service 
company have made up interesting tables to show the comparative 
costs of gas and electric lighting on the basis of equivalent illumina- 
tion. These data, given in Electrical World, Aug. 8, 1914, are 
shown in Tables V and VI. 

TABLE VI. COST OF GAS LIGHTING 
(Gas at 80 cts. per 1000 cu. ft. Does not include mantles) 



Hours' use 


Single reflex 


Four mantle 
inverted arc 


Standard 
welsbach 


Four mantle 
upright arc 


1 
2 
3 
4 


$0.0059 
.0089 
.0119 
.0149 


$0.0178 
.0298 
.0418 
.0538 


$0.0073 
.0117 
.0161 
.0205 


$0.0234 
.0410 
.0586 
.0762 


5 
6 

7 
8 


.0179 
.0209 
.0239 
.0269 


.0658 
.0778 
.0898 
.1018 


.0249 
.0293 
.0337 
.0381 


• .0938 
.1114 
.1290 
.1466 


9 
10 
11 
12 


.0299 
.0329 
.0359 
.0389 • 


.1138 
.1258 
.1378 
.1498 


.0425 
.0469 
.0513 
.0557 


.1642 
.1818 
.1994 
.2170 



TABLE VII. COST OF ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR EQUIVALENT 
ILLUMINATION GIVEN IN TABLE VI 



(At rate of 10 


5 and 3 cts. 


per kw-hr. 


net, including lamp renewals) 




One 


One 


One 


One 


Hours' use 


40-watt 


100-watt 


150-watt 


250-watt 


1 


$0.0040 


$0.0100 


$0.0150 


$0.0250 


2 


.0060 


.0150 


.0225 


.0375 


3 


.0072 


.0180 


.0270 


.0450 


4 


.0084 


.0210 


.0315 


.0525 


5 


.0096 


.0240 


.0360 


.0600 


6 


.0108 


.0270 


.0405 


.0657 


7 


.0120 


.0300 


.0450 


.0750 


8 


.0132 


.0330 


.0495 


.0825 


9 


.0144 


.0360 


.0540 


.0900 


10 


.0156 


.0390 


.0585 


.0975 


11 


.0168 


.0420 


.0630 


.1050 


12 


.0180 


.0450 


.0675 


.1125 



Comparative Costs of Gas and Electricity for Illuminating Pur- 
poses. B. K. Cash before the Indiana Gas Association in 1915 
states that among the vast number of conditions that have a bear- 
ing on artificial illumination are : The different classes and scales 



1044 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of rates, the innumerable types and sizes of units using either gas 
or electricity, and above all the local and specific conditions under 
which artificial light is obtained and operatM, as, the space to be 
lighted, height and color of the walls and ceilings, the nature and 
requirements of the business using the light, quality of light de- 
sired, and the taste and fancies of the consumer ; these all have 
to be determined locally. The usual information needed on costs 
are only those of installation, maintenance and operation. 

The rates here used are those in force in Indiana. The average 
electric rate for commercial and domestic lighting in all cities of 
over 10,000 population — including municipal owned plants — is 
7.9 cts. per kw.-hr. The average maximum rate charged for 
artificial gas in 18 cities of over 10,000 population, or all those 
using straight artificial gas, is $0.97 per 1,000 ft. Taking these 
figures as a basis it would be fair to use $0.08 per k.w.-hr. as the 
average electric rate, and $1 per 1,000 cu. ft. as the average gas 
rate. 

TABLE VIII. AVERAGE COST PER C.P. OF ELECTRICITY 
AND GAS 

ELECTRIC RATE $0.08 PER K.W.-HR. 

Hourly 

Estimate con- ' Cost Cost per 

Lamp candle sumption, per candle power 

power watts hour hour 

46 Watt Tungsten . 34 40 .0032 .000094 

150 Watt Tungsten 134 150 .012 .000089 

200 Watt Nitrogen 240 200 .016 .000066 

740 Watt Nitrogen 1150 750 .06 .000052 

Average cost per c. p. $0.000075. 

GAS RATE $1 PER M. CU. FT. 

Hourly 

Estimate con- Cost Cost per 

Lamp candle sumption, per candle power 

power cu. ft. hour hour 

No. 3 Reflex 85 3.6 .0036 .000042 

No. 10 Indoor Lamp 228 9.0 .009 .000039 

3 Mantle Invert. Arc... 439 15.0 .015 .000036 

5 Mantle Invert. Arc. . 632 25.0 .025 .000039 
Average cost per c.p. $0.000039. 



Table VIII has been compiled to show the average cost per 
candle power of electricity and gas. The figures shown are gen- 
eral, such as are used and accepted as applying to ordinary work- 
ing conditions. Data are given on four of the most efficient lamps, 
from smaller units to the larger; their estimated c.p. and approxi- 
mate hourly consumption, and from this the average cost per c.p. 
per hr. is determined. 

Thus it is shown that it is possible at present day rates and with 
modern equipment to produce an equal amount of light with gas 
at about one-half the cost of electricity. 

The field of out-door lighting is no.t entered on a large scale by 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1045 

gas companies owing to the low electric rate made for this class 
of business. Quite an amount of outside store lighting is obtainable 
by means of the gas arc, and some companies are considering the 
advisability of installing such lamps in commercial districts on a 
revised flat rate basis as a profitable means of increasing their 
output. The plan is to figure the monthly consumption of the 
lamp, using the number of hours it would be lighted, and from 
this find the cost of gas consumed. To this add a reasonable 
amount for cleaning, lighting, extinguishing, repairing and de- 
preciation, and overhead expense. Then from this total determine 
the net amount to be charged the consumer each month. The cost 
of installation is handled the same as any other construction ac- 
count, mains, service or meter work, for the piping and lamps 
remain the property of the company and furnish service whenever 
required. An idea of the revenue to be gained along these lines 
is shown by the fact that a 3-mantle inverted out-door arc operated 
from dusk until 10 p. m. will consume in a year 22,380 cu. ft., and 
if burned until midnight, 33,330 cu. ft. 

In residence lighting one of the strongest points in favor of gas 
is the increased amount of light obtainable for the money expended. 
Charges for installing gas and electricity in residences depend en- 
tirely on the grade of work desired and the scheduled prices in 
force. The average prices for piping and wiring are about equal. 
While a stated length of wiring can be run somewhat cheaper than 
same amount of pipe, the difference in this cost about equals 
the charge for accessories and extra runs for switches. In other 
words, the cost per outlet for either gas or electricity is practically 
the same. The fact that it is important to have all new buildings 
piped throughout for gas needs great emphasis. This really forms 
the keynote in securing additional home lighting. No matter 
whether the system used in a residence is gas or electricity, it is 
hard to induce the owner to undergo the tearing up required to 
change that system. So it is imperative that the established sys- 
tem be gas. "While some lighting is secured by placing outlets in 
kitchens from fuel lines, and on first floors for portable lamps and 
bracket lights, yet to get the bulk of this business each room 
t'hould be fitted with properly placed outlets to meet all require- 
ments. 

The cost of maintaining gas lighting in residences is a nominal 
one, and controlled largely by the installation. In a properly in- 
stalled system of modern equipment, the cost of upkeep is greatly 
reduced over the old style burners. Breakage of mantles and 
glassware has been lessened in the newer lamps, which with the 
late reduction in the purchase price of mantles assists in mini- 
mizing the cost of maintenance. Where glassware is used with 
electric lamps the maintenance cost runs about the same as that 
of gas. The difference in favor of electricity in maintaining the 
lamps, about takes care of the repair charges on switches and the 
mechanical parts. To aid the lighting service, some companies 
have established a free house maintenance and_ inspection at stated 
intervals. They find it gives better satisfaction to both the com- 



1046 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

pany and consumer. Such a service can be made self-sustaining 
by the profit made in the sale of material ; and at the same time 
helping to introduce modern equipment and stimulating the con- 
sumption of the lamps by keeping them in condition. 

Electricity versus Gas for Street Lighting. T. Osborne in Elec- 
trical World, Dec. 14, 1912, gives the results of English tests by 
H. T. Harrison and J. A. Body as follows : 

Two important streets were selected in the heart of the city, one 
lighted by electricity and the other by gas, and four lamps on each 
were subjected to close examination. The arc lamps are suspended 
along the center of the street, at a clear height of 27 ft. 6 ins. 
and at the following distances apart, 114 ft. 7 ins., 116 ft. and 
132 ft. Tests were made from three sets of positions at a height 
of 15 ins. from the ground, (1) directly below each lamp, (2) at 
the center of the street half way between each lamp, (3) on the 
curbstones of the footpath half way between each of the lamps. 
These tests were for horizontal illumination. Direct-illumination, 
or candle-power, tests were made 4 ft. from the ground at the 
positions mentioned above and, in addition; at positions 6 ft. 6 ins. 
from a perpendicular from each lamp. The gas lamps were placed 
closer together, the distances ranging from 98 ft. 6 ins. to 118 ft. 
6 ins. The lamps tested are of the " Metroplane " magazine flame- 
arc pattern, with clear inner globes and opalescent outer globes. 

The electric lamps are connected eight in series on a. 400-volt 
circuit, obtained from the ordinary distributing network supplied 
by the municipal plant. Each lamp takes an average of 583 watts, 
and the circuits are so arranged that every alternate lamp can be 
switched off when desired. The cost of the electric lamps is con- 
siderably less than that of gas lamps. The cost for electrical 
energy, depending as it does on the load factor, varies for the 
half-night lamps, which burn only 2,000 hrs. per annum, and the 
all-night lamps, which burn 4,000 hrs., being 2.14 cts. per k.w.-hr. 
for the former and 1.31 cts. per k.w.-hr. for the latter. Thus for 
one hour the cost for electrical energy would be (a) Half-night 
lamps, 583 watts, at 2.14 cts. per k.w.-hr.. 1.248 cts. ; (b) all-night 
lamps, 583 watts, at 0.655 ct. per kw.-hr., 0.764 ct. 

To this must be added the cost of carbon electrodes and labor. 
Each lamp contains fourteen pairs of carbon electrodes, which 
during the tests exceeded five burning hours per pair. These elec- 
trodes as used at present cost $18.24 per 1,000 pairs; it follows 
that one hour costs 0.36 ct. It takes two men 15 mins. to trim 
and clean each lamp. A trimmer and an assistant are employed, 
earning respectively 14 cts. and 12 cts. per hr. Thus the trimming 
and cleaning, should the lamps be cleaned once in 50 hrs., would 
be 12 cts. per hr. Together with an allowance for repairs and 
for maintenance, this makes the total cost per hr. for the electric 
flame-arc lamp as shown in Table IX. 

As lighting and extinguishing are automatically carried out by 
time switches, no charge has been allotted for this service. The 
relative capital cost of the plant and apparatus is as follows : 
The four arc lamps tested are a portion of sixteen along the same 




LIGHTING AND WIRING 1047 

TABLE IX. TOTAL COST PER HOUR FOR FLAME-ARC LAMP 

Half-night 

lamps, cts. 
per hr. 

Electrical energy 1.250 

Electrodes 0.360 

Labor 0.120 

Sundries 0.070 

Total 1.800 1.400 

street, which, including all accessories, are stated to have cost 
erected $2,707, equal to $170 per lamp. 

The high-pressure gas lamps compare very unfavorably, as the 
total cost of the lamps, lanterns, poles, suspension and all ac- 
cessories erected amounted to $933, equal to $233 per lamp. These 
figures do not include any amount for series street-lighting mains 
in the case of the arc lamps, or any for high-pressure gas mains 
or compressor plant. This obvious flaw is due to the peculiar 
system of accounts kept by the public authorities. The experts 
who tested the lamps commented on the absence of these items. 
The capital cost per mile of street would be as follows : For the 
arc lamps, 43.6 to the mile, $7,532.08 ; for the high-pressure gas 
lamps, 49.34 to the mile, $11,841.60. The relative constancy and 
reliability of the light sources were the next points to be con- 
sidered. During the two months in which the four electric and 
four gas lamps were under inspection the maximum variations, 
exclusive of extinctions, were as follows: (a) Any one of the 
electric lamps, from 4,400 cp. to 2,420 cp. ; all the arc lamps, from 
4,400 cp. to 2,400 cp. ; (b) any one of the gas lamps, from 2,058 
cp. to 686 cp. ; all the gas lamps, from 2,475 cp. to 686 cp. It is 
essential to point out that these variations frequently continued 
over only a short period and that they are not often noticeable, 
thus showing that the variation in illuminating power of the gas 
lamps is more than that of the electric lamps. The total number 
of complete extinctions noted by the experts during the two months' 
period was as follows : Arc lamps, June 14, one lamp out for 8 
mins. ; July 19, one lamp out for 20 mins. Gas lamps, June 16, 
one lamp out for 20 mins. ; June 18, one lamp out for 60 mins. ; 
June 23, one lamp out all night; July 21, one lamp out all night. 
The electric lamps thus worked in a more reliable manner. In 
comparing these results and failures it is essential to add that 
half the arc lamps burn all through the night ; that is, twice the 
number of hours of the gas lamps. It follows, therefore, that the 
electric lamps are considerably more than twice as serviceable for 
street lighting, from this point of view, as the gas lamps. The 
difference in the degree of illumination throughout the streets, irre- 
spective of the variations in the candle-power of the light source, 
was 4.5% for the arc lamps and 4.8% for the gas lamps. It will 
be noted, therefore, that there is little to choose between the gas 
lamps and the electric arc lamps in this respect. 

It may be interesting to work out the reduction of costs to a 



1048 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

common basis of candle-power and illumination. The comparison 
on an equal basis of cost may be made as follows : From the 
details given it will be noted that for a cost of 1.4 cts. per hr. 
the arc lamps give an illuminating value averaging 2,970 cp. — 
that is, at the important angles, namely, 20 degs. to 25 degs. from 
the horizontal ; while the gas lamps give under similar conditions 
only 1,750 cp., at the cost of 3 cts. per hr. Thus the candle-power 
at a cost of 3 cts. would work out as follows : Electricity at a 
cost of 3 cts. per hr. gives 6,364 cp. ; gas at a cost of 3 cts. per 
hr. gives 1,750 cp., or electric lainps giving 2,970 cp. cost 1.4 cts. 
per hr. and gas lamps giving 2,970 cp. cost 5.08 cts. per hr. 

From a comparison on an equal basis of illumination the arc 
lamps also have an advantage. Dealt with from this point of 
view the distances at which the lamps are spaced comes into the 
calculation, and as this varies owing to local conditions it will be 
desirable to take a unit length of street, say 1 mile, and to ascer- 
tain the number of lamps of either type which would be necessary 
to give the same illumination. As the arc lamps when spaced at 
an average distance of 121 ft., or 43.6 to the' mile, produce a mini- 
mum illumination of 0.5 foot-candle when giving an average of 
2,970 cp. at a cost of $1,220 per annum while burning for 2,000 
hrs., it will be found by a simple calculation that 54 gas lamps 
giving an average of 1,750 cp. will be required to produce the 
same result, placing them in an inferior position as compared with 
the electric lamps. Further, as the gas lamps cost 3 cts. per hr. — 
equal to $60 per lamp per annum — when burning 2,000 hrs., the 
comparison works out as follows : Cost per mile minimum illumina- 
tion, 0.5 foot-candle; for four arc lamps, $1,220; for four gas 
lamps, $3,240. 

TABLE X. COMPARATIVE COST OF ARC LAMPS AND GAS 

LAMPS 

Arc lamps Gas lamps 

Candle-power of lamps . 2970 1750 

Number of lamps to the mile 43.6 49.34 

Running costs per lamp per hour up to 

11 :30 p. m 1.4 cents 3 cents 

Capital cost per mile of streets $7,531 $12,177 

Running cost 1,000 cp.-hours 0.475 cents 1.714 cents 

Cost per annum per mile equal illumi- 
nation $1,220 $3,240 

Minimum illumination basis of com- 
parison 0.5 ft.-candle 0.39 ft.-candle 

Cost per mile of street per annum up to 

11 :30 p. m. at above illumination. . $1,220 $2,960 

In the figures given above the cost of energy in the electric 
lamps is taken at the all-night rate. "When they are taken at 
the half -night rate the cost would amount to $1,508. A general 
comparison of the two systems of lighting after 11 :30 p. m. is 
interesting. The figures given above apply only up to the time 
when the gas lamps are turned out and every alternate arc lamp 
is shut off. When the gas lamps are put out the ordinary gas 
lamps of the old system, which is being gradually superseded, are 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1049 

relied upon. After 11 .-30 p. M. the comparisons of cost for equal 
illumination are still more diverse, as in the case of the gas-lighted 
street in which the tests were made the low-pressure gas lamps, 
of which there would be eighty to the mile, and the cost of which 
cannot be taken at less than $9.60 per lamp per annum, give a 
minimum illumination of only 0.004 foot-candle for a cost of $768 
per annum ; whereas the alternate arc lamps give a minimum of 
0.08 foot-candle, 20 times as much, at about the same cost. 

Maintenance Costs of Arc Lamps for Street Lighting. L. L. 
Elden of the Boston Edison company before the Massachusetts 
Gas and Electric Light Commission in 1916 stated that for an 
average of 4,489 6.6-amp. magnetite arc lamps in service the yearly 
cost of trimming per Imp was $9.94. The number of lower elec- 
trodes required was 277,726 and the average number of trims per 
year per lamp was 61.2. There were 3,828 hrs. of burning. The 
average service life per low electrode was 62.5 hrs., 70 hrs. being: 
the maximum observed. No salvage is realized on the electrode 
stubs. The longest trim period, occurring in July, was about nine 
days. The route schedules for the various trimmers from week 
to week are made out by the head of the trimming department, 
who delivers the schedules to the stockroom at the headquarters of 
the work for the entire system of about 700 sq. miles. Requisi- 
tions for electrodes are signed by a representative of the installa- 
tion or trimming department, who is in charge of the trimmers, 
after which the electrodes are taken from the stockroom to the 
loading platform, sorted and delivered by stock boys according to 
cabinets assigned to each trimmer. The stock boys apportion the 
electrodes according to routes, number of lamps per route and 
trimming period, and when the trimmers arrive at the plant before 
beginning a day's work no time is lost in waiting for electrodes. 

An average yearly consumption of globes for the above number 
of lamps is 11,752, or 2.6 globes per lamp-year. Frequent changes 
are required by heavy slagging and pitting of globes, due to the 
mineralized material of the electrodes being thrown against the 
side of the globe. This is a cumulative process, and finally results 
in a bad appearance from the street. One standard size and shape 
of globes is used for magnetite lamps of the standard type through- 
out the system. Eighty-five per cent, of the globes are destroyed 
after being removed from the lamps, the remainder being cleaned 
of slag and soot and discoloration and used again. The yearly 
maintenance cost of the above lamps also includes an outlay of $445 
for lamp parts, such as burned electrode holders, screws, globe- 
holder rings, etc. 

The transportation cost incurred in trimming lamps in Boston 
was $7,298. The total pro-rated labor cost in trimming in Bos- 
ton proper was $11,108 for 15 trimmers and $2,250 for part time 
of clerks, stockmen and trouble, men, or a total of $13,358. Eleven 
trimmers are engaged in regular service on regular routes ; 1 trim- 
mer does nothing but change upper electrodes, and 2 spare men 
are carried on the payroll. The copper electrodes are changed 
about once a year, the estimated life being 4,000 hrs. Trimmers 



1050 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

average 95 pole-type lamps per day each on regular routes. 
Twenty-four bracket-type lamps represents a day's work for a 
trimmer on account of their scattered location and the necessity 
for using an extension ladder in most cases. 

A 6-day trim period exists during most, of December and Janu- 
ary. An automobile is of little use on trimming in congested 
districts compared with a horse and wagon. Trimmers report at 
7 A. M. and report back at headquarters at 4 p. M^ no circuit being 
operated until the afternoon repart comes in. The total trimming 
labor was 4,490 days, for which the men were paid on an average 
$2.22 a day. Additional labor charges at a different rate were as 
follows : New trimmers were employed, requiring breaking in, 
aggregating 126 days at $2 each. There were also three men em- 
ployed during the year to make a general overhaul of the mag- 
netite lamps on the system, the charge for their time in Boston 
proper being $1,071. The grand total trimming charge for labor 
was $12,401. The number of upper electrodes changed was 3,893. 
During the year the company repaired 5,516 magnetite lamps. 
The average price paid for lower electrodes was 5 cts. 

Experience with Thoran Arcs. Referring to the 1.60 0-cp. direct- 
current Thoran arc lamps of 500-watt rating used in the illumina- 
tion of various public squares, Mr. Elden said that the cost of 
trimming, patrolling and labor per lamp is about $242 per year, 
the trimming costing $142. The income per lamp is only $148. 
The company did not anticipate a loss on these lamps when they 
were first placed in service. They were installed on account of 
the desire of the city to light large areas more economically than 
was feasible by the standard magnetite lamp. The performance 
was erratic, two trims a night being necessary at times. One 
such lamp usually replaced three or four magnetites. Owing to 
the high cost of operation the company has lately discouraged 
their extension, and at present but 24 are in service out of a 
maximum of about 40. The chief element of cost is the labor 
required to maintain continuous service. The lamps are widely 
scattered, and this increases the cost of patrolling and trimming. 
The lamps have to be changed frequently, brought into the shop 
for overhauling and repairs, and trimmed nightly. Mr. Elden esti- 
mated a fair price for these lamps under present conditions at 
about $325 per year each. This figure is based upon an investment 
average of $625 (the unit cost which the Boston Edison company 
figures for its entire street lighting system per arc lamp), with a 
fixed cost of $82.55. 

Cost of Arc Lighting in Lynn, iViass. In Lynn, Mass., according 
to Electrical World, Sept. 6. 1913, the arc is carried 14.5 ft. above 
the sidewalk, the post being of the Lundin combination wooden 
and iron type as required by the Massachusetts laws, with fluted 
wooden column. There are in the complete installation 150 6.6-amp. 
ornamental luminous-arc lamps, two ornamental bracket lamps, 
one combination trolley and twin bracket pole with two lamps of 
the same type carried at a height of 27.5 ft., ten 4-amp. orna- 
mental luminous-arc lamps of the parkway type carried at a height 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1051 

of 18 ft., and one 4-amp. ornamental luminous-arc lamp of the 
residential type with the arc 12 ft. above the sidewalk. Of these, 
thirty-five 6.6-amp. lamps and all of the 4-amp. lamps burn all 
nig-ht. The cost to the city is $8,260 for the 6.6-amp. lamps burned 
until midnight and $2,884 for those burning all night, the parkway 
lamp service costing $906.40 a year, making a total cost for the 
entire service of $12,050.40 for the year. The standard pole is 
mounted on a concrete foundation 2 ft. square at the top, 3 ft. 
square at the bottom and 3 ft. deep, and each pole is provided with 

TABLE XL DATA ON LYNN (MASS.) ORNAMENTAL 
LUMINOUS-ARC LAMPS 



"^ C . -^ Trt - 

% % ° ^ d +- .s"" o-^ cii 

^ ^ S 5^ ^ m ^ "AS, oo ^o 

;h oj oj > ft ft 3.5^ c.5a; aj.5 

-2 ti s^ g ^ S ^ 111 .sis g5S 



ss-s gS-s ^S-d 

Andrew Street 9 576 34 60.7 4,788 0.24 4.16 1.110 0.260 0.73 

Munroe Street 14 828 32 60.1 7,448 0.28 4.50 1.000 0.275 0.68 

Oxford Street. 11 665 36 55.1 5,852 0.24 4.40 0.990 0.290 0.62 

Market Street 
before mid- 
night 38 1686 60 45.2 20,216 0.20 5.60 0.751 0.113 0.42 

Market Street 
after mid- 
night 7 1686 60 278.7 3,724 0.037 1.10 0.459 0.0125 0.13 

Market Street 
from City 
Hall Square 
to railroad 
viaduct ... 33 1260 57 38.9 17,556 0.24 6.97 0.751 0.115 0.47 

Market Street 
from rail- 
road via- 
d u c t to 
Broad St... 5 426 72 67.0 2,660 0.087 3.12 0.196 0.113 0.15 

an absolute cut-out for lamp disconnection. At present there are 
165 lamps in actual service, all being operated from mercury-arc 
rectifiers. The city of Lynn pays for the maintenance of the lamps, 
the prices being $70 per lamp a year for service until midnight 
and $82.40 for all-night service. 

The cost of installation per pole was as follows : 

Pole, including- wiring and cut-out $36.00 

Twin cable wiring and absolute cut-out 6.40 

Casing to cover lamp mechanism 4.00 

Excavation and forms for concrete 2.00 

Concrete foundation 7.00 

Replacing broken sidewalks of concrete 2.00 

Painting 1.14 



1052 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Teaming 0.50 

Foundation bolts 0.40 

Protective casings on pole 1.64 

Total cost of pole $61.08 

In the previous installation the district was lighted by 45 4-amp. 
pendent-type luminous-arc lamps burning all night at a yearly cost 
of $82.40 per lamp, and these were removed in making the "'white 
way" installation, the city being credited with $3,708. making .the 
actual increased cost to the city for each year $8,342.40. 

In general the lamps are staggered both on main and cross 
streets. The quantity and quality of light on the streets is at 
present probably unequaled, and notwithstanding the great amount 
of light coming from sources only 14.5 ft. from the ground, there 
is no glare and persons and objects can readily be distinguished 




Fig. 



300 400 500 

D>stc>»nce, Feet 



600 



7. Horizontal illumination curves for Andrew and Munroe 
Streets, Lynn. 



from one end of the street to the other. On Market Street, the prin- 
cipal business thoroughfare of the city, 38 lamps are spaced an 
average of 38.9 ft. apart. After midnight there are 7 lamps burn- 
ing the rest of the night. Illumination tests have been made on 
the principal streets with a Sharp-Millar photometer, readings be- 
ing made opposite and half way between each lamp down the center 
line of the street. Readings made on Munroe and Andrew Streets, 
and the results are shown in Fig. 4. 

Cost of Installing Luminous-Arc Ornamental System. A "white 
way " lighting !<ystem at (Jreen Bay. Wis., described in Electrical 
World, Jan. 3. 1914. consists of 24 General Electric 4-amp. luminous- 
arc lamps extending over a distance of two 750-ft. city blocks. 
Posts placed opposite each other are installed on both curbs at 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1053 

intervals of 60 ft. At the cross streets lamps are placed on each 
corner. 

The 24 lamps are supplied with energy from a 75-lamp rectifier, 
connected into the same circuit with the 48 lamps of the local 
series magnetite street-lighting system. For the installation of 
this ornamental lighting system complete, ready to turn on, the 
cost was as follows : 

1500 ft. No. 6 steel-taped cable $333 

Ornamental posts 492 

High-tension cut-out switch for post 96 

24 4-amp. luminous-arc lamps 840 

Cementing posts and bolting to curb 158 

Chiseling trench, laying cable in curb, and all necessary labor, 

including tunneling streets 540 

$2,459 

For the 24 posts installed the cost complete has averaged ap- 
proximately $103 per post. The items above entered were taken 
from the bills and are accurate. While the item of labor is a 
little high, this heavy construction cost is accounted for by the 
necessity of tunneling from curb to curb beneath an asphalt-paved 
street at two different points. In order to lay the cable it was 
also necessary to chisel between the concrete curb and the side- 
walk throughout the entire 1,500-ft. distance. This cable is laid 
at a depth of 4 ins., and is covered with concrete. The method of 
installing the posts consisted simply in chiseling out, for a depth 
of 1 in., some of the concrete in the sidewalk to the size of the 
base of the post. The bolts were then anchored in place, and 
concrete was poured in the space, the posts being erected while 
the concrete was fresh. The resulting construction gives the post 
a solid foundation, besides making a workmanlike job in mounting 
the base flush with the sidewalk. The cable runs were made be- 
fore the posts were installed, enough cable being left at each 
position to make the required connection to the cut-out switch in 
the base of the post. Access is gained to this switch by means 
of a hinged door placed in the base. 

The operating charge runs $80 per month, based on a net rate 
of 5.9 cts. per kw.-hr. The lamps are burned daily from dusk to 
midnight, which is equivalent to 2,000 hrs. per year. As each lamp 
consumes about 300 watts, the company figures its own income 
at $40 per year per lamp, including maintenance, breakage, glass- 
ware, etc. Following are the figures for the cost of operating and 
maintaining the system, which agree closely with the preliminary 
estimates furnished by the manufacturers : 

Energy for 300-watt lamp, 2000 hrs. per year, at 5.9 cts. 

per kw.-hr $35.40 

Trimming and labor per lamp per annum 2.00 

Electrodes per lamp per annum 1-40 

Repairs per lamp per annum, covering 5 years' test 0.20 

Rectifier tubes per lamp per annum 0.33 

Average glassware .renewals per lamp per annum 0.69 

Total cost of energy consumed and maintained per lamp 

per annum i . • • . $40.02 



1054 MECHANICAL AND ELECT EPICAL COST DATA 

As an alternative to the luminous-arc system an installation of 
tungsten ornamental lighting was first proposed for Green Bay, 
using five-lamp posts, each carrying five 100-watt lamps. At an 
operating cost of $6 per post the expense for 24 posts would have 
been $144 per month, or $1,728 per year. For a five-year period 
the cost would total $8,9 48. In such a tungsten lighting system, 
however, approximately 40 posts would have been required to take 
the place of the present 24-post luminous-arc system. With the 
latter posts, costing $3.34 per month to operate, the yearly expense 
is but $960, making the expense for five years $4,800. 

Efficiency of Arc Lamps. C. E. Stevens (American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers, Aug., 1912) divides arc lamps into four types: 
(1) open carbon arcs; (2) enclosed carbon arcs; (3) metallic flame 
or luminous arcs; and (4) the enclosed flame-carbon arcs. The 
first two types have become practically obsolete as street illum- 
inants. The metallic flame arc has largely replaced the older 
forms of lamps. The color of the light is white and the distribu- 
tion shows a maximum candle-power from 15 to 25 degs. below the 
horizontal. The electrode life averages from 200 to 250 hrs., and 
the maintenance cost is comparatively low. The efficiency of light 
production varies from one-half to one watt per candle, depending 
upon electrode life and glassware equipment. The lamp is oper- 
ated at from 4 to 7 amps., with an arc voltage of about 70. It 
operates only on direct current and is ordinarily used on series 
circuits from constant-current rectifiers. 

The flame-carbon arc lamp has superimposed carbons, which give 
a life of from 100 to 125 hrs. The carbons are impregnated with 
a light-giving salt which furnishes a white or yellow light. The 
light distribution shows a maximum at from 20 to 30 degs. below 
the horizontal, similar to the metallic flame, which adapts it ad- 
mirably for lighting streets or large areas. The volume of light 
is considerably in excess of the metallic flame lamp, and the effi- 
ciency of light production averages from 0.2 to 0.3 watts per candle. 
This lamp is the most efficient light source available for street 
illumination. It has been recently marketed in this country for 
operation on all commercial circuits, both alternating and direct 
current. For street illumination a series design is ordinarily used. 

Maintenance of Arc Lamps in Street Lighting. In a paper read 
before the Armour Institute of Technology Branch of the A. I. E. E., 
A. B. Cornwell gave the following data on maintenance where a 
single arc lamp replaces two enclosed arcs for street lighting, costs 
being for one year : 

Two enclosed One flaming 

arcs arc 

Carbons $2.86 $36.50 

Trimming 2.34 8.21 

Repairs 1.50 0.75 

Inspection 0.90 0.90 

Inner Globe 0.60 

Outer Globe 0.30 0.15 

Total $8.50 $46.51 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1055 

A flaming arc has to be trimmed once a day, while an enclosed 
arc needs to be trimmed but once a week. 

Comparison of Arc and Incandescent Lighting in a Shop Build- 
ing. Ward Harrison, of the General Electric Company, Cleve- 
land, Ohio, submi^tted the following figures in a paper on the light- 
ing of mill structures before the Association of Iron and Steel 
Electrical Engineers in 1913. In addition to the arc lamps, the 
original installation was supplemented by about 50 carbon drop- 
lamps over the individual machines. These were found unnecessary 
when the Mazda units were employed. It should also be noted, as 
pointed out by Mr. Harrison, that in addition to producing a much 
higher average intensity of light, the distribution from the tung- 
sten units is far more uniform. The intensity from the arc in- 
stallation, on the other hand, varied between 0.17 and 4.45 ft.- 
candles at points which required equally good lighting. In Table 
XII of data the carbon drop lamps are omitted. 

TABLE XII. DATA ON LIGHTING OF A SHOP BUILDING 

110-volt 

220-volt tungsten 

arc lamps lamps 

Total number of lamps required 16 80 

Height of lamps above floor, ft 10 12.5 

Height of test plane, ft 3,5 3.5 

Lamps per bay 1.25 4 

Watts per lamp 750 150 

Rated specific consumption, watts per candle 1.12 

Area of bay n 2.5 ft. by 49.5 ft.), sq. ft 618 618 

Watts per sq. ft 0.97 0.97 

Average intensity, ft.-candles 1.15 5.25 

Effective lumens, per watt 1.18 5.40 

Annual operating cost per lamp (4000 hours) . . $53.30 $13.85 

Annual operating cost of in.stallation 852.80 1108.00 

Annual cost for equal illumination 3890.00 1108.00 

Economics of Factory Lighting. M. H. Flexner and A. O. Dicker 
in Engineering Record, Oct. 18, 1913, state that it may be taken 
for granted that the volume of production in a well-lighted factory 
will exceed that of the same plant under poor conditions by from 
8 to 15%, to say nothing of the benefit to the workman and the 
decreased liability to accident. The authors assume in a typical 
case that a 100-watt tungsten lamp is required for each man, and 
that it burns zy^ hrs. per day for 300 days per year under the 
conditions of electric service prevailing in Chicago, which enable 
the factory owner to purchase electricity for, say, an average 
yearly rate of 5 cts, per kw.-hr., with free lamp renewals. Taking 
the cost of the reflector at $1 and the cost of wiring per outlet at 
$4, the yearly fixed charges on this investment, with interest at 
6% and depreciation at 121/4%, amount to only $1. The cost of 
electricity for the yeajr is then $5, and allowing 3 cts. per lamp per 
month for cleaning, the total yearly expense reaches $6.36, or 
0.63%. of a yearly wage of $1,000, which is a very small outlay in 
proportion to the factory labor cost. Looking at this question 



1056 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



from another angle, and assuming that adequate lighting in a 
specific case increases the output only 5%, the installation of 90 
250-watt outlets, fixtures and reflectors at a cost of $517.50 in a 
factory of 30,000 sq. ft. of working floors will be paid for in much 
less than a year by the increased profit on the ^.ugmented output, 
taking the yearly business under the old regime at $83,333, se- 
cured under artificial light and allowing a 20% profit on the in- 
creased revenue of $4,166 resulting from the modern installation. 
In still another instance the cost of light per day, taking all charges 




n 

"i ! 



M 


+ + + +■*■*■ 
12 11 10 9 8 ; 

•*■ + 4- -i- 4- •*■ 
6 4 3 2 1 


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TestSUtions " Ti's ;n ti'o t'^ +s :l 



Fig. 8. Comparison of arc and tungsten lighting. 



into account, came to barely 2 cts. per workman, the wage being 
$3.50. Under such conditions it is nothing less than absui'd for a 
factory owner to spend, as was done in a particular case, $18,000 
for a machine to be run by a high-priced operator of long ex- 
perience, and then to refuse to spend $19 for lighting equipment 
in order that the work in process need not b^ taken to a window 
20 ft. distant for calipering. 

The Cooper Hewitt Light. This lamp differs from other com- 
mercial lights in that it produces its effect from a bar of luminous 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1057 

vapor instead of from an incandescent solid. Because this method 
converts less of the energy into heat and more into visible radia- 
tions or light waves, it has decided elements of economy that are 
superior to the other types. 

The light is blueish green in color, giving surrounding objects 
rather a strange and ghastly light at first. It is easy on the eyes 
and enables close work to be done with sometimes less fatigue 
than daylight. 

The diffusion of the light is from a large tube instead of from 
a small point. It does not produce sharply defined shadows and 
makes less glare than most other illuminants and the cost of 
maintenance is supposed to be about half that of other commer- 
cial lamps. 

For those to whom the blueish green color is objectionable the 
lights may be transformed by a parabolic rhodomain reflector 
which takes the place of the standard white glazed reflector and 
is based on the phenomenon of fluorescence. It transforms the 
light to an agreeable white color with a slight rosy tint. 

The complete lamp outfit consists of tube, refiector-holder and 
auxiliary. The tube is made of clear glass with electrodes at each 
end and contains a small quantity of metallic mercury and causing 
the mercury vapor to glow. 

The reflector holder supports the tube in two clamps and is 
attached to the auxiliary by pivot screws. The reflecting surface 
is finished in smooth white glazed enamel. 

The auxiliary is enclosed in a sheet metal casing which is re- 
movable and which contains two inductance coils and an adjustor 
resistance by means of which the current must be regulated to the 
supply voltage. The auxiliaries for series lamps have a shunt 
resistance and a cut-out. 

The direct current lamps cannot be used on alternating current 
without the intervening of rectifiers. 

These lamps are made in a variety of sizes and styles, the price 
here net f. o. b., Hoboken, New York. For 100 to 124 volts at 
3.5 amps., delivering 700 c.p. (mean hemispherical basis), with 
refiector ; commercial efficiency, 0.55 watts per candle. (100-124 
volts, one lamp is installed singly, on 200-248 volts two lamps are 
installed in series) on one lamp, tube reflector-holder and auxiliary 
for 100 to 124 volts cost $33. One lamp to be installed in series 
on 200 to 248 volts costs |34. 

The approximate shipping weight of a single lamp outfit is 110 
lbs., 6 lamps 400 lbs., and 12 lamps 650 lbs. 

A tilting type is made and listed at $40 for the 124 volt double 
type. These lamps shipped weigh 725 lbs. The standard length 
over all is 51.75 ins., length of tube 43.75 ins. The tilting lamp has 
an over all dimension of 27.75 ins., length of tube 19.75 ins. 

The quartz lamp for outdoor use has the following specifications: 
Voltage 100 to 125; average current 4 amp.; total watts 440; 
candle power 1,000; weight complete 27 lbs., packed for domestic 
shipment 110 lbs. 

The 220 volts type carries an average amount of 3.3 amps. ; 



1058 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

delivers 2,400 c.p. at a commercial efficiency of 0.31; weighs com- 
plete 33 lbs. net, and 115 lbs. packed for domestic shipment; prices 
$65 and $70 each respectively, covering complete outfit including 
burner, reflector-holder, auxiliary and globe. 

Lighting of Railroad Stations witii Gas. The following abstract 
of a paper by G. Hammel was taken from Progressive Age, Jan. 
1, 1911. Gas is used quite extensively for lighting railroad termin- 
als, stations and yards. One of the important points to be con- 
sidered is the height of hanging the lamps on the poles in order 
to give the best light. Originally, before compressed gas was 
used, a height of 23 to 26 ft. had to be used for the gas light. At 
this height an area of 155 to 170 ft. was sufficiently lighted to 
read faint chalk marks on baggage. Four burners, each of 125 
c.p., making a total of 500 c.p. light, were sufficient. This power 
is equal to electric lights of 700 to 800 c.p., and has, moreover, 
greater radiation and better penetration of air in case of a fog. 

Since compressed air has been placed on the market, conditions 
are even more in favor of gas lights. The lights can be raised to 
poles 39 to 46 ft. high with 232 to 265 ft. distance between poles, 
giving greater horizontal light radiation and better illumination 
than electric lights. Usually 500 c.p. lights are placed at a height 
of 25 ft., with the distance between poles 160 to- 180 ft., giving 
efficient light for any railroad station. 

Connection of gas supply to lamps is best made by automatic 
connections, as they are easier to attend to and maintain, even 
though more expensive at first. Now we come to the principal 
points in this discussion — namely, the first installation costs, the 
operating costs and the question of service. We are speaking of 
lights on high poles only. 

Electric Light. On 30 poles for a terminal, each lamp using 
8 amperes, 600 c.p., at $175 per pole -= $5,250. 

Gas Light. For 30 poles with four burners, inverted gas mantles, 
using 13 cu. ft. of gas and 500 c.p. (equal to light of electric lights), 
each $200 — $6,000. In case poles of cheaper construction are 
used, each costing $150, the cost is only $4,500. This comparative 
statement shows that the initial expenses for both systems of light 
are about the same. 

Operating Costs. Electric Light for railroad station with 30 pole 
lights and 200 electric lamps burning four hours a day. 

30 poles for electric arc lights at 8 amps, and 60u 

c.p. using 500 watts an hr., 6 cts. per kw.-hr. . ,$0.03 
Carbons per hour 0.003 

$0,033 
Daily burning four hours equal to 4 X $0,033 = 

$0,132, or per year equal to 30 X 365 X 0.132 = $1,445.40 

200 wire lamps using an hr. 50 watts at 50 c.p. 

each, 6 cts. per kw.-hr $0,003 

Lamp renewal per hour 0.002 

$0,005 
Daily four hours equal to 4 X 0.005 — $0.02, or 

per year 200 X 365 X .02 = $1,460.00 

A total of $2,905.40 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1059 

Gas Light. The cost of gas is 0.112 cts. per cu. ft., or $1.12 per 
1,000 cu. ft. of gas. 

30 pole gas lights with normal pressure gas, four 

inverted burners, each using 3.6 cu. ft. gas, or 

a total of 14.4 cu. ft. gas, at 0.112 cents per cu. 

foot, equal to $0,017 

Mantles and chimneys 0.001 

$0,018 

Burning 4 hrs. a day $0,072" 

Per year 30 X 365 X 0.07 $766.50 

200 inverted gas lights, inverted mantles, 80 c.p. 

using 2.4 cu. ft. gas $0,003 

Mantles and chimneys 0.0004 

$0.0034 

Daily 4 hrs. 4 X 0.0034 $0.0136 

Per year 200 X 365 X 0.0136 992.80 

Total of $1,759.30 

Pole lights for 30 pole electric lights $1,445.40 

Pole lights for 30 pole gas lights 766.50 

Gain of 45% $678.90 

Metallic electric lamps $1,460.00 

Gas light, mantles 992.80 

Gain of 30% $467.20 

As regards tending to the lamps, the electric lights up to a short 
time ago had the advantage, as they could be turned on and off 
from the central station. But the long-distance lighters now used 
even up matters in this direction. The drawback to electric lights 
is that they are wired in series, and when the circuit is broken, 
all lights are extinguished, whereas in the case of the gas light, 
half of the lights can be extinguished, leaving the rest burning, 
giving sufficient light. Carbons of electric lights must be exchanged 
daily, while gas lamps need only be cleaned once every two or 
three weeks. 

The Kaufman Lighting System. A system of lighting by means 
of lamps which vaporize kerosene oil was described in Iron Age, 
Jan. 23, 1913. 

The method of operation is by pumping the oil into a steel tank 
made to withstand 10 times the pressure required. The air pres- 
sure forces the oil from the tank through a small bronze tube, 
which is very flexible and can be fastened on the ceiling or walls, 
run underground or strung on poles, and if necessary carried for 
long distances. A number of lamps located at various points can 
be supplied from one tank. The tank is provided with an auto- 
matic check and safety valve which in case of fire in the building 
releases the pressure and all the oil in the tubing is then drawn 
back into the tank. Should the tank be directly exposed to the 
fire the oil will burn out in a vertical flame, and it is claimed that 
explosion is absolutely impossible. 

The air pressure from the tank forces the oil through the tubing 
into the vaporizer at the bottom of the lamp. A little time is 



1060 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



required, possibly two minutes, to start tlie lamp. This is done 
by pouring a small quantity of denaturized alcohol in the vaporizer 
and lighting it, so as to secure the necessary heat to gasify the 
kerosene. Considerable less time is required in this operation if a 
plumber's torch is used for heating the vaporizer. The gas thus 
formed is burned under a strong mantle, creating a light of in- 
tense purity and brilliancy. 

The light does not flicker, but ■ burns with a steady flame, and 
is unaffected by wind or a draft which would be liable to extin- 
guish gas or ordinary vapor lamps. Its great brilliancy enables 
it to penetrate dust and fumes, such as are encountered in foundries, 
especially while pouring metal into molds. It is thus especially 
well adapted for general factory use. It has also been found 
very effective in outdoor lighting. Based on the current price of 
kerosene oil, a Kaufman lamp producing 1,200 c.p. is stated to 
cost about 1/^ ct. per hour, which is below the cost of maintenance 
of usual lighting systems. 

The vaporizer used in this lamp is made of tungsten steel, nickel, 
silver and bronze, and while guaranteed for 10 years is almost 
indestructible. It can be removed from the lamp and cleaned in 
less than 2 mins. A gallon of kerosene will burn 14 hrs., giving 
1,200 c.p. and 18 hrs. giving 1,000 c.p. The light can be regulated 
like city gas. It is made in a -variety of styles for indoor and 
outdoor use. A contractor's lamp for outdoor use is an independent 
lighting plant in itself, having a stand made of tubing with a 
pressure tank at the foot and the light suspended from a hook 
at the top of the tubing. One form of lamp designed for portable 
purposes has a small annular tank above the reflector, the whole 
outfit in this form weighing about 22 lbs., and being easily de- 
tached from one location and carried to another as required. 

Cost of Lamps. The following lamp costs are based discounts 
dated Sept., 1915, offered by the National Lamp Works of the Gen- 
eral Electric Co. 

Discount standard 

package quantities, 

10% without 

contract. 

Per cent. 

10 

17 

21 

24 

27 

29 

31 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 



Net value 
of contract 



Less than $150 

$ 150 

300 

600 

1,200 

2,500 

5,000 

10,000 

20,000 

30,000 

50,000 

100,000 

150,000 

225.000 

300,000 



40 



Discount broken 

package quantities. 

Nothing without 

contract. 

Per cent. 



7 

11 

14 

17 

19 

21 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 



Note : Standard package discounts on all large style Mazda 
lamps can be given only on orders for exact standard package 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1061 



quantities or multiples thereof. It is allowable, however, to com- 
bine in one standard package, all sizes of large style Mazda lamps 
having the same standard package quantity. Such lamps may be 
of different voltages and finish of bulb. 

Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side — Ampere shape type, 
for 105 to 125 volts, Table XIII. 



TABLE XIII. 


COST OF 


105 TO 125 VOLT LIGHTS. {MI 




Efficiency 


Standard 






Size of lamp 


watts 


package 


List 


price 


in watts 


per candle 


quantity 
Straight Side 


Clear 


Frosty 


10 


1.25 


100 


$0.27 


$0.30 


15 


1.10 


100 


0.27 


0.30 


20 


1.07 


100 


0.27 


0.30 


25 


1.05 


100 


0.27 


0.30 


40 


1.03 


100 


0.27 


0.30 


60 


1.00 


100 


0.36 


0.40 


100 


0.95 


24 
Pear-Shape 


0.65 


0.72 


100 


1.00 


24 


1.00 


1.05 


200 


0.90 


24 


2.00 


2.02 


300 


0.82 


24 


3.00 


3.10 


400 


0.82 


12 


4.00 


4.15 


500 


0.78 


12 


4.50 


4.65 


750 


0.74 


8 


6.00 


6.25 


1,000 


0.70 


8 


7.00 


7.25 


TABLE XIV. 


COST OF 


220 TO 250 VOLT LIGHTS (Mi 




Efficiency 


Stan.lard 






Size of lamp 


watts 


package 


List 


price 


in watts 


per candle 


quantity 
Straight Side 


Clear 


Frosty 


25 


1.20 


100 


$0.33 


$0.36 


40 


1.12 


100 


0.33 


0.36 


60 


1.10 


100 


0.45 


0.49 


100 


1.00 


24 


0.80 


0.87 


150 


1.00 


24 


1.20 


1.30 


250 


0.95 


12 
Pear-Shape 


2.00 


2.15 


200 


1.00 


24 


2.20 


2.27 


300 


0.92 


24 


3.60 


3.70 


400 


0.90 


12 


4.80 


4.95 


500 


0.85 


12 


5.40 


5.55 


750 


0.82 


8 


7.20 


7.45 


1.000 


0.78 


8 


8.40 


8.65 



Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side — Empere shape type, 
for 220 to 250 volts. Table XIV. 

The efficiency watt per candle for the pear shape type is given in 
watts per spherical c.p. Pear shape lamps are not recommended 
" all frosted." If frosting is necessary, bowl frosting is preferred 



1062 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and is particularly recommended for lamps of 300 watts or less 
which are to be used in interior lighting where the glare would 
otherwise be objectionable. Orders should specially state if lamps 
are to be burned in other than pendant positions, 

Mazda Class — Large style — Straight side type for electric street 
railway service. The lamps listed are selected for amperes and are 
labeled for use, five in series, on 525, 550, 575, 600. 625 and 650 
volts. They are rated in voltage groups, Table XV. 



TABLE XV. 


COST OF ELECTRIC. RAILWAY LIGHTS (MAZl 


Number in series Lamp voltage 




Line voltage 


5 
, 5 
5 
5 
5 
6 




105 
110 
115 
120 
125 
130 




525 
550 
575 
600 
625 
650 


Nominal 
watts 


Efficiency 
watts per c.p. 


Standard 
package 
quantity 


List 
Clear 


price 

Frosted 


23 
36 
56 
94 


1.11 

1.09 
1.02 
0.97 


100 

100 

100 

50 


$0.27 
0.27 
0.36 
0.65 


$0.30 
0.30 
0.40 

0.72 



Gem or Carbon Class — Large style — Straight side and round 
types. Lamps of this type come in standard package quantities 
of from 200 to 250 with a straight side and in packages of 100 
with a round type, Table XVI. 



TABLE 


XVI. 


COST OF 


CARBON LIGHTS (GEM 


Size of lamp 
in watts 


Efficiency 
watts per c.p. 




List price 
Clear Frosted 


20 
30 
40 
60 




4 
3 

2.56 

2.50 




$0.20 $0,225 
0.20 0.225 
0.20 0.225 
0.20 0.225 


50 




2.50 


Round Type 

0.25 0.280 



Cost of Electric Conduit. The following costs are given by 
the General Electric Co., 1914: 

ENAMELED CONDUIT 



Size, ins. 


Weight, lbs. per 


100 ft. 


Net 


price per 100 ft, 


¥2 


85 






$54 


% 


IUV2 






72 


1 


1681/3 






106 


ly* 


128 






144 


iy2 


273 






172 


2 


369 






231 


2% 


582 






367 


3 


762 






480 


3% 


920 






580 


4 


1,089 






685 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1063 

Galvanized and sherardized conduits will cost above 5% more 
than enameled. 

The above prices are net for amounts up to $50. An additional 
discount of 5% is given on orders of from $50 to $250 and above 
$250 a 10% discount is given. 

Cost of Wiring. We have taken the following data from Elec- 
trical World, March 9, 1912: 

Job 1. Sixteen outlets and twenty-two sockets. 22 X 50 watts = 
1,100 watts total. 1,100 watts -^ 16 (number of outlets) gives 
average of 69 watts per outlet. Under Class B the price for a 
job averaging 69 watts per outlet is $0,068 per watt. 1,100 X 
$0,068 = $62.70. socket wiring cost of job. (Switch wiring and 
switches to be added.) 

Job 2. Seventeen outlets and twenty-two lamps. 1,100 watts -r- 
17 = 65 watts per outlet. Under Class B the price is $0,061 per 
watt. 1,100 X $0,061 = $67.10, socket-wiring cost of job. 

TABLE XVII. BALTIMORE UNIT PRICE BASED ON WATTS 

WIRED 

Class of building 
Average watts per outlet ABC 

50 to 55 $0.06 $0.07 $0.08 

56 or more Less 0.6 cent per watt for each watt over 55 

Over 75 0.04 

Over 80 0.046 0.055 

For convenience, use the 



following figures : 








50 to 56 


0.060 


0.070 


0.008 


57 


0.059 


0.069 


0.079 


58 


0.058 


0.068 


0.078 


59 


0.057 


0.067 


0.077 


60 


0.056 


0.066 


0.076 


61 


0.055 


0.065 


0.075 


62 


0.054 


0.064 


0,074 


63 


0.053 


0.063 


0.073 


64 


0.052 


0.062 


0.072 


65 


0.051 


0.061 


0.071 


66 


0.050 


0.060 


0.070 


67 


0.049 


0.059 


0.069 


68 


0.048 


0.058 


0.068 


69 


0.047 


0.057 


0.067 


70 


0.046 


0.056 


0.066 


71 


0.045 


0.055 


0.065 


72 


0.044 


0.054 


0.064 


73 


0.043 


0.053 


0.063 


74 


0.042 


0.052 


0.062 


75 


0.041 


0.051 


0.061 


76 


0.041 


0.051 


0.061 


77 


0.040 


0.050 


0.060 


78 


0.040 


0.048 


0.058 


79 


0.040 


0.047 


0.057 


80 


0.040 


0.046 


0.056 


81 and over 


0.040 


0.045 


0.056 



Wiring for Lamps, Outlets Only. — Obtain price as follows : Multi- 
ply number of lamps or sockets by 50 watts to get total watts wired 
for. Divide total watts by the number of outlets to obtain average 



1064 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

watts per outlet. On corresponding line in table find price (cents 
per watt) under class of building being estimated. Multiply the 
total watts wired for by this price per watt found in table. These 
prices are for wiring only — hardware extra, 

TABLE XVIII. MULTIPLIERS FOR CONCEALED EXTRA 
WORK 

For porcelain concealed work in Class A house multiply by 0.00 

For porcelain concealed work in Class B house multiply by 1.05 

For porcelain concealed work in Class C house multiply by. . . .1.16 
For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class A house multiply by. 1.60 
For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class B house multiply by. 1.68 
For flexible-conduit concealed work in Class C house multiply by. 1.80 
For wood molding, exposed work in Class A house multiply by. .0.77 

Table XVIII gives multipliers for concealed work for the different 
classes of buildings in Table XVII. 

Wiring for Switches Only. For each kind of switch to be wired 
for, find price per switch outlet under class of building being esti- 
mated. 

Per single pole $2.00 $2.00 $2.50 

Per set of two three-ways (one set used) 6.00 6.00 7.00 

Per set of two three- ways (two sets used at 

same outlets) 5.00 5.00 6.00 

Per set of two three- ways with one four-way. . 2.50 3.50 3.25 

Two-point electrolier 2.50 3.50 3.25 

Three-point electrolier -3.00 3.00 4.00 

Job S. Seventeen outlets and twenty-four lamps. 24 X 50 watts 
= 1.200 watts. 1,200 watts -r- 17 = 70 watts per outlet. Under 
Class B the price is $0,065 per watt. 1,200 X $0,056 = $67.20, 



80 










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lU 13 U 16. 18 aj- 22 24 26 28 
Outlets CExcluii;ve of Switches > 



34 36 



Fig. 11. Curves showing relation between numbers of outlets and 

rockets. 



Note that the difference between Jobs 1 and 2 is one outlet, the 
addition of which adds $4.40, which is about right for the work 
done. Again the difference between Jobs 2 and 3 requires no addi- 
tional work, two circuits being required in both cases, and the 
resulting price is only 10 cents higher for adding two lamps. Using 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1065 

this scheme several men with only sales experience and no previous 
electrical knowledge were employed by the Baltimore company, and 
in less than a week were able to estimate wiring in completed resi- 
dences and to close orders for it — which is the end desired. 

Several points in the preceding schedule are, however, incon- 
sistent. In some places, with certain combinations of outlets and 
lamps, the addition of an outlet does not increase the price to the 
customer, and in others the addition of a few lamps not requiring 
an additional circuit raises the cost. If the reader will not lose 
sight of the practical relation of outlets and lamps, as illustrated 
in Fig. 10, these circumstances will not be found serious, as they 
are negligible within the bounds of practical installations, and be- 
come harmful only where two or more customers compare the prices 
paid for work. 

TABLE XIX. PRICE PER OUTLET WITH BASE CHARGE 

Number Price for total Number Price for total 
of lamps lamp outlets of lamps lamp outlets 

1 $3.50 16 $47.85 

2 6.90 17 50.50 

3 10.20 18 53.10 

4 13.80 19 55.65 * 

5 16.90 20 58.15 

6 19.90 21 61.60 
• 7 21.90 22 64.00 

8 24.90 23 66.35 

9 27.90 24 68.65 

10 30.90 25 71.90 

11 33.85 26 74.15 

12 36.75 27 76.40 

13 39.60 28 78.65 

14 42.40 29 80.90 

15 45^15 30 83.15 

To the above add base price for service entrances as follows : 

Under- 
Overhead meter ground meter 
location location 

Basement First floor Basement 

For 1 to 12 lamps (one circuit) $4.00 $3.00 $2.25 

For 13 to 24 lamps (two circuits) .. . 4.75 3.75 3.00 

For 25 to 36 lamps (three circuits) . . 6.00 5.00 4.25 

For 37 to 48 lamps (four circuits) . . 7.25 6.00 5.25 

For 49 to 60 lamps (five circuits) . . . 8.75 7.00 6.50 

For wiring to each switch outlet, add as follows : 

One single-pole switch outlet controlling one-lamp outlet $1.85 

One set of two three-way switch outlets controlling one-lamp 

outlet 4.00 

One set of two three-way switch outlets controlling two or 

three-lamp outlets 5.00 

One set of two three-way and one four-way switch outlet con- 
trolling two or three-lamp outlets 6.50 

One two-point electrolier switch controlling one-lamp outlet. . . . 2.25 
One three-point electrolier switch controlling one-lamp outlet. 3.00 

Schedule of Contractors' Wiring Prices at Emporia, Kan. The 
schedule of wiring prices used by the representatives of the central 



lOGG MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

station in Emporia, Kan., described in Electrical World, Jan. 23, 
1915, and the contractors is given in Table XX. Lamps are not 
included in the prices given. 



TABLE XX. WIRING PRICES FOR FRAME HOUSES IN 
KANSAS 

5 rooms with drop-cords $1 3. 00 

5 rooms with drop-cords and porch lamp and switch 17.00 

5 rooms with 3 drop-cords, two 2-lamp fixtures with shades, 

and porch lamp and switch 21.80 

6 rooms with drop-cords .• 15.85 

6 rooms with drop-cords, porch lamp and switch 19.85 

6 rooms with 4 drop-cords and two 2-lamp fixtures and 

shades . 20.65 

6 rooms as above with porch lamp and switch 24.65 

8 rooms (2-story) with drop-cords 20.55 

8 rooms (2-story) with drop-cords and two 2-lamp fixtures 

and shades 25.35 

8 rooms (2-story) as above with 3-way switch 32.35 

8 rooms (2-story) as above with porch lamp and switch.... 36.35 



Cost of Wiring Two-Story House. The following has been taken 
from the Electrical Age, July, 1917: 

As an illustration of how the wiring of an . average two-story 
house is figured, we give herewith, the wiring specifications and 
figures for such a house — the figures complete wiring for light 
and appliances. These data appeared in the pamphlet entitled 
" Wiring Your Share of Fifteen Million Homes." These specifica- 
tions may be used as a model, for they represent standard practice 
in the wiring of already-built houses : 

Cost of Cost of 
wiring fixtures 

Cellar — One ceiling outlet and one snap switch.. $4.74 No fixture 

necessary. 

Laundry — One ceiling outlet 2.00 No fixture 

necessary. 
Baseboard outlet for electric iron, electric 

washing machine, etc 3.70 .... 

Porch — Ceiling outlet and single control push 

button switch 5.24 $2.90 

Kitchen — Ceiling outlet 2.00 3.50 

Dining room — (^eiling outlet and single control 

push button switch 5.24 .... 

Baseboard outlet for toaster, percolator, chafing- 
dish, fan, etc : . 3.70 13.50 

Living room — Ceiling outlet and single control 

push button switch 5.24 10.20 

Upper hall — Coiling outlet and single control 

push button switch 5.24 2.50 

Bathroom — Ceiling outlet 2.00 2.50 

Upstairs sitting room — Ceiling outlet and single 

control push button switch 5.24 10.50 

Two b.Mlrooms — Two ceiling outlets 4.00 13.70 

Switch and mains 15.00 .... 

$63.34 $59.30 
Total cost of wiring and fixtures $122.64 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1067 

The Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Brooklyn, N. Y., 
gives the prices for 1914, Table XXI. 

TABLE XXI. PLAT-RATE WIRING PRICES AND 
DEDUCTIONS IN BROOKLYN 

KITCHEN 

No. 1 — Outlet consisting of a baseboard or wall flush re- 
ceptacle, installed in kitchen on first floor, and one 
ceiling outlet with one-lamp fixture And pull- 
chain socket $19.45 

CELLAR 

No. 2 — Ceiling receptacle in cellar at heating apparatus with 

flush switch at head of cellar stairs 7.75 

HALL 

No. 3 — Ceiling outlet in hall with one-lamp chain fixture 
and pull-chain socket Cif wall bracket fixture is de- 
sired instead deduct 85 cents) 8.10 

DINING-ROOM 

No. 4 — Dining-room outlet with three-lamp shower fixture, 
pull-chain sockets (if amber glass dome is desired 
instead add $1.50) 11.75 

PIAZZA 

No. 5 — Outlet on piazza with ceiling fixture and globe with 

switch in hall 10.00 

BEDROOM 

No. 6 — Bedroom outlet with two-lamp shower fixture, pull- 
chain sockets 8.00 

PARLOR 

No. 7 — Parlor outlet with four-lamp shower fixture, pull- 
chain sockets 10.50 

CHINA CLOSET 

No. 8 — China-closet outlet and bracket fixture with pull- 
chain socket 6.20 

BACK PORCH 

No. 9 — Back-porch outlet and bracket fixture with switch.. 10.35 

PANTRY 

Nx>. 10 — Pantry outlet and one-lamp bracket fixture with pull- 
chain socket 6.20 

BATHROOM 

No. 11 — Bathroom outlet and one-lamp nickel-plated fixture, 

pull-chain socket 6.20 

ALL OTHER OUTLETS 

No. 12 — All other lighting outlets with one-lamp bracket 

fixture pull-chain socket 6.20 

No. 13 — Two three-way switches for controlling hall lamp 

from upper or lower floor 9.90 

No. 14 — Floor, baseboard, wall, or ceiling receptacles 4.95 

No. 15 — Bell-ringing transformers for alternating current 

only 4.95 

No. 15 — Bell-ringing transformers for alternating current 

only 4.95 

No. 16 — Flush wall switches 3.85 



1068 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

INSTALLING RISERS / 

No. 17 — For each additional floor above first floor add 5.50 

DEDUCTIONS FOR FIXTURES IV I'ERSONAL SELECTION IS DESIRED 

No. 1 $1.30 No. 6 $3.05 

No. 3 2.10 No. 7 5.50 

No. 4 4.65 Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, each. . 1.25 

No. 5 70 

Boston Edison House-Wiring Campaign gives the schedule of 
wiring prices during 1913, shown in Table XXII. 

TABLE XXII. SCHEDULE OF WIRING PRICES IN BOSTON 

No. 1 — Outlet consisting of a flush plug receptacle located in 
anv room on the first floor anywhere excepting 

ceiling $14.35 

No. 2 — No. 1 and outlet in cellar at heating apparatus with 

switch 19.00 

No. 3 — No. 1 and 1 outlet on piazza with switch in hall and 

fixture 22.00 

No. 4 — No. 1 and 1 outlet in hall with switch and fixture 

(three-way switches $6 additional) 23.00 

No. 5 — No. 1 and 1 outlet in parlor with switch and fixture 25.50 

No. 6 ~ No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 27.00 

No. 7 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 4 28.00 

No. 8 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 5 ." 30.50 

No. 9 — No. 1 ; No. 3; No. 4 31.00 

No. 10 — No. 1 ; No. 3 ; No. 5 33.50 

No. 11 — No. 1; No. 4; No. 5 34.50 

No. 12 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 ; No. 4 36.00 

No. 13 — No. 1 ; No. 2 ; No. 3 ; No. 5 38.50 

No. 14 — No. 1; No. 2; No. 4 ; No. 5 39.50 

No. 15 — No. 1; No. 3; No. 4 ; No. 5 42.00 

No. 16 — No. 1; No. 2; No. 3; No. 4; No. 5 47.50 

Addition (to apply only after No. 3) : 

No. 17 — Dining-room outlet with switch and fixture 12 00 

No. 18 — Kitchen outlet with switch and fixture 8.25 

No. 19 — Pantry outlet and fixture 4.25 

No. 20 — China-closet outlet and fixture 4.25 

No. 21 — Back porch outlet with switch and fixture 8.00 

No. 22 — Second-story hall outlet with two three-way switches 

and fixture 11.25 

No. 23 — Bathroom outlet with switch and fixture 8.25 

No. 24 — All other lighting outlets with fixtures, each 4.25 

No. 25 — All other switches, each 4.00 

No. 26 — Floor or baseboard receptacles, each 4.00 

No. 27 — Bell-ringing transformer 4.00 

For each additional floor above the first floor : 
No. 28 — Add $5 for Item No. 1 (extra charge is to provide for 

running risers through additional floors). 
No. 29 — Add $10 for Items No. 1 and No. 2 (extra charge is 

to provide for controlling cellar lighting from the 

floor occupied by the user.) 

Deduction if not wanted : 

Switches (exclusive of cellar switch), each 3.00 

For fixtures if personal selection is desired : 

Nos. 3 and 6. each 100 

Nos. 18, 19. 20, 21. 22, 23, 24. each 1.25 

Nos. 4 and 6. each 2.00 

Nos. 5 and 8, each 4.50 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1069 

Nos. 9 and 12, each $3.00 

Nos. 10 and 13, each 5.50 

Nos. 11 and 14, each 6.50 

Nos. 15 and 16, each 7.50 

No. 17 5.00 

Cost of Wiring and Conduit Work for a Power Plant. The fol- 
lowing power-plant cost figures from Electrical World, Mar. 27, 
1915, were made up after many cases were tried out in various, 
parts of the country. In using Table XXIII all expensive fixtures, 
apparatus, etc., are not included. The per cent, is based on the 
actual wiring materials, including switches, fuses and cutout boxes. 
The same figures apply to lead-incased wire, No. 6 and smaller. 

TABLE XX 111. ELECTRICAL LABOR COSTS FOR STATION 
WIRING WITH RUBBER-COVERED COPPER WIRE 

Cost of labor ; per 
cent, of cost of 
Size of wire material 

No. 14 100 

No. 12 100 

No. 10 80 

No. 8 60 

No. 6 , 40 

No. 4 30 

No. 2 25 

No. 1, 1/0. 2/0. .3/0 20 

No. 4/0 and cables 18 

Table XXIV gives the cost to install wire and cable in conduit. 
This price, one that would be used for such purpose as appraisal, 
includes : material, labor, a contractor's profit and overhead ex- 
pense. It will cover feeders, and branches in the usual building 
work. This should not be used for short lines having numerous 
outlets. 

TABLE XXIV. COST FOR PULLING WIRE IN CONDUIT 

Description Dollars per foot 

500,000-C.M. cable in 3-inch conduit 1.820 

Two 300,000-C.M. cables in 2.5-inch conduit 1.210 

Two No. 2/0 wires in 2-inch conduit 0.820 

Two No. 1/0 wires in 2-inch conduit 0.620 

Two No. 1 wire.s in 1.5-inch conduit 0.510 

Two No. 5 wires in 1-inch conduit 0.250 

Two No. 6 wires in 1-inch conduit 0.210 

The average cost of all conduit bends in general wiring practice 
shows that from 20 to 50-deg. bends covst very closely the same and 
that above 50 up to 90-deg. bends cost a larger amount. It has 
been found that the cost of bending is a function of the diameter 
and in the usual lengths independent of the length of conduit being 
bent. The following table gives the labor charges to be added to 
the cost of the conduit. These costs are for field bending and are 
quite high when the diameter exceeds about two inches. In figuring 



90-degTee 


Bends from 


bends 


22.5to45deg. 


1.000 


0.900 


0.750 


0.600 


0.350 


0.250 


0.250 


0.150 


0.250 


0.150 


0.150 


0.100 


0.100 


0.050 


0.100 


0.050 



1070 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

conduit bending to be done on the job, list all bends to be made 
under two heads, 90 degs. and 22.5-45 degs. Neglect all bends of 
less than 22.5 degs. and use about twice the 90-deg. price for bends 
greater than 90 degs. 

TABLE XXV. COST OF BENDING CONDUIT 

Size of conduit 
in inches 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1.25 

1 

0.75 

0.5 

Where a conduit is to be bent in a large radius, involving long 
lengths of pipe and several fittings, the cost of bending, exclusive 
of cost of assembling parts, is about two cts. per lin. ft. of bend as 
a maximum and an average of 1.2 cts. per lin; ft. for 1.2 5 -in. 
conduit or smaller. 

It is sometimes desirable to run a conduit between buildings 
underground. If the conduit is given a good wrapping with tarred 
canvas this will more than double its life. The cost for wrapping, 
including material and labor but no pipe or conduit, averages as 
shown in Table XXVI. 

TABLE XXVL COST OF WRAPPED CONDUIT 

Size of conduit 

in inches Dollars per foot 

0.5 to 1.0 0.015 

1.25 0.019 

1.5 0.022 

2.0 0.027 

2.5 0.032 

3.0 0.040 

Labor Costs in Interior Construction. Louis W. Moxey in Elec- 
trical World, Oct. 23, 1915, gives Tables XXVII to XLV of labor 
costs for installing various kinds of apparatus. The data given, 
however, cannot be considered general in their applications, for 
conditions vary widely in the electrical contracting field. Every 
contractor should make his own tables and curves, utilizing his 
records for the purpose. In all the tables it is assumed that the 
rates for labor are 55 cts. per hr. for foremen, 45 cts. per hr. for 
wiremen, and 25 cts. per hr. for helpers. All figures given include 
an allowance for what has been found to be necessary supervision 
by the foreman in the class of work under consideration. 

If the items entering into architects' and engineers' specifications 
were always given in succession from point of supply to the outlets, 
the chances of the electrical contractor omitting items in his esti- 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1071 



mate would be considerably reduced. Whether or not the archi- 
tects or engineers write their specification in that form, the con- 
tractor should prepare his estimate so. 

If an engine is to be installed in the plant, the contractor's first 
items should be for engines, foundations, painting, etc. Next should 
come the item for generators. If these be belted machines, the 
belts could be included under this item. Then should come the 
dynamo cables installed and connected to the lugs of the dynamos 
and switchboard. This should be followed by the item of switch- 
Page 2 Estimate isTo. 10,176 

Item Labor and materials Unit price 

Light mains, 
three-wire 200 ft. 2-in. conduit, loricated. .$0.20 $40.00 

3 2-in. L's, loricated 0.30 0.90 

3 2-in. coupling, loricated.... 0.10 0.30 

1 2-in. condulet (three-wire) . . . 2.00 

600 ft. No, D. B., N. E. C. S. . 0.15 91.50 

Labor, conduit 0.25 50.00 

Labor, wire 0.05 30.50 

Supports, junction box, etc 7.00 $222.20 

Example 1. Applying the detailed method to mains. 

Page 3 Estimate No. 10,576 

Item Labor and materials Unit price 

Light 

branches 400 ft. %-in. conduit, loricated. . $0.06 $24.00 
200 ft. %-in. conduit, loricated.. 0.07 14.00 
600 ft. No. 12 duplex. N.E.C.S... 0.03 18.00 
200 ft. No. 12 single. N.E.C.S... 0.15 3.00 

Labor. Va-in. conduit 0.08 32.00 

Labor, %-in. conduit 0.09 18.00 

Labor, No. 12 duplex 0.01 6.00 

Labor. No. 12 single 0.08 1.60 

■Supports, etc 3.40 $120.00 

Outlets 20 light outlet boxes, T. & B. . . 0.20 4.00 

Labor 0.30 6.00 

20 studs on supports, T. & B 0.15 3.00 

Labor 0.20 4.00 

5 switch boxes 0.25 1.25 

Labor 0.30 1.50 

5 switches, D. P., Cutter 0.80 4.00 

Labor 0.20 1.50 

Bushings, etc 5.00 30.25 

Example 2. Applying the detail method to branch circuits. 



boards installed complete with instruments, circuit-breakers, etc. 
This would practically complete the plant unless a storage battery 
was to be installed. A miscellaneous item could be inserted either 
at this point or under the general expense item at the end of the 
estimate covering the tests and if necessary the water rheostat. 

The estimate should then include the following items in the 
succession here given, the costs of both material and labor being 
entered : 

Connection of power and light feeders to switchboard. 

Flexible tubing, junction boxes, conduits, etc. 

Power feeders, mains and sub-mains. 

Power panels, boxes, doors, trim and fuses. 



1072 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Power branches. 

Power outlets, such as switches, starters and the like, erected and 
connected, wiring between switches, starters, etc., and motors. 

Motors and foundations, delivered, erected and connected. 

This would complete the power portion of the estimate, and the 
lighting portion should follow, the items being taken in the order 
given below : 

Light feeders, mains and sub-mains. 

Panel boards, panel boxes, doors, trim and fuses. 

Branches. 

Outlets. 

Expenses, cartage, freight, car fare, railroad fare, loss of time, 
inspection fees, shanty, telephone, bond, insurance and miscel- 
laneous. 

The same method should be followed in making an estimate for 
telephone, telegraph, fire-alarm, watchman's-clock, time-clock, an- 
nunciation and similar systems. 

An estimate for light branches according to this detail method 
would appear as shown in Example 2. 

TABLE XXVIII. COST PER KILOWATT FOR ERECTING 
BELTED GENERATORS 

Size in Normal Cost of 

kw. condition Easy Difficult painting 

1-5 $1.00 $0.75 $1.50 $0.60 

5 -12i/> 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.60 

12V,-25 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.50 

25 "-50 1.00 0.75 1.50 0.40 

75 0.80 0.60 1.25 0.30 

100 0.75 0.60 1.20 0.25 

150 0.60 0.50 0.90 0.20 

200 0.50 0.40 0.80 0.18 

300 0.40 0.30 0.60 0.15 

500 0.30 0.20 0.50 0.12 

TABLE XXIX. COST PER KILOWATT OF FOUNDATIONS FOR 
BELTED GENERATORS * 



Size in k^^. 


condition 


Easy 


Difficult 


1 - 5 


$2.00 


$1.50 


$3.00 to $4.00 


5 -121/2 


2.50 


2.00 


3.75 to 5.00 


12y.-25 


200 


1.50 


3.00 to 4.00 


25 -50 


1.50 


1.00 


2.25 to 3.25 


75 


1.20 


0.85 


1.80 to 2.80 


100 


1.00 


0.75 


1.50 to 2.50 


150 


0.85 


0.60 


1.25 to 2.25 


200 


0.75 


0.60 


1.00 to 2.00 


300 


0.60 


0.50 


0.90 to 1.80 


500 


0.50 


0.40 


0.75 to 1.50 



* The items under this heading include the cost of labor and mate- 
rials, which is the usual method of estimating this class of work. 
The figures are based on the average cubical contents of founda- 
tions specified by generator makers. If the electrical contractor is 
to furnish the belt or belts, the labor for putting them in place 
should be included. 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1073 

TABLE XXX. LABOR FOR ERECTING SWITCHBOARD 
PANELS 

Dynamo Dynamo Feeder Feeder 

panel panel panel panel 

without with without with 

sub-base sub-base sub-base sub-base 

Cost per panel $10.00 $12.00 $12.00 $15.00 



TABLE XXXI. LABOR PER LEAD FOR CONNECTING 
SWITCHBOARD AND DYNAMO LEADS * 









Rubber or 




Paper 


Rubber 


slow-burning 


Size, B. & S. 


and lead 


and lead 


Insulation 


14-8 


$0.33 


$0.30 


$0.21 


6 


0.45 


0.41 


0.28 


5 


0.55 


0.50 


0.33 


4 


0.66 


0.60 


0.40 


3 


0.80 


9.72 


0.49 


2 


0.87 


0.79 


0.53 


1 


0.92 


0.84 


0.56 





1.00 


0.90 


0.60 


00 


1.04 


0.94 


0.63 


000 


1.08 


0.98 


0.65 


0000 


1.14 


1.03 


0.69 


Circ. mils 








250,000 


1.18' 


1.08 


0.72 


300,000-350,000 


1.34 


1.22 


0.78 


400,000-450,000 


1.43 


1.30 


0.84 


500,000-550,000 


1.60 


1.44 


0.90 


600.000-650,000 


2.10 


1.90 


1.00 


700,000-750,000 


2.50 


2.25 


1.25 


800,000-850,000 


2.95 


2.65 


1.50 


900,000-950,000 


3.30 


3.00 


1.75 


1,000,000 


3.75 


3.40 


2.00 



* These figures are the labor costs for soldering cables into lugs at 
the switchboard and generators, also for soldering light and power 
cables into lugs of switches on the switchboard. They include the 
cost of arranging the cables in a neat and workmanlike manner at 
these locations. 



What might be called the semi-detail method can generally be 
used for quick estimating with fairly accurate results. It con- 
sists of a combination of the labor and material costs. Take, for 
example, the item of mains in an estimate. If made in detail, it 
would be as shown in Example 1. 

It will be noted that the total cost for running 200 ft. of main 
consisting of three No. wires is $222.20, or $1.10 per foot. The 
contractor could prepare tables of unit prices for all items in an 
estimate, such as for two-wire ,to nine-wire service connections, 
two-wire to five-wire mains, two-wire and three-wire branches, 
etc., showing their cost for buildings of various types of construc- 
tion. The disadvantage of this method, however, is that a change 
in price of materials diminishes the accuracy of the tables. 



1074 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXXII. LABOR COSTS (IN CENTS) PER FOOT OF 
CONDUIT WORK * 

Steel-terra-cotta Concrete Slow-burning 

construction construction construction 

Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed 



3 


. 


^ 


-w 


4J 


-M 


„+J 


•M 


. 


^ 


^ 


■M 


m-^ 


S8 


11 




^1 




11 












^1 




w 


M 


J 


m 


^ 


m 


a 


w 


H^ 


w 


h^ 


M 


h^l 


1/2 


7 


6 


6 


4 


8 


7 


7 


5 


6 


5 


6 


4 


% 


8 


7 


7 


5 


9 


8 


8 


6 


7 


6 


7 


5 


1 


9 


8 


8 


6 


10 


9 


9 


7 


8 


7 


8 


6 


IVt 


10 


9 


9 


7 


11 


10 


10 


8 


9 


8 


9 


7 


1% 


11 


10 


10 


8 


12 


11 


11 


9 


10 


9 


10 


8 


2 


12 


11 


11 


9 


15 


12 


12 


10 


12 


10 


11 


9 


21/2 


15 


12 


12 


10 


20 


15 


15 


12 


15 


12 


12 


10 


3 


20 


15 


15 


12 


25 


20 


20 


15 


20 


15 


15 


12 


3y2 


25 


20 


20 


15 


30 


25 


25 


20 


25 


20 


20 


15 


4 


30 


25 


30 


20 


40 


30 


30 


25 


30 


25 


30 


20 



* The figures given in the table of costs for conduit work are for 
work in new buildings and include the labor cost of preparing for 
and running rigid conduit per foot, as well as the labor on junction 
boxes. If conduits are to be installed in old buildings, the cost 
figures would be considerably greater than those given in the table, 
the percentage of increase depending on the conditions. However, 
for concealed work in existing buildings flexible conduit (see Table 
XVII) is generally used in order to do as little tearing out as pos- 
sible. 



TABLE XXXIII. FLEXIBLE-CONDUIT LABOR COSTS PER 
FOOT FOR CONCEALED WORK IN EXISTING BUILDINGS* 

Size, inches Slow-burning construction Fireproof construction 

Va $0.08 $0.10 

% 0.09 0.11 

1 0.10 0.12 
1% 0.12 0.15 
1% 0.15 20 

2 0.20 0.30 
2% 0.30 0.40 

3 0.40 0.50 

• The figures include cost of preparing for and running. There is 
little difference in cost whether the amount is large or small. 



TABLE XXXIV. COST PER FOOT OF FISHING CONDUITS 

AND PULLING WIRES * 

Size, One wire Two or more 

B. & S. per conduit wires per conduit 

14 $0,005 $0,004 

12 0.006 0.004 

10 0.0065 0.005 

8 0.0075 0.006 

6 ^0.0085 0.0065 

5 0.01 0.007 

4 0.013 0.0075 

3 0.016 0.008 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 



1075 



One wire 
per conduit 


Two or more 
wires per conduit 


0.023 
0.025 


0.013 
0.016 


0.03 
U.04 
0.045 
0.05 


0.02 
0.023 
0.025 
0.03 


0.055 

0.065 

0.075 

0.08 

0.09 


0.04 

0.045 

0.055 

0.065 

0.075 


0.09 
0.10 
0.11 
0.12 
0.12 


0.085 

0.09 

0.09 

0.10 

0.10 


0.12 

0.12 
0.12 


0.10 
0.10 
0.10 



Size 
2 
1 



00 
000 

oooo 

Circ. mil. 

250,000 
300,000-3.50.000 
400,000-450,000 
500,000-550.000 
600,000-650,000 

700,000-750,000 
800,000-850,000 
900,000-950,000 

1,000,000 

1,250,000 

1,500,000 
1,750,000 
2,000,000 

* These figures are for large amounts of rigid or flexible conduit 
in either new or existing buildings. For small amounts the figures 
should be increased from 10 to 30%. 



TABLE 


XL. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING 
AND BOXES 


PANELBOARDS 


Number 

of 
circuits 


Boxes 

, New buildings , , Old buildings , 

Exposed Concealed Exposed Concealed 


Panels 
installed 
and con- 
nected 


Doors 
and 
trim 


1- 6 

8-10 

10-14 

16-20 

24-30 


$1.00 
1.25 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 


$1.00 
1.25 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 




$1.00 
1.25 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 


$2.00 
2.25 
2.50 
3.00 
4.00 


$1.00 
1.50 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 


$0.4# 
0.50 
0.60 
0.75 
1.00 



TABLE XLI. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING AND 
CONNECTING MOTORS * 



H.p. of motor 


Floor 


Mounting 

Ceiling 


Wall 


1-2 

2 - 5 

7y2-10 

15 


$1.00 
3.00 
6.00 

10.00 


$1.50 

4.50 

. 9.00 

15.00 


$1.50 
3.50 
7.50 

12.00 


20 
25 
35 
50 


15.00 
20.00 
25.00 
35.00 


22.00 
30.00 
37.00 
51.00 


18.00 

24.00 
30.00 
42.00 


75 
100 
150 
200 


50.00 

75.00 

100.00 

150.00 


75.00 
110.00 
150.00 
225.00 


60.00 

90.00 

120.00 

180.00 



* Includes labor on supports. 



1076 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XLII. COST OF LABOR FOR INSTALLING AND 
CONNECTING SWITCHES AND RECEPTACLES 

Single-pole switches $0.20 Door switches $0.20 

Double-pole switches 0.25 Wall receptacles 0.20 

Three-way switches 0.30 Floor receptacles 0.30 

Four-way switches 0.25 

QUICK ESTIMATING 

It is impossible to give an accurate method for quick estimating, 
as the accuracy of the results obtained is entirely dependent upon 
the experience of the estimator and his knowledge of the building 
to be wired. Some contractors base quick estimates upon the 
cubical contents of buildings, while others estimate the material 
required and assume the labor item to be a certain percentage of 
this. The writer has found that the only quick method that is 
satisfactory is one basing the estimate on the number of outlets 
and utilizing data obtained. from previous installations of a similar 
nature. 

Take the following example, which is the cost for wiring a new 
residence of brick and joist construction by the concealed-conduit 
method. The service cables were run down the outside wall, the 
meter being installed in the basement. The system was three-wire, 



TABLE XLIII. LABOR COST OF INSTALLING OUTLET BOXES 
AND SUPPORTS 

, Old buildings ^ , New buildings » 

Steel and Slow- Steel and Slow- 
Type of outlet terra-cotta burning Concrete terra-cotta burning 

Light outlets $0.35 $0.30 $0.30 $0.25 $0.20 

Fixture supports.. 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 10 

Switch boxes 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.20 

Wall-receptacle 

boxes 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.20 

Floor-receptacle 

boxes 0.50 0.45 0.60 0.40 0.30 



TABLE XLIV. LABOR COSTS FOR INSTALLING MOTOR- 
CONTROL APPARATUS 

Hp. of Motor S^\ 

1-2 
3-5 

71/a-lO 
15 

20 
25 
35 
50 

75 
100 
150 
200 



and rheostat 


Controlling panel com- 
plete, switch, rheostat, 
etc. 


$0.75 
1.00 
2.00 
2.50 




$2.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 


3.00 
3.50 
4.50 
6.00 




6.00 

7.00 

9.00 

11.00 


8.00 
10.00 
12.00 
15.00 




13.00 
15.00 
17.00 
20.00 



LIGHTING AND WIRING 1077 

TABLE XLV. LABOR PER FOOT OF WIRE FOR INSTALLING 
CONCEALED KNOB-AND-TUBE WORK 



Size of wire, B. & S. 


New buildings 


Old buildings 


14 


$0.01 


$0.03 


12 


0.01 


0.03 


10 


0.01 


0.03 


8 


0.012 


0.035 


6 


0.015 


0.045 


5 


0.018 


0.055 


4 


0.02 


0.06 


3 


0.023 


0.07 


2 


0.025 


0.075 


1 


0.03 


0.09 





0.03 


0.09 


00 


0.035 


0.11 


000 


0.035 


0.11 


0000 


0.04 


0.12 



110-220-volt, single-phase. The panelboards were of slate with 
30-amp. type B switches, mounted in iron boxes, with wooden doors 
and trim. The switches were of Cutter manufacture and the 
receptacle of the flush wall type and of Pringle manufacture. The 
wire was rubber-covered and of the National Electrical Code 
standard. 

The shop cost as shown by the contract ledger was $400.75, the 
cost items being as follows : 

Materials $254.36 

Labor 136.74 

Car fare, etc 9.65 

Shop cost $400.75 

TABLE XLIII. LABOR PER FOOT OF WIRE FOR INSTALLING 
EXPOSED KNOB-AND-TUBE WORK * 

Running wire after 
Size of wires, B. & S. backboard or buttons Erecting backboard 

are erected or buttons 

14 $0,015 $0.02 

12 0.015 0.02 

10 0.015 0.02 

8 0.017 0.025 

6 0.02 0.03 

5 0.02 0.035 

4 0.023 0.04 

3 0.025 0.045 

2 0.03 0.05 

1 0.035 0.06 

0.035 0.07 

00 0.04 0.08 

000 0.045 0.09 

0000 0.045 0.10 

* When good knob-and-tube work is installed in new and old 
buildings the labor at outlets will be practically the same as given 
in Table XXII under the several headings, and the labor for switches 
and receptacles should be exactly the same as in Table XXL 



1078 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The residence had thirty-two light outlets, twenty-eight switch 
outlets and twenty receptacle outlets. The cost of a switch plus 
the labor of installing it was $1 and the cost of a receptacle plus 
the labor of installing it was $1.10. 

If all outlets were light outlets, the shop cost would have been 
approximately $400.75 — [(28 X $1) + (20 X $1.10)] or $350.75. 
Dividing $350.75 by the total number of outlets, which is 80, $4.38 
is obtained. Hence $4,38 is the cost of wiring per light outlet. 
The cost of wiring a switch outlet is $4.38 + $1, or $5.38, and the 
cost of wiring a receptacle outlet is $4,38 + $1.10, or $5.48. 

This method is fairly accurate for small-residence work, and any 
number of costs per outlet may be compiled to cover the various 
types of wiring construction, wiring systems, etc. 

TABLE XLIV. LABOR COST PER FOOT FOR INSTALLING 
MOLDING 

t Wires , 



Number Size, B. & S. "Wood molding Metal molding 
2 14 $0,04 $0.08 

2 12 0.05 0.08 

2 10 0.06 0.08 

2 8 0.07 

2 6 0.08 

* Metal molding is not made in sizes larger than for No. 10 wires, 
and wood molding is seldom used for wires larger than No, 6. The 
labor at outlets with molding is practically the same in the case 
of both wood and metal-molding construction. Tables similar to 
Tables XLII and XLIII can hence be made. 



CHAPTER XIV 

BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 

Cost of Split Pulleys. The costs of standard pulleys that can be 
used upon shafts of different sizes by the aid of interchangeable 
bushings are given in Table I. One pair of bushings is furnished 
with each pulley. 

TABLE I. STANDARD IRON SPLIT PULLEYS 



Diam., 
ins. 


f 
4 


6 


Face 

8 


in ins. 

10 


12 


14 


6 


$1.95 


$2.15 


$2.60 








8 


2.10 


2.35 
2.60 


2.80 
3.10 


$3.45 


... 




10 


2.25 




12 


2.70 


3.00 


3.70 


4.10 






14 


2.90 


3.30 


4.00 


4.50 


$5.60 




16 


3.10 


3.55 


4.35 


4.85 


6.00 


$6.90 


18 


3.35 


3.85 


4.70 


5.30 


6.55 


7.60 


20 


3.80 


4.80 


5.80 


6.45 


8.00 


9.00 


22 


4.10 


5.15 


6.20 


7.00 


8.65 


9.80 


24 


4.85 


6.00 


7.35 


8.25 


10.20 


11.45 


28 


5.65 


6.95 


8.55 


9.75 


12.05 


13.40 


32 


6.95 


8.60 


10.60 


12.10 


15.15 


16.75 


36 


7.95 


9.85 


12.05 


13.80 


17.15 


13.95 



Cost of Belting for Power Purposes. The following are costs 
of various types of belting : 

Leather. Price per 1-in. width per running foot in cts. : Single, 
91/^ cts.; Double, 19 cts.; Triple, 28 cts. Weight, 16 ozs. to 1 sq. ft. 
in single ply. 

Round Leather. Price per %-in. width per running foot in cts.: 
Solid,- 114 cts.; Twist. 2 cts. 

Cut Lacings, bundles. Price per %-in. width per 100 ft., 60 cts. 

Rubber. Price per 1-in. width per running ft. in cts. 

2-ply 31/2 to 4l^ cts. 6-ply 71410 gVa cts. 

3-ply 4 V, to 5 cts. 7-ply 9 to 11 Va cts. 

4-ply 51/2 to 6 cts. 8-ply 10% to 13 cts. 

5-ply 61^, to 8 cts. 

The price increases as the width. 

Stitched Canvas. Price per l-i_n. width per running ft. 

4-ply 3 cts. 8-ply 6 cts. 

5-ply 4 cts. 10-ply 7^^ cts. 

6-ply 4 1^ cts. 

Detachable Link Belts. We give below a table of various sizes 
of detachable link belt with prices, etc. Figure the working strain 

1079 



1080 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

at one-tenth the ultimate strength for speeds of from 200 to 400 
ft. per min. For lower speeds increase this by two-thirds. When 
a number of attachment links for fastening on buckets, etc., are 
used, add about 15% to cost of chain. 



TABLE II. CO! 


3T AND STRE: 


NGTH OP : 




BELTS 




Number of 


Ultimate 


Width, ins. 


links in 10 ft. 


strength 


% 


133 


• 700 


\WtQ 


104 


1,100 


15/16 


86 


1,190 


IVlf. 


86 


1,300 




74 


1,200 


1%6 


88 


1,500 


1% 


74 


1,600 


1% 


104 


1,900 


17/16 


80 


2.300 


l?1?e 


74 


2,200 


52 


2.800 


1»/16 


73 


3,100 




60 


2,600 


52 


3,300 


2 


46 


4.000 


2% 


52 


3,600 


21/2 
21^,6 


46 


4,900 


30 


4,950 


31^16 


30 


7,600 


2V2 


46 


5,750 


2% 


30 


7,500 


30 


8,700 


3 Vie 


39 


9,600 


4Vi6 


20 


6,900 




251/2 


9,900 


5'/l6 


251/2 


12,700 


3-yi6 


37 


11.000 


5»/2 


20 


15,000 


3% 


30 


12,700 


5^4 


20 


14,000 



Price 
per ft. 

$0.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.05 
.04 
.07 
.07 
.06 
.07 
.09 
.09 
.09 
.10 
.10 
.14 
.14 
.18 
.17 
.20 
.21 
.27 
.20 
.26 
.30 
.34 
.45 
.42 
.41 



TABLE III. COST OP STEEL SHAFTING 

Diam., ins. Weight per ft, lbs. Price per ft. 

1 2.66 $.073 

11^ 3.36 .0925 

11/4 4,16 .114 

1% 5.05 .139 

li/a 6.00 .15 

1% 7.04 .176 

1% • 8.16 .204 

lyg 9.39 .235 

2 10.65 .265 

2% 12.07 .302 

214 13.49 .337 

2% 15.07 .377 

21/5 16.68 .417 

2% 18.32 .457 

2% 20.18 .505 

2% 22.09 .55 

3 24.06 .625 

31^ 26.09 .668 

314 28.24 .742 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1081 

Biam., ins. Weight per ft., lbs. Price per ft. 

3% 30.43 .797 

31/i 32.64 .897 

3% 35.20 .967 

3% 37.45 1.03 

4 42.50 .• 1.28 

4% 48.26 1.44 

4V2 54.11 1.76 

4% 60.88 1.98 

5 67.50 2.36 

5M 73.58 2.58 

5% 80.72 3.02 

5% 88.24 3.68 

6 96.25 3.85 

Cost of Adjustable Shaft Hangers. Adjustable shaft hangers 
come in several standard sizes or drags: 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 
24. 30 and 36 ins., each having about 2 ins. adjusting distance. 

The drag is the distance between base and the center of bearing. 





TABLE 


IV. 


STANDARD BEARINGS 














Approx. additional 


iam. shaft, 


Standard ! 


sizes, 


Cost of 8- 


cost for each in- 


ins. 






ins. 




in. hangers 


crease in size 


1^16 






8-14 




$1.90 


$0.10 


i-yi6 






.... 




1.95 


.10 


lVl6 






8-20 




2.45 


.12 


iiyi6 










2,50 


.15 


11%6 






8-24 




3.40 


.15 


2^16 






8-36 




4.35 


.20 


27/16 






8-36 




4.65 


.20 


2"/l6 






8-36 




5.40 


.35 



Selection of Economical Belts and Pulleys. (W. R. Schaphorst 
in Power, April 28, 1914.) 

In a prominent factory in the city of New York there is an 
engine that runs 75 r.p.m., transmitting 100 h.p. from a 5-ft. pulley 
to a 4-ft. pulley. The distance between centers is 25 ft. Because 
of the slow engine speed and the relatively small driving pulley 
the belt has caused considerable trouble by slipping. Its velocity 
is less than 1,200 ft. per min., but a velocity of 3,000 ft. per min. 
would not be too high. 

A 10-ft. driving pulley and an 8-ft. driven pulley would give the 
same final speed, and there would be less tendency of the belt 
slipping, because of the greater belt contact. The cost of the larger 
pulleys plus the cost of the correspondingly smaller belt required 
would be about $270. 

Large pulleys should always be used, wherever possible, and espe- 
cially if they can be i)roved most economical by the method cited. 

In the factory mentioned a 40-in. belt is used. By doubling the 
diameters of the pulleys the belt speed is doubled and its trans- 
mission capacity is increased two-fold. A belt only one-half as 
wide, or 20 ins., would, therefore, suffice and its cost would be but 
one-half as great. The cost of the pulleys would be greater than 
in the present plant, but that increased cost would be more than 



1082 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

counterbalanced by the decreased cost of the belt; $270 could be 
saved, and the transmission defects would be eliminated. 

TABLE V. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY SIZES 



Diam. 


Diam. 














small 


large 


Width 


Length 


Cost 


Cost of 


Cost of 




pulley, 


pulley, 


of belt, 


of belt. 


of 


small 


large 


Total 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ft. 


belt 


pulley 


pulley 


cost 


48 


60 


40 


64 


$1023 


$179 


$253 


$1455 


60 


76 


32 


67.7 


867 


187 


. 288 


1342 


72 


iiO 


27 


71.2 


769 


239 


346 


1354 


84 


106 


23 


74.7 


687 


211 


299 


1197 


96 


120 


20 


Y8.25 


627 


234 


324 


1185 



HU 


w 










































\ 












































\ 










































\ 


\ 










































\ 












































\ 


































£ 








\ 


































C 










\ 


fe. 






























- 












^ 


'j,- 




























^30 














k 










































fc 


-r> 
























H- 
















> 


f<v 












































K 


>r 




















•H 






















^ 


'e-^ 


















TJ 
























s 


















^ 


I— 




c 


^of/yJ.. 










\ 




























r^ 


rr^ 


'^rs,p 


.^/■.■^ 


^ 






















r 




















r^ 


P^ 




= 




































^ 


V, 




20. 






































X 


S 


V 


*• 






t 


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( 


> 










T 








8 



0.1 5 S 
0.14-5 

0.1 2 o 

O.JO o 
Diame+er of Small Pulley, Fee+ »owt.j 

Fig. 1. Developing 100 h.p., speed of driving pulley 75 r.p.m. 



In belt computations the rules that are most widely used are as 
follows : 

Rule 1. A sing-le-ply belt 1 in. wide, running 800 ft. per min. 
will transmit 1 h.p. 

Rule 2. A double-ply belt 1 in. wide, running 500 ft. per min. 
will transmit 1 h.p. 

To convert rule No. 1 into a formula applicable to most ordinary 
conditions, let 



Wi — Width of single-ply belt in ins. 
W2 — Width of double-thickness belt in ins. 
H =: Horsepower to be transmitted ; 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1083 

D — Diam. of driving pulley in ft. ; 
A'' = Revolutions per min. of driving pulley; 
trDN — Speed of belt in ft. per min. ; 
TvDN 

— Horfc-epower a single thickness belt 1 in. wide will trans- 

800 

mit. 
Therefore, 

7r2>iV 800 if 254 fT 

Wi = if ^ - — - = = (I) 

800 7r/)iV DN 

By the same process rule No. 2 becomes 

159 H 

W-2 = (II) 

BN 

Adhering to the speed conditions laid down by the factory men- 
tioned, a small pulley 5 ft. in diam. and a 6.25-ft. driving pulley 
would effect practically the same final speed. Applying formula 
(II) it is found that a 32-in. belt would be needed. Next, 6-ft, 
and 7.5-ft. pulleys with a 27-in. belt could be used. 

It is most convenient to tabulate these figures in Table V with 
the length of the belt, the cost of the belt, and the costs of the 
pulleys. The total costs are then readily determined and com- 
pared. Plotting the total costs and belt widths, as in Fig. 1, the 
decreases in both are plainly shown. 

The costs of pulleys and belting used in all of these tables are 
taken from the catalog of a manufacturer of transmission ma- 
chinery and may be considered reliable for the problems solved 
here. Although, in this factory problem, the constant decrease in 
cost with increase in pulley diameters indicates that even larger 
pulleys might be still more economical, the curve could not 
be continued in this case because the limiting diameter of standard 
iron pulleys made by the manufacturers is 10 ft. Special pulleys 
would undoubtedly cost too much to be considered. 

TABLE VI. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
SIZES. (Fig. 2) 

Diam. Width of Length of Cost of Cost of Total 

pulley, ins. belt, ins. belt. ft. belt pulleys cost 

8 10 42 $109 $10 $119 



12 


61/2 


'1 3 


67 


12 


79 


16 


5 


441/6 


53 


12 


65 


20 


4 


451/6 


43 


13 


56 


24 


31A 


461/4 


36 


15 


51 


28 


2% 


471,^ 


31 


18 


49 


32 


21/2 


48V^ 


29 


21 


50 


36 


2Vi 


491/2 


27 


24 


51 


40 


2 


501/2 


24 


37 


61 


44 


2 


511/2 


25 


42 


67 



Table VI and curves in Fig. 2 show that where 10 h.p. is to be 
transmitted from a shaft making 400 r.p.m. to a second shaft 20 
ft. away, making 400 r.p.m. also, 28-in. pulleys and a 2% -in. single 
belt would be most economical. The cost curve in this case is 
almost flat from the 20-in. pulley size to the 36th-in. pulley size 



1084 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and the designer is allowed a wide range of choice, but it should 
be remembered that large pulleys generally give least trouble from 
slipping. The belt speed of 3,000 ft. per min. with 28-in. pulleys 




8 10 12 !4 1& i6 20 22 24 26 26 30 52 34 56 3d 40 42 44 
rewKf^ Diameter of Pulley, Inches 

Fig. 2. Ten h.p., speed of driving and driven pulleys 400 r.p.m. 



is not excessive and may be allowed without question. Formula I 
was used in computing the belt width in this and the other curves 
and tables. 



TABLE VII. 



ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
SIZES. (Fig. 3) 



Cost of Cost of Total 



cost 




10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2& 
Diameter of Small Po\ley, Inches is>.fti\ 

Fig. 3. Ten h.p., large pulley 300 r.p.m;, small pulley 1200 r.p.m. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 



1085 



Fig. 3 shows the least expensive combination where 10 h.p. is 
to be delivered from a pulley making 300 r.p.m. to a smaller pulley 
making 1,200 r.p.m. Distance center to center is 30 ft. A small 
pulley 9 ins. in diameter, a 36-in. driving pulley, and a 2% -in. 
belt will do very well. The computed results from which these 
curves were plotted are given in Table VII. 

Table VIII and Fig. 4 (upper curve) and Table IX and Fig. 4 
(lower curve) ^ow that the best sizes are not always dependent 

TABLE VIII. ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
SIZES. (Fig. 4, Upper curve) 



Diam. 


Width of 


Length of Cost of 


Cost of 


Total 


pulley, ins. 


belt, ins. 


belt. ft. belt 


pulleys 


cost 


16 


19 


641/6 $293 


$31 


$324 


20 


16 


65iij 250 


33 


283 


24 


13 


661/4 204 


37 


243 


28 


11 


671/4 177 


41 


218 


32 


10 


681/^ 164 


41 


205 


36 


9 


691/^ 150 


48 


198 


40 


8 


701,^ 135 


46 


181 


44 


7 


71% 120 


53 


173 


48 


eVi 


721/, 113 


60 


173 


52 


6 


731/2 106 


54 


160 


56 


5% 


741/2 99 


62 


161 


60 


5'/. 


752/. 100 


70 


170 


72 


4 IX. 


781/0 85 


100 


185 





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v^ 








































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~- — — 


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_ 


_ 




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250 



200 



)50o 



I 

100^. 



50 



le 20 24 28 52 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 
Diameier of Pulley, Inches '^"» 

Fig. 4. Twenty h.p., speed of driving and driven pulleys 200 r.p.m. 



1086 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

upon the distance between shaft centers. The upper cost curve 
shows that where driving and driven pulleys are the same size, 
where the speed is 200 r.p.m., where 20 h.p. is to be transmitted and 
where the distance between centers is 30 ft. 52-in. pulleys and a 6-in. 
belt would be most economical. The lower cost curve is based 
upon the same conditions with the exception that the distance 
between centers is shortened to 10 ft. Although this shortens the 
belt considerably the plotted point on the curve nevertheless indi- 
cates that 52-in. pulleys and a 6-in. belt are again most desirable 
as regards first cost. 

TABLE IX. "ECONOMICAL BELT WIDTHS AND PULLEY 
SIZES. (Fig. 4 — Lower curve) 

Diam. Width of Length of Cost of Co.st of Total 

pulley, ins. belt, ins. belt. ft. belt pulleys cost 

16 19 241/6 $110 

20 16 25Vb 97 

24 13 261/4 82 

28 11 2714 72 

32 10 281/j 68 

36 9 29'/^ 63 

40 8 301/-5 58 

44 7 311/2 53 

48 61/, 321/2 51 

52 6 " 331,^ 48 

56 51/. 341/, 46 

60 51/, 35% 47 

72 4 1/2 381/6 42 

It is therefore evident that the determination of pulley sizes 
need not be guesswork. After plotting curves similar to these the 
designer can exercise his judgment to the best advantage. This 
method is simple, requires little time, and is sure. 

Friction Load of Shaft Bearings. From tests by Prof. C. C. 
Thomas made at the University of Wisconsin and given in Elec- 
trical World. Oct. 9, 1915, sonie data on performances of different 
kinds of bearings were formulated, as .shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 

The data in the accompanying table show the friction load due 
to shaft bearings and belt drives in the punch-press, screw-machine, 
drilling and tapping, milling and profiling, rough-store, tool-room, 
polishing and buffing, and initial-assembly departments of a new 
manufacturing plant in Indiana. The machines driven handle a 
))roduct which weighs less than 10 lbs., so that the friction losses 
are an important consideration in the total energy demand. The 
shafting is supported in ball-and-socket, two-point, double-arm, 
ring-oiled, 24-in. drop hangers. 

The data given in Table X were obtained from readings of a 
recording watt-hour meter, with all of the belts up to idle pulleys 
left running during the test. The results indicate that belting 
back from a main-line shaft to a sub-shaft increases friction losses 
and that it is better to install separate motors to drive such sub- 
shafts. It is also apparent that the number of bearings and the 
speed of the shaft have but little effect on the friction losses. 



$31 


$141 


33 


130 


37 


119 


41 


113 


41 


109 


48 


111 


46 


104 


53 


106 


60 


111 


54 


102 


62 


108 


70 


117 


100 


142 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 



1087 



Liquid grease costing 10 cts. per lb. or $40 per bbl. was found 
satisfactory for all line-shaft and counter-shaft bearings and loose 
pulleys except those running at very high speeds. 

Determination of Possible Saving. The curves of Fig. 6 have 




157 R.P. M. 314 

100 Speed.Ft.perMln, 200 



470 
300 



Fig. 5. 



Power consumed by friction of bearings with different 
loads and speeds. Temperature 77 degs. F. 



been plotted to show the reduction of power consumed by ball 
bearings over ordinary bearings of the sleeve type. The data 
from which the curves were plotted were secured by using a motor 
under the same conditions to drive a long shaft equipped first with 
ring oiled babbitt bearings and second with ball bearings. Read- 




157 R.P.M. 314 

100 Speed, Ft. per Min. 200 



470 
300 



Fig. 6. Power consumed by friction of bearingrs at different loads 
and speed. Temperature 100 degs. F, 



1088 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 



1089 



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1090 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ings were taken of the energy consumed by the motor under vary- 
ing loads and speeds. 

TABLE XI. SAVING EFFECTED IN ONE PLANT BY BALL- 
BEARING HANGERS 

Plain- 
bearing Ball-bearing 
hangers hangers 
Total kw. to operate machines and shafting. 93 74.6 
H.p. to operate shafting with belts on loose 

pulleys 32 13.5 

Number of bearings 110 110 

Cost of energy at 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr., for 

3,150 hrs. per year $4,394.25 $3,524.85 

Cost of ball bearings, including erection 1,208.00 

Interest on investment at 69o 72.48 

Depreciation at 4% 48.32 

Total cost first year 1.328.80 

Saving in energy required 869.40 

Saving in maintenance and lubrication 125.75 

Total annual saving due to hangers 9 95.15 

Return on investment after sixteen months, 

in per cent 75.0 

Steel Belts for Power Transmission. The eflSciency of flat steel 
bands for the transmission of power has been investigated re- 
cently at the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg. The re- 
sults show a remarkably high slip efficiency 99.5% and a striking 
economy in both first and operating costs over rope and leather- 
belt transmission. An abstract of a rei^ort of the results of the 
tests is contributed by J. P. Schroeter to Engineering News. 

■' According to the official tests made at the Technische Hoch- 
schule with steel-bands 23 mm. wide and 0.3 mm. thick, the useful 
tension per centimetre of width was 15 kg. with pulleys 1.250 mm. 
in diameter having a peripheral velocity of 15 m. to 30 rh. per 
sec. ; the useful tension was 10 kg. for pulleys 600 mm. in diameter 
running at a peripheral velocity of 15 m. per sec. The pulleys had 
a thin cork cover and the tension was very carefully adjusted to 
the most favorable conditions. Expressed in English units, these 
results may be summarized as follows : 

I. II. 

Belt width, ins 0.906 0.906 

Belt thickness, ins .0118 .0118 

Pulley diameter, ins 49.21 23.62 

Peripheral speed, ft. per sec 50 to 100 50 

Effective pull per in. of width, lbs 84 56 

Effective pull per sq. in. of cross section, lbs. 7,112 4,742 

" In practice there has been transmitted, with a steel-band of 
the above size, 145 h.p.; and, with one 100 mm. wide, 250 h.p. 

" There is practically no noise either at high or low velocity, 
and in the tests it was impossible to find any elongation of the 
band. Its lightness and high tensile strength permit its use at 
higher velocities than are permissible with belts, and its use with 
generators and motors has proved very successful. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1091 

" An item not generally given enough consideration in calcula- 
tions is the power lost in transmission. The accompanying table 
gives the first cost, efficiency and operating expenses with steel- 
bands and belt transmission." 

TABLE XI. FIRST COST, FRICTION LOSSES AND OPERATING 
EXPENSES FOR STEEL-BAND TRANSMISSION OF 
100 HORSE-POWER 

First cost Rope Leather Steel 

Pulleys $177 $96 $60 

Belting 148 310 180 

Total $325 $406 $240 

Losses. 

Loss % 13 6 0.5 

Loss in h.p 13 6 0.5 

Loss per annum in h.p.-hrs 39,000 18,000 1,500 

Money loss $663 $306 $25 

Yearly expenses. 

5% interest on fir.st cost 16.25 20.30 12.00 

10% depreciation on pulleys 17.70 9.60 6.00 

20% depreciation on belting 29.60 62.00 36.00 

Friction loss as above 663.00 306.00 25.50 

Total yearly $726.55 $397.90 $79.50 

Note. — Diameter of pulleys, 3.28 ft. ; distance between axles, 
32.8 ft. ; cost per h.p.-hr., 1.7 cts. ; 200 r.p.m. 

Use of Steel Belts for Power Transmission, According to En- 
gineering and Contracting, Jan. 1, 1913, steel belts have been used 
during the past year in some of the large manufacturing plants 
at Huddersfield, England, and have proved satisfactory. It is 
found that a 7% -in. steel belt, weighing 119 lbs., does the work 
formerly done by a leather belt 22 ins. wide, weighing 814 lbs., 
driving 300 h.p. In another mill a 3i^-in. steel belt, weighing 12 
lbs. does the work of a leather belt 12 ins. wide, weighing 64 lbs., 
driving 40 h.p. The steel belt saves space, does not slip or stretch 
and gives greater efficiency of power delivery. Tests have shown 
a saving of 61 h.p. on a drive of 640 h.p. 

Steel Driving-Beits Compared with Rope Driving. In Lanca- 
shire (England) mills driven by ropes, shafting and belting, it is 
stated in Engineering Magazine, May, 1914, that the power losses 
between prime mover and machines vary from 25 to 35% of the 
total power generated. From 5 to 12% of the engine-power is 
wasted in hauling several tons of ropes round the rope-race. 
Hitherto it was thought that steel belts could only be used for 
light powers, but at the present time steel-belt drives of from 
10 to 3,650 h.p. are in use, textile drives lying well within these 
limits. 

The Eloesser steel belts are made from a specially hardened char- 
coal steel, prepared by a secret process, the finished material, it is 
stated, having a tensile strength of 9 5 tons to the .sq. in., so that 
the length of each belt is constant, and no subsequent readjust- 



1092 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ment is required. The thicknesses vary, but do not exceed 1 mm., 
and the widths are from 1% ins, to about 8 ins., according to the 
working conditions and the maximum horse-power to be trans- 
mitted. The rims of the pulleys are covered with a layer of canvas, 
to which is glued thin sheets of cork. 

TABLE XII. INDICATED HORSE-POWER OF THE STEAM- 
ENGINE 

With With 

ropes steel Saving 

h.p. belts h.p. in h.p. 
Running with friction load (5 drives 

with ropes changed for steel belts) . . 342.2 318.1 24.1 
The main shaft only of the above drives 

with full load 642.9 581.3 61.6 

In connection with the investigations being undertaken by the 
mill-driving committee of the Textile Institute, a paper was read 
in Manchester on " Steel-Belt Power Transmission." The lecturer, 
Mr. Kruger, gave some details of comparative tests that had been 
carried out. The table shows a comparative test between ropes 
and steel belts, as a method of transmission. 

The lecturer explained that at a spinning-mill, ropes transmitting 
900 h.p. from a first to a second-motion shaft had been displaced 
by steel belts. The indicated power on the rope-drives for the 
two weeks previous to the conversion was 1,015 to 1,024, or a varia- 
tion of 9 h.p. After steel belts were installed it was 898 h.p., or a 
clear gain over the ropes of 126 h.p. 

Turning to smaller installations, the lecturer gave particulars of 
an interesting test of efficiency of steel-belt driving made on a 35 
h.p. motor-drive. The current was supplied at 410 volts. The 
motor was tested without the belt, and absorbed 7 amps. Next 
the motor was belted up on to a short counter-shaft carried on 
ball-bearings, the motor-pulley, 13 ins. in diameter, running at 710 
r.p.m. on to the counter-shaft pulley, 35 ins. in diameter. The belt 
was 7 ins. wide. The difference made in running the belt and the 
light coimter-shaft caused the ammeter to register 7.75 to 8 amps. 
A further leather belt, 3 ins. wide, was then put on to drive the 
line-shaft from the counter-shaft from a 2 5 -in. pulley on to a 
73-in. pulley. This belt was only capable of transmitting 8 h.p. 
The increased power consumed measured on the ammeter raised 
the figure to 9 to 9.5. On taking the leather belt off and putting 
the steel belt on the same identical pulleys, the ammeter in circuit 
only registered 8 to 8.5 amps., showing a reduction in current re- 
quired of 1 amp. as against the leather belt, which is equivalent 
to a gain of 12%% in efficiency over the leather belt. 

As regards width occupied, this, of course, varies with the power 
to be transmitted, but one 8-in. belt in one instance replaces ten 
2-in. ropes, in another case four 6-in. steel belts replace twenty-two 
2-in, ropes, the horse-power transmitted being in the latter case 
900. As the result of a series of experiments made for the most 
desirable tension in steel-belt driving, the frictional coefficient 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 



1093 



between these belts and covered pulleys was found to equal 0.27. 
This value is practically equal to that of leather belts and iron 
pulleys. In Germany a number of rolling-mills have adopted the 
steel-belt drive. 

Formula for Cost of Electric Motors. A. A. Potter in Power, 
Dec. 30, 1913, gives the formulae of costs given in Table XIII. 



TABLE XIII. COST OF ELECTRIC MOTORS 

Type Capacity Equation of cost in 

dollars 

Direct-current, Up to 1.5 h.p. (1400 to 2500 18.53 + 42.37 X h.p. 

belted r.p.m.) 

Direct-current, 1.5 to 30 h.p. (1000 to 1800 53.3 -f 12.4 X h.p. 

belted r.p.m.) 

Direct-current. 30 to 100 h.p. (500 to 800 191.7 -f 10.94 X h.p. 

belted, upper r.p.m.) 

limit 

Direct-current, 30 to 100 h.p. (800 to 1000 213 -f 8.264 X h.p. 

belted, lower r.p.m.) 

limit 

Variable speed ITp to 10 h.p.-upper limit. 64.1 + 36.786 X h.p. 

Variable speed Up to 10 h.p. lower limit. 69.2 +10.56 X h.p. 

Alt. cur., single- Up to 25 h.p. (1200 to 1800 25 +11.75 X h.p. 

phase (110- r.p.m.) 

220 volts) 

A.c. belted Up to 130 h.p. (1200 to 1800 116 + 4.72 X h.p. 

polyphase in- r.p.m.) 

duction 

Variable .^peed Up to 25 h.p. 60.7 + 7.15 X h.p. 

Variable speed 30 to 60 h.p. • 157.6 + 3.573 X h.p. 

Direct Current Motors. The weights and prices in Tables XIV 
to XVII have been derived from catalogue and appraisal data in 
our possession. The weights and prices for machines up to 75 
h.p. and 75 kw. are largely taken from the catalogues and price 
lists of several well known manufacturers of this equipment. 
There is a variation of some 15% above and below the average 
price given and variation of about twice this amount is found in 
the weights. 

TABLE XIV. DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS 
Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 

300 R.P.M. 

5 1,480 % 295 

7.5 1,980 370 

10 2,450 440 

15 3.280 560 

20 4,000 660 

25 4,750 760 

50 7.800 I.IGO 

75 10,050 1,510 

100 13,000 1.840 

150 17,500 2,380 

200 21,500 2,650 

250 25,200 3,320 

300 28,700 3,750 

350 32,000 4,100 

400 ..., 35.500 4,500 

450 38,500 4,850 

500 .., , ,, 41,500 5,200 



1094 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 

500 R.P.M. 

J 335 $ 100 

2 530 138 

3 700 169 

I 860 195 

5 1,000 220 

7.5 1,350 275 

10 1,680 325 

15 2,250 415 

20 2,750 490 

25 3,250 560 

50 5,450 840 

75 7,250 1,090 

100 8,900 1,300 

150 12,000 1,710 

200 14.800 2,050 

250 17.500 2!400 

300 20,000 2.660 

350 22,200 2,980 

400 24,300 3.200 

450 26,500 3,500 

500 28,800 3,750 

1,200 R.P.M. 

1 218 $ 67 

2 300 92 

3 385 110 

4 465 127 

5 545 140 

7.5 720 171 

10 890 200 

15 1,200 250 

20 1,480 295 

25 1,730 335 

50 2,850 500 

75 3,830 630 

100 4,750 760 

1,800 R.P.M. 

1 185 $ 55 

2 245 76 

3 300 92 

4 360 105 

5 410 116 

7.5 545 142 

10 670 152 

15 890 200 

20 1,100 235 

25 1,320 270 

50 2,130 400 

75 2,850 505 

100 3,520 600 

TABLE XV. ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS 

(Two and 3 phase, 25 cycle for 110. 220, 440 and 550 volts.) 
Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 
750 R.P.M, 

1 140 $ 275 

2 150. 290 

3 155 325 

4 165 360 

5 170 390 

7% 190 470 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1095 



ize in h.p. 

10 

15 

20 


Weight in lbs. 

215 

270 

330 


Price f.o.b. factory 
530 
660 
760 


25 


390 


860 


50 


680 


1,275 


1. 


1,200 R.P.M. 
180 


$ 43 
60 


2 


240 


3 

4 

5 

7% 


360 

380 

460 

650 


74 

88 

98 

125 


10^' 

15 

20 

25 


830 

1,150 

1,500 

1 750 


145 
190 
230 
270 


50 


2,600 


425 



TABLE XVI. ALTERiXATING CURRENT INDUCTION MOTORS 

(Two and 3 phase, 60 cycle, for 110 to 220 volts.) 
Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. Price f.o.b. factory 

500 R.P.M. 

1 130 $ 30 

50 160 48 

75 190 57 

100 220 65 

125 250 70 

150 280 82 

200 350 100 

250 420 115 

300 480 130 

350 550 145 

400 600 160 

450 680 175 

500 750 185 

900 R.P.M. 

1 130 $ 28 

2 135 32 

3 140 35 

4 142 38 

5 145 40 

71/2 155 46 

10 165 50 

15 195 60 

20 230 68 

25 270 78 

50 450 120 

75 640 160 

100 800 200 

1,200 R.P.M. 

1 155 $ 46 

2 195 60 

3 250 74 

4 310 88 

5 .360 100 

IVi 500 135 

10 620 165 

15 875 215 

20 1,150 270 

25 1,400 310 

50 2,500 515 



1096 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Size in h.p. Weight in lbs. 

1,800 R.P.M. 

1 145 

2 165 

3 200 

4 230 

5 270 

7% 360 

10 450 

15 610 

20 • 800 

25 1,000 

50 1,800 



Price f.o.b. factory 



40 

50 

60 

68 

78 

100 

125 

165 

200 

235 

380 



TABLE XVII. TURBO-DRIVEN EXCITERS 

Size in k.ws. Weight, in lbs. Price f.o b. factory 

3,600 R.P.M. 

25 3,850 $1,320 

35 4,100 1,425 

50 4,700 1,650 

75 5,850 2,080 

100 7,400 2,550 

2,500 R.P.M. 

25 4,200 $1,430 

35 4,700 1,650 

50 5,700 2,040 

75 7,900 2,700 

100 10,500 3,350 

Cost of Changing 2-Phase Induction Motors to 3-Pinase. A 

small central station in the West described in Electrical World, 
May 11, 1912, changed its entire distribution system from 2 -phase 
to 3 -phase, retaining the original frequency of 60 cycles. This 
made it necessary to rewind all 2-phase motors connected to the 
system. There were 10 of these motors, ranging from 2 h.p. to 
25 h.p., all operating at 220 volts. 



TABLE XVIII. 



COST OF REWINDING POLYPHASE 
INDUCTION MOTORS 









New 


Miscel- 




Mo 


tor 


Labor 


coils 


laneous 


Total 


25 h.p.. 


1200 r.p.m 


. .. $11.92 


$45.00 


$2.64 


$59,56 


15 h.p., 


1200 r.p.m 


. .. 19.08 


21.32 


3.52 


43.92 


10 h.p.. 


1200 r.p.m.* 


. .. 24.07 


16.82 


4.44 


45.33 


5 h.p.. 


1800 r.p.m 


3.56 




0.82 


4.38 


5 h.p.. 


1800 r.p.m 


2.40 




0.63 


3.03 


5 h. p. 


, 1800 r.p.m 


2.40 




0.62 


3.02 


5 h.p., 


1800 r.p.m 


2.40 


.... 


0.51 


2.91 


3 h.p., 


1800 r.p.m.* 


7.47 


.... 


1.68 


9.15 


3 h.p., 


1800 r.p.m 


1.60 


.... 


0.40 


2.00 


2 h.p., 


1800 r.p.m 


3.78 





0.68 


4.46 



* Extra time was required owing to errors in blueprints. 



The winders received 40 cts. per hr. and their helpers from 34 
cts. to 42 cts. per hr. The motors were of two standard and well- 
known makes. In two instances the labor costs were excessive, 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1097 

as noted in the table, because the connections as shown on the 
manufacturer's blueprints were in error. The motors of 10 h.p- 
and larger were rewound with new coils, while those of 5 h.p. and 
less were reconnected. The grand total cost was 1177.76 for 10 
motors with a combined rating of 78 h.p. or $2.28 per h.p. 

Cost of Individual Electric Drive. In a paper and discussion 
before the National Association of Box Manufacturers at a recent 
convention, F. M. Kimball and L. R. Pomeroy emphasized a num- 
ber of points which have a direct bearing upon the general problem 
of electric driving. One point especially was the ease with which 
a check can be kept upon the condition of the tools or machines 
when driven by d.-c. motors. Wood-working tools, in particular, 
when out of alignment or carrying dull cutters, may easily absorb 
200% more power than they normally require, and this excess power 
is not only wasted, but is absorbed in friction and strains which 
are damaging to the machine. Under such conditions the niceties 
of adjustment are disarranged and the machine is liable to per- 
manent injury. By placing an indicating wattmeter in circuit with 
the motor and observing its reading when the driven tool is 
known to be in perfect adjustment and alignment, with the cutter 
in good order, and comparing that reading with subsequent read- 
ings from time to time, an abnormal use of power is at once made 
known, and corrective measures may be applied in time to prevent 
serious injury. 

Mr. Pomeroy presented the following results from 8 cases of 
electric driving: 

The difficulty of having at hand figures showing the direct ad- 
vantage of the motor drive in dollars and cents, as applying to 
wood-working shops, is explained by the fact that so far, everyone 
adopting the electric operation of tools has taken opportunity at 
the same time to enlarge and improve the plants so that no direct 
comparison with previous conditions can be made. The following 
figures may have a relative bearing: 

1. Operation — boring a cylinder. 

Total time, 730 mins. 
Less helper's time, 215 mins. 

Net time, 515 mins. 

Actual time cutting, 225 mins., or 43.5% — over 50% non-pro- 
ductive time. If only 10% of this time could be saved, it would 
result, for a $4 per-day man. in $120 per annum, which capitalized 
at 10% is $1,200. The logic of this is that we could afford to 
spend $1,000 if only 10% saving could be effected. A motor would 
save more than this in increased efficiency alone. The particular 
tool in the case would require a motor costing about $120. Add 
to this the proportion chargeable to the motor for power plant, i. e., 
$140, and we have $260. 

2. A certain shop located at Richmond. Va., installed an aggre- 
gate of 1,510 h.p. motors. The average load is 30%, or 450 
h.p. An engine-and-belt system could easily use up this amount 



1098 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in friction alone. The friction load is constant and is as much 
when one h.p. of work is being done as when the plant is carrying 
full load. Per contra, with motor drive, the friction load is that 
of one motor — if only one is in operation — and the others in 
proportion. The friction load in machine shops runs from 40 to 
80% of the original power developed by the engine. 

3. The annual cost for belting, for maintenance and repairs, 
amounts to 37% of the initial cost each year. F. W. Taylor says 
that the average annual cost equals $6.90 per double belt per 
annum; say on an ordinary 40-ft. double belt 8 ins. wide, costing 
$30, the average charge amounts to $11 or Zl% of $30. 

4. Mr, Harding, speaking of the Carnegie works at Duquesne, 
says that the intermittent operation of motor? is carried from a 
central station by means of one-sixth the h.p. required when indi- 
vidual engines were used. 

5. Another large plant formerly driven by 30 separate engines, 
because of widely scattered buildings, saved 40,000 lbs. of coal in 
24 hrs. by adopting an electric drive from a central plant. A test 
from one department of this plant under the old conditions showed 
that the line shafts and loose pulleys consumed 61.75 h.p., or 30%; 
machines and counter shafts, 141 h.p., or 61%; machines cutting 
at normal rate, 210 h.p. 

6. Mr. Vauclain, in discussing the electric drive in the Baldwin 
Locomotive Works, made the following statement : 

The application of electricity in the frame .shop resulted in a 
reduction of the force of 60%; while in the wheel shop the dis- 
carding of the shafting enabled the placing of one-third more 
wheel lathes on the same floor space. The electric traveling crane 
superseding the hand jib cranes reduced the common labor from 
40 to 6 men, with 50% saving in power. Electricity was first in- 
troduced to drive two 100-ton cranes, resulting in an immediate 
saving of 80 men of the laboring force, a saving of 20% in pay roll, 
and 40% in shop area for a given product. Crane installation cost 
about $65,000. Sixty -five to 75 men would equal this amount in 
each year. 

7. Belt drive as applied to most machines does not permit of 
running the tool to its limit, on an average job, while direct motor- 
drive does. 

8. The C, M. and St. P. Ry. installed a motor on a turntable cost- 
ing $550, which resulted in a wage saving of $1,600 per year. 

The statement having been made that the expense for fuel in a 
box factory was nil, owing to the waste and shavings being utilized, 
figures were presented for the cost of power, entirely eliminating 
the fuel question on the basis of a 100 h.p. plant: 

Per h.p. per year 

Labor, 2 men, engineer and fireman $21 

Water at 10 cts. per 1.000 gal 4 

Repairs 5 

Removing ashes 5 

Interest and depreciation 6 

Total per horse-power year $41 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1099 

Two cents per k.w.-hr. at same rate (10-hr. day) amounts to 
$45 per h.p.-year. 
Steam Engine vs. Motor Drive for Small Machine Shops. A. G. 

Popcke in Electrical Journal, Aug., 1910, discusses the advantage 
of electric drive over steam drive and gives examples showing the 
saving actually effected in two instances. 

A Shop Driven hy a Single 25 h.p. Motor with an average recorded 
load of 10 k.w. : The various machines in the shop were subse- 
quently divided into separate motor-driven groups without attempt- 
ing to improve the arrangement of counter-shafts. The grouping 
and results obtained are shown in Table XIX. 

TABLE XIX. GROUP DRIVE 

, Motor ^ , Operation ^ 

Groups of H.p. Kw. Hours per Kw.-hrs. 

Machine tools rating load day per day 

Lathes 3 2 14 28 

Lathes 3 2 6 12 

Drills and lathes 3 2 14 28 

Milling machine 3 2 9 18 

Planer and milling machine. 5 2 10 20 

Total 17 10 .. 106 

The two groups of lathes are operated 14 hrs. per day; hence, 
when the shop was driven by a single motor the total energy re- 
quired was 10 X 14 = 140 k.w. -hrs. When group drive was in- 
stalled only 106 k.w.-hs. were required, that is, the saving is 34 
k.w. -hrs. per day. Assuming the power rate at three cts. per 
k.w.-hr., and 25 working days per month, the saving effected by the 
small group drive is 0.03 X 34 X 25 = $25.50, or $306 per year, a 
large percentage of the total operating expenses of a small shop. 

Engine-Driven Belt Transmission Replaced in a Small Machine 
Shop by Motor Drive and Electric Power purchased from a local 
central station : The shop manufactured brass fittings and the 
character of the manufactured product was not changed, conse- 
quently the operating expenses before and after the substitution 
of electric drive afford a fair basis of comparison of the relative 
merits of the two systems. The original equipment consisted of 
a 12 h.p. steam boiler and a small engine driving the line shafting. 
A man, who tended the boiler and engine and did some other work, 
was employed for $2.50 per day; $1.50 of this amount was fairly 
charged against the operation of engine and boiler. The coal bill 
amounted to $25 per month. The boiler was discarded and the 
engine replaced by a 7.5 h.p. electric motor, with the result that 
the total power bills now range from $37 to $42, averaging ap- 
proximately $40 per month. The yearly expenses for power with 
engine and with motor drive were as follows : 

Engine Drive: 

Coal per year (12 X $25) $300 

Attendant (312 days at $1.50 per day) 468 

Total $768 



1100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Difference favoring motor drive $288 

A 7.5 h.p. motor costs approximately $200 ; that is, the motor 
saves more than its first cost every year, thereby paying dividends 
of over 100%. Excepting the few repairs necessary, this saving 
goes on during the life of the motor, which is ordinarily many 
years. 

Cost of Motor Drive in a Six-Story Factory. The power plant 
serving the building described - in Electrical World Aug. 23, 
1913, contained two 200-h.p. Stirling boilers and two Har- 
rison boilers housed in a boiler room measuring 60 ft. by 
75 ft. Hand-firing was employed and the two Stirling boilers, 
operated at 150 lbs. steam pressure and 100 degs. superheat, were 
equipped with an automatic fan arranged to reinforce the draft 
when it fell below a fixed value. The Harrison boilers were much 
older, and were used only for heating purposes and for operating 
an elevator pump. In the engine room, measuring 24 ft. by 56 ft., 
there was installed about ten years bfefore the test a 20-in. by 42-in. 
Rice & Sargent simple non-condensing engine, delivering about 
200 h.p. at 90 r.p.m. Its exhaust was led to a feed-water heater 
which raided the feed temperature to 176 degs. F., none of the 
exhaust being returned again to the boiler. Power was transmitted 
to the six floors of the building by means of belting and jack shafts. 
On each floor friction clutches were placed between the line and 
jack shafts, to permit disconnecting a part of the equipment on the 
floor when desirable. 

Plans for Electrical Operation. In taking up the electrical opera- 
tion of the installation three different plans were considered. The 
first was to install one motor of about 300 h.p. rating to drive the 
entire mill ; the second was to employ individual drive, and the 
last, to use a group plan of drive. The first was deemed imprac- 
ticable since the space occupied by the jack shafts and belting 
wouM not be available for manufacturing purposes, and since the 
loss in the jack shafts, which was found to be about 25% of the 
total load, would not be eliminated. The second plan would have 
necessitated costly changes in the arrangement of line shafting 
and called for the abandonment of most of it, besides tending to 
cause serious interruptions in the operation of the machines. The 
group-drive plan was considered best for the building, since it 
would result in no interruption in the service and would eliminate 
jack shafts and jack-shaft belting. 

In order to determine what sizes of motors would be needed on 
the different floors a 30-h.p. motor was set up to drive the separate 
line .shafts and the input noted by a Westinghouse curve-drawing 
wattmeter. As a result of these tests it was decided to install 
fifteen three-phase, 230-volt induction motors to drive the depart- 
ments concerned, the total rating being 4,380 h.p. 

Before the steam plant was removed, opportunity was offered 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES HOI 

to secure data on the operation of the shop by steam. The load 
on the engine was found by taking indicator cards at frequent 
intervals throughout three days. Two tests on the steam plant 
were made, one with the Stirling boilers supplying the engine alone 
and one with the boilers supplying the auxiliaries and engine. The 
object of the first test was to obtain the efficiency of the engine 
and boilers, and of the second to secure data as to the amount of 
coal and water usd in the boilers to supply steam to the auxiliaries 
and engine. 

Methods of Potver Measurement. In order to obtain roughly 
the power delivered to each of the six floors the following method 
was used : With all the floors in operation indicator cards were 
taken at the engine ; then the sixth floor was thrown off by means 
of the clutch connecting the line to the jack shaft and cards were 
again taken. The difference between the two engine h.p. readings 
was then assumed to be the power delivered to the sixth floor, plus 
the friction losses due to the transmission to that floor. Then the 
clutch was again thrown In and the operation repeated for the 
other floors in turn. The engine efficiency was found to be 10.12% 
and the boiler efficiency 54.3% in the tests above referred to. The 
buckwheat coal used cost $3.60 per net ton and was found to 
contain 12,100 B.t.u. per lb. 

"With all the machines idle, and with only the shafting load on 
the engine, the output of the latter was 163.4 i.h.p. The power 
required to drive the jack shaft, or in other words the shafting 
and belting from the engine to the clutches on the various floors, 
was 78.4 h.p. The total power delivered to the floors, according 
to data obtained by throwing out each floor in succession, was 
223.4 h.p. This, added to the power required to drive the jack 
shafts, aggregated 301.8 h.p. 

DETERMINATION OF COST OF STEAM POWER 

Hours of running: 

(Plant Is shut down two weeks for repairs.) 

50 weeks at 5 days of 10 hours and 1 day of 5 hours, 

less 6 holidays, gives per year, in working hours. . 2,690 
Coal used per year in tons, including 119 tons for 

banking ( 5 lb. per brake-h.p. per day) 1.664 

Water per year, in thousands of gals 2,338 

Operating Costs: 

Water per year at 20 cts. per 1,000 gals $467.60 

Oil and wa.ste at 0.033 cts. per h.p.-hr 259 40 

A.sh removal, 399 tons at 25 cts. per ton. . 99.80 

Coal per year at $3.60 per ton 5.980.00 

Repairs at 29r of investment (.see below) 339.00 

1 engineman, 50 weeks at $18 900 00 

1 assistant engineman at $15 750.00 

1 fireman at $12 600 00 

Total operating cost with steam $9,395.80 

Investment Cost and Fixed Charges: 

Two 200-h.p. Stirling boilers (at $13 per h.p.) $5,200.00 

Feed pump and heater 850.00 

Piping 2,000.00 



1102 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

20-in. X 42-in. simple non-condensing engine 8,000.00 

Stack, at $2.25 per boiler h.p 900.00 

Total investment $16,950.00 

Fixed Charges: 

Interest at 5% on $16,950 $847.50 

Profit, 10% on $16,950 1,695.00 

Insurance and taxes, 2% 339.00 

Amortization of boiler, 1.5%, 30-year life 108.00 

Amortization of auxiliaries, 3%, 20 years 25.50 

Amortization of engine, 1.5%, 30 years 120.00 

Amortization of stack, 0.5%, 50 years 4.50 

Total $3,139.50 

Grand total steam cost per year, operating ex- 
penses and fixed charges $12,545.30 

DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL, COST 

Cost of Motors: 

3 50-h.p. motors 90C r.p.m., at $450.00 $1,350.00 

2 35-hp. motors, 1,200 r.p.m., at $360.00 720.00 

2 25-h.p. motors, 1.200 r.p.m., at $301.50 603.00 

3 20-h.p. motors, 1,200 r.p.m., at $277.20 831.60 

2 15-h.p. motors, 1.200 r.p.m.. at $233.10 466.20 

1 10-h.p. motors, 1200 r.p.m. at $201.60 201.60 

2 5-h.p. motors, 1,800 r.p.m., at $71.10 142.20 

Total, less 10% discount $3,883.10 

(Cost of motors included starting compensators, with motors in 
service, excluding wiring.) 

Cost of wiring $200.00 

Total cost of electrical installation = 4,083.10 

Fixed Charges, Electrical Installation: 

Interest, 5% on $4.083.10 $204.20 

Profit, 10% on $4,083.10 408.30 

Insurance and taxes, '1% 81.70 

Depreciation, including repairs and obsolescence, fig- 
ured at 10% 408.30 

Total $1,102.50 

Energy consumption of installation per year, on basis of 
energy supply to mill directly from central-station 

mains, requiring 538,650 kw.-hr. at 2 cts $10,733.00 

Fixed charges 1,102.50 

Total cost of electrical service $11,875.50 

Net saving by use of electric drive, $669.80. 

In this installation the survey indicated that the usual labor 
economies of the electric drive could not be assumed for the reason 
that without the complete electrification of the factory group as 
a whole the existing force would probably be retained. Electricity 
has been installed in the six-story building, however, and has 
introduced substantial improvements in the operating conditions, 
notably in connection with the release of highly valuable real 
estate for manufacturing purposes and the facilitation of over- 
time work through subdivision. 

Electrification of Shops of Wabash Railroad. At Moberly, Mo., 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES li03 

several small boilers and engines at the shops and the pump house 
were replaced at comparatively small expense by one station with 
a 150-k.w. generator for shop tools, light and pumping, as de- 
scribed in Railway Age Gazette, Feb. 3, 1911. A similar installa- 
tion has been made at the Wabash shops at Fort Wayne, Ind., 
and Springfield, 111. 

At Springfield the power is furnished by outside parties and is 
delivered at 2,300 volts. It is transformed by Westinghouse oil 
type transformers to 440 volts for power purposes and 110 volts 
for lighting. Westinghouse oil type circuit breakers are used at 
the switchboard on both the power and lighting circuit, and in 
addition there are three-pole, single throw, no arc, fused knife 
switches protecting each circuit. All wiring is in conduits. The 
main machine shop and the erecting shop have six motors as fol- 
lows: Two 35-h.p., one 25-h.p.. one 20-h.p., and one 15-h.p. driving 
the machine tools and one 25-h.p. motor on the drop table. The 
tools in the machine shop annex are driven by a single 20-h.p. motor. 
A 7%-h.p. motor is used for driving the carpenter shop and a 
20-h.p. motor in the boiler and blacksmith shop. For furnishing 
blast for the boiler and smith shops a 35-h.p. motor is used direct 
connected to a 12-in. fan. All motors, with the exception of the 
one operating the drop table are of the three-phase 440 volt, 60 
cycle, a.c, induction or squirrel cage type. The drop table motor 
is a slip ring type with a reversible controller which furnishes 
variable speed from 850 to 1,140 r.p.m. 

Power is furnished by the Springfield Heat, Light & Power Com- 
pany, which brought the power wires to a convenient point in the 
shop yard and installed a transformer at its own expense. The 
aggregate power of the 10 motors is 177i/^-h.p., and the cost of the 
installation was as follows: Ten motors, $2,838; pulleys and belts, 
$264.54; switches, $70.55; conduit and wire, $332.64; switchboard, 
$82.59; sundries, $163.49; labor, $350; total, $4,101.81. The esti- 
mated cost of the transformer furnished by the power company was 
$350. 

Power Required to Drive Shafting, B. R. & P. Ry. We have 
taken the following from an article published in The Ry. and 
Eng. Review, Feb., 1908 : 

These tests, in addition to furni.shing accurate data relating to 
the power required for various tools when starting, running light, 
and cutting, also make possible some examination of the merits of 
roller bearings for shaft hangers. The line shafts are cold-rolled 
steel carried on Hyatt roller bearings, and a shaft 200 ft. long 
without belts can be turned by hand. But in spite of the unusual 
efficiency of the bearings, it will be noted that the power consumed 
by the tool is often less than that lost in transmission. Never- 
theless, the capacity in motors req.uired for the group is two to two 
and a half times smaller than it would have been had each tool 
been provided with an individual motor. 

It is a question as to how far the low average power taken by 
large groups of tools in operation may be due to the flywheel action 
of the shafts and pulleys. 



1104 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The locomotive-erecting, boiler, and machine shop consists of a 
middle aisle for erecting and two shed bays equipped with shafting 
for driving the machine tools. Two 50 -ton, electric traveling 
cranes have a runway in the middle aisle. There are five lines 
of shafting driven by the five shunt motors in the shed bays, and 
the sections are designated as wheel section and boiler section in 
one bay, and the lathe, tool, and flue sections in the opposite bays. 

Wheel Section. Shafting driven by a 40-h.p. shunt-wound motor 
and operating : 

42-in. car-wheel boring mill 

4 8 -in. car -wheel lathe 

Two 7 9 -in. wheel lathes 

Quartering machine 

60-in. by 60-in. by 18-ft. planer 

84-in. boring mill 

Single axle lathe 

6-ft. radial drill 

18-in. Blotter 

Band saw 

No. 7 grinder 

Water tool grinder. 

The line shaft is 200 ft. long, 2% ins. in diameter, and has 26 
hangers. It was inconvenient in this instance to obtain a test of 
the line shaft alone. A test of the line shaft and counters only 
gave 1.5 horsepower. 

The speed of the line shaft was 160 r.p.m. 

Boiler Section. Shafting driven by a 30-h.p,, shunt-wound motor 
and operating: 

12-ft. bending rolls 
Bolt-cutter 
Staybolt cutter 
Drill press 
Tool grinder 
Brooks plate planer 
Horizontal punch 
Shear and punch 
6-ft. bending rolls 
6-ft. straightening rolls 
6-ft. radial drill. 

All the counter belts were thrown off and the line shaft tested 
alone, with a result of .3 h.p. This line shaft is 170 ft. long. 2% 
ins. in diameter, and has 19 hangers. The speed of the line shaft 
was 158 r.p.m. 

A test of the line shaft and countershafts, only, gave an average 
of 2 h.p. 

Lathe Sectio7i. Shafting driven by a 30-h.p., shunt-wound motor 
and operating : 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 



1105 



24-in. crank planer 

36-in. by 36-in. by 20-ft. planer 

51-in. boring mill 

16-in. shaping machine 

24-in. drill press 

37-in. boring mill 

Two 22-in. lathes 

Three 16-in. lathes 

Two 18-in. lathes 

28-in. lathe 

43-in. lathe 

2 -in, by 24-in. flat turret lathe 

Milling machine 

Grinding machine 

Three 18-in. turret lathes 

24-in. drill press 

28-in. lathe 

No. 10 vertical milling machine 

Two spindle rod drills 

14-in. pillar shaper 

16-in. lathe 

26-in. by 26-in. by 6-ft. planer 

32-in. drill press 

Surface grinding machine 

Water tool grinder. 

The line shaft and counters required 2.8 h.p. The line shaft is 
140 ft. long, 2% ins. in diameter, and has 20 hangers. It was not 
convenient to obtain a test of the line shaft alone. The speed on 
the shaft was 155 r.p.m. 

TABLE XX. DATA ON TOOLS AND MOTORS 



Five polishing jacks 
One 50 -lb. trip-hammer 
One shear 
One blower 

Two 7-in. stones 

125 r.p.m. 

30-in. pulley 

Two 7 5 -lb. trip 

hammers 

325 r.p.m. 

13-in. pulley 

Three 16-in. lathes 

One 18-in. lathe 

One 24-in. lathe 

One 12-in. lathe 

Two .speed lathes 

One 20-in. upright drill 

One sensitive drill 

Two shapers 

One planer 

One milling machine 



Shaft speed 300 
r.p.m. 

One 23-in. pulley 

Shaft : 
One 30-in. pulley 
One 12-in. pulley 

Shaft : 
One 12-in. pulley 
One 7% -in. pulley 

Shaft : 

125 r.p.m. 
One 22-in. pulley 

Countershaft : 
One 30-in. pulley 
One 8-in. pulley 



5-h.p. motor 

1,700 r.p.m. 

4-in. by 4-ln pulley 

10-h.p. motor 

1710 r.p.m. 

6-in, by 5-in. pulley 

5-h.p. motor 

1,700 r.p.m. 

4-in. by 4-in. pulley 

7% -h.p. motor 

1,710 r.p.m. 

6-in. by 5-in. pulley 



1106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The line shaft of the lathe and tool sections can be connected 
by a clutch coupling and the whole operated from either motor. 

Blacksmith Shop. The blacksmith shop machinery is driven by 
a 40-h.p. shunt-wound motor, which is belted to 75 ft. of 2i/^-in. line 
shafting with 12 hangers. The apparatus driven comprises a volt 
header, a 25-in. punch and a shear, a cutting-off saw, a tool grinder, 
a 40-in. planer, a drill press, a 50-lb. hammer, a blower and an 
exhaust fan. 

A test of the line shaft and counters with grindstone and two 
blowers constantly in operation gave 14.5 h.p. 

The Cost of Electric Drive in a Foundry is given by Electrical 
World, Sept. 13, 1913. The table gives the list of tools and motors 
required to operate them. 

The total installation aggregates 27.5 h.p. of connected load, 
and the estimated monthly energy consumption is 1,328 k.w.-hr., 
giving a net bill of $49.17 per month for electricity. The average 
load is estimated at about 7 h.p. The present cost of operating 
the foundry by steam power is: 

150 tons coal, at $4.75 $713 

Engineer, 2 hrs. per day, at 25 cts. per hr 150 

288,000 gals, water, at 10 cts. per 1,000 gals 28 

Oil, waste, etc 50 

Ash removal 24 

Taxes, insurance, depreciation, interest and repairs 135 

Total ($91.50 per month) $1,100 

The first cost of motors is as follows: 

One 5-h.p. motor $72 

One 10-h.p. motor 158 

One 5-h.p. motor 72 

One 7.5 h.p. motor 135 

Total $437 

With the most liberal allowance for fixed charges and such 
steam-heating service as may be necessary after electric drive has 
been installed, there is indicated a decided saving by the use of 
central-station service. 

Power to Drive Wood-Working Tools. Data on electric driving 
in wood-working shops were obtained in two installations in Lon- 
don. Both were the establishments of builders and contractors. 
The first plant was supplied with compound-wound motors at 460 
volts, with Sturtevant starting rheostats, and the second with 
shunt-wound motors at 214 volts with Ward-Leonard motor start- 
ers. The records of the tests were reported in The Electrician, of 
London. 

A circular saw, in the first plant, driven at about 1.000 r.p.m. 
by a 12-h.p. motor, took a 10-in. cut at the rate of 6 ft. per min. 
on 10 by v7-in. damp pitch pine, requiring 13.8 h.p. A tenoning 
machine driven at 2,700 r.p.m. by a link belt from a 5-h.p. motor, 
took 5.5 amps, running light and 9.5 amps, when tenoning pitch pine, 
removing 3i/^ cu. ins. of wood in 10 sees. A planer designed for 
8 by 24-in. planks and driven from a 5-h.p. motor took 5.5 amps. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1107 

in making a %-in. under cut in pitch pine 9 ins. wide, finishing a 
plank 8.5 ft. long in 25 sees. A 14-in. over cut from a' plank of 
pitch pine 5 ins. wide took 5.2 amps, in finishing a 6-ft. length in 
20 sees. A band saw traveling at a speed of 4,800 ft. per min, 
required 2.4 amps, when the motor was driving the belts only, and 
3.5 amps, when driving the belt and band saw running light. An 
emery wheel used for grinding tools and belt-driven at 1,640 r.p.m. 
by a i/^-h.p. motor required 0.7 amp. when the outfit was running 
light ; when grinding a straight moulding cutter the current ranged 
from 1 to 2 amps. 

In the second plant a band saw driven by a 3.5-h.p. motor at a 
speed of 3,600 ft. per min. took 4.5 amps, when running light. 
When making a 6-in. cut in deal wood 9 amps, were taken and 2 
ft. were sawed in 25 sees. ; with a 2 -in. cut in mahogany, 7.5 amps, 
were taken and 1 ft. was sawed in 4 sees. ; with a 4% -in. cut in oak, 
10.5 amps, were taken and 1.5 ft. were sawed in 15 sees. ; with a 
2% -in. cut in beech, 10 amps, were taken when 1 ft. was sawed in 
15 sees. A 19-in. circular saw driven by a 7-h.p. motor at 1,050 
r.p.m., required 7.5 amps, when running light. With deal wood the 
following figures were obtained: Two-in. cut, 6-ft. 2-in. length, 
17.5 amps., 10 sees.; 114-in. cut, 4-ft. 2-in. length, 14 amps., 5 sees.; 
1^4 -in. cut, 7-ft. 3-in. length, 15 amps., 8 sees.; 6-in. cut, 2-ft. length, 
18 amps., 20 sees. A planer, designed for 20 by 8-in. planks and 
driven by a 5-h.p. motor, took 15 amps, when making a %6-in. cut 
from a 9 -in. wide deal plank, requiring 45 sees, for a length of 7 ft. 
2 ins. ; it took 16 amps, when making a %2-in. cut from an 18-in. 
deal plan, cutting 3 ft. 8 in, in 17 sees. A 6-in. emery wheel grinder 
driven at 1,860 r.p.m. from a 2%-h.p. motor took 2.5 amps, with 
motor and belts only, 4.5 amps, with the emery wheel light, and 
5.5 amps, with the emery wheel grinding a moulding cutter. 

Application of Electric Drive to Paper Calenders is described 
at length by E. C. Morse in the Transactions of the American In- 
stitute of Electrical Engineers, July, 1912. The pecularity of this 
service is that considerable power is required to drive the ma- 
chines at a high rate of speed and it is necessary that the ma- 
chines be operated at a much reduced speed when threading the 
paper through or when a tear or weak spot in the paper is en- 
countered. 

Comparisons of cost are given and the advantages and disad- 
vantages of electric drive are discussed as follows : 

Mechanical and Electrical Advantages and Disadvantages of 
Each Drive. In the following comparisons it should be remem- 
bered that the paper maker is primarily interested in cost of pro- 
duction. He is, therefore, interested in mechanical and electrical 
simplicity, ease of control and operation, small maintenance, mini- 
mum labor, minimum power cost per unit output. 

It has been found from many tests and observations that calen- 
ders are run on slow speed from 25 to 33% of the time; 10 to 22% 
of the time is consumed in " threading in," varying with weight 
of paper or length of roll. 

The following comparisons are bare statements of facts and 



1108 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

it is not the intention to recommend one drive over another. A 
large advantage for one drive, in some mills, may be insignificant 
in another. 

Group Drive by Motor — for A-C. and D-C. Advantages. "With 
this drive the manufacturer has a constant slow speed, only one 
motor and starter for entire group, minimum chance of trouble 
with electrical apparatus. Lower first cost, therefore lower fixed 
charge per calender. 

A 70 in. calender arranged for drive from line shaft costs. . . . $4,600 

Shaft per calender approx 100 

Share of capacity in large motor for 70 in. calender. ....... 400 

Total $5,100 

Disadvantages. Belts to maintain, two clutches to keep in re- 
pair : main shaft takes space on floor below calenders ; friction 
clutch to throw in high speed and as usually operated there is 
a sudden strain on paper with consequent possibility of breaking 
and lost production. Only one high speed and no way to vary it. 
Large motor operating on a widely fluctuating load from 15% to 
150% load which means poor efficiency, poor power factor, and a 
variation in the speed of shaft of 5% or more. It has also been 
found that the shafting and belting loss alone, per calender, is 
approximately four kws. This means for a 24-hour day, 96 kw.-hrs. 
at $0.01 per kw.-hr.. $0.96 per day, $288 per year. This cap- 
italized at 5% means $5,770. 

Two-Motor Drive for D-G. and A-G. Advantages. Constant 
" threading in " speed, smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, 
reducing strains on paper and lost production. Ability to slow 
down to any desired point easily and quickly. Calender can be 
geared to run at maximum speed that any of paper will stand as 
slower speeds are available for weaker paper. This speed can 
easily be 10 to 15% higher than in the group drive. Only one 
clutch necessary and that a pin clutch. Sometimes a friction 
clutch is also u.sed on large gear on slow speed so the pin clutch 
may be thrown in without starting the rolls and the rolls started 
by friction clutch. Both these clutches are operated from one 
lever. Large motor operated at good efficiency and power factor. 
Losses minimum on slow speed. The slow speed motor running 
light has an average input of 0.6 kw. This corresponds to the 
friction of the shafting in the group drive, as the large motor does 
not consume energy except when driving the calender at its oper- 
ating speeds. Moreover, the efficiency of the motor in the group 
drive will be nearly the same as this large motor. It may be as- 
sumed that this 0.6 kw. is a 24-hr. loss, as the small motor is 
usually left running continuously and is used for " threading in " 
only 10 to 15%' of the time. Thus 0.6 kw. for 24 hrs. per day at 
$0.01 per kw.-hr.:- $0,144, or $43.20 per year of .300 days — a gain 
of $234 per stack over group drive or 5% on $4,700. 

Good power factor is maintained on the line since the idle cur- 
rent of the small motor is small. 

Disadvantages. High first cost: A 70-in, calender, 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1109 

For two-motor drive ., $4750.00 

For small motor 170.00 

For large motor 900.00 

For control 300.00 

Total $6120.00 

Maximum chance of trouble exists with electrical equipment. 
Large floor space is required. It requires three times as long to 
stop after power is shut off as group driven calender. Large motor 
requires the same kw. input regardless of speed, assuming con- 
stant torque. This disadvantage is more than overcome by in- 
creased production possible, due to variable speed feature. 

Two Motors Replaced by Owe. Same for D-C. and A-C. Ad- 
vantages. One less motor to care for than in two-motor drive. 
Less floor space required, constant " threading in " speed obtained, 
smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, ability to easily slow 
down if desired. Calender can be run at maximum speed any 
paper will stand, as slower speeds are available for weaker papers. 
As motor and gear may be disconnected from stack on stopping, 
the flywheel effect same as in group drive. If stack is stopped 
by cutting power off the motor the flywheel effect same as in 
two-motor drive. 

Calender, 70 in., and mechanism $4925.00 

Large motor 900.00 

Control 275,00 

$6100.00 
Disadvantages. Two clutches, one being friction ; large gear on 
quill which may wear and cause excessive gear wear. Requires 
same kw. input regardless of speed, assuming same torque. This 
is turned to an advantage by increased production possible. Light 
load losses larger. Based on a 70-in. stack, a three-phase 550-volt 
75-h.p. motor running light will operate with a current approxi- 
mately 2.5 amp., power factor 15 to 20% kw., input 4.0 to 6.0. As- 
suming 5 kws. to be average and the motor running light 20% of 
time or 4.8 hours per day, we have 5 X 0.01 X 4.8 = $0.24 per day 
or $72. OT) per year, or $28.80 per year more than two-motor drive. 
This is 5% on $575 and small motor costs $170. The worst 
effect is in the power factor of the system if many of these motors 
are installed. As far as power consumed goes, there is ordinarily 
not much choice. 

Single Motor, Direct Geared. Advantages, a-c. Only one motor 
is used, no clutches, minimum possible amount of gearing and 
smallest floor space of all drives. The calender can be geared for 
maximum speed that any of the paper will stand and can be 
easily retarded at will, and operated at slower speeds for weaker 
paper. Smooth acceleration from " threading in " to running speed 
is obtained. The first cost is lower : 

Calender $4185 

Motor 900 

Control 450 

Total $5535 



1110 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Additional Advantages on d-c. Dynamic braking can be used 
to stop calender quickly. More stable " threading in " speed due 
to the fact that full field speed is about \^ maximum and the 
speed has to be further reduced by armature resistance to Ys or 
Vi instead of % or 142 as with a-c. Losses are less on reduced 
speeds than with a-c. 

Disadvantages, Very unstable " threading in " speed is ob- 
tained ; controller setting usually has to be changed during " thread- 
ing in." Extra large controller and resistance is required to ob- 
tain the slow speed. The large flywheel effect causes the calender 
to run three times as long as if group driven. It has been found 
on this type of drive that the " threading in " requires from 9 to 14% 
of total time and on a 72-in. calender the power consumed varied 
from 16 to 29.8 kws. during this period, as against about 2.2 to 
4 kws. with two-motor drive. As this time required to " thread in " 
is also somewhat longer, the cost of power used for the " threading 
in " process is from 6 to 10 times that of the other two types of 
drive. This motor is practically never running except when paper 
is in the calender, and therefore has no " running light " loss to 
correspond to the other drives. The power factor is low while 
motor is running light and during " threading in." The control 
for this drive is subjected to the hardest service of all, as 60% 
to 100% full load current is broken every time the current is shut 
off. Motor tests show that the current is broken 13 to 15 times 
per hr. as an average. This means for a 24-hr. day, six-day week, 
1,870 to 2,160 breaks per week. The ordinary circuit breaker con- 
tact is said to be good for about 3,000 breaks, so a very substantial 
switch must be used in order to get any reasonable length of 
service. This drive may require more labor, or in other words a 
third man may be needed at controller during " threading in." 
This same man can, however, take care of several stacks. 

Prom the preceding pages certain advantages of motor driven 
supercalenders have been pointed out which tend to lower co.st per 
unit product and to increase the production per machine. These 
may be .summarized as follows : 

a. Long mechanical transmissions eliminated with maintenance 
of their shafts, belts, hangers, etc. 

b. Reduced chance of all calenders being shut down at once. 
With mechanical drive this often happens, due to belt breaking or 
shaft trouble, and the loss of production is large. 

c. Smooth acceleration from slow to high speed, reducing strains 
on paper, therefore reducing breakage and loss of production. 

d. Ability to operate calender at maximum speed which the par- 
ticular paper will stand. With group drive only one speed is 
available, 

e. Ability to easily slow down for a weak place in paper saves 
much time and increases production. At one point paper ran 25 
minutes without a break but the controller was used 26 times to 
reduce the speed and it is further seen that it requires on the 
average three to five minutes to paste together the paper and feed 
it in again. If the paper had broken 13 times only it would mean 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1111 

13 X 4 X 500 



3 



8700 yds. of production lost. 



f. The speed of calender is much more likely to be uniform, as in 
group drive the number of calenders operating varies the belt slip 
and speed of line shaft. 

g. The kw.-hrs. per unit output required are less than in group 
drive. 

h. The power factor of system is better than when large motor 
drives group, if a two-motor drive is used. 

i. That the above facts are true is proved by figures of one of 
the largest and best managed mills in the United States which 
give the average efficiency of all motor-driven calenders as 35% 
better than group driven and of two of the most recent drives, 
50% better. 

Electric Motors on a Farm. Electrical World, Aug. 3, 1912, 
states that six miles from Dayton, Ohio, on a large estate use 
has been made of electricity supplied over a 3 -phase, 6,600-volt 
transmission line from the Dayton company. A 15-h.p. motor 
mounted, with its starter, on a portable truck can be moved about 
the place to drive a corn husker, shredder, wood saw and thresher. 
Another 3-h.p. motor drives a deep-well pump, delivering the water 
supply for the estate to a reservoir on the hilltop. A i/^-h.p. motor 
pumps cistern water, and the laundry is equipped with a motor- 
driven mangle. This year it is planned to install electric irrigation 
on a large scale to intensify the output of the soil, and later ex- 
periments will be carried out with electrification to stimulate plant 
growth. 

Tests were recently made at the farm to determine the power 
required and energy input for various farm operations. For ex- 
ample, it was shown that 1,750 bushels of barley could be threshed 
at an expenditure of 220 kw.-hrs., the maximum demand being 
20.5 kws. In this Montgomery County section steam-thresher hire 
costs $20 a day. 

In a series of 10-min. tests to learn the power required by a 
corn grinder running idle, it was found that the motor alone con- 
sumed 0.106 kw.-hr., and the motor and grinder 0.341 kw-hr., 
leaving 0.235 kw.-hr. chargeable to the idle grinder, or an average 
demand of 1.41 kws. Three tests were then made of the energy 
consumed in the operation of grinding com, with the results 
tabulated. Table XXI. 

In the third test the corn was husked directly from the shocks 
and was still damp, so that excessive power was required, as 
shown. 

TABLE XXI. ENERGY USED IN GRINDING CORN 

Dry corn Damp corn 

Bushels ground 46.17 12.00 

Time, min 68. 21. 

Bushels per hr 40.8 34.2 

Kw.-hrs. per bushel 0.411 0.607 



1112 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The same motor was also tested driving the shredder and husk- 
ing machine, which running idle consumed 1.425 kw.-hrs. in ten 
minutes, or 1.319 kw.-hrs. for the machine alone, indicating an 
average input of about 8 kws. Fifteen hundred pounds of fodder 
was shredded in twenty-three minutes, consuming 4.03 kw.-hrs. 
This shows an energy consumption at the rate of 5.37 kw.-hrs. 
per ton. or 0.186 tons shredded per kw.-hr. The maximum kw. 
taken was 14.5 and the minimum 8.2, indicating an average of 
10.5 kws. Nearly 40 tons of fodder are shredded yearly at the 
farm, the average cost of shredding which would be $3 a ton were 
the present electric appliances not used. The Dayton company 
built the pole line and furnished the transformers and meter for 
the installation, all other equipment being the property of the 
customer. 

A Comparison of Gas and Electric Power for Drawbridge Swing- 
ing. We have taken the following from an article published in 
Engineering News, June 18, 1912 : 

The new steel swing span of the International Bridge over the 
ship canal at Black Rock, N. Y., erected in July, 1911, is one of 
the heaviest single-span bridges in the country, being 431 ft. 5 ins. 
long, and weighing 4,500,000 lbs. It carries a double track for 
steam trains besides a roadway for electric cars and pedestrian 
traffic. 

The bridge is operated by electricity and can be swung in 70 
sees. Two Westinghouse street-car motors are used for turning 
the span, each rated at 53 h.p. with ability to stand short overloads 
of 100%, There are two 15-h.p. end-lift motors and two of 5 h.p. 
for operating rail wedges. All are controlled from the operator's 
house above the bridge deck. 

To supply current to these motors a small power station has 
been erected containing (1) a 100-h.p. Otto gas engine direct- 
connected to a 60-kw. d.c. Garwood generator, (2) a 60-kw. Gar- 
wood motor-generator driven by a 2,200-volt induction motor re- 
ceiving current from a Niagara Falls power station, and (3) a 
255-cell storage battery having a capacity of 60 amps, at the 8-hr. 
discharge rate. 

One of the yard men visits the station at certain periods and 
ascertains from the switchboard instruments whether or not it is 
necessary to recharge the storage batteries. Any desired com- 
bination of generators and storage battery may be made; all may 
feed the bridge motors, giving 400 h.p. for a short time ; one gen- 
erator' may be used for* the bridge movements while the other is 
charging the battery. One man can easily start the gas engine. 

Tests to find the power required for a day's operation were made 
on Sept. 3, 1911, with wind at a velocity of 4 miles per hour. The 
following data were secured, assuming ten 10-min. swings per day: 

Kw.-hrs. 
Navigation, house and deck lights, 17 lamps, 16 c.p., 12 hours 

per day 52.0 

Signal lights, 16 lamps, 8 c.p , 1.7 

Rail wedges , , 2.2 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1113 

Kw.-hrs. 
End lifts 0.7 

Air compressor (operating latch, whistle and band brakes) . 3.8 
Turning motors 13.3 

Total kw.-hrs 73.7 

Tests were made on Aug. 25, 1911, to find the cost of gas-engine 
power with a battery-charging load. The following data resulted : 

Energy generated 108.4 kw.-hr. 

Gas used 2608 cu.-ft. 

Length of run ; 3 hr. 

Costs : 

Labor, 30 cts. per hr $0.90 

Oil, 40c. per gal 0.20 

Water, 2 cts. per M. cu.-ft 0.12 

Gas, 30 cts. per M 0.78 

Total $2.00 

per kw.-hr 0.0184 

With a charge-discharge efficiency of 65% for the storage battery 
and 10 swings per day, the cost of gas power to the bridge motors 
would be 

73.7 

$0.0184 = $2.09 

0.65 

For a year of 365 days the total cost would be 

Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on gas-engine generating 

set (20%) $1,300 

Power 764 

$2064 

The cost of operation by Niagara Falls power was determined 
from tests made Aug. 31, 1911, with the motor-generator set 
charging the battery. The following data resulted :, 

Length of run 2 hr. 

Output to battery 72 kw.-hr. 

Input to motor 88 kw.-hr. 

Efficiency of set 81.9% 

The rate for Niagara power was given thus — at monthly rate : 

Service charge $50.00 

Up to 1000 kw.-hr 0.020 

1000 to 2000 kw.-hr 0.015 

Over 2000 to 3000 kw.-hr 0.012 

Over 3000 to 4000 kw.-hr 0.010 

With," as before, a demand on the motor of 113.5 kw.-hrs. per 
day and a motor-generator efficiency of 81.9%, the monthly bill 
would be for * 

113.5 X 30 

= 4160 kw.-hr. 

0.819 



1114 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
To find the resultant unit rate we take : 

Service charge $50.00 

1000 at 2 cts 20.00 

1000 at 1.5 cts 15.00 

1000 at 1.2 cts 12.00 

1160 at 1 ct 11.60 

$108.60 

Per kw.-hr. input 2.6 cts. 

Per kw.-hr. to battery 3.2 cts. 

With a charge-discharge efficiency of 65% for the battery and 
10 swings per day, the cost of Niagara power alone would be 

73.7 

$0.032 = $3.63 

0.65 

For a year of 365 days the total cost would, then, be summarized 
thus: 

Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on motor-generator set 

(15%) $ 590 

Power 1,325 

$1,915 

According to this there is practically no difference in the total 
cost of operating the bridge by one service or the other. It should 
be understood that both services have been provided for con- 
tinuity of operation and the expected annual costs are then com- 
binations of the foregoing figures. 

Expected Annual Cost with Gas Power 
Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., gas-engine set (20%) . . $1,300 
Interest and depreciation on motor-generator set (7%%) .... 295 
Power 764 

Total $2,359 

Expected Annual Cost with Niagara Power 
Interest, depreciation, repairs, etc., on motor-generator set 

(15%) $ 590 

Interest and depreciation, gas-engine set (10%) 650 

Power 1,325 

Total $2,565 

Cost Record of an Electric Power Shovel. (Electric Railway 
Journal, Jan. 23, 1909.) 

Some accurate records of the cost of operating an electric power 
shovel used in digging ballast have been furnished this paper by 
the Chautauqua Traction Company. Jamestown, N. Y. The shovel, 
which was built by the Vulcan Steam Shovel Company, Toledo, 
Ohio, weighs complete about 40 tons and the car body on which 
It is mounted is 27 ft. long. The dipper has a capacity of 1% 
cu. yds. The various movements of the shovel are made with three 
d.c. 600-volt motors, one of 75 h.p. for hoisting, one of 30 h.p. for 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1115 

swinging the boom and one of 30 h.p. for crowding the shovel. 
These motors are protected from overloading by series overload 
relays, automatic controllers and circuit-breakers. In addition the 
swinging motor is fitted with a solenoid brake for overcoming the 
momentum of the boom and the crowding motor is equipped with 
a foot brake operated by the craneman. 
The cost of power and help was as follows : 

1 man , $0.33 

1 man 0.25 

2 men. at 15 cts 0.30 

20.346 kw. -hours at $0.0088 0.18 

Oil and waste, estimated 0.04 

Total cost per hour $1.10 

8 hours at $1.10 $8.80 

8 hours at 66"7fj cu. yd 534 cu. yd. 

$8.80 divided by 534 cu. yd . 0.0164 cent 

The material in which the shovel was worked was a mixture 
of gravel, sticky clay and sand, which made it hard to dig, but 
as will be seen from the above figures, the cost was very low. 
There are, of course, several causes for this, the principal ones 
being, first, that as the shovel required no boiler, the cost of a 
fireman and of hauling coal and water was eliminated ; second, 
that the work of the shovel was intermittent and when the shovel 
was idle no power was being consumed, as would be the case with 
a steam shovel where steam must be kept up constantly. The 
shovel could have been operated to its maximum capacity, which 
would have given twice the yardage at nearly the same cost, as 
the men had to be paid whether they were working or idle, and 
the additional cost for power would not have been more than 
twice what it was, which on the same basis would mean 1,068 yds. 
at a cost of $10.24, or $0.01 per cu. yd. 

Cost of Operating Motors in Lime Plants and Quarries. In a 
recent paper presented before the National Lime Manufacturers' 
Association printed in Electrical World, Aug. 12, 1916, R. D. Don- 
aldson gave operating data and costs for motor drives in several 
lime plants and quarries. He called attention to the fact that 
although it is generally believed the application of an electric 
motor to a steam hoist requires either a d.c, motor or some type 
of variable speed a.c. motor, experience has shown that this is 
unnecessary, for the constant speed a.c. motor can be applied to 
practically all steam hoists. A complete new crankshaft for an 
existing steam-driven hoist and the necessary gears to reduce the 
speed as low as possible is all that is required.- In regard to 
hoisting with an electric motor, one case was cited where ap- 
proximately 3,000 tons of stone per month was hoisted up an in- 
cline with a total lift of approximately 115 ft. at a cost of $11.50 
with current at 2 cts, per k.w.-hr. 

The energy con.sumption of a stone crushing plant running fairly 
steadily and turning out 3,000 tons of crushed and screened stone 
per month was given as 1 to 1.1 kw.-hr. per ton. A plant run- 
ning fairly steadily and turning out 12,000 tons of crushed stone 



1116 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

per month consumes between 0.8 and 1 kw.-hr. per ton of product. 
The idle load of a crusher plant is very large. The power re- 
quired to keep the crusher plant running up to speed approximates 
50% of the total power required to crush the maximum quantity 
of stone. By good routing of cars, however, or by any other means 
which will keep the operation of the crusher plant up to its maxi- 
mum output, the power consumption per ton of stone crushed can 
be reduced from 30% to 40% from the consumption figures given. 
The following data show the investment cost for electrifying 
and operating different lime plants. 

TABLE XXII. COST OF EQUIPPING AND OPERATING LIME 

PLANTS 

Plant I Plant II Plant III 

No. of kilns 5 4 16 

Tons output for 24 hrs 65 4 8 200 

Cost of equipment $5,000 $2,500 $ 1.500 

Cost of energy at 2 cts. per kw.-hr 4.000 2,400 12.500 

Cost of steam operation 6,500 4.800 19.500 

Annual saving 2,500 2,400 7,000 

These plants operate the following equipment : 

Plant No. 1. Two 200 g.p.m. centrifugal pumps, blower fan, 
2 hoists, 50-h.p. crusher, fan, hammer mill, bagger, rotary mixer, 
Broughton mixer, hair picker and water supply pump. 

Plant No. 2. Kiln blower, 2 hoists, 1 300-gal. centrifugal pump. 

Plant No. 3. A 150-h.p. crusher plant, dust mill, hammer mill, 
two complete hydrating plants, Broughton mixer, bag cleaner, 
5-h.p. quarry pump, small machine shop, hair picker, elevator, 
two kiln blowers, 30-h.p. air compressor for quarry drills. The 
total installed h.p. for this plant was 650. 

Farm-Implement Manufacturing Power Requirements. (W. J. 
Kyle in Electrical Review and Western Electrician.) 

The term load-factor is used in these data in such a sense that 
a load-factor of 100% represents the use for 24 hrs. every day of 
power corresponding to the rated capacity of the motors connected. 
An operating-time load-factor of 100% represents the use of the 
rated capacity of the motors for the running hours per day spe- 
cified for each installation. 

Company manufacturing power knives, reaper sickles, guard 
plates, lawn mowers, etc. There are 150 men employed working 
10 hrs. per day. 

Total connected h.p., 619. Total number of motors installed, 
54. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 22,888. 

Load-factor 6.8%; operating-time load-factor 15%. 
•The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
spective drives. The supply source is three-phase, 60 cycles, 4 10 
volts. All motors, unless otherwise specified, are of the squirrel - 
cage induction type. 

Eight 15 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors, each belted direct to 
a grindstone. Stones average about 36 ins. diameter and 12-ins. 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1117 

face. They are used to grind bevel on the cutting implements. 
Driving pulley 10 by 9. Driven pulleys 28 by 8 ins. 

One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Vertical motor coupled to an American 
Well Works vertical bilge pump. No. 2i/^, capacity 200 gals, per 
min., 3-in. suction and 2.5-inch discharge pipe vertically mounted 
with float chains and a Cutler-Hammer switch automatically start- 
ing and stopping motor. This pumps out the water and dirt from 
the well and the grindstones. 

One 20 h.p., 690 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor, belted to a large grind- 
stone used for beveling cutters. Stone is 72 by 12 ins. Pulley 9 by 

9 ins. Driven pulley 42 by 8 ins. 

Ten 15 h.p., 870 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to 10 grindstones 
for beveling cutting tools. Stones vary in size between 48 by 14 
and 72 by 14 ins. Pulleys 10 by 9 ins. Driven pulleys 20 by 8 
ins. 

Five 7.5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to five surface girders. Stones 
have grinding face (side) average about 30 ins. Pulleys 8 by 9 
ins. Driven pulleys 24 by 8 ins. 

One 20 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a surface grinder. Stone»has 
a grinding face (side) of 36 ins. Pulley 8 by 9 ins. Driven pulley 
24 by 8 ins. 

One 5 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted direct to Williams White & Com- 
pany No. 3 hammer. 

One 7.5 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a Garden City blower No. 1. 
Pulley 6 by 10 ins. Driven pulley 24 by 8 ins. 

One 10 h.p.. 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 78-foot 10-hanger shaft 
driving four automatic-feed 76-link hardening machines and four 
hand-feed 7 6 -link hardening machines. These machines are about 

10 ft. long and the links each carry one piece to be hardened. It 
is driven by a chain and sprocket from the line shaft. Two 2-ft. by 
3-ft. tumbling barrels. One 100 lb. drop hammer. 

One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 50-ft. 7-bearing shaft driv- 
ing one No. 3 Parker punch press, flywheel, 48 by 5 ins. ; one scrap 
cutter ; one small emery wheel ; three machines for serrating sec- 
tions ; three guai^d-plate cutting machines ; one A. Leggoe & Com- 
pany machine for serrating special knives ; one American Gas Fur- 
nace Company high-pressure blower ; one Webster & Perks Tool 
Company section serrating machine ; one section serrating machine ; 
one emery wheel 14 by 2 ins.; one Pittsburgh counter-sinker; two 
Parker small punches, flywheels 24 by 3 ins. ; one 30-ft. four-hang- 
ers shaft driving one small punch for guard plates ; one E. W. Bliss 
Company automatic punch. No. 3 flywheel 38 by 5.5 ins. ; one Pitts- 
burgh Machine Works countersinker ; one roller for straightening 
small bars; one Bliss punch, flywheel 36 by 5 ins., and one double 
emery wheel. 

Two 3 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Backgeared and belted to two Bliss No. 
4 blanking presses, flywheels 42 by 6 ins. One of these machines 
is located in the machine shop. 

One 10 h.p.. 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a 36 ft. 5-hanger shaft driv- 
ing one Bliss No. 5 punch, flywheel 46 by 6 ins. ; one Bliss shear for 
cutting sections, flywheel 42 by 6 ins. ; one Pratt & Whiting 12-in. 



1118 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

drill; two Stiles & Parkin presses No. 1, flywheels 26 by 3 ins. ; one 
Pratt & Whitney 12 in. drill ; one guard milling machine ; one special 
punch, flywheel 48 by 5.5 ins. 

One 3 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a riveting machine that will 
rivet three at a time, flywheel 36 by 5.5 ins. 

One 1 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a small gasoline pump. 

One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 45 ft. 7-hanger shaft driv- 
ing one 16-in. Steptoe shaper ; one Fox Machine Company No. 23 
milling machine; one Danson & Goodwin 16-in. lathe; two E. W. 
Bliss No. 2 presses, flywheel 30 by 4 ins.; one special press, fly- 
wheel 27 by 3 ins., and one small screw machine. 

One 10 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 42-ft., 7-hanger shaft driv- 
ing a Dietz, Gang & Company 24-in. lathe; one double emery wheel 
4 by 0.5 ins. ; one automatic tool sharpener; one Smith & Mills 16-in, 
shaper; one Knecht Brothers Company 12-in. drill; one Barnes 24- 
in. drill ; two Q & C hack saws for 12-in. blades ; one H. C. Pease 
& Company plane; one double buffing arbor, wheels 16 by 4 ins.; 
one small surface grinder, 7-in. wheel ; one two-spindle drill ; one 
Bliss No. 2 punch, fls^vheel 30 by 4 ins. ; one two-spindle drill, 16 
ins. ; one special drill ; one special surface-grinding machine ; one 
grindstone 18 by 3 ins., grinds surfaces of cutters; one Rudolph's 
Krummel No. 4 punch, flywheel 26 by 6 ins. ; and one machine 
carrying two sets of rolls for treating sections. 

One 15 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 72-ft. 10-hanger shaft driv- 
ing one Pratt & Whitney 24-in. drill; one Barnes 18-in. drill; four 
Barnes 20-in. drills ; one double emery wheel ; one small fan about 
12 ins. in diameter for a forge fire. There is also another centrif- 
ugal fan for exhausting the 6 or 8 emery wheels. 

One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a 50-ft. 7-hanger shaft driving 
one four-spindle Barnes drill press; one Barnes 28-in. drill; one 
Barnes 22.5-in. drill ; one Kempsmith Manufacturing Company No. 
32 plain miller; one Garvin Machine Company No. 2 plain miller; 
one Fox Machine Company No. 3 miller ; and one milling machine. 

One 10 h.p., 1,080 r.p.m. Belted to a 53-ft. 8-hanger shaft driving 
two double emery wheels, Northampton, 9 by 2 and 10 by 2 ins. ; 
one double 16-in. buffer; one No. 1 Styles & Parker punch, flj^wheel 
6 by 3 ins. ; two double Northampton surface grinding wheels, 8-in. 
face, and one double emery wheel. 

One 7.5 h.p., 1,150 r.p.m. Direct-coupled to shaft of drum of a 
3,000-pound freight elevator at 50 ft. 

Two 30 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to two auto- 
matic surface-grinding machines. Grinds the surfaces of the 
cutting tools Pulleys 15.5 by 9 ins. Driven pulleys 22 by 8.5 ins. 

Five 7.5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to five hand-feed surface grind- 
ers. Grinders average about 28 ins. in diameter. Pulleys 8 by 9 
ins. Driven pulleys 30 by 8 ins. 

Two 2 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to two finishing machines. 

One 5 h.p., 1,120 r.p.m. Belted to a finishing girder for heavier 
work. Grindstone is 14 ins. by 3 ins. Driven pulley is 28 by 6 
ins. 

One 20 h.p., 850 r.p.m. Belted to a sickle grinder. This consists 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1119 

of a stone about 42 ins. face or diameter across which the whole 
sickle is pulled and thus sharpened. Pulley 10 by 11 ins. Driven 
pulley 36 by 8 ins. 

Two 15 h. p., 690 r.p.m. Slip-ring motors belted to two stones 
used both as a grinder to bevel the cutter and also to grind sur- 
faces. Two men on each grindstone at a time, one nearly on top 
and one in front. Stones are 40 by 14 ins. Pulley 9 by 9 ins. 
Driven pulleys 30 by 8 ins. 

The following is a comparison of the previous steam-plant costs 
with present costs of central-station service. An outline of the 
motor installation is given in the accompanying table. 

TABLE XXIII. MONTHLY OPERATING COSTS STEAM PLANT 
(Figures from books) 

Engineman $ 80.00 

Fireman 50.00 

Coal passer 50.00 

325 tons of fuel at $1.50 per ton 487.50 

Repairs to engine, boiler, valves, piping, boiler tube cleaning, 

etc 110.00 

Cylinder and engine oil 5.67 

Boiler compound 17.00 

Waste and packing 4.20 

Total $804.37 

TABLE XXIV. RECORD OF ELECTRICAL OPERATIONS 260 
HOURS PER MONTH 

Kilo- 
Kilo- watt- 
watts hours 

Tower shop, including all friction 12.3 3,198 

Grinding room, eliminating friction 52.4 13,645 

Machine shop, including friction 16.2 4,212 

Ventilating fan 2.0 520 

Small service pump 2.4 624 

Factory lighting 20.0 700 

Total 22,897 

The cost of change to produce the above results was $5,895. 

At the rate earned by the company the approximate saving in 
operating costs per month is 30%. 

Power Used in a Small Implement Manufacturing Plant making 
a small line of farm and garden implements, such as hoes, rakes, 
garden plows, etc. There are 12 men employed, working 8 hrs. 
per day. 

Total connected h.p., 89. Total number of motors installed, 12. 
Average kw.-hrs. per month, 2,730. 

Kw.-hrs. consumption for 9 months: July 2,270, August 3,050, 
September 2,060, October* 2,730, November 2,240, December 4,180, 
January 2,560, February 2,600, March 2,750. 

Load-factor, 5.6%; operating-time load-factor, 14%. 

The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
spective drives. The supply source is two-phase, 60 cycles, 220 
volts. 



1120 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

One 50 h.p., 690 r.p.m. Belted direct to air compressor. 

One 7.5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to Prentice engine lathe. 

One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one S. & M. two-spindle 
shaper. 

One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one Prentice 30-in. drill 
press. 

One 2 h.p., 1,700 r.p.m. Belted to a Buffalo No. 3 forge blower; 
and one 12-in. emery wheel. 

One 25 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to a No. 3 mortising ma- 
chine. 

One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one cut-off saw. 

One 10 h.p., 900 r.p.m. Belted direct to one 18-in. rip saw. 

One 7.5 h.p., 900 r.p.m. Belted direct to one grindstone. 

One 5 hp., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one grindstone. 

One 2 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Belted direct to one 36-in. band saw. 

One 5 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m. Geared direct to one milling machine. 

Electric Motors in Harvesting Machine Works. Two articles in 
Electrical Review and Western Electrician, Oct. 23 and Nov. 13, 
1915, describe the application of electric drive to machinery in 
plants No. 1 and No. 2 of the International Harvester Co. at Au- 
burn, N. y. ; a description of the works is given together with the 
following account of motors used : 

Motor Data — International Harvester Company (Oshorne 
Works), Total connected horsepower, 901.5. Total number of mo- 
tors installed, 27. Average kw.-hrs. per month per h.p. connected, 
125.9. 

The following is a list of motors and machinery driven by 
them. 

One 10 h.p., 220 volt, squirrel-cage motor with 1,200 r.p.m. speed 
and 8 in. pulley, driving two drill presses, one grindstone, one 
wood lathe, one small wood planer, one small drill. 

One 3 h.p., 220 volt, slip-ring motor, 1,200 r.p.m., 6-in. pulley. 
Blower for brass furnace. 

One 50 h.p., 2.080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 
geared to positive blower 18-oz. higher pressure type supplying three 
gray-iron cupolas. 

One 35 h.p.. 2,080 volt, squirrel-cage motor with 900 r.p.m. speed, 
and 13 -in. pulley, driving two tumblers for slag, two freight ele- 
vators, one 36-in. fan, one magnetic separator for separating iron 
from refuse in crushed slag. 

One 15 h.p., 220 volt, squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m., and 8-in. 
pulley. One 2-spindle nut-tapping machine, one 12-spindle nut-tap- 
ping machine, seven automatic nut-tapping machines, one 8-spindle 
hand-tapping machine, three Pratt & Whitney automatic screw ma- 
chines, two National-Acme automatic screw machines, one hand 
screw machine. 

One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., and 
13-in pulley. One annealing furnace, four cold-heading bolt ma- 
chines, five cold-pressed nut machines, two cold rivet, machines, 
one automatic trip bending machine, one automatic thread roller. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1121 

One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., and 
13-in. pulley. One cut-off machine, one small cut-off machine, one 
shears, three punch presses, two power hack saws, one freight ele- 
vator, six roll-thread threading machines, six old-style, threading 
machines, two heavy threading machines, one 6-in lathe, one drill 
press, one milling machine, one small milling machine, two bolt 
pointers, six small drill presses, eight 2-wheel emery grinders. 

One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in, 
pulley. Eleven large tumblers, four small tumblers, one drill press. 

One 25 h.p. direct coupled, 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 
720 r.p.m., driving sixtj^-inch exhaust fan for removing dust from 
tumbling room. 

One 75 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 720 r.p.m,, 18-in. 
pulley. Three bulldozers, one small bulldozer, one baby bulldozer, 
one bolt header, one Welderham No. 8 positive blower, one bolt ma- 
chine, one tire welder, two eye benders, one power hammer. 

Two 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 12-in. 
pulley. One 60-in. fan for oil burners ; three drop hammers ; one 
power shears. 

One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in, 
pulley. One 14-in. slotter ; one 24-in. planer; two vertical milling 
machines ; five grinders ; six small twist drills ; two 3 spindle drills ; 
one 2 spindle drill ; one small 2 spindle drill ; six small engine lathes ; 
one freight elevator 

One 10 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m. Two 8-in. 
engine lathes; one 12-in. engine lathe; one 14-in. engine lathe; three 
medium size drill presses; one 22-in. surface planer; one band saw; 
one grind stone ; one rip saw ; two wood lathes. 

One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 9 00 r.p.m., 8-in. 
pulley. Three 8-in. swing engine lathes; seven 10-in. swing engine 
lathes; one 12-in. swing engine lathe; one 18-in. swing engine 
lathe; one small horizontal boring mill; one 5i/i-in. slotter; four 
24-in. shapers ; one B. & S. 4A milling machine ; one small milling 
machine; three turret lathes; one 5-ft. planer; one 4-ft. planer; 
two punch presses ; one latch rod bender ; one cotter machine ; two 
wire straighteners. 

One 10 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, 1,200 r.p.m., 8-in. pulley. 
One power hack saw; one 10-in. engine lathe; three small drill 
presses; one 8-in. engine lathe; one 12-in. shaper ; one small forge 
blower ; one tool grinder ; three drills. 

One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 9,000 r.p.m., 13- 
in. pulley. Three freight elevators ; one punch press ; miscellaneous 
drills and special rivet machines. 

One 75 h.p., 2,080 volt squirrel-cage motor, driving motor-gen- 
erator set. 

One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in. 
pulley. Miscellaneous drills. 

One 50 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m.. 13-in, 
pulley. Miscellaneous machines including gang drills, turret lathes, 
key slotters, lathes, emery wheels, punches. 

One 30 h.p., 2,080 volt, internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m. No. 



1122 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

50 Sturtevant slow-speed exhaust fan for removing shavings and 
saw dust from box-maliing department. 

One 30 h.p. 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m. 
Twenty-four in. wood planer in box-making department. 

One 40 h.p., 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in. 
pulley. Six cut-off saws ; two rip saws ; one small wood planer. 

One 75 h.p. 2,080 volt internal-resistance motor, 720 r.p.m., 16-in. 
pulley. Six facing wheels ; twelve section grinders. 

One 20 h.p., 2,080 volt squirrel-cage motor, 900 r.p.m., 13-in. pul- 
ley. Two tempering machines ; seven punch presses ; one draw- 
temper fire ; one freight elevator ; three serrating machines ; one 
multiple drill. 

One 0.5 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor, driving ventilating fan, 
tempering room. 

One 3 h.p., 220 volt squirrel-cage motor on hoist. 

One 35 h.p., 220' volt slip-ring motor on elevator. 

Motor Data. Manufacture tillage implements. Plant No. 2. 

Total connected h.p., 1,079.5. Total number of motors installed, 
44. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 143,952. Average kw.-hrs. per 
month per h.p. connected, 133.3. 

The following is a list of the motors installed with their re- 
spective drives. The supply source is three-phase, 25 cycles, 2,300 
volts and 220 volts, d.-c. The d.-c. motors which are used for 
cranes, elevators and telphers, are not enumerated herewith. Mo- 
tors are of the squirrel-cage induction type unless otherwise men- 
tioned. 

Two 35 h.p.. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motors. Each driving a No. 
13 Sirocco blower for furnaces. 

One 10 h.p., 2,300 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Mold- 
ing room. — Two wet slag tumblers ; one magnetic separator. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor with 13-in pulley. Six- 
teen large tumblers ; 6 small tumblers. 

One 10 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Four 
emery wheel stands, 2 wheels each. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor in hard room. — Exhaust 
fan for dust collecting. 

One 1 h.p,, 220 volt motor, in hard room. — Dust collector knocker 
for agitating screens in dust collector. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt. 750 r.p.m. motor with 13-in. pulley. An- 
nealing room. — One broaching press ; 1 small bulldozer ; 1 punch 
press; 1 two-wheel emery grinder; 12 36-in. tumblers; 2 tumblers. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor with 10-in. pulley. Four 
drop hammers ; two punches. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt. 750 r.p.m. motor in annealing room. — 
Exhaust fan for dust collecting. 

One 1 h.p., 220 volt motor in annealing room. — Dust collector 
knocker for agitating screens in dust collector. 

One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor in core room. — Fan for 
ventilating core ovens. 

One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in pulley. Core 
room. — Sand sifter. 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1123 

One 5 h.p., 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor with 8-in. pulley. Pat- 
tern room. — One drill press ; 1 small shaper ; 1 emery wheel ; 1 wood 
saw. 

One 1 h.p., 220 volt motor in laboratory. — One small engine lathe; 
1 paint grinder; 1 small drill press. 

One 2 h.p. 220 volt, 1,500 r.p.m. motor in laboratory. — Olson 
100,000-lb. testing machine. 

One 0.5 h.p., 220 volt motor in laboratory. — Ventilating fan for 
chemical cabinet. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Two 12- 
ft. punches; one 10-ft. double punch; 8 small punches. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor 10-in pulley. One 6-ft. 
punch; 2 10-ft. punches; 1 12-ft. punch; 5 small punches; 2 straight- 
ening machines ; 1 scrap shears ; 1 drill press ; 2 small shears ; 2 
medium punches ; 1 header. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Five 
drop hammers ; 1 welding machine ; 3 spoke setting machines ; 1 
testing machine ; 2 annealing furnaces ; 1 drill press ; 1 upright bull- 
dozer ; 3 bulldozers ; 1 punch ; 1 small drop hammer. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Three 
trip hammers ; 2 eye benders ; 3 punch presses ; 1 drop hammer ; 1 
tire welder ; 1 upsetting machine. 

One 50 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor driving Sirocco 
blower for furnaces. 

One 50 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. Three 
punches ; 8 small drill presses ; 1 riveter ; 2 emery wheels ; 1 thread- 
ing machine. 

One 75 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. Slip-ring motor driving 11 
stands of 2-wheel emery grinders. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor. Driving 48-in. exhaust 
fan for removing dust from emery grinders. 

One 50 h.p. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m., 16 in. pulley. Slip-rig motor 
driving 2 stickers ; 1 wood riveting machine ; 1 boring machine ; 1 
drop hammer ; 1 band saw ; 1 spoke machine ; 1 sandpaper machine ; 
1 saw. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13 in. pulley. Two 
planers ; 1 automatic feed rip saw. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Six cross- 
cut saws. 

One 35 h.p. 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Two cross- 
cut saws. 

Three 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motors. Three combinations 
of two 48-in. fans for removing shavings and sawdust. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. Miscel- 
laneous small woodworking machines. 

One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. One 
multiple-spindle boring machine", 2 single-spindle boring machines; 
one boring machine. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, special. Pole machine. 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Three 
wood shapers ; 1 special rip saw. 



1124 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

One 20 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in pulley. Two roll 
turners ; 2 wood lathes ; three cross-cut saws ; 2 drill presses ; 3 wood 
lathes. 

One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. One wood 
boring miichine ; 1 wood riveter ; one tumbler barrel for small cast- 
ings. 

One 15 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 10-in. pulley. Four large 
paint grinders ; 2 small paint grinders. 

One three h.p., 220 volt motor, driving pipe-threading machine. 

One 35 h.p., 2,300 volt, 750 r.p.m. motor, 13-in. pulley. One wood 
planer ; 2 drill pre.sses ; 1 rip saw ; one cut-off saw ; miscellaneous 
small tools. 

One 23 h.p.. 2.300 volt, 720 r.p.m. motor, driving thirty-five 
^kilowatt direct-current generator 250 volts for cranes, telphers and 
elevators. 

One 23 h.p.. 2,300 volt, 720 r.p.m. motor, driving thirty-five k.w. 
generator for 22-naming arcs. 

One 30 h.p. 220 volt. Slip-ring motor driving elevator in ware- 
house. 

Rates for energy are based on 3 factors : Flat rate for the con- 
nected motor load in h.p., daily peak load, and sunset peak load. 
The day peak load obtains for the entire year and the daily peaks 
are averaged monthly for the basis of charges on this account. 
The working day is from 7 a. m to 6 p. m, with a 50-min. recess 
at noon. There is also a Saturday half holiday. The daily peak- 
load charges are added to the flat-rate charges. From September 
15 until March 15, inclusive, the sunset peak is figured, and is also 
added to the flat-rate charges. The sunset peak is the maximum 
demand during the time between sunset and closing time, which 
is 6 p. M., as previously stated. 

Electric Drive in Cotton Gins (J. H. Moseley in Electrical Re- 
view and Western Electrician July 24, 1915). 

Motor Requisites. It is rarely the custom to install more than 
five 80 -saw gin stands in one battery. When more capacity is 
required two or rhore identical batteries are used. On this account 
the largest size motor usually used is not over 75 horsepower. 
Since the characteristics of gin operation require a simple source 
of power and a source capable of overloads, due to the varying 
grades of cotton ginned, the squirrel-cage induction motor is 
readily adapted to this class of service. Due to the loose lint, 
which collects around the gin plant, a brushless-type motor is 
essential. Simplicity of construction and operation makes the 
constant-speed squirrel-cage type motor an ideal unit for a cotton 
gin, and universal satisfaction has resulted where this type has 
been used. 

In order to avoid transformer losses a primary voltage of 2,200 
is used on all motors above 25 h.p. in the Texas territory. For 
unloading fans, motor-driven hydraulic pumps, and electrical tramp- 
ers, 220-volt motors are commonly used. 

The only difl^iculty experienced in using induction motors is that 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1125 

of line regulation. During the first and last of the season the 
cotton gin runs only intermittently, and consequently it is neces- 
sary to start and stop the motor many times during the day. On 
a small isolated plant a 75-h.p. induction motor will practically 
destroy all attempts toward good regulation and on plants of 
small capacity it is advisable to use a wound rotor with a time- 
limit controlling switch for starting. It is also advisable to use 
wound-rotor motors on individual installations of 100 h.p. or more, 
in order to decrease the starting current. 

The One-Motor Gin. Undoubtedly the cheapest way of changing 
from a steam-driven to an electrically-driven gin is to replace the 
steam prime mover with one motor, a small air compressor being 
belted to the main line shaft, to furnish air for the tramper and 
hydraulic pump. No trouble whatever should be exi)erienced with 
an installation of this character. However, when the bales are 
coming in slowly it is necessary with this type of installation to 
operate the entire gin plant, in order to furnish air for pressing 
out the bale. The large friction loss prevalent in the gin proper 
during this part of the operation causes a large power consump- 
tion and a correspondingly high cost per bale of cotton ginned. 

Two-Motor Gin. This installation can be greatly improve^ from 
the economical operation standpoint by using a hydraulic pump 
belt driven by a 7.5-h.p. motor. With this arrangement not only 
can a lower pressure be used on the air drum with consequently 
less power consumption, but the main gin motor may be cut off 
as soon as the bale has been put through the gin stands. The 
7.5-h.p. motor can then be started and the bale pressed out with 
no loss in power. On one gin, where a record was kept, 287 bales 
were pres.sed with a motor driven hydraulic pump for $1.08, or 
an average of less than two-fifths of a cent per bale. 

The Logical Arrangement. Still further economy can be effected 
by eliminating the air compressor entirely and replacing it with 
an individually motor-driven electrical tramper. In the ordinary 
four-stand, 80-saw gin the electrical equipment would consist of 
one 75-h.p., 2,200-volt, 60-cycle, three-phase, constant-speed, squir- 
rel-cage motor driving main gin stands and unloading and conveying 
fan (motor would operate at 900 or 1,200 r.p.m.) ; one 7.5 h.p., 
220-volt, 60-cycle, three-phase, constant-speed, squirrel-cage motor, 
belted to hydraulic pump ; one three-h.p., 220-volt, 60-cycle, three- 
phase, constant-speed, squirrel-cage motor, driving by means of 
silent chain the electrical tramper. 

If desired a 50-h.p. motor can be used instead of the 75-h.p. 
machine, and a separate 25-h.p. motor direct-connected to the fan 
equipment, thus eliminating some belt and friction loss. However, 
this is a matter of comparatively small economy and is hardly 
justified, due to the increased first cost of the motor equipment. 

The 3-motor installation i.^ the rnost economical installation, 
since it divides the gin plant into the three units, which really 
operate independently of each other. Maximum operating efli- 
ciency and economy are obtained by this method. 

The electrical tramper is operated by a 3-h.p. motor. This 



1126 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

motor is connected by silent chain to a cog wheel operating the 
vertical member of the tramper, and is operated by means of the 
regular tramper-operating lever shown. Moving the lever in one 
direction starts the ^lotor, and causes the tramper to move down- 
ward. When the tramper has reached a predetermined point, or 
has passed the press dogs the motor rotation is automatically 
reversed, and the tramper is caused to rise. This invention, be- 
sides doing away with the air compressor, and consequently lower- 
ing the power consumption and ginning cost, eliminates the pos- 
sibility of " wet packed " bales, which frequently occur in steam- 
driven trampers, due to leaky cylinders. 

Cost of Operation. The data given in the accompanying table 
for a complete year's operation on 32 different gins, some of them 
having identical equipment, will give an idea of the variation of 
power consumption due to the personal equation. 

TABLE XXV. COST OF GINNING COTTON OP 32 GINS 

Maximum Minimum Average 

Stands 8 2 6 

Saws per stand 80 70 70 

Horsepower installed 200 50 100 

Months used 5 'I 4 

Bales ginned 3,343 87 1,540 

Average weight 566 500 525 

Kw.-hrs. used 83,950 1,850 29,450 

Kw.-hrs. per bale 26.3 14 19 

Net cost per bale $1.12 $0.45 $0.65 

Cotton Gin Power Requirements. The term load-factor is used 
in these data in such a sense that a load-factor of 100% represents 
the use for 24 hrs. every day of power corresponding to the rated 
capacity of the motors connected. An operating-time load-factor 
of 100% represents the use of the rated capacity of the motors 
for the running hrs. per day specified for each installation. 

Gin Plant with 6 Stands of 70 Saws Each. Capacity approxi- 
mately 5 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 2 
to 18 hrs. Number of months operated, 8. Total connected h.p., 
127.5. Total number of motors installed, 4. Average kw.-hrs. per 
month, 4,612. 

Kilowatt-hour consumption for 8 months : 

Month Kilowatt-hours 

January 2,700 

February 1,800 

March 300 

April 2.000 

September 1,900 

October 16,200 

November 9,500 

December 2,500 

Load-factor, 6.6%. 

Approximate energy consumption per bale of cotton ginned is 
19.2 kw.-hrs. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 112^ 

Following is a list of motors installed with their respective drives. 
Source of supply is 220 volts, three-phase, 60 cycles with the ex- 
ception of 75-h.p. motor which is 2,200 volts. 

One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to main line shaft driving 
six 70 -saw gin stands and one Gardner-Rix 6 by 6 vertical, two- 
cylinder air compressor. One 25 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m. motor, direct- 
connected to 40-in. multi-blade fan for unloading and conveying 
cotton to gin stands. One 7.5 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to 
hydraulic pump. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m. motor, direct-connected 
to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 

Gin Plant with 4 70-Saw Stands. Capacity approximately 4 bales 
of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 18 hrs. Four 
men are employed. Plant operates 7 months per year. Total con- 
nected h.p., 100. Total number of motors installed, 2. Average- 
kw.-hrs. per month, 2,963. 

Consumption for 12 months : 

Month Kilowatt-hours 

January 311 

February . 2,610 

March 400 

April to August 

September 4,400 

October 6,980 

November 4.350 

December 1,690 

Load-factor, 5.4%. 

Average kw.-hrs. per bale, 14.5. 

Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
drives; 220-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle current is used with the excep- 
tion of the 75-hp. motor which is 2,200 volts. 

One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m. motor, belted to main line shaft driving 
4 70-saw gin stands and one Gardner-Rix 6 by 6 vertical, 2-cylin- 
der air compressor. One 25 h.p., 1.800 r.p.m. motor, direct-con- 
nected to 40-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 

Gin Plant with Six 70-Saw and Five SO-Saw Stands, having a 
capacity of approximately 10 bales per hr. Daily operation varies 
from 1 to 18 hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total con- 
nected h.p., 192.5. Total number of motors installed, 5. Average 
kw.-hrs. per month, 4,937. 

Kilowatt -hour consumption for 6 months : 

^onth Kilowatt-hours 

January 580 

February 121 

September 11,400 

October 12,050 

November 5,010 

December 460 

Load-factor, 4.7%. 

The approximate energy consumption per bale ginned is 17 
kw.-hrs. 



1128 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
drives. Current is supplied at 220 volts, 3-phase, 60 cycles. 

One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving six 
70-sa,w gin stands and suction fan. One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., belted 
to 8 by 6 Gardner vertical air compressor furnishing air for 
tramper. One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving 
five 80-saAV gin stands and 6 by 6 Gardner vertical air compressor. 
One 7.5 h.p.. 900 r.p.m., belted to hydraulic pump which operates 
the hydraulic ram on two presses. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., direct- 
connected to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 

Gin Plant with Four 70-Saw Starids having a capacity of approxi- 
mately 4 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 
18 hrs. There are 4 men employed. Plant operates 5 months 
per year. Total connected h.p.. 95. Total number of motors in- 
stalled, 2. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 7,815. 

Kilowatt-hour consumption for five months : 

Month Killowatt-hours 

January 3,960 

February to August 

September 11,580 

October 16,280 

November 6,630 

December 620 

Load-factor, 15%. 

Approximate energy consumption per bale of cotton ginned, 18 
kw.-hrs. 

Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
drives. Three-phase, 60-cycle, 2,200-volt current is used on 75-h.p. 
motor and 220 volts on 20 -h.p. motor. 

One 75 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m.. belted to main line shaft driving four 
70-saw gin stands; suction fan and 6 by 8 Gardner vertical two- 
cylinder air compressor. One 20 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., direct-con- 
nected to 35-in. unloading fan in cotton storehouse. 

Gin Plant Having Eight 80-Saw Stands. Capacity approximately 
10 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 1 to 18 
hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total connected h.p., 235. 
Total number of motors installed, 7. Average kw.-hrs. per month, 
11,820. 

Kilowatt-hour consumption for 6 months : 

Month Kilowatt-hours 

January 

February 10,1(10 

March 7O0 

April to August 

September 12,411 

October 26,300 

November 18,100 

December 3,311 

Load-factor, 9.2%. 

The approximate electrical energy consumption per b^vle of cotton 
ginned is 18 kw.-hrs. 



BELTS, SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1129 

Following is a list of motors installed with their respective 
drives. The source of supply is 2,200-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle 
current for the two 75-h.p. motors and 220-volt for the balance. 

Two 75-h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., each belted to a line shaft driving four 
80-saw gin stands and suction fan. Two 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., each 
belted to an 8 by 6 Gardner vertical two-cylinder compressor fur- 
nishing air for trampers and hydraulic pumps. Two 20 h.p., 1,800 
r.p.m., each direct-connected to a 3 5 -in. unloading fan in cotton 
storehouse. One 15 h.p., 900 r.p.m., auxiliary motor for seed 
conveyor. 

Gin Plant Having Four 70-Saw Stands. Capacity of plant is ap- 
proximately 4 bales of cotton per hr. Daily operation varies from 
1 to 18 hrs. Plant operates 6 months per year. Total connected 
h.p., 107.5. Total number of motors installed, 4. Average kw.- 
hrs. per month, 3,671. 

Kilowatt -hour consumption for 6 months : 

Month Kilowatt-hours 

.January 2,290 

February 600 

March to August 

September 10.320 

October '. 10,300 

November 2,150 

December 1,340 

Load-factor 6.2%. 

The approximate electrical energy consumption per bale of cot- 
ton ginned is 17.2 kw.-hrs. 

Motors are installed as follows, 220-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle 
current being used except in the case of the 75-h.p. motor, which 
is 2,200 volts. 

One 75 h.p., 900 r.p.m., belted to main line shaft driving four 
70-saw gin stands and suction fan. One 15 h.p., 1,200 r.p.m., belted 
to Chicago Pneumatic 6 by 6 air compressor. One 7.5 h.p., 900 
r.p.m., belted to hydraulic press pump. One 10 h.p., 1,800 r.p.m., 
belted to unloading fan in storehou.se. 

Electric Drive in Sand and Gravel Plants. Capacity 1,000 
cu. yds. daily. A plant of the Hugh Nawn Contracting Company, 
Sharon Heights, Mass., capacity, 1,000 cu. yds. a day, 6 to 8 men 
employed, operating the year around, was described in Electrical 
Review and We.stern Electrician. 

The total h.p. connected, was 248, total number of motors con- 
nected, 15 ; average monthly cost of power, $280. 

Motor Installation. Following is a list of the motors installed 
and their respective drives. Current is supplied at 230/460 volts, 
3-phase, 60 cycles: 

Horse- 
power Application 
of motor 

82 Excavator with 1.25-yd. bucket. 

1 Revolves hopper. 

5 18-in. belt. 310 ft. long. 

15 20-in. belt, 600 ft, long. 



1130 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Horse- 
power Application 
of motor 

15 20-in. belt up incline trestle. 

5 Two motors operate two pulsating screens. 

5 Belt 150 ft. long to crusher. 

55 Crusher. 

10 Belt conveying pebbles and crushed stone to rotary- 
screen. 

10 Rotary screen. 

10 18-in. belt 600 ft. long under storage bins, 

5 Belt conveyor from tailings bin to crusher 

20 16-in. belt conveyor 300 ft. long, under sand piles. 

5 Rotary sand screen. 

Capacity 6,000 cu. yds. Daily. Plant of the Boston Sand and 
Gravel Company, Scituate, Mass., has a capacity of 6,000 cu. yds. 
a day ; 10 men regularly employed ; plant operates 12 months of 
the year. 

Total connected h.p., 530 ; total number of motors connected, 15 ; 
average kw.-hrs. consumed per month, 40,000. 

Motor Installation. Following is a list of the motors installed 
and their respective drives. Current is supplied at 550 volts, 
3-phase, 60 cycles: 

Horse- 
power Application 
of motor 

165 An S. Flory Manufacturing company engine, hauling 
three-yd. bucket. 
35 Flory engine handling suspension cables and bucket- 
dumping cable. 
3 Air compressor for setting friction clutches. 
75 Double-drum Mead-Morrison engine hauling cunveyor 

cars to screening and crushing plant. 
75 Symons Brothers' rotary crushers, screens, bucket ele- 
vator, sand conveyor and paddles for removing sand 
deposit in tank. 
75 2,200-gallon-per-minute Goulds rotary pump, forcing sea 

water on screens. 
5 Two motors operate. Two 14-inch belt conveyors carry- 

ing materials to storage piles. 
3 A 24-inch belt conveyor to storage. 

35 Two motors operate two 30-inch belt conveyors for load- 

ing lighters. 
5 Fresh water pump. 

— In blacksmith shop. Two motors. 

Motor-Service and Heating Costs in a Jewelry Factory. The 

jewelry factory of the Codding-Heilborn Company, North Attle- 
boro, Mass., operated by central-station energy from the local 
electric plant, was described in Electrical World, June 21, 1913. 

The factory was formerly operated by a 50-h.p. slide-valve en- 
gine supplied with steam from a 90-h.p. horizontal return-tubular 
boiler. No traps were used in the steam piping which supplied 
various parts of the factory v/ith heat. Considerable annoyance 
was experienced from time to time at the slowing down of the 
rolling mill, polishing apparatus and steam-driven blower equipment, 
production being sensibly diminished under mechanical driving. 
The introduction of electric motors, however, speeded up the polish- 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1131 

ing tools enough to give about 13% greater production, besides 
resulting in a better quality of work. All motors are of the 220- 
volt, three-phase, 60 -cycle induction type, 

MOTOR EQUIPMENT FOR JEWELRY FACTORY 

First floor, 1,200 r.p.m. motors: 

Scratch-brushing and coloring, including two direct-current 

plating dynamos, three scratch-brushing heads and one 13-in. 

exhaust fan, 3 h.p. 
Polishing bench, No. 4 blower, six heads, 7.5 h.p. 
Duplex power pump in engine room, 2 h.p. 
Three rolling mills, 7.5 h.p. 
Two high-speed drills, three lathes, 0.5 h.p. 
Tub-cleaning machine. 0.25 h.p. 
Emery wheel, double 10-in. diameter, 1 h.p. 
Two drop hammers, 450-lb. and 300-lb. ; two 200-lb. and two 

75-lb. drop hammers, one power press and one rotary shear, 

5 h.p. 

Second floor, 1,800 r.p.m. motors: 

Machine shop, including .two engine lathes, one shaper, one 

emery wheel, one cut-off saw, one grindstone, one milling 

machine, 2 h.p. 
Four power presses, six high-speed lathes, 2 h.p. 

Third floor, 1,800 r.p.m. motor: 

No. 3 American gas-furnace blower, 2 h.p. 

The total connected load of motors is 32.75 h.p., representing an 
investment of $668. 

In this, as in many other cases where isolated plants are to be 
converted, the question of heating was an important factor. 

Cost of Electricity. The estimated cost of electric energy for 
this factory was $66 per month, based upon a 10-hr. day and 
service used 300 days per year. The average monthly consumption 
of energy determined was 2,200 kw.-hrs., the average rate being 
3 cents per kw.-hr. The point was made that central-station service 
would be available at all times, and that a licensed engineer or 
fireman would not be needed so long as the steam pressure was 
kept below 15 lbs. per sq. in., since steam was not to be used for 
developing mechanical power. It was necessary, however, to equip 
the boiler with a sealed safety valve set at 15 lbs, per sq. in. and 
approved by the State inspector of boilers. 

The total cost of equipping the factory for electric driving was 
estimated as follows : Motors, complete, with bases, pulleys, labor, 
freight, $668 ; wiring, fittings, switches and erection, $160 ; pulleys, 
belting, shafting hangers, erected, $80 ; drying boxes connected to 
vats, piping and labor, $12; total, $920. 

The estimated yearly cost of operation, excluding fixed charges, 
was $1,444.50, the items being as follows: Electrical energy, $792; 
coal for heating, 59 tons at $4.50, $265.50 ; coal for commercial 
uses, sinks, etc., $207; attendance, one-quarter of the time of one 
man at $60 per month, inspecting motors, firing boiler, etc., $180; 
total $1,444.50. 



CHAPTER XV 
COMPRESSED AIR 

Compressors are sold on a basis of displacement in cu. ft. of 
free air per minute. This in the case of double-acting compressors 
is the voluine of the air cylinder in cu. ft. multiplied by twice the 
number of revolutions per minute, or the volume of the air cylinder 
in cu. ft. multiplied by the piston speed in ft. per min. In the case 
of 2- or 3-stage compressors the displacement is naturally figured 
on the basis of the volume of the low pressure cylinder. 

Thus, a 6 by 6 in. single stage machine at 150 r.p.m. would have 
a displacement of 

1 ttX 32 

— X X 2 X 150 = 29.4 cu. ft. per min. 

2 144 

An 8 by 10 in. single stage machine at 200 r.p.m. would have a 
displacement of: 

10 7rX42 

— X X 2 X 200 = 116.4 cu. ft. per min. 

12 144 

A 30 by 18 in. by 24 in. 2-stage machine at 150 r.p.m. would 
have a displacement of: 

24 7rXl52 

— X X 2 X 150 = 2945.2 cu. ft. per min. 

12 144 

In the latter case the piston speed was 600 ft. per min., which, 
multiplied by the volume of the cylinder, 4.9087 cu. ft., gives the 
displacement 2945.2 as shown. 



TABLE I. STEAM DRIVEN TANDEM STRAIGHT LINE 

COMPRESSORS — SIMPLE STEAM, 2-STAGE AIR — 

100 LB. PRESSURE 

Rated capacity Approx. 

cu. ft. per min. weight, lbs. Price 

400 9,900 $1,235 

600 16,000 1,810 

800 22,200 2,580 

1,000 28,000 2,800 

1,250 34,500 3,310 

1.500 40,000 3,680 

1.750 45,000 3,960 

2,000 48,500 4,170 

2,250 52,000 4,370 

2,500 54,000 4,480 

-1132 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1133 



TABLE II. 



STEAM DRIVEN SIMPLE STRAIGHT LINE 
COMPRESSORS 



Rated capacity 
cu. ft. free air per min. 
60 
100 
150 
200 
250 
300 . 
400 
500 
600 



100 
150 
200 
250 
300 
400 
500 
600 



100-125 LBS. AIR PRESSURE 

Approximate 
shipping weight in lbs. 

2,600 

3,800 

5,150 

6,500 

7,700 

9,000 
11,200 
13,100 
15,500 

80-100 LBS. AIR PRESSURE 

2,950 

4.100 

5,200 

6,200 

7,200 

9,000 
10,800 
12,500 



Price 

f.o.b. factory 

% 400 

560 

720 

865 

1,000 

1,125 

1,225 

1,580 

1,770 



; 450 

595 

730 

830 

945 

1,135 

1,320 

1,490 



TABLE III. 



CROSS-COMPOUND STEAM-DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
AIR COMPRESSORS 



(For 125-150 lbs. air pressure) 



Rated capacity in 
cu. ft. per min. 

200 

300 

400 

600 

800 
1,000 
1,200 
1,4.00 
1,600 



Approximate 
shipping weight in lbs. 
13,000 
14,500 
16,500 
24,500 
34,000 
41,000 
46,000 
50,000 
52.000 



Price 
f.o.b. factory 
$1,760 
1,960 
2,150 
3,130 
4,250 
5,000 
5,500 
6,000 
6,250 



TABLE IV. 



CROSS-COMPOUND STEAM DRIVEN 2-STAGE 
COMPRESSORS 



(For 80-100 lbs. air pressure) 

Rated capacity in Approximate Price 

cu. ft. per min. shipping weight in lbs. f.o.b. factory 

200 8.600 $1,160 

300 9.250 1,250 

400 11,000 1.500 

600 17.500 2,300 

800 24.000 3.060 

1,000 29.000 3,600 

1.200 34.000 4.250 

1.400 37,500 4,700 

1.600 40,000 5,000 



1134 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE V. 



DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
AIR COMPRESSOR 



(For 125-150 lbs. air pressure) 

Rated capacity in Approximate Price 

cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 

200 12.000 $1,620 

300 13.000 1,760 

400 14.500 1,920 

600 26.000 3.320 

800 33,000 4,130 

1,000 36.000 4.150 

1,200 37.000 4,250 



TABLE VI. 



DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN SINGLE- 
STAGE AIR COMPRESSORS 



(For 45-60 lbs. air pressure) 

Rated capacity in Approximate Price 

cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 

200 6.000 $ 760 

300 6.600 840 

400 7.600 970 

600 11.000 1.380 

800 15,000 1.800 

1.000 19.500 2.340 

1.200 23,500 2,760 

1.400 27.500 3.160 

1,600 31,000 3,560 



TABLE VIL 



DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN SINGLE- 
STAGE AIR COMPRESSORS 



Rated capacity in 
cu. ft. per min. 

200 

300 

400 

600 

800 
1,000 
1,200 
1,400 
1,600 



(For 100 lbs. air pressure) 

Approximate Price 
shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 

7.500 $ 950 

10.000 1.250 

12.500 1.560 

18.500 2,220 

23.500 2.760 

28.000 3.-220 

31.000 3;560 

34.000 3.900 

36,000 4,050 



TABLE VIIT. DUPLEX CORLISS COMPOUND STEAM DRIVEN 

TWO-STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR WITH TANDEM 

CYLINDERS 



(For 90-100 lbs. air pressure) 



Rated capacity in 
cu. ft. per min. 
2.000 
2,500 
3,000 
3,500 
4,000 
4,500 
5.000 
5,500 



Approximate 


Price 


shipping weight, lbs. 


f.o.b. factory 


9.600 


$1,200 


10,500 


1,310 


11,500 


1,440 


13,000 


1,630 


14,500 ' 


1,780 


16.000 


1,920 


17,000 


2,040 


18,500 


2.220 



COMPRESSED AIR 1135 

TABLE IX. DUPLEX SIMPLE STEAM DRIVEN TWO-STAGE 
AIR COMPRESSOR 

(For 80-110 lbs. air pressure) 

Rated capacity in Approximate Price 

cu. ft. per min. shipping weight, lbs. f.o.b. factory 

200 8,000 $1,000 

300 8,600 1,075 

400 10,000 1,250 

600 16,000 1,920 

800 21,000 2,520 

1,000 26,000 3,060 

1,200 30,000 3,450 

1,400 33,000 3,800 

1,600 36,000 4,050 

Formulae of Costs of Air Compressors. A, A. Potter in Power, 
Dec. 30, 1913, derived the formulae in Table X for the costs of air 
compressors, by tabulating and plotting the net prices received 
from several different manufacturers. The prices are the net selling 
price f.o.b. factory and do not include cost of erection. 

TABLE X. COST FORMULA FOR AIR COMPRESSORS 

Capacity up to Equation of 

Type cu. ft. per min. cost in dollars 

Single cylinder, belt driven 4,000 52 +1.95 X cu. ft. 

Duplex, belt-driven 850 316 + 1.675 X cu. ft. 

Compound, belt-driven 550 3.1 X cu. ft. 

Single cylinder, steam driven.. 350 231 +2.32 X cu. ft. 

Duplex, steam-driven 600 460 + 2.55 X cu. ft. 

Compound, steam-driven 500 71.25 + 4.025 X cu. ft. 



TABLE XA. COST OP MOTOR DRIVEN COMPRESSORS 
WITH AUXILIARIES AND THEIR INSTALLATION 

220 V 220 V 220 V 600 V 600 V 600 V 
Piston displacement, cu. ft. 

per min 15 25 50 50 15 25 

Shipping weight 630 830 2050 1460 620 880 

Net price compressor, f.o.b. 

factory $220. 260. 450. 400. 175. 225. 

Net price governors and 

switch, f.o.b. factory. 40. 40. 40. 20. 20. 20. 

Freight and drayage at 

$1.50 9. 12. 31. 22. 9. 13. 

Est. cost of receiver, piping, 

etc 40. 40. 40. 40. 40. 40. 

Installing 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 

$324. 367. 576. 497. 259. 313. 

Cost of Installing a Compressor Plant. The following, taken from 
Gillette's Handbook of Rock Excavation, is an itemized account 
of the cost of installing a small compressor plant. The compressor 
was a Rand. Class C, 24 by 30-in., that cost $1,000. The boiler was 
a second-hand 150 hp. locomotive boiler that cost $1,000. This 
plant was capable of furnishing 1,300 cu. ft. of free air per min. at 



1136 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

80 lbs. pressure, or enough to run 10 or 12 drills. Cost of in- 
stalling boiler: 

22 days laborers, at $1.50 % 33 

23 days engineers, at $3 69 

13 days mechanics, at $4 52 

13 days mechanics' help, at $2 26 

1 day bricklayer, at $4 4 

Total $184 

Cost of installing compressor : • 

120 days laborers, at $1.50 $180 

4 days engineers, at $3 12 

22 days mechanics, at $4 88 

80 days mechanics' help, at $2 160 

50 days carpenters, at $3 150 

3 days bricklayers, at $4 12 

6 days teams, at $4 24 

8 days foremen, at $3 24 

Total $650 

Cost of materials: 

15M lumber for housing compressor, at $25 $375 

1,400 sq. ft. tar paper (1 layer) 21 

32 cu. yd. concrete, at $4 128 

5M brick, at $7 35 

6 bbl. cement, at $2 12 

Sand 1 

Total $572 

Cost, Air Capacity, etc., of Different Types of Portable Com- 
pressors. From a table in Dana's Handbook of Construction Plant 
we have compiled the following. A compressor delivering 78 cu. ft. 
free air per min. at a pressure of 100 lbs., having single stage water 
jacket, Ingersoll-Rand type 8x8, NE-I, and 4 water cooling tanks 
with rotary circulating pump, driven by a 15 hp., 1 cyl., gasoline 
engine, weighs, complete, 7,700 lbs. and costs $1,425. A compressor 
delivering 64 cu. ft. free air with a Franklin single stage water 
jacket, but like the above in all other respects, weighs, complete, 
7,800 lbs. and costs $1,325. A compressor delivering 70 ft. air 
at 90 lbs., having the gas and air cylinder cast in one piece, worked 
tandem with single piston rod, weighs over 7,000 lbs. and costs 
$1,250. A compressor delivering 70 cu. ft. air at 80 lbs., with a 
12 hp. single cyl. engine, weighs, complete, 8,900 lbs. and costs 
$1,120. One delivering 94 ft. of air at 90 lbs., with 20 hp. engine, 
weighs 9,000 lbs. and costs $1,825. One delivering 100 ft. air at 
90 lbs., driven by a 4-cyl. marine type gasoline engine of 27 hp., 
water circulating with radiator, weighs 8,000 lbs. and costs $1,900. 

Air Receivers. The information in Table XI in regard to air re- 
ceivers, sizes, weights, etc., has been obtained from several of the 
large manufacturers of compressed air machinery. 

Turbo-Compressors. The modern turbo-compressor is suitable 
for pressures up to 120 lbs. per sq. in. They may be driven by 
direct connected steam turbines or by electric motor.s. 



COMPRESSED AIR 1137 

TABLE XL COST OF AIR RECEIVERS 



Compressor capacity 


Contents of 






for which best adapted, 


receiver, 


Weight of 


Price 


cu. ft. free air per min. 


cu. ft. 


receiver, lbs. 




100- 250 


30 


700- 825 


$ 45 


150- 325 


43 


1,000-1,050 


55 


200- 450 


57 


1,200-1,300 


70 


300- 650 


77 


1,550-1,600 


85 


500- 900 


96 


1,750-1,900 


100 


800-1,500 


150 


2,400-2,900 


145 


1,200-2,000 


192 


3,200-3,400 


180 


2,000-3,500 


280 


3,900-5,200 


250 


3,500-4,000 


380 


6,300 


315 



The following are some of the advantages of turbo-compressors : 

1. The turbo-blowers and compressors deliver a steady (non-pul- 
sating) current of air or gas. 

2. Run practically without noise at all loads. 

3. Simple in construction, have all parts easily accessible, and 
are reliable in action. 

4. Not only require very little attendance and lubrication when 
at work, but relatively speaking, a minimum of space for their 
accommodation. 

5. Require a minimum of power to drive ; they are also easily 
governed through a wide range of variation of speed, without ma- 
terially affecting their economy. 

6. Perfectly balanced both dynamically and in respect of axial 
thrust. 

Turbo-Auxiliary to Piston Compressor in an English Mine. 
A case arose at an English colliery, where, in order to meet the 
increased demand for air, either the existing piston-compressor 
plant — a cross-compound engine with cylinders 28-in. and 50-in. 
diameter, by 60-in. stroke, driving duplex air cylinders of 33-in. 
diameter, running up to from 30 to 35 r.p.m, as a maximum — 
could be augmented by a similar set, or, with a view of increased 
efficiency on the air cylinders, by the installation of a compound 
two-stage compressor, or finally by the adoption of a turbo-com- 
pressor set receiving its driving energy from the exhaust (at about 
atmospheric pressure) of the low pressure steam cylinder. Here 
the plan contemplated was that the turbo-compressor should pass 
its discharge through an inter-cooler into the existing air cylinders. 

It was found that the costs of the second complete piston com- 
pressor would very much exceed the first cost of the turbo-com- 
pressor installation, and it would also require much more floor 
.space ; moreover, a gain of efficiency could be obtained only with 
the new piston compressor plant, whereas the turbo-compressor 
would improve the working efficiency over the whole combined 
capacity. For these reasons, therefore, it was decided to install 
the turbo-compressor. The results have fully justified this de- 
cision, a gain of about 17% over what would have been secured 
from a second piston compressor having been obtained. 

The turbo-compressor is of the Rateau type, and was subjected 
to tests which proved that the guarantees were fully realized, 



1138 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

easily delivering from 6.000 to 7,000 cu. ft. of free air per min. 
at 12.8 lbs. gage. The steam consumption claimed for the turbine 
also was established. The flexibility of the plant was particularly 
noteworthy, as outputs up to 12,000 cu. ft. per min. and pressures 
up to 16 lbs. were easily realized. 

When running the existing piston compressor at the normal speed 
of 30 r.p.m. taking in air at atmospheric pressure and temperature, 
the maximum volume discharged at 60 lbs. was 3,000 cu. ft. of 
free air per min., while with the addition of the turbo-compressor 
set, with the piston compressor at the same speed as before, an 
increase in the free air capacity of over 100% was obtained, and 
the total eflSciency both of the air and of the steam was greatly 
improved. 

The low pressure steam cylinder of the existing duplex piston 
compressor now discharges into a large steam receiver — an old 
boiler shell with automatic relief valve arranged to prevent undue 
accumulation of pressure. From this the steam passes through the 
exhaust steam turbine to the condenser arranged underneath the 
turbine exhaust branch. The turbine is absolutely under the con- 
trol of the reciprocating compressor, as a demand for more work 
from the plant requires more steam from the duplex compressor, 
and provides the turbine with the necessary steam for the required 
air capacity or pressure. 

Economy in Compressed Air iVlining Plants. No subject con- 
nected with the operation of a mine has more interest to the miner 
than that of cheap power. 

E. A. Rix in the Proceedings of the California Miners' Associa- 
tion (1903) states that another and more important feature which 
is too frequently overlooked, is the amount of power which is used 
in mining operations. It is just as economical and important to 
effect a reduction of 25% in the amount of power used as to effect 
the same reduction in the rate. The power required to operate 
the compressed air plant about a mine is a considerable item, being 
from 25 to 50% of the total power used, and it is safe to say that 
of this, from 25 to 50% could be saved in very many plants with 
but comparatively small expenditure. 

With any given compressor, there is a saving to be made of 
from 5 to 10% in favor of driving direct by a water wheel or 
steam engine, rather than by means of gear or belt. But this is 
not always practical or feasible. A great saving may be made in 
the ordinary steam-driven compressor as far as the motor end is 
concerned. The engines of steam-driven compressors are ordinarily 
equipped with either plain slide valves, Meyers cut-off gearing, or 
compound cylinders. 

The plain slide valve engine consumes from 45 to 50 lbs. of steam 
per h.p.-hr. The steam consumption is large because the mean 
effective pressure required to do the work being low, the steam 
is throttled at the governor, or shut-off valve, and introduced into 
the steam cylinder at low pressure, thus giving no benefit from the 
high steam pressure or expansion. 

The Meyers cut-off, however, does away with much of this loss 



COMPRESSED AIR 1139 

and gives the steam a chance to work expansively, and the steam 
consumption will probably be from 35 to 40 lbs. per h.p.-hr. 

With the compound engine, the steam consumption will be from 
30 to 35 lbs. per h.p.-hr. Condensing engines would give larger 
economy, but for the average mining plants would not be desirable. 

Taking these figures, it will be noted that the Meyers cut-of£ is 
at least 20% more economical than the plain slide valve, and the 
compound cylinders are 30% more economical. For example, a 
three-drill compressor — 12 by 12 by 12 ins. cost 

Cost 

Plain slide valve $1,300 

Meyers cut-off 1,350 

Compound cylinder compressor 1,650 

This is a 50 h.p. compressor, and if a h.p. should cost but $5 
monthly, the Meyers cut-off would pay for its extra cost in a month 
and the compound in five months, after which there would be a 
clean saving of $50 to $75 monthly, an item not to be overlooked. 

It has been quite well demonstrated that a two-stage compressor 
for pressures above 60 or 70 lbs. is very much more desirable and 
economical than a single stage machine. 

(1) It requires from 10 to 15% less power to compress 90 or 
100 lbs. by a two-stage machine. 

(2) The temperature created by compression is only about one- 
half, that is to say, from 200 to 250 degs. F. in the cylinder, in- 
stead of from 350 to 450 degs. The lower temperature permits 
better lubrication and wear in the cylinder and does away with 
the danger of cylinder or receiver explosions due to the ignition 
of the gases given off by the lubricants. 

In the third place : It gives a proper capacity of air delivered 
for the size of the air cylinder. Right here is a point which should 
appeal to every one. 

All compressor catalogs give the rated capacity of a compressor 
in cu. ft. of piston displacement, at a certain speed, and too fre- 
quently purchasers believe that these figures indicate the free air 
capacity. If they buy a machine having one hundred cu. ft. dis- 
placement at 150 r.p.m., the supposition is that the compressor will 
deliver about that quantity. This may be nearly true of a two- 
stage compressor, but not of a single-stage machine. The single- 
stage machine is generally equipped with poppet valves, and the 
considerations of speed, valve clearance, piston clearance, piston 
leakage, valve leakage, temperatures, valve inertia, springs, tensions 
and atmospheric temperature, all tend to reduce this displacement 
figure, until the average poppet valve single-stage machine does not 
give over 75% of its theoretical volume at normal speed, and may 
drop to from 50 to 60%. This means that while the machine is 
built for and is amply strong ienough to give 100% it is not per- 
mitted to deliver its full volume by reason of the facts set forth. 
The purchaser finds he cannot get air enough for his work. 

The two-stage machine will give from 85 to 90% of its theoretical 
displacement, and with this machine the purchaser is therefor 3 



1140 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

getting more for his money, buying the same cylindei- dimensions, 
than in the single-stage machine. 

A single-stage straight line machine, 12 and 12 by 12 Ins., will 
cost $800. A two-stage, 12 and 7 and 12 by 12 ins., will cost 
$980. Inasmuch as the two-stage machine will give 15% more air, 
the comparative price of the single-stage machine would be figured 
at $920. Consequently, the difference in price is $60, and because 
the 2-stage machine is more economical to operate by 15%, this 
small difference in price will be saved in two or three months. 

To conclude, then, as far as the compressor end is concerned, 
there are the following gains to be made, counting that the com- 
pressor is running at capacity ratings as to speed and pressure : 

In power required, for a 2-stage compound steam-driven machine 
over a single-stage plain slide valve, a gain of at least 50%. 

In volume, a gain of 15 to 25%. 

In cost, an insignificant increase compared to the saving. 

In power actuated compressors, the corresponding gain would be 
a saving of about 15% in power and a gain in volume of from 15 
to 25%. A 12 by 12 ins., belt-driven, single-stage compressor will 
cost $660, and a two-stage 12 and 7 by 12 ins. will cost $860. Al- 
lowing for the difference in volume delivered, the comparison will 
be as $760 is to $860, a difference of $100, which will be saved 
in power in 3 months. 

For altitudes, the gain in using a 2-stage compressor is still 
more marked. 

The next loss is in the pipe lines, where insufficient sizes cause 
a frictional loss of pressure and leaks cause a loss of volume. The 
latter is generally the greater. Tests of a great many pipe lines 
in mines develop the fact that probably none are tight and the 
majority leak from 10 to 30%. Small leaks at each joint, which 
can only be discovered by using soap and water, make a consider- 
able total loss. 

For example, upon installing a large compressor under guaran- 
tee, at a well-known mine, a test was made for leakage. The pipe 
lines were long and numerous, having accumulated during 10 years' 
working, and the mine manager was willing to allow but 5% loss 
for leakage. The pipes were sealed at all terminals and valves. 
and the compressor speed regulated so that it would hold the jiipe 
line at exactly 90 lbs. It required 40% of the maximum revolutions 
of the compressor to hold the pressure. It was a surprise to every 
one. After a week's work on the lines the loss was reduced to 
about 12% and there remained. It is doubtful if the average pipe 
lines lose less than 15%,. 

It is a simi)le matter to determine and easy to remedy while in- 
stalling the pipe. The loss should not be allowed to exceed 5% if 
economy is desired, and a line may with care be made practically 
tight. It seems a simple job to screw pii)e together so it will not 
leak, yet it is not so, for it recjuires patience and experience. 
Plumbers encounter great difficulties' in i)iping large l)uildings, yet 
their vvork must not leak, and the same degree of attention will 



COMPRESSED AIR 1141 

give the same result for a mine and it will pay well to have it done 
properly from the very start. 

The next source of loss is in using pipes that are too small. 
The temi)tation to use small pipes in levels and stopes is great 
because they can be put in place so readily. But they occasion 
great loss ; in many instances, pressure gauges placed on the drill 
hose have given readings of from 45 to 60 lbs., with from 80 to 
90 lbs. at the compressor. 

It must be remembered that a drop of pressure of 10 lbs., from 
90 to 80. for example, does not mean a 10% power loss — the loss 
is but Y/c, but the loss in the work performed by the drill more 
than makes up for it. It would probably not be amiss to state 
here that the average pipe lines could be bettered at least 10% by 
stopping and using proper size of pipes. 

It seems to be quite well understood at present that hoisting 
engines operated by compressed air should have the air reheated 
before use, and many have introduced either dry air heaters or 
steam heaters for their hoists. 

In a hoisting engine, it takes about 25 cu. ft. of free air com- 
pressed to 90 lbs. to give a h.p. used cold, and about 16 cu. ft., 
or a saving of 35%, when properly heated. 

If compound engines be used on the hoist, and the air be heated 
to about 400 degs. F. before using in each cylinder, a h.p. can be 
produced readily with' 8 cu. ft. of free air per h.p. or two-thirds 
less than in an ordinary hoisting engine. 

Where a good-sized hoist is used, the loss In using primitive 
methods runs into money very fast. As an example of how in- 
significant things cause losses in compressed air machines, my at- 
tention was called recently to a mill engine, driven by compressed 
air, that failed to give the stamps the requisite drops because the 
air supply was insufficient, although the air was reheated. Upon 
examining the engine, it was found to have an unusual clearance, 
and a three-eighths plate fastened on each face of the piston re- 
duced the loss so that it performed the work in a most satisfactory 
manner. . There are many engines running with similar losses 
in the mines to-day. 

Compressed air hoists on the surface, and particularly under 
ground, should have sufficient receiver capacity attached, so that 
when the hoists are working they do not reduce the pipe line 
pressure too much, otherwise the work of the rock drills will fall 
off materially, but the machine men's wages are going on just the 
same. 

The greatest loss in connection with the use of compressed air 
in mines is in using the ordinary direct acting pump for station 
work, and but little progress has been made toward bettering this 
condition in any but two or three larger mines. The facts are 
the.'se : 

At 90 lbs. air pressure, if it' takes 100 cu. ft. of free air to do 
a certain amount of pumping, using an ordinary direct acting pump, 
then 75 cu. ft. will do the same work if the air be heated to 300 



1142 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

degs. Sixty cu. ft. will be required in a compound direct acting 
pump where the heating is only enough to keep the pump from 
freezing. Fifty cu. ft. will be required if heating be done to 300 
degs. before using in the high-pressure cylinder. Forty cu. ft. 
only will be required if heating be done to 300 degs. before using 
in the low-pressure cylinder also. Thirty -five cu. ft. will be re- 
quired for the work in a triple-cylinder pump. 

In other words, it is possible to save two-thirds of the air. It 
is not much trouble to do this heating underground, and the saving 
is enormous. Distillate at 5 cts. per gal. can be used for heating. 
It is not dangerous, the odor amounting to nothing in a well-ven- 
tilated mine. Where any quantity of water is to be pumped, a 
small flue pipe can be run in one corner of a shaft compartment. 
This economical style of pumping is in constant and satisfactory 
use at the North Star Mines on their lowest levels. 

Compressed air may be used in pumping in such a manner that 
its commercial economy may more than offset its mechanical econ- 
omy. Commercial economy has for its basis the total cost to ac- 
complish an end rather than the cost at any unit of time. For 
example, the Brunswick Mine at Grass Valley struck a flow of 
water on the 1.250-ft. level that the Cornish pump could not handle, 
and the mine filled to the 700-ft. level, at which point the Cornish 
pump held the water. The problem was to recover the 1,250-ft. 
level and establish a station pump there. It is evident that if 
there was no water flowing into the mine, the most economical way 
to remove it would be to apply pumps that were mechanically 
economical and the situation would be very simple. The shaft is 
so small that large pumps and their pipes and appurtenances were 
difficult to handle, and at every 25 ft. they would have to be 
stopped, disconnected, lowered and connected up again, which would 
have caused a great deal of delay, during which time large volumes 
of water are coming into the mine. Consequently, the situation 
came to be one where the system that would get the water out 
quickest and thus gain on the incoming water would probably cost 
least by the time the water was out, although perhaps costijng more 
per foot-gallon pumped. 

With this idea in view; an air lift was installed at the 700-ft. 
level of the Brunswick, to deliver water to the Cornish and also to 
an electric pump established on that station. An 8-in. water main 
was lowered on trucks down the shaft, as far as possible, to give 
submergence, and then a 2% -in. air pipe was lowered into this, 
and followed down at proper distances relative to the lowering 
water in the shaft. The quantity delivered was about 800 gals, 
per min. at the beginning and sixteen days from starting, the 1,000- 
ft. level was uncovered, and 250 gals, per min. were being de- 
livered with a vertical lift of 300 ft. and a submergence of only 
230 ft. On account of the rapidity with which the water was 
lowered, this method was commercially very economical, and this 
simple and inexpensive arrangement is commended to others. 

To secure the actual h.p. required to compress a given volume of 
air to any desired pressure, 10 to 15% should be added to the figures 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1143 



TABLE XIT. HORSEPOWER (THEORETICAL) REQUIRED TO 
COMPRESS 100 CU. FT. FREE AIR TO VARIOUS PRESSURES 

Saving of two-stage over 
single-stage compression 
Horsepower Per cent. 



Gauge pressure Single-stage Two-stage 


5 


1.97 


10 


3.61 




15 


5.02 




20 


6.28 




25 


7.44 




30 


8.45 




35 


9.41 




40 


10.30 




45 


11.13 




50 


11.9 


2 10.65 


55 


12.67 11.25 


60 


13.37 11.81 


65 


14.05 12.34 


70 


14.70 12.84 


75 


15.32 13.32 


80 


15.91 13.77 


85 


16.48 14.21 


90 


17.04 14.63 


95 


17.57 15.03 


100 


18.09 15.42 


110 


19.08 16.15 


120 


20.01 16.83 


130 


20.90 17.46 


140 


21.74 18.07 


150 


22.55 18.64 


160 


23.3 


2 19.26 


170 


24.06 19.78 


180 


24.77 20.27 


190 


25.46 20.74 


200 


26.12 21.19 


210 


. 


21.54 


220 






21.96 


230 






22.37 


240 






22.76 


250 






23.03 


260 






23.28 


270 






23.84 


280 






24.19 


290 






24.53 , 


300 






24.85 


350 






26.35 


400 






27.65 


450 






28.85 


500 






29.97 



1.28 
1.42 
1.57 
1.71 
1.85 
2.00 
2.13 
2.27 
2.41 
2.54 
2.67 
2.93 
3.18 
3.43 
3.67 
3.91 
4.06 
4.29 
4.51 
4.70 
4.93 



10.70 
11.22 
11.72 
12.18 
12.61 
13.04 
13.40 
13.77 
14.12 
14.45 
14.77 
15.36 
15.90 
16.42 
16.89 
17.33 
17.40 
17.80 
18.18 
18.46 
18.88 



shown above, depending upon the size and type of the compressor, 
to allow for mechanical losses. 

Conversion of Free Air to Compressed Air. Table XIII from 
Mine and Quarry, April, 1913, gives the equivalents of free air to 
compressed air. 

Example: Given 348 cu. ft. of air compressed to 95 lbs. pres- 
sure at 4,000 ft. altitude. Opposite 4,000 and below 95 appears 
the figure 8.53. 8.53 X 348 — 2,968.44 = volume in "free air." 

Air Compressor Economy in New York City. Tests were made 
by Smith, Hauser, Locher and Co. on two compressors of different 
makes, used to supply air for rock tunnel work on the Catskill 
Aqueduct from 99th St. to 14th St. in New Tork City. From a de- 



1144 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIII. CONVERSION COMPRESSED AIR TO FREE AIR 





Ba- 


Atmos- 




( 


Grauge 


pressure, lbs. 




Utitude, 


rome- 


pheric 
















ft. 


ter 


pressure 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


110 





30.00 


14.7 


4.40 


5.08 


5.76 


6.44 


7.12 


7.80 


8.48 


500 


29.45 


14.45 


4.46 


5.15 


5.83 


6.53 


7.23 


7.92 


8,61 


1,000 


28.90 


14.12 


4.54 


5.24 


5.95 


6.66 


7.37 


8.08 


8.79 


1,500 


28.35 


13.92 


4.59 


5.31 


6.03 


6.75 


7.46 


8.18 


8.90 


2,000 


27.78 


13.61 


4.67 


5.41 


6.14 


6.88 


7.61 


8.34 


9.08 


3.000 


26.75 


13.10 


4.81 


5.58 


6.34 


7.10 


7.87 


8.63 


9.40 


4,000 


25.75 


12.61 


4.96 


5.76 


6.55 


7.34 


8.14 


8.93 


9.72 


5,000 


24.78 


12.15 


5-11 


5.94 


6-76 


7.58 


8.40 


9 ''2 


10.05 


6,000 


23.86 


11.75 


5.24 


6.16 


6.96 


7.81 


8.66 


9^51 


10.36 


7,000 


22.97 


11.27 


5-43 


6.32 


7.21 


8.10 


8.98 


9.87 


10.76 


8,000 


22.10 


10.85 


5.61 


6.53 


7.45 


8.37 


9.29 


10.21 


11.14 


9,000 


21.30 


10.45 


5.78 


6.74 


7.70 


8.67 


9.61 


10.57 


11.52 


10,000 


20.60 


10.10 


5.95 


6.94 


7.93 


8.92 


9.91 


10.90 


11.88 



tailed account of these tests, given by F. A. Halleck in Mine and 
Quarry, March, 1912, we have abstracted the following: 

Motor-Driven Air Compressor's. Compressed air for the 3 up- 
town shafts is supplied by a central plant in Central Park, con- 
sisting of three Sullivan " Class WN-2 " direct connected, two 
stage air compressors, each driven by a self-starting synchronous 
motor, mounted on the crank shaft and rated at 400 h.p. at 188 
r.p.m. The voltage is 6,600 in the stationary armature and the 
revolving field is excited by a direct current generator running at 
675 r.p.m.. and delivering current at 125 volts. This generator is 
driven by a belt from the crank shaft of the compressor. The com- 
pressors have high pressure cylinders 15 V^ ins. in diameter, low 
pressure cylinders 26 ins. in diameter, and a common stroke of 
18 ins. This gives a piston displacement per unit, at 188 r.p.m., 
of 2,070 cu. ft. per min. 

There are two Corliss inlet valves on each cylinder, moved by 
eccentrics on the crank shaft. The air is discharged through 
cushioned poppet valves of a special pattern. The port area of 
the discharge valves is 16% of the cylinder area in the low pres- 
sure cylinder, and 17% in the high pressure cylinder. 

The intercooler in these machines is vertical and placed between 
the air cylinders. The intercooler provides 10.75 sq. ft. of cooling 
area per 100 cu. ft. of free air. Copper water tubes are used. 

The volume of air delivered is proportioned to the demand by 
means of a double beat unloading valve on the air inlet of the 
intake cylinder. This valve is either fully open or tightly closed, 
so that no choking effect is exerted on the entering air ; and is 
operated by a variation of five lbs. in the receiver pressure. 

A fly-wheel weighing 7,000 lbs. renders the action of the machine 
smooth and even in picking up its load, as well as at all other 
times, and eliminates peaks in the power consumption. The ma- 
chine and fly-wheel without the motor weigh 22 tons. 

At each of the three downtown shafts air is supplied by a single 
compressor of the two-stage, duplex pattern, of another make, 
direct-driven by a self-starting synchronous motor, using 6,600-volt 
purrent. The dimensions of these machines are : cylinder diam- 



COMPRESSED AIR 1145 

eters, low pressure, 25^ ins.; high pressure, 15 14 ins.; stroke, 
21 ins. The piston displacement of each unit is 2,119 cu. ft. per 
min, at 188 r.p.m. Air enters the cylinder through piston inlet 
valves, and is discharged through poppet valves. 

The amount of air delivered is proportioned to the demand by 
a clearance controller, designed to operate for no load, %, Y2 and 
% loads. In this system of unloading, reservoirs are provided, 
into which a portion of the air compressed at each stroke is diverted, 
depending on the quantity of air required for use. This air flows 
back into the cylinder on the return stroke of the piston, de- 
creasing, by the amount of its volume, the intake capacity of the 
compressor. 

Test of Compressors. The contractors decided to test one ma- 
chine of each type, in order to learn as closely as possible the ac- 
tual air delivery and power consumption, or in other words, 
the relative electrical input per cu. ft. of air actually delivered. 
On January 18, 1912, unit No. 3 of the plant in Central Park was 
tested, and on January 22, the piston inlet machine at 50th St. 
was tested, under identical conditions. 

At the time these tests were made, both compressors had been 
at work under actual service conditions for a number of weeks. 
No special preparations or adjustments for the test were made 
on either machine. The makers of each compressor were given 
abundant notice of the time and purposes of the test, and both had 
engineers on the ground, who checked the readings and inspected 
the machines and apparatus. 

The results sought were : Delivery efficiency, power consumption 
and amount of cooling water used. 

Orifice Test. The quantity of air delivered was measured by. a 
battery of orifices connected to the main air line. These orifices 
were eight in number, ranging in diameter from %2 up to %-in,, 
and were made in plates V^ in. thick, connected to a manifold by 
ordinary globe valves. The orifices were countersunk with a %6-in. 
radius next the globe valves, so that the escaping air completely 
filled the orifices. The manifold was equipped with a thermometer 
well and tapped for a pressure gauge. In running the test, orifices 
were opened until the pressure was exactly maintained at a pre- 
determined point. The maximum flow of air at the full pressure 
showed the delivery efficiency of the compressor. 

The type of orifice used had been tested carefully, by the dis- 
placement tank method, and the quantity of air discharged agreed 
accurately with Fliegner's formula. 

At 188 r.p.m., the Sullivan compressor filled two %-in. orifices, 
two V2-in., and one %6-in. The piston inlet machine, at the same 
speed, filled two %-in. orifices and two orifices % in. in diameter. 

This gives an actual delivery capacity of 1,814 cu. ft. of free air 
for the Sullivan machine, or a delivery efficiency of 87.7%; and a 
delivery capacity of 1,676 cu. ft.; or 79.1% delivery efficiency for the 
piston inlet compressor. 

Readings on the latter machine were also taken at %, and % 
and % load. The orifice test showed deliveries, respectively, of 



1146 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1,153, 607 and 248 cu. ft. of free air per min., or ratios of delivery 
to piston displacement as follows: % load, 54%; ^2 load, 29%; 
34 load, 12%. 

Deriviation of Delivery Ratios for Compressor. As the unload- 
ing device on the compressor was of the total closure pattern, the 
following figures are derived from full load and no load readings : 



Ft. air 

Compressor running at full load % time, % 

time no load 1362 

Compressor running at full load 14 time, i/^ 

time no load 907 

Compressor running at full load i/4 time, % 

time no load 453 



Ratio of 
delivery to 
pis. disp. 

67% 

44% 

22% 



Cooling Water. The temperature of the cooling water passing 
through the intercooler and cylinder jackets was taken at various 
points, and it was carefully weighed. On the Sullivan machine 
the intercooler circulation was 54 lbs. per min., and that through 
the cylinder jackets, 22 lbs., or a total of 76 lbs. The Sullivan 
machine therefore used % gal. per 100 cu. ft. of free air, as com- 
pared with 1 gal. for the piston inlet compressor. 



f,0 






























ftO 






DoMo 
0.06 


rs 


per 
0.07 


000 Cubic Feet 
0.08 0.03 




).I0 




M 1 M M 1 








/ 






/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 






/ 






/ 




s, 


— 


Annual Cosi of Fuel based , 






/ 






/ 




/ 






/ 






/ 




,/ 


/ 




/ 


■^' 




Cu. Ft of Gas evaporating 1 




/ 






/ 




/ 






y 




/ 


/ 




/ 




y 


/ 






of Free A ir Compressed to 


/ 


/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 




/ 


/ 




y 




y 


y 


,^ 


110 


Fo 


UP 


ds 


:>ac 


le 








/ 




/ 




A 




/ 


/ 




/ 




} 




/ 


y 


^ 


X 






8. 






















/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 


/' 


/ 


/ 


y 


/ 




/ 






























/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 




/ 














a 




















/ 


. 


/ 


} 




/ 




/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


y 


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/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 




/ 


^ 


y 




















■Sr 
















/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 


/ 


/' 


/- 
























r 














/ 




/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 




























i. 












_j_ 


/ 


/ 


z 


y 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


^ 


y 































50 



150 200 

Dollars 



£50 



300 



Fig. 1. Cost of fuel when using gas. 



Steam Driven Air Compressor Economies. B. C, Sickles in 
Power, Nov. 28, 1911, states that during the past it has been the 
practice to give but little attention to the cost of operation in the 
medium-sized compressed-air plants, and in some cases this holds 
true for the larger plants. First cost has been the main con- 
sideration. 

Single-stage machines compressing to 90 or 100 lbs. have been 
purchased with simple steam cylinders, operating at 125 lbs. steam 
pressure at the throttle. These have operated for* years in lo- 
calities where the fuel cost is high, and where difficulties were en- 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1147 



countered, due to dust and carbonizing- effects, with consequent 
losses in economy and explosions due to extremely high tempera- 
ture conditions and troubles in lubrication. 

Improvements have taken place more readily in the air end by 
the adoption of the 2-stag-e compressors, with consequent economy, 
due to intercooling, and ease of lubrication because of lower tem- 
perature. In the steam end, however, the most economical ar- 
rangement of cylinders and valves has not been followed generally, 
and there has been considerable loss in fuel economy and through 
investment for increased boiler plant. 

Among steam-driven compressors which have been used to a 
large extent may be mentioned those employing the Meyer valve 
on the steam end. This type of valve is customarily used in con» 
junction with a throttling governor, controlled by air pressure. 
As the valves are hand set. under varying conditions of load with- 



06llar$ 
0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 



per Ton 

1.10 i.?o m 



1 1 1 1 \/\y\HAV\y\/\A\A\\\ 




, \^v\Yy/v[ru^\^y\^ j j 


i;;?»ife,i ,11/1/ /y/y / / / / 


8 Pounds of %feam,WO Cubic /\ A/'///// / 


Feet ot Free Air Compres-1 \/\ / / /\/ ^ / y / 












ui/i^z/y/z 












lUFV//// 










J 


'jjj'y//}.// 










/ 


t/A/AZ/y 








I 


/ 


^VV-.vy 








/ 




W77// 






JZ 


n 




z7/7 _ _ 



50 



150 



200 



250 



500 



Fig. 2. Cost of fuel when using coal. 



out constant attendance it becomes necessary to arrange the valves 
to cut off at a fixed point, necessarily so late as practically to 
eliminate all the economies which might be expected if the com- 
pressor were driven under fixed conditions and constant output. 
If the Meyer valves are set at an economical cutoff, and a heavy 
load comes upon the machine, it will stop, and the air supply may 
be cut off at considerable inconvenience. This type of valve, there- 
fore, involves, under varying compressed-air demands, either a loss 
in economy or constant attendance. The well known throttling 
type of governor, which is the usual adjunct to this type of com- 
pressor, does not permit the highest steam economy. 

It therefore becomes necessary, even where the fuel-supply cost 
per unit is low, if the most economical commercial results are to be 
obtained, to consider carefully not only the design of the com- 
pressor in detail, but also all the factors entering into the cost 
of the compressed air plant. In the cost of a new plant this would 
involve comparison of the cost of the necessary boiler capacity 



1148 MECHANICAL AND ELECT^RICAL COST DATA 

installed, the cost of the compressor foundations, building anJ all 
other factors involved in the complete installation. The annual 
charges based upon the total cost of the compressor installed for 
the same capacity of output, added to the cost of fuel operation 
and maintenance cost, will give the proper basis for comparison 
and decision in the purchase of the most economical compressor. 

Since an air compressor is to deliver a certain amount of free 
air, compressed to a certain pressure, it is desirable in securing 
bids that the steam consumption be obtained, based upon 100 cu. 
ft. of air compressed to the desired gage pressure. 

In Figs. 1 and 2 are represented the annual fuel costs of com- 
pressed air based on 10 hrs. for 365 days when delivering 100 cu. 
ft. of free air compressed to 110 lbs. gage. Fig. 7 repi'esents the 
cost when gas is used for fuel under the steam boilers, and Fig. 8 
when using coal. The price of gas is taken as varying from 5 cts. 
to 12 cts. a thousand cu. ft., and the price of coal from 70 cts. 
a ton to $1.50 per ton. As a sample of what may be expected 
from a compressor of approximately 1,200 cu. ft. capacity, of com- 
pound noncondensing steam end with an economical valve gear 
and two-stage air end, it might be stated that the steam consump- 
tion per 100 cu. ft., compressed to 110 lbs. gage, is approximately 
6.1 lbs of steam. 

Comparative Costs of Compressing Air by Steam and Electricity. 
The following data were given by "William Thompson before the 
Canadian Mining Institute. The steam and electrically operated 
compressed air plants, from which the information was gathered, 
were located at Rossland, B. C, the power being used to operate 
mines. 

Steam Plant. The steam plant consisted of two 250 h.p. Heine 
safety water tube boilers supplying steam at 150 lbs. pressure to 2 
compound condensing Corliss 2-stage air compressors of the follow- 
ing dimensions : 

Diameter Inches 

High press, steam cylinder 22 

Low press, steam cylinder 36 

High press, air cylinder 22 

Low press, air cylinder, one compressor 36 

Low press, air cylinder, other compressor 38 

Length of stroke 48 

In addition there were nine 125-h.p. steel shell tubular boilers, 
designed to operate the hoisting and surface plants, which could be 
connected if desirable. 

EleotricaJli/ Driven Air Compressmg Plant was erected by the 
Rossland Great Western Mines, Limited, and was originally in- 
tended to be operated in connection with the steam plant previously 
described, the intention being to supply power from a central sta- 
tion to four mmes, owned by different companies. The arrange- 
ment would have given each mine power at the lowest possible cost, 
and have ensured continuous operations by reason of the com- 
pressing plant being arranged in separate units. Each company 



COMPRESSED AIR 1149 

would pay its share of operation maintenance of plant, pro rata 
to its consumption of air. 

When it was found necessary to erect the third unit to the com- 
pressing plant, unforeseen difficulties presented themselves in the 
shape of shortage of water for condensing and cooling purposes. 
On examination it was found that a satisfactory supply could not 
be secured without heavy capital expenditures for erection of 
flumes, etc., to convey the water to where it was required for use. 

It was, however, found that a supply of water, barely sufficient 
for the intercoolers and waterjackets, was available about % mile 
from the steam plant. By conserving this water supply, cooling 
and re-using, it was decided a sufficient supply of water for the 
air cylinder jackets arid intercoolers could be secured. 

Electrical Equipment. Three-phase, S.K.C., synchronous motor, 
designed for 2,200 volts, with rated capacity of 660 kws., equiva- 
lent to about 825 h.p. The motor is provided with a separate 
starting motor, mounted on the main frame, exciter and Italian 
marble switch-board, on which all operating switches and instru- 
ments are mounted. 

There is a 50-in. Frisbee clutch set intermediate between the 
driving pulley and the motor. The motor is of a four bearing 
type, fitted with self-aligning and self-oiling sleeves. The entire 
machine is mounted upon a solid cast iron base set upon massive 
concrete foundations. The driving pulley is 60 ins. in diameter, 
grooved for 22V^-in. ropes, and runs at 270 r.p.m. 

All tests were conducted under the personal supervision of the 
writer, and extreme care was taken to arrive at actual facts. 
Indicator diagrams were taken off both the steam and air cylinders 
every half-hour, and the results tabulated. Coal consumed was 
weighed, and all other supplies, such as waste, oil, etc., charged 
as used. 

Readings were also taken and recorded by means of a delicately 
adjusted kw. meter, connected to the primary mains, of the amount 
of electric power used. The test extended over a period of 30 
days, without interruption, both plants being run under exactly 
similar conditions as to air pressure. 

Each of the plants tested being modern and representative of 
their respective types, gave an opportunity for a comparative test 
that rarely falls to the lot of an individual engineer under such 
favorable conditions, as to work being performed, and for this rea- 
son is the more valuable as data for basing calculations as to 
problems of power. 

The average results of the 30 days' test are recorded in Tables 
XIV and XV. 

The saving shown in Table XV would be affected adversely if 
the electric plant was operated singly and the entire air com- 
pressed was not used, for the reason that electrically driven 
compres.sors must be operated at constant speed, and loss of air 
at safety valve would be considerably increased over the same loss 
at steam plant, which could be run at the speed required to com- 
press the amount of air actually required. This loss would, how- 



1150 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIV. OPERATING COSTS OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC 

PLANTS 

Work performed by steam plant : 

Average indicated h.p. at steam cylinders of the 

combined machines 730 

Free air compressed per minute from atmospheric 

pressure to 95 lbs. per sq. in., cu. ft 5,432 

Free air compressed per hr 325,920 

Average h.p. required at steam cylinders to com- 
press 100 cu. ft. of air per min. to gauge pressure 13.4 

Pounds of coal consumed during test, lbs 1,038,000 

Pounds of coal consumed per day of 24 hours, lbs. . . 36,400 
Average pounds of coal consumed per h.p. per hr. 

during test 1.9 

Work performed by electric plant : 

Average h.p. registered at switchboard 540 

Free air compressed per min. from atmospheric 

pressure to 95 lbs. gauge pressure, cu. ft 3,319 

Free air compressed per hour 199,140 

Average h.p. required at motor to compress 100 cu. 

ft. of free air per min. to 95 lbs. gauge pressure. . 16.3 

Cost of operating steam plant: 

Total cost of fuel consumed during test $2,880.45 

Total cost of wages for employees 710.00 

Total cost of oils, waste, etc 147.30 

Total cost for 30 days, exclusive of maintenance 

and depreciation $3,737.75 

Cost per h.p. per month for fuel 3.96 

Cost per h.p. per month for oil, etc 0.20 

Cost per h.p. per month for wages 0.97 

$5.13 

Cost per h.p. per annum ) $61.56 

Cost for each 100,000 cu. ft. of free air compressed 1-59 

Cost per drill shift 1.27 

Note: 80,000 cu. ft. taken as the average consumption per shift 
of one 3% in. drill. 

Cost of operating electric plant : 

Cost of current for thirty days $1,744.26 

Cost of employees' wages 270.00 

Cost of oils, waste, etc 73.00 

Total cost for 30 days, exclusive of maintenance 

and depreciation $2,087.86 

Average cost per h.p. per month 3.87 

Average cost per h.p.. per annum 46.44 

Cost for each 100 000 cu. ft. of air compressed. . . . 1.46 

Cost per drill shift 1.17 

Note — 80,000 cu. ft. taken as the average consumption per shift 
of one 3% -in. drill. 



TABLE XV. COMPARATIVE RESULTS BETWEEN THE TWO 
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS 

(Each 100,000 cu. ft. of air compressed from atmospheric pressure 
to 95 lbs. receiver pressure.) 
Cost for each 100,000 cubic ft. of free air compressed by steam 

plant (Table XTV) » $1.56 

Cost for each 100.000 cubic ft. of free air compressed by elec- 
tric plant (Table XIV) 1.46 

Result, saving by electricity over steam 6.4 per cent. 



COMPRESSED AIR 1151 

ever, be slightly offset by the Increased cost per h.p. by working 
the steam compressors on underload. 

Results obtained from the system of intercooling used on the 
compressors tested are noteworthy. 

In Table XIV it is shown that the steam plant required 13.4 
h.p. to compress 100 cu. ft. of air to 95 lbs. gauge pressure per 
min. The best power factor recorded that has come under the 
writer's notice, for doing the same amount of work by a two-stage 
compressor, is 14.5 h.p., which shows a saving of 8% resulting from 
the use of specially designated intercoolers, for which the manu- 
facturers are entitled to receive the credit. 

How this result is obtained can be best understood by repro- 
ducing the average of a number of tests made on the efficiency of 
the intercooler during the progress of the power test. The results 
of the tests are as follows : 

Degs. P. 

Temperature of cooling water at inlet of intercooler 42 

Temperature of cooling water at outlet of intercooler 50 

Rise in temperature of cooling water while passing through 

intercooler 8 

Temperature of air at outlet of low pressure cylinder and 

before passing through intercooler 196 

Temperature of air at inlet of high pressure cylinder after 

passing through intercooler . 54 

Reduction in temperature of air after passing through inter- 
cooler 142 

Cost of Compressing Air at a Large Plant in Utah. The fol- 
lowing data on the cost of operating a large cross compound, 2-stage 
compressor plant in Utah is given in a letter to the authors by 
F. Charles Merry. Approximately one hundred million cu. ft. of 
free air were compressed per month. 

Power house labor: Per 1000 cu. ft. 

At average Utah rates for 1914 $0.0052 

Repair and maintenance labor 0.0012 

Fuel (slack coal at average Utah prices) 0.0192 

Other supplies 0.0019 

Total operating cost $0.0275 

Lbs. coal per 1000 cu. ft 9.33 

The above is the average of 6 months' operation and represents 
the be.st work done with the plant up to that time. 

Panama Air Compressor Lubrication. The following report of 
the use of lubricating oils in the three air-compressor plants of the 
I.sthmian Canal Commission for the month of February, 1911, is 
from a letter by D. E. Irwin published in Power. It shows the 
number of revolutions, sq. ft. covered per pint of oil, output in 
cu. ft. of air and the cost per million sq. ft. covered. 

In the air-compressor plants at Empire, Las Cascadas and Rio 
Grande were 14 compressors, each of 425 h.p. and all operating 
at a steam pressure of 125 lbs. The engines were simple twin 
cylinder ; the compressors were of the double-cylinder cross-com- 
pound type. The area of the two steam cylinders was 9.42 sq. ft.; 



1152 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIV. COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION AT PANAMA 

Las Cay- Rio 

Empire air cadas air Grande air 
Oils used : compressor compressor compressor 

Valve oil. gal 87 % 22 38 

StatioiKiiy engine oil, gal.. 157% 35 60 

Air oompiessor cylinder oil. 

gal '. . . 8<% 23 45 

Revolutions per gal. of valve 

oil: 236,458 295,655 217,650 

Revolution per gal. of sta- 
tionary-engine oil 131,532 185,840 137,845 

Revolutions per gal. of air- 
compressor cylinder oil. 236,458 282.800 183,682 
Sq. ft. covered per pint of 

valve oil 1,041,107 1,392,597 1,025.122 

Sq. ft. lovtred per pint of 
air-compressor cylinder 

oil 1.354,971 1.837.513 1.028,152 

Cost per million sq.-ft. cov- 
ered (surface) . 

Valve oil $0.0234 $0 0175 $0,023? 

Air-comi.ressor cylinder. . $0 0134 $0.0098 $0 0176 

Output of free air, cu.-ft.. . 378,879,661 118,770,526 151,205,582 

the area of the low-pressure air cylinders, 15.17 ; the area of 
the high-pressure cylinders, ,9 42 sq. ft. The speed of these 
compressors was from 127 to 137 r.p.m. 

Efficiency of Compressed Air Transmission. Snowden B. Red- 
field in American Machinist states that in nearly all cases com- 
pressed air is used in some form of reciprocating cylinder without 
expansion ; indeed if expansion were allowed (unless reheating is 
resorted to) while the air could then give up more work, the mois- 
ture always present in the air would quickly freeze, choking the 
exhaust ports and passages of the machine with ice. 

Efficiency Per Cent. 



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is 






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s 


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Fig. 3. Probable efficiency referred to air end of compressor. 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1153 



As examples of machines using air with little or no expansion, 
rock drills and pneumatic tools may be cited, and some interesting 
figures as to the efficiency of the power transformation are given 
by the accompanying diagrams. 

Indicator diagrams of such machines would theoretically be rec- 
tangles, but wire drawing and cushioning effects of the valve 
mechanism would considerably modify this. It may be assumed 
then, reasoning from such a thing as a steam pump cylinder, with- 
out cutoff, that the diagram factor will be about 80%. In other 
words the actual mean effective pressure will be about 80% of 
what the theoretic rectangular diagram would give. 

On this basis it is determined that a standard rock drill having 
a 3-in. diameter cylinder will develop about 6.2 indicated h.p. with 



28 

27 

1 26 

.|24 

1 23 

22 

21 




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X 


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S r 








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60 70 80 90 100 

Gage Pressure at Drill 

Fig. 4. Probable efficiency referred to steam end of compressor. 



100 lbs. at the throttle, this decreasing with the pressure supplied, 
down to about 3.7 i.h.p. with only 60 lbs. pressure. 

A 3-in. rock drill will require about 138 cu. ft. of free air per 
min., with 100 lbs. pressure at the throttle; this decreasing to 90 
cu. ft., with only 60 lbs. pressure. 

Knowing the quantity of air and the pressure, the compressor 
h.p. is easily calculated. 

Thus, allowing 10 lbs. pressure drop in the pipe, a 3-in. rock 
drill will require 29.8 i.h.p. in the steam cylinders of the com- 
pressor with 100 lbs. pressure and single-stage compression, or 
25.2 i.h.p. with compound compression. These figures reduce as 
the pressure used is reduced, but this, of course, reduces the work 
done by the tool. 

Comparing the probable i.h.p. developed inside the drill cylinder 
with the actual compressor power required to furnish the air, gives 



1154 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XV. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE. IN POUNDS. DUE 

TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH — GAUGE 

PRESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 75 LBS. 



CUBIC FEET TREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 

Diam. 

pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 

1 .38 1.51 3.4 6.05 

114 .11 .42 .95 1.69 

IV2 ••• 16 .37 .65 1.02 1.46 2.6 

2 ... .04 .08 .14 .22 .32 .56 .88 1.26 1.72 2.25 
21/2 04 .07 .1 .17 .27 .39 .53 .69 

3 04 .06 .1 .15 .2 .26 

31/2 07 .09 .12 

4 06 

1^ ::: ::; ::: ;:: ::: ::: ::; ::: ;:: ::: ;:: 

6 

7 

8 

10 

12 

Diam. 
pipe 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 

1 

IV4. 

1^ ;:: ::: ::: ::; ;:: ::; ;:; ::; ::: :;: ::: 

2V2 1.08 1.55 2.11 2.76 

3 .4 .58 .79 1.03 1.3 1.61 2.32 

3V2 -18 .26 .36 .47 .59 .73 1.05 1.65 

4 .09 .13 .18 .23 .29 .36 .52 .81 1.17 1.44 2.26 
4V2 .05 .07 .1 .13 .16 .2 .29 .45 .65 .8 1.25 

5 ... .04 .05 .07 .09 .11 .16 .25 .36 .44 .69 

6 03 .04 .05 .06 .1 .15 .18 .28 

7 02 .03 .05 .07 .08 .13 

8 02 .03 .04 .06 

10 01 .02 

12 

Diam. 
pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 

1 ... 

IV4 ... 

IV2 

2 

2 ¥2 

3 

3 V, 

4 

41/. 1.81 

5 1 

6 .4 .55 .72 

7 .18 .25 .32 .5 .73 

8 ,09 .13 .16 .26 .37 .5 66 

10 .03 .04 .05 .08 .12 .16 .21 .27 .33 

12 .01 .02 .02 .03 .05 .07 .09 .11 .14 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1155 



TABLE XVI. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE, IN POUNDS, 

DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH. 

GAUGE I'RESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 

90 LBS. 

CUBIC FEET FREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 



pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 

1 .33 1.3 2.93 5.19 ... 

IVi .09 .36 .81 1.44 

IVa ... .14 .31 .56 .87 125 2 23 ... 

2 ... .03 .07 .12 .19 .27 .48 .76 1.09 1.48 1.94 
21^ 04 .06 .08 .15 .23 .33 .45 ,59 

3 03 .06 .09 .13 .17 .22 

ZVi 06 .08 .1 

4 05 

4 1^ 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

L2 

Diam. 
pipe 500 600 700 800 900 fOOO 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 

1 

ly* • 

IV2 

2 

21/0 .92 1.33 1.81 2.36 

3 " .35 .5 .68 89 1.12 1.39 2 

3V, .16 .23 .3 .4 51 .63 .9 1.41 

4 ■ .08 11 .15 2 .25 .31 .45 .7 1. 1.24 1.93 
41/, 04 .06 08 .11 .14 .17 .25 .39 .56 .69 107 
5' ... .04 .05 .06 ,08 .1 .14 .22 .32 .39 .61 

6 02 .03 .04 .06 .09 .12 .15 .24 

7 02 .03 04 .06 .07 .11 

8 02 .03 .04 .06 

10 =01 .02 

L2 

Diam. 

pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 

1 

IV4 •• 

1 M. 

2 

2V2 

3 

314 

4 

414 1.54 

5 " 88 • 

6 .35 .47 .61 

7 .16 .21 .28 .44 .63 

8 .08 .11 .14 .22 .32 .43 .57 

10 03 .03 .05 .07 .1 .14 .18 .23 .28 

12 .01 .01 .02 .03 ,04 .05 .07 .09 .11 



1156 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XVII. SHOWING LOSS IN PRESSURE, IN POUNDS. 

DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPES 100 FEET IN LENGTH. 

GAUGE PRESSURE AT ENTRANCE TO PIPE, 

100 LBS. 

CUBIC FEET FREE AIR DELIVERED PER MINUTE 

Diam. 

pipe 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 

1 .3 1.18 2.66 4.75 

114 .08 .33 .73 1.3 

11/2 ... .13 .29 .6 .8 1.15 2.04 

2 ... .03 .07 .12 .18 .26 .47 .73 1.05 1.43 1.87 
21/2 03 .05 .08 .14 .21 .31 .42 .54 

3 03 .05 .08 .11 .15 .2 

3% 05 .07 .09 

4 05 

4V2 -. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

12 . 

Diam. ^ 

pipe 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1500 1800 2000 2500 
1 

11/4 : 

V^ :;: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: ;:: ::: ::• 

21/2 .85 1.22 1.66 2.17 

3 .31 .45 .61 .8 1.01 1.25 1.8 

31/2 -14 .21 .28 .37 .46 .57 .82 1.28 

4 .07 .1 .14 .18 .23 .28 .41 .64 .92 1.13 1.77 
41/2 .04 .06 .08 .1 .13 .16 .23 .35 .51 .63 .98 

5 ... .03 .04 .06 .07 .09 .13 .2 .29 .36 .56 

6 02 .03 .04 .05 .08 .11 .14 .22 

7 02 .02 .04 .05 .06 .1 

8 02 .33 .03 .05 

10 01 .02 

12 



Diam. 

pipe 3000 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 

1 

1 Vt 

1 V2 ... 

2 

2V2 

3 

3V2 

4 

4v> 1.41 : 

5 .81 

6 .32 .43 .56 

7 .14 .2 .25 .4 .57 

8 .07 .1 .13 .2 .29 .39 .51 

10 .02 .03 .04 .06 .09 .13 .16 .21 .26 

12 .01 .01 .02 .02 .04 .05 .06 .08 .1 



COMPRESSED AlR 1157 

the probable efRciencies shown by the chart. These efficiencies are 
referred to both the air and steam cylinders of the compressor, so 
as to give a basis for calculations for various methods of driving 
the compressor. They include 10 lbs. pressure drop in the pipe line. 

Referred to the air end of the compressor, it is thus seen that 
with single stage compression and 100 lbs. pressure, about 23.57o 
efficiency is obtained, increasing to about 29% with the low pres- 
sure of 60 lbs. Compound air connpression brings these figures up 
to 27.8% with 100 lbs. and 31% with 70 lbs. 

Referred to the steam end, allowing 88% mechanical efficiency 
between the steam and air ends of the compressor, single-stage 
compression gives a little less than 21% efficiency with 100 lbs. 
and about 25.5% with 60 lbs. air pressure. Compounding the air 
cylinders of the compressor increases these figures to about 24.5% 
with 100 lbs. and almost 21%% with 70 lbs. air pressure. 

While these figures for efficiency have been determined for rock 
drills in particular, they apply equally well to almost any machine 
using compressed air without expansion. It must, however, be 
remembered that the figures are based upon i.h.p. only, both in the 
drill and the compressor. This is because of the impracticability 
of measuring the brake h.p. of the drill. If, however, brake h.p. 
efficiency is required, these figures for efficiencies of i.h.p. can be 
multiplied by the mechanical efficiency of the device using the air, 
say 90% or 809c, as the case may be. This, of course, gives a still 
smaller result. 

It is to be noted that the higher efficiencies are obtained with 
the lower pressures. This is because there is less loss by heating 
the air during compression, and therefore it is advisable to use 
pressures as low as is consistent with the size and weight of the 
machine required to do a given amount of work. 

Methods and Cost of Laying 6-in. and 8-in. Wrought-lron, Screw- 
Joint Pipe for a Compressed Air iVIain. E. E. Harper in Engineer- 
ing News, Feb. 27, 1908, states that the work consisted of laying 
7.000 ft. of 8-in. and 4,000 ft. of 6-in. wrought-iron, screw-joint 
pipe for a compressed air line carrying 80 to 90 lbs. pressure. 
The w^ork was all performed by common labor, none of the men 
being experienced in pipe laying. 

The greatest cause of delay in laying screwed pipe is the diffi- 
culty in getting each successive length of pipe into line and keep- 
ing it there until the first threads take hold and the pipe begins to 
screw together. To overcome this difficulty a cradle for supporting 
the pipe at the joint, a jack for adjusting and supporting the 
outer end of the pipe and a straight-edge for lining the pipe were 
devised. The cradle holds the threaded end of the pipe in position 
to enter the sleeve coupling on the last joint laid ; the jack allows 
both v€«rtical and horizontal adjustment of the joint of pipe; and 
the straight-edge shows when the pipe is in line ready to screw 
together. The cradle was simJDly a wood block, 8 by 8 ins. by 
24 ins. in length, with a groove having a 4-in. radius cut in its 
top. The jack is shown by Fig. 5 and the straight-edge by Fig. 
6. The movable block on the straight-edge is necessary because 



1158 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

it is almost impossible to make a 12-ft. straight-edge that will 
remain true for more than a day. 

These devices saved fully 50% over the crude and unsatisfactory 
method of using blocks to hold the pipe in line. There was no 
straining and lifting to hold the pipe in place, and as the pipes 
were started together straight there were no stripped threads and 
bad joints, and the pipe made up so easily that one man with a 
pair of 3-ft. tongs often screwed an 8-in. pipe half way up;^it 
was then completed by four men using two pairs of tongs with 
8-ft. handles. 

The threads, both male and female, were cleaned with wire 
brushes. Dixon's pipe joint compound was used on all screwed 
joints. Ring gaskets of Vie-in. Rainbow packing were used on 
flange joints, the gasket being pasted to one flange with coal-tar 
roofing paint, which held it in position while the joint was being 
made. 




/fad lined 



^Ki'O" z'^'^f'Pi'^ 



Ha/rcf/e 




Fig. 5. Jack for holding end of pipe. 



Six-Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 6-in. pipe was 4,118 
ft. The pipe was 6-in. lap welded casing weighing 15 lbs. per 
lin. ft. It was laid with sleeve couplings, 11 1/^ threads per in., 
with a flange union every 150 ft. and U-bends for expansion every 
500 ft. The average length of joints was 20.1 ft. : an average 
of 588.2 ft. of pipe or of 29.3 joints, was laid per 10-hr. day. The 
best day's work was 1,065 ft., or 53 joints, with 6 men working 
9 hrs., making 177.5 ft. per man; the poorest day's work was 120 
ft., or 6 joints, by 6 men working ^V-^ hrs. The work was done 
from Aug. 15 to 24, 1907, in fair weather except for one day when 
the men worked 4 hrs. in rain and laid 22 joints. The men walked 
21/^ to 3 miles to and from work. The average gang was: 4.85 
men at 20 cts. per hr., 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr., and 1 waterboy 
at 10 cts. per hr. The cost of pipelaying was as follows per 100 ft. : 

Items. Per 100 ft. 

Clearing right of way $0,327 

Hauling and distributing 1 578 

Bloclcing to grade 0.116 

Constructing bents 0.450 

Anchors for U-bends 2.290 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1159 



Items. Per 100 ft. 

Painting- 0.900 

Tools 0.100 

Testing 0.300 

Laying 3.137 

Surveying and superintendence 0.700 

Total $9,898 



The total cost per ft. exclusive of cost of pipe was 9.89 8 cts., or, 
say, 10 cts. The following notes explain the work included in the 
various items : 




£:nqf.-Confr 
Fig. 6. Straight edge used in cementing the pipe. 



Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. 

Hauling. The average hauls was 3,000 ft. over bad roads, steep 
and rough. This item includes loading pipe on cars and unloading, 
hauling and distributing, including seven U-bends. Teams and 
drivers got $3 per day. 

Blocking. Includes temporary blocking and bending pipe in five 
places by building fires on it. 

Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 8 piers at $12 each, including 
bolts and clamps. 

Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 20 
bents, averaging 3 ft. in height and made of 4 by 6-in. stuff. 

Painting. Includes cost of painting and cleaning pipe with wire 
brushes with paint costing $1 per gal. and labor at 20 cts. per hr. 
The pipe was painted one coat 

Tools. Includes shopwork and depreciation. 

Eight-Inch Pipe Line. The total length of 8-in. pipe was 7,101 
ft. The pipe was 8-in. O. D., lap-welded casing weighing 20 lbs. 
per ft., laid with sleeve couplings, 11 1^ threads per in. The average 
length of joints was 19.15 ft. There was a flange union every 
150 ft. and U-bends for expansion every 600 ft. An aver- 
age of 503.6 ft. was laid per day, of 10 hrs., or 26.3 joints. 
The best day's work was 613 ft., or 32 joints, by 6 men, 
including foreman; the poorest day's work was 380 ft., or 



1100 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

20 joints, by 7 men, including foreman. The work was done from 
July 2 to Aug-. 5, 1907, the weather being hot and sultry, the 
thermometer ranging from 85 degs. to 100 degs. and averaging 90 
degs. in the shade. The average gang was: 5.9 men at 20 cts. per 
hr., 1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr, and 1 waterboy at 10 cts. per hr. 
The cost was as follows per 100 f t. : 

Items. Per 100 ft 

Surveying and superintendence $1,000 

Laying 3.580 

Clearing 0.187 

Hauling and distributing 1.032 

Blocking to grade 1.110 

Constructing bents 1.069 

Anchors for U-bends 2.535 

Painting 1.200 

Tools 0.102 

Testing 0.388 

Total cost of laying $12,203 

Cost of pipe 76.400 

Grand total cost $88,603 

The total cost per ft., exclusive cost of pipe, was thus 12.2 cts., 
and including cost of pipe 88.6 cts. The following notes explain 
the work included in the various items : 

Clearing. Removing small brush for a width of 10 ft. 

Hauling. Includes 12 U-bends, which cost $1 each to haul; 
teams and drivers 30 cts. per hr., laborers 20 cts. per hr., and 
foreman 30 cts. per hr. 

Bent Construction. Includes carpenter work only on about 80 
bents of 4 by 6-in. stuff, spaced 30 ft. apart and ranging In height 
from 1 ft. to 16 ft., averaging 6 ft. high. 

Anchors for U-Bends. Includes 12 piers at $15 each, including 
bolts and clamps. 

Painting. Same as for 6-in. pipe. 

Testing. Includes laying and connecting 200 ft. of 4-in. pipe to 
pump line. Tested to 110 lbs. hydraulic pressure. Leaks developed. 
in two tees in line and these were repaired, line tested again and 
found tight. 

Cost of Pipe. Cost f. o. b. McKeesport, Pa., $76 per 100 ft. 
(ton) ; freight from McKeesport to Flat River 40 cts. per ton 
(100 ft). 

Profit in Reheating. The following data from Compressed Air 
give the results of a test made in the shops of the Hansell Elcock 
Co., Chicago, in driving 1.608 %-in. rivets. Half of these rivets 
were driven using an ordinary air line, and half were driven using 
heated air from a Sterling Heater. 

A plain toggle portable yoke riveter was used. The compressor 
cylinder was 10 ins. in diameter and 9% in. stroke. 

An Excelsior Airometer was put in the line, at which point line 
pressures and line temperatures were read. Twenty ft. of 1-in. 
rubber hose was used between the airometer and the Sterling 
heater. On the discharge side of the heater a gage and ther- 



COMPRESSED AIR 1161 

mometer were inserted for reading the temprature and pressure 
of the heated air. Between the heater and the riveter 2714 ft. of 
1-in. insulated flexible hose was used. The following shows the 
results : 

Without With 

heater heater 

Number of rivets 804 804 

Ave. temp, of line air 57.5 deg. 60.0 deg. 

Average pressui'e, lbs .*. . 85 85 

Total cu. ft. air used 14,874 8,513 

Ave. temi). of heated air 39 6 deg. 

Cu. ft. air used per rivet 18.5 10.58 

This difference in air used per rivet equals 7.92 cu. ft. or an 
increase in volume of 74.7%. This increase equals an actual saving 
in air used of 42.7%, 

Assuming 1,500 rivets per day, the actual air saving equals 
11,880 cu. ft. At 8 cts. per 1,000 cu. ft. this saving equals 95 cts., 
the cost of operating the heater equals 1 gal. oil at 10 cts. plus 8 
cts. for ignition current equals 18 cts., total, a net saving of 77 
cts. per day. This saving 6 days per week would pay for the 
heater in one year and leave a profit of $156. 

The cu. ft. of air given were actual airometer readings. On ac- 
count of the intermittent service the heated air temperatures are 
not quite high enough. The actual temperature of the air supplied 
to the riveter was about 15% in excess to the heated air tempera- 
tures shown in the table. 



TABLE XVIII. AIR USED IN CUBIC FEET FREE AIR PER 

MINUTE PER INDICATED HORSE-POWER IN 

MOTORS WITHOUT REHEATING 

(From Hiscox's Compressed Air) 
Point 

of Gauge pressures in pounds 

cut-off 40 

1 21.3 

% 171 

% 16.2 

V2 14 5 

Vs 15.2 

V4. 15.6 

Air Used pep Motor Horsepower. As will be seen from Table 
XVIII, the only data required are the gauge pressure and point of 
cut-off ; given those two items, we find from the table the free air 
required per i.h.p., and it will only be necessary to multiply this 
amount by the total i.h.p. of the motor to determine the total quan- 
tity of free air required, and consequently the necessary size of an 
air compressor to furnish the required amount of air. 

These figures do not take account of clearance, but it will be an 
easy matter to add the per cent, of clearance after having deter- 
mined the total amount of free air required. 

It will also be notice that the free air consumption is based upon 
the use of cold air, i. e., initial temperature of air at 60 degs. F. 



60 


80 


100 


125 


150 


19.4 


18.42 


17.8 


17.40 


17 05 


15.47 


14.6 


14.15 


13.78 


13.50 


14.50 


13.75 


13.28 


12.90 


12.60 


128 


11.93 


11.48 


11.10 


10.85 


11.85 


10.8 


10.21 


9.78 


9.50 


13.3 


10.72 


10.0 


9.42 


9.10 



1162 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In case reheating is resorted to there will be a corresponding de- 
crease in the amount used, dependent upon the temperature of 
air on admission to motor, and will be proportional to the ratio 

^ To 

where T2= 460 + 60 = 520 degs. F. absolute temperature and 



Ts 



Ts = 460 plus temperature of air at admission to motor. 

Thus, if the air is reheated to 300 degs. F., the quantity in the 
table will have to be multiplied by 



460 + 60 520 
460 + 300 ~ 760 



.684 



A further use of this table is to find the most economical point 
of cut-off for gauge pressures from 30 lbs. to 150 lbs. per sq. in. 
This fact is apparent from a study of each vertical column ; thus, 
at 60 lbs. pressure the lowest consumption of free air per i.h.p. is 
at Vs cut-off, while at 40 lbs. pressure the most economical cut-off 
will be 1/^. 

To find the quantity of free air required per min., in a direct 
acting steam pump, to raise a given number of gals, of water 
through a given head, divide the diameter of the air cylinder by 
the diameter of the water cylinder, and under the heading of this 
ratio in above table, and to the right of the given head or lift, find 



TABLE XIX. VOLUME OF AIR AND PRESSURE REQUIRED 
TO DRIVE DIRECT ACTING STEAM PUMPS. (From His- 
cox's Compressed Air) 



Gauge pressure in pounds 
per square inch 

Ratio of cylinder diameters 
Head of 1 IVa 2 21/2 3 
water to to to to to 
in feet 11111 



Cubic feet of free air per 

minute to lift one gallon 

of water 

Ratio of cylinder diameters 

1 iy2 2 21/2 3 

to to to to ■ to 

11111 



10 


6 










.22 










20 


11 










.28 










SO 


16 


7 








.33 


.53 








40 


21 


9 








.38 


.58 








50 


26 


12 


7 






.44 


.65 


.94 






60 


31 


14 


8 






.49 


.70 


.99 






70 


36 


16 


9 






.54 


.75 


1.03 






80 


42 


18 


11 






.61 


.79 


1.11 






90 


47 


21 


12 






.66 


.87 


1.15 






100 


52 


23 


13 






.72 


.91 


1.20 






125 


65 


29 


16 


10 




.86 


1.06 


1.33 


1.67 




150 


78 


35 


20 


13 


9 


1.00 


1.20 


1.50 


1.88 


2.31 


175 


90 


40 


23 


15 


10 


1.12 


1.32 


1.63 


2.00 


2.40 


200 


105 


46 


26 


17 


12 


1.28 


1.47 


1.75 


2.14 


2.60 


250 




58 


33 


21 


15 




1.75 


2.06 


2.41 


2.89 


300 




68 


39 


25 


17 




2.00 


2.31 


2.68 


3.08 


350 




80 


45 


29 


20 




2.28 


2.57 


2.95 


3.37 


400 




92 


52 


33 


23 




2.57 


2.87 


3.22 


3.66 


450 


'.'.'. 105 


58 


37 


26 




2.88 


3.13 


3.48 


3.95 


500 






65 


42 


29 






3.42 


3.82 


4.24 


600 






78 


50 


35 






4.00 


4.35 


4.80 


700 






92 


60 


42 






4.58 


5.00 


5.50 


800 






105 


67 


47 






5.15 


5.50 


5.96 


900 
LOCO 








75 
85 


52 

58 








6.00 
6.70 


6.45 
7.00 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1163 



the cu, ft. of free air per gal. required per min. ; this constant, 
multiplied by the total number of gals, to be lifted, will give the 
quantity of free air required. The gauge pressure for the corre- 
sponding conditions may be found in a similar manner under the 
heading of gauge pressures. 

In the foregoing table of pressures an allowance of 15% has 
been made for pump friction, and in the table of volumes 15% has 
also been allowed for clearance losses and leakage. If the air is 
reheated before admission to air cylinder, the quantity may be 
reduced in proportion to the ratio of absolute temperatures. For 



TABLE XX. 



AIR CONSUMPTION OP VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL 
TOOLS AND MACHINES 



Tools 


Size 


Pressure in lbs. 


Air cont^umeu, 
free air per 






per sq. in. 


min. (cu. ft.) 


Aerons 


Small hand. 






(paint sprays) 


lbs. 


90 


2-3 




5 


90 


6 




7 


90 


10 




8 


90 


12 


Chipping 


9 


90 


13 


hammers 


10 


90 


15 


classed 


11 


90 


17 


by weight 


12 


90 


18 




13 


90 


20 




14 


90 


20 




18 


90 


22 


Foundry 






Air per ton 


jolting 


Platform 




lifting capacity 


machines 


type 


80 


30-40 


Grinders 








(hand) 


20 lbs. 


80 


20 




(Cylinder 




(Air in cu. ft. 


Hoists 


diam. inch) 




per ft. lift) 


direct lift 


6 


80 


.79 


(2 to 1 lift) 


8 


80 


1.45 




10 


80 


2.15 




12 


80 


3.31 




14 


80 


4.65 




17 


80 


6.6 


« 


19 


80 


8.1 




6 


80 


.39 


Hoists 


8 


80 


.72 


(4 to 1 lift) 


10 


80 


1.52 




12 


80 


1.65 




14 


80 


2.37 




17 


80 


3.30 




19 


80 


4.05 


Geared 


(Tons) 






hoists 


1 


80 


3 


capacity 


iy2 


80 


5 


in tons 


2 


80 


6 




3 


80 


8 




4 


80 


10 




5 


80 


15 




6 


80 


20 




8 


80 


25 




10 


80 


30 




121/2 


80 


40 



Air consumption is shown in terms of " Free Air,' 



1164 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

compound pumps the consumption may be assumed at 75% of the 
best results of the above table. 

Air and Power Requirements of Pneumatic Hammers. In Ta- 
bles XXI and XXII are given the actual cu. ft. of free air required 
per min. and the power to operate from one to fifty pneumatic 
hammers of the cylinder diameters and strokes shown. The quan- 
tities of free air for one tool have been obtained by careful ex- 
perimenters with special water-displacement apparatus, and being 
the averages of a great many readings, may be taken as accurate 
and fairly representative for most tools of similar dimensions. The 
figures for more than one tool were obtained by deducting 2% for 
every five tools ; that is, five chipping hammers are assumed to 
require 4.8 times as much air as one chipping hammer of equal 
size. Ten hammers are assumed to require 9.6 times as much 
as one hammer, and so on. This is to allow for the intermittent 
action of different tools in a shop, and this basis of calculation 
agrees very nicely with observed shop practice. 

Figures for air are for 80 lbs. pressure at sea level, and are 
based on ordinary intermittent service as is usual in any shop. 
Ratings for one hammer are actual readings from water displace- 
ment tests, being averages of many trials. 

Horsepower figures assume compound air compression to 85 
lbs. pressure and include friction. For single stage compression 
to 85 lbs. add 15'7c to power figures. Compressor displacement re- 
quired should include volumetric loss as figures are for actual 
air delivered. 

The quantities of air, as shown by the larger figures in the 
table, are actual cu. ft. of free air required at atmospherice pres- 
sure at sea level, this air being delivered to the tool at 80 lbs. 
pressure. The figures for h.p., which are the smaller figures in 
the table, assume compound -compression to 85 lbs. pressure; that 
is, allowing 5 lbs. drop in the pipe line. The figures for power 
also include reasonable friction of the compressor and the usual 
losses of power in the air cylinder of an air compressor of rea- 
sonably good design. They would represent just about the brake 
h.p. required from an electric motor to drive a compressor ac- 
tually delivering the quantity of air given by the large figures 
above them. 

This brings up the point of the volumetric efficiency of the com- 
pressor. As the quantities shown were obtained by actual meas- 
urement of air used, it is imperative that the output of the com- 
pressor shall be equal to this. To allow for volumetric efficiency 
loss, this necessitates that the piston displacement of the com- 
pressor shall be greater than these figures by from 8 to 12%, de- 
pending upon its design. The figures for power required include 
this loss, as they represent the power necessary to actually deliver 
the quantities of air shown as the actual output of the compressor. 

In cases where single-stage compression is used the power re- 
quired may be obtained by adding about 15% to the power figures 
given. This, of course, has no effect upon the air quantity. 

It has been stated that these figures are for sea-level operation. 



COMPRESSED AIR 



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1166 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

This will be satisfactory for most localities, but at 5,000 ft. eleva- 
tion 17% more free air capacity will be required and about 7% more 
h.p. for the same size and number of tools. These increases are 
practically proportional to the altitude. (S. B. R., in American 
Machinist. ) 

Compressed Air and Pneumatic Tools in the Foundry. W. H. 
Armstrong in Compressed Air iNIagazine, June, 1913, says that 
of the various pneumatic apparatus in the foundry it may perhaps 
be proper to speak first of the air hoist, as that is used in so many 
places and for such a variety of service throughout the works. 

The most common types of air hoists are simple cylinders lifting 
direct or horizontal cylinders with or without multiplying shieves 
to reduce the length. The motor geared type of hoist is being 
largely adopted for much of the service where the single cylinders 
have been used, and especially for heavy traveling on jib cranes. 
Hoists of either type may often be applied to hand power cranes 
already in use without in the least interfering with the existing 
gearing, and at small expense. In the air hoist the power is ap- 
plied to the load in the most direct and simplest manner. With 
this aid a boy can lift a given load a dozen times while a gang 
of men would be operating a chain block or a windlass. There is 
no noise, no jar and the load is always sustained. In foundries 
where an overhead traveler cannot be installed, air hoists suspended 
from trolleys running on a track are very satisfactory. 



TABLE XXIII. COST OF PNEUMATIC HOISTING 





Effective 


Maximum 


Cu. ft. of 


Cost of 


Diam. of 


area of 


weight 


free air per 


air per 


of cyl. 


piston 


lifted 


4 -ft. lift 


100 lifts 


2 


3.05 


274 ■ 


0.74 


$0.0037 


3 


6.87 


618 


1.67 


.0084 


4 


19 '>2 


1099 


2.97 


.0149 


5 


19109 


1718 


4.64 


.0232 


6 


27.49 


2444 


6.68 


.0334 


7 


37.42 


3367 


9.09 


.0455 


8 


48.87 


4398 


11.88 


.0594 


9 


61.85 


5566 


15.03 


.0752 


10 


76.36 


6872 


18.56 


.0928 


11 


92.39 


8315 


22.46 


.1123 


12 


109.96 


9896 


26.73 


.1337 



Cost of Air Hoisting. Few realize how cheaply an air hoist is 
operated, besides its convenience and speed in handling loads. 
Table XXIII. compiled by Frank Richards, managing editor of 
Compressed Air Magazine, requires no explanation. He estimates 
as the basis of the table that compressed air can be furnished for 
industrial purposes at 100 lbs. pressure at a cost of 5 cts. per 
1,000 cu. ft. of free air. It appears from this table that a hoist 
with a cylinder 6 in. diameter, with a piston rod 1 in. diameter 
and a lift of 4 ft., using air at 90 lb. pressure and allowing 30% 
additional to cover all contingencies, including the taking up of 
the slack of the hoisting chain, will lift more than a ton to a 



COMPRESSED AIR 1167 

height of 4 ft. at a cost of $0.00035. A hundred of such lifts will 
thus be made, of course, for $0,035. 

Molding Machines. The molding machine now holds a promi- 
nent and most important position among labor saving devices in 
the foundry, increasing the output and improving the grade of the 
products. 

The degree of efficiency and the speed of operation depend upon 
the selection of the proper machine, and then upon the personality 
of the operator. Molding machines are so designed as to be oper- 
ated with air at a pressure of 60 to 80 lbs. 

The Sand Rammer. The sand rammer seems to come next in the 
order of consideration among the pneumatic tools of the foundry. 
Due to the marked improvements that have been made in the con- 
struction of this device, which tend to lessen the shock on the 
operator, and the education of the operators in the proper way to 
handle them, it has made a permanent place for itself, even a'gainst 
strong opposition, on the grounds of economy, lower production cost, 
larger output and improved quality of product which follow its use, 
and the adoption has become more general. 

The pneumatic rammer does much more than merely to supply 
the power for the work. It also changes the character of the 
ramming and gives the operator a variety of execution in the 
ramming which his muscles, at the best, could not command. The 
force, the direction, and especially the rapidity of the blows are 
so completely under the control of the operator that we might 
compare the manipulation of the rammer to the playing of a musical 
instrument. It relieves the molder of the most fatiguing detail of 
his work. 

The pneumatic bench rammer is a very handy tool as an auxiliary 
to the larger rammer. This rammer is very satisfactory for ram- 
ming a shelving pattern where the construction is such that it is 
difficult to ram under it with the larger tool. The bench rammer 
has been found practically indispensable for work of this nature. 

TIME IN PEINING AND RAMMING 

Size of cope Hand 

12 ft. by 18 ins. by 4 ins. 

12 ft. by 18 ins. by 10 ins. 

6 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ins. 

6 ft. by 6 ft. by 8 ins. 
8 ft. by 6 ins. by 6 ins. 

7 ft. by 3 ft. by 12 ins. 1 " 30 min. 
15 ft. by 30 ins. bv 16 ins. 
12 ft. by 7 ft. by 16 ins. 2 " 12 min. 
87 ins. by 159 ins. by 10 ins. 
19 ft. by 90 ins. by 15 ins. 

Pneumatic Hammers, Drills, Etc. The value of the pneumatic 
chipping hammer in a foundr-y, as a saver of time and labor, is 
so universally conceded that the time has passed when it is deemed 
necessary to submit comparative figures, e.specially as much de- 
pends upon the conditions of operation and efficiency of the air 



5 


min. 


10 


" 


20 


" 


35 


" 


1 


hr. 


1 




2 


hrs. 


2 


" 


4 


" 





Time 


Sand 


saved, 


rammer 


per cent. 


1 min. 


80 


IV2 " 


85 


3 


85 


8 " 


77 


10 " 


83 


16 " 


82 


27 


77 


34 " 


74 


40 


83 


1 hr. 30 


min. 81 



1168 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

plant. Suffice it to say that for all classes of chipping in foundry 
work, such as chipping fins off castings, cutting gates, risers, but- 
tons oft anchors, and general trimming, one man with one hammer 
of the proper size will do as much work as three or four men 
chipping by hand. These tools are made in different sizes, with 
piston strokes of 1 to 5 ins., to meet different conditions. It is 
important that the proper size tool should be selected for the 
work, to insure the best results, the short stroke tools begin in- 
tended for the lighter work, requiring a light and very rapid blow, 
the longer stroke tools for the heavier work, requiring a heavy and 
slower blow. The medium sizes, with 2 and 3-in, piston stroke, 
are the sizes most generally used for foundry work. 

The rotating air drill is another very familiar labor-saving 
device, though its field of usefulness in a foundry is somewhat 
limited. It is more particularly a general shop tool, possessing 
a very wide range for drilling, reaming, tapping, flue rolling, run- 
ning in stay bolts, studs, and other applications seemingly limit- 
less. It has established itself next to the pneumatic hammer as 
a most generally used air tool. 

Like the other pneumatic devices for foundry use the sand sifter 
also proves to be a time and labor and cost saver. The saving ef- 
fected has been figured out as follows : 

Including the cost of air, based on an efficient compressor in- 
stallation, and figuring generally at 3 cts. per hr. for maintenance of 
sifter, compressor, pipe line, hose couplings, etc., and also including 
labor at 15 cts. per hr., the cost would be 27 cts. per hr. "When 
you consider that one man with one machine will screen in one 
hour as much sand as a man would riddle by hand in one day, 
and basing his time at $1.50 per day, you will see Lhat you effect 
by the use of the machine a saving of $1.23 in one hr. 

The air torch has been found a great time and labor saver, 
being used for skin-drying copes, molds, etc., for heating ladles, 
lighting cupolas and in casting repairing processes. 

The air nozzle for blowing blacking on molds, cores, etc., is also 
a universal favorite. This device is in the shape of a T, made of 
about 14 in. pipe with the discharge end bushed to about % in. 
The air is connected so as to cross the top of the T. A short sec- 
tion of hose which goes to the receptacle holding the blacking is 
connected to the stem of the T, and as the air is blown through 
the top of the T it siphons the blacking and blows it in a spray 
over the work, reaching and covering every corner and crevice. 

Cleaning Castings — The Sand Blast. There is hardly any opera- 
tion of the foundry of greater importance, and which contributes 
more to a satisfactory factory product, than the proper and thor- 
ough cleaning of castings. It has been an operation requiring time 
and patience, and involving heavy expense. The cleaning of cast- 
ings is a subject that has been given unusual attention, being fol- 
lo\Ved by experiments with various and sundry methods and devices 
for the successful and economical accomplishment of the desired 
results, including brushing, tumbling, pickling, blowing, etc. These 



COMPRESSED AIR 1169 

methods have each shown marked advantages as applied to par- 
ticular classes of work, but as a commercial proposition for all 
classes of castings, large, medium and small, steel, iron, aluminum 
and brass, the solution has been found in the sand blast, and here 
again, compressed air plays a most important part and shows its 
superiority over other actuating powers for general foundry work. 

There are many makes, styles and kinds of sand blast apparatus 
on the market, and superior points are claimed by the manufac- 
turers for each, some advocating the use of air under high pres- 
sure, and others under low pressure. The proper air pressure for 
sand blasting as applied to particular classes of work, has been 
the subject of much discussion among foundrymen and also sand 
blast manufacturers, and numerous theories have been expressed 
through the trade journals. There have also been a number of 
tests conducted on different classes of work, with varying air 
pressures, and the consensus of opinion as expressed in the reports 
of these various tests, at least so many of them as it has been the 
writer's privilege to read, seems to favor the high pressure blast 
for all classes of work. It is conceded that the volume of air 
required is governed by the size of the opening in the sand blast 
nozzle, and the pressure maintained, based on the standard flow 
of air at a given pressure through a given size orifice. Therefore, 
the higher the pressure, the greater the volume of air used, but 
the amount and quality of work done increases correspondingly 
without added labor costs. It has been proven in these tests that 
twice as much work can be done at 50 lbs. pressure as at 20 lbs., 
at 64 lbs. as at 30 lbs., and at 72 lbs. as at 40 lbs. It has also 
been shown that for gray iron and malleable castings they can be 
cleaned best and quickest with an air pressure of 80 lbs. — brass 
and aluminum castings at not lower than 60 lbs., while for steel 
castings, the hardest to clean, not less than 90 lbs. The character 
of the material and its ability to withstand the impact of the 
sand will determine the pressure adaptable. 

As a result of a very thorough test of the economy of sand blast 
cleaning, conducted by one of our leading technical schools, in 
collaboration with one of our largest steel foundries, I am able to 
give in tabulated form data showing that the total cost per ton 
for cleaning castings, with a modern high pressure sand blast, is 
less than $0.80. This is figured on a basis of an equipment valued 
at $4,000 and including interest at 6%, and depreciation 10%; 
also power for exhaust system. 

Air pressure generated 97.5 

Air pressure at blast, lbs 80 

H.p. for air 53 

Interest and depreciation $.0307 

Maintenance, air $.105 

Maintenance, sand $.279 

Power for exhaust fan .0577 

Nozzle 0104 

Total 4828 

Labor 316 

Total 7988 



1170 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Compressed Air in General Machinery Work. The reader is 
referred to Compressed Air for the Metal Worker, by C. A. 
Hirschberg, published by the McGraw-Hill Book Co. of New York, 
N. Y.. for a very detailed discussion of this subject. 

Pneumatic Tool Costs in Sliipbuiiding. (Chas. Schofleld in Com- 
pressed Air, Nov., 1906.) It was some time before the men 
using pneumatic tools could be prevailed up to admit that there 
was sufficient benefit derived from their use to warrant a reduction 
from the hand piece-work rate, and it was only by diplomacy that 
a reduction of 40% on all chipping and cutting was achieved. At 
this time, the men experienced great difficulty in chipping a plate 
edge to a bevel, or when dressing a shell butt, on account of the 
hammers having round bushings to take the shank of the chisel, 
whereby the man operating the tool had to twist the chisel as 
best he could without any resistance from the hammer. But all 
the up-to-date hammers of to-day have hexagon bushings, and the 
chisels have hexagon sha"nks to suit, so that the operator can twist 
the chisel to any desired angle by twisting the hammer, while a 
calking iron with a round shank can be used in the same manner 
without the bushing being changed. The current piece-work rate 
for pneumatic chipping solid cutting and calking in the United 
States is about 50% less than the piece-work hand rates of Great 
Britain ; that is, taking the day-work rates of both countries as a 
basis. Another feature of the pneumatic calking hammer is that 
it calks the toe of the gunwale, waterway, tank margin and bulk- 
head bounding bars without their having been either planed or 
chipped. This allows the builder to order the said angles the same 
size as he would if they were not to be calked. 

Pneumatic hammers are used extensively by engineers for dress- 
ing propeller blades, the palms of structs for vessels with twin 
screws, bed plates, cutting key ways, cleaning castings, etc., in 
fact, there is very little hand chipping done in the fitting shops 
of the American engine builders. 

Pneumatic Drills. When pneumatic drills were first introduced 
to .shipbuilders they had to compete with electric drills of all sizes 
and weights ; and during a four weeks' test at the works of William 
Cramp & Sons, of Philadelphia, the pneumatic drills proved their 
superiority. At the time of the test we were building three cruisers 
and two battleships, which had protective decks made up of two 
plates, each li/^ ins. thick, connected by l^/j-in. rivets. It was 
on these plates we made the test, the average for the twenty-four 
days being as follows : 

Holes drilled 
Air pressure Pneumatic Electric 

On 12 days, being 90 lbs 248 100 

On 9 days, being 84 lbs 232 100 

On 3 days, being 76 lbs 208 100 

The result was that we dispensed with twenty-six electric drills, 
and took 60% off the piece-work rate of drilling on this class of 
work; we also made a reduction of 60% on the price of holes drilled 



COMPRESSED AIR 1171 

in the deck plating for deck planking, and took 50% off all other 
drilling on the ship, except odd work. 

Pneumatic drills are now used for every conceivable purpose by 
American shipbuilders, among others, cutting out side-light holes, 
ventilator and coal port-holes in the deck, boring stern-post gud- 
geons, wood backing for armor-plate bolts, tube cutting, tube ex- 
panding, tapping for stay bolts, screwing in stay bolts, and by 
using a speed reducing gear attached to the drill it is possible to 
tap up to 4 ins. diameter, and to operate this combined machine 
only one man and a boy are required. In fact, the pneumatic 
drill is an indispensable factor in connection with speedy and 
economical ship construction in its various branches. 

There was in use at that time, a stationary riveter of the or- 
dinary type, driving rivets in such portions of the ship as could be 
assembled and handled as a whole, namely, frames, water-tight 
doors, etc., such as are usual in ordinary merchant vessels. A very 
short experience with compression riveters .showed that their great 
weight — reaching over 2,500 lbs. for a 6-ft. gap — interfered too 
much with the facility of handling to make them either useful or 
economical. 

We then turned our attention to the pneumatic hammer, which 
delivers an almost continuous series of blows against the end of 
the chisel, calking tool, or rivet die. The hammer is light, powerful, 
short enough to go in between frame spacings, and small enoiigh 
in diameter to get at rivets in corner angles. For rivets up to 
% in. diameter it can be held in the hand, but for rivets of a larger 
diameter the hammer should be held in a device suitable to the 
location of the work on the vessel, for instance, shell device and 
deck device. It is, however, almost impossible to hold on to the 
rivet by hand unless a spring dolly bar is used instead of the 
heavy holding-on hammer used in hand riveting, the heavy hold- 
ing-on hammer being fairly jarred off the head of the rivet by the 
rapidity of the blows from the pneumatic hammer, giving the 
holder-on no opportunity to bring his tool back into position be- 
tween blows as in hand riveting. 

Portable Pneumatic Yoke Riveter Corm)lete. In connection with 
the above-mentioned pneumatic hammer there is used a simple 
pneumatic hold-on consisting only of a cylinder carrying a piston, 
behind which air is admitted, the rod extending through the front 
head and being cupped out to go over the head of the rivet. 

Combining these two machines with a yoke, the hammer being 
mounted on one arm and the holder-on on the other, makes a self- 
contained machine in which the yoke can be made very light, as 
it has to resist only the pressure of the air against the end of 
the holder-on cylinder, and the reaction of the hammer blows. 
Various sizes of these yoke riveters are used for riveting the 
center keelsons, longitudinals, side keelsons, etc. They are also 
extensively used for riveting certain parts of turrets, gun-carriages, 
etc., where first-class riveting is absolutely necessary. 

For driving rivets in frames and brackets, intercostals and beam 
knees, etc., we use a jam riveter and pneumatic holder-on. 



1172 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The above descriptions give the methods for driving all rivets 
that can be reached on both sides by a yoke or jam riveter. There 
remain three classes of rivets in a ship, as follows: (1) Those 
through decks and tank tops, mostly countersunk, and all driven 
downward from above ; ( 2 ) bulkhead rivets, nearly all with full 
heads; (3) those in the outside of the vessel and all countersunk. 
These three classes must be reached by riveters on one side and 
holders-on on the other, without any connection whatever between 
them. The first class are most easily driven, and for them the 
hammer is attached to a universal swivel head, mounted on a pipe 
or T-bar. The operator raises the hammer to bring the flat die 
on to the rivet, and the pipe or T-bar being secured at the center, 
holds the hammer in position while the rivet is being driven. A 
second man, with a pneumatic chipping hammer cuts off the sur- 
plus metal, and the riveting hammer being brought back on the 
rivet, a few seconds complete the operation. In this case the pneu- 
matic holder-on is operated from below by a third man, be- 
ing braced against the bottom of the ship or the next deck 
below. 

For the second class, the hammer is simply held in the hands 
of the operator, said hammer having about a 4Vj-in. piston stroke, 
and as the die is cui)ped out to form the snap point, there is no 
tendency to slip off the point. The holding-on is done by a spring 
dolly bar, which' I will explain later. 

We now come to the third class, or shell rivets, which, in many 
respects, are the most important rivets in the ship, requiring the 
most careful workmanship and the best finish. Therefore it is a 
serious mistake for shipbuilders to attempt to drive shell rivets 
by pneumatic power until they have established pneumatic rivet- 
ing on all inside work, because the men operating the tools should 
be accustomed to handling the hammers before being put on this 
important part of the work. It is evident at the start that the 
varying thickness of plates, frame flanges and liners, and espe- 
cially the depths of countersink render it impracticable to so gauge 
the length of rivet used that there will always be just enough 
metal to properly fill the countersink and finish the point, and 
that, therefore, as in hand riveting, a longer rivet must be used. 
After the point is beaten down and the surplus metal crowded 
off to one side, this surplus must be chipped off, and the point be 
finished up, rounded slightly, and any seams between the rivet and 
the plate driven together and closed. To do this a certain amount 
of freedom of motion must be allowed in the hammer, so that its 
axis may be inclined at a slight angle in any direction with the 
axis of the rivet itself. 

This result is attained by mounting a pneumatic hammer in a 
device having a universal movement attached to the end of a 
T-bar, instead of its being immovably fastened to it. For bottom 
riveting there is a flat bar adapted so as to be mounted on the 
shell of a ship in any desired position. This bar carries an ad- 
justable support, connected by means of a swivel joint, with a 
holder in which is mounted a« adjustable frame bar, pivotally sup- 



COMPRESSED AIR 



1173 



porting at one end a pneumatic hammer, and at the other an 
adjustable distance piece. 

At one setting a space of 14 ft. to 16 ft. sq. can be reached 
with the above device, and when it is necessary to move the device 
to another position the change can be effected in about ten min- 
utes. A spring dolly bar is used for holding-on, thus dispensing 
with the costly method of a wood backing, necessary when a pneu- 
matic holder-on was u.sed, as was the case a few years ago, and 
an ordinary pneumatic chipping hammer is used to cut off the 
surplus metal before finally finishing. It is evident that the free- 
dom of movement of the hammer can be secured in other ways, 
such as a ball and socket joint of large radius, but we have found 
the above device more satisfactory and all that can be desired. 



TABLE XXIV. COST OF PNEUMATIC RIVETING FOR SHIP 
CONSTRUCTION 



No. of 
Distribution rivets 

Keel (flat) 6.217 

Shell 21,628 

Shell margin (bilge single line) 1,122 

Longitudinals, open 24.632 

C. V. K. brackets 3,197 

Longitudinals under tank .... 664 

Longitudinals, bars 2,989 

Tank top stiffeners 1.129 

Tank top margin 4,033 

Tank top rider 3.209 

Tank top lugs 1,520 

Tank top 4.467 

C. V. K. cross vertical keelson . 12,723 

Hold stringer 1,184 

Floors 123 

Floors (odd ) 5 

C. V. K. (odd) 38 

Bulkheads 1.318 

3,051 

231 

Total 93,480 

Holes drilled 
Pneumatic Electric 

Air pressure on 12 days, being 90 lbs 248 100 

Air pressure on 9 days, being 84 lbs 232 100 

Air pressure on 3 days, being 76 lbs 208 100 





Ma- 




Diam- 


chine 


Hand 


eter of 


rate 


rate 


rivets, 


each, 


each. 


in. 


cts. 


cts. 


1 


2% 


. 41/2 


% 


1% 


31/2 


% 


3 


4% 


% 


iy4 


2% 


% 


1 


31/2 




1V4 


31/2 




1V2 


31/2 


% 


1% 


2 3/4 


1 


1V4 


2% 


2V2 


31/2 


% 


1V2 


2% 


% 




2% 


% 


1 % 


31/2 


94 


1 ^ 


2% 


% 


1 


3 


% 


1V2 


3 


% 


iy4 


3 


% 


2 


6 


1 


2 
1V4 


6 
5 




iy4 


31/4 


% 


11/2 


21/2 



For riveting the side shell plating the same device is used, with 
one exception, and this is as follows : there is a holder provided 
with a T-shaped slot, the sides of which form a bearing for the 
T-shaped frame bar, while allowing said bar to be moved from 
one position to another in said slot ; and a friction spring and set 
screw, respectively adapted to bear against the bottom of said 
frame bar when the latter is in position in said slot and to lock 
the frame bar in any desired position in said holder. 



1174 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The spring- dolly bar now used is made of a piece of 3-in. pipe 
about 12 ins. long, having at one end an ordinary cast-steel handle, 
while at the other there is a bushing, through which a set screw 
holds the cup or snap. Inside the pipe is a piece of round iron, 
about 6 ins. long, backed up by a spiral spring. 

The quality of the work done by all these machines, both 
inside and outside the shell, is first-class In every respect, and far 
superior to hand work, seeing that a rivet driven by a pneumatic 
hammer has to be about 12% longer than a rivet driven by hand, 
which goes to prove that the hole is better filled when the work 
is done by pneumatic tools, and such is the unanimous opinion of 
the inspectors who have been and are on duty in the American 
shipyards. 

That this is natural appears from several considerations. The 
rivets are closed down more rapidly and at a much higher tem- 
perature, and. as it is always easy to bring the axis of the hammer 
in line with the axis of the rivet, and, in fact, natural for the men 
to do so, the rivet is plugged at once by the first blows of the ham- 
mer, thoroughly filling the hole throughout before the point begins 
to form. The tendency of hand riveters to save labor, to form the 
point without thorough plugging, leaving a rivet which, though 
looking all right and passing the tester, is liable to loosen after- 
wards in service from the constant jar and vibration of the hull, 
is, therefore, avoided. In many confined places, also, where only 
one man can strike, and the space for the swing of the hammer is 
confined to the frame spacing or less, hand rivets are very apt 
to be poorly driven, but it is evident that such considerations do 
not affect the machine, and that, if the pneumatic hammer can 
get to the rivet at all, it is as well put in as in the most open parts 
of the work. 

As to the cost of pneumatic riveting, I submit the figures of 
Table XXIV, which are piece work rates current in the States, also 
figures comparing them with the British piece-work hand rates. 
In making this comparison. I must call your attention to the fact 
that both day-work and piece-work rates in America are about 
35% higher than in Great Britain. This is due chiefly to the cost 
of living being- higher. So that the piece-work prices for pneu- 
matic riveting in Great Britain should be one-third less than the 
prices paid in America. 

Table XXIV was compiled from a'n actual test covering a period 
of 3 weeks at the Chicago plant of the American Shipbuilding 
Company. 

Total cost of job by hand would have been $2,986.87 

Total cost of job by. machine was 1,403.31 

Saving of machine over hand work $1,583.56 

Average cost per rivet of hand work 3.19 cts. 

Average cost per rivet of machine work 1.50 " 



Average saving per rivet of machine hand work 1.69 

Average cost of machine riveting was 47% of hand cost. 



COMPRESSED AIR 1175 

The amount that should be added to machine cost to cover in- 
terest, maintenance of plant, and operation of compressor, is about 
15% of the gross earnings of the tools. 

It is only fair to mention that, at the time the above test took 
place, about 7 years ago, pneumatic tools were not so perfect as 
they are to-day, and their application to ship construction has been 
very much simplified. For instance, when driving bulkheads and 
.vhell it was customary to use a pneumatic holder-on, which ne- 
cessitated something to act as a backing for the tool, said backing 
having to be built up, which added considerably to the total cost 
of riveting, whereas now a spring dolly bar is used, which the 
holder on holds in his hands ; again, the shell device for holding the 
riveting hammer while driving the rivet has been very considerably 
improved, and can be removed from one position to another on 
the ship in less than one-flfth the time required to remove the old 
device. 



TABLE XXV. BRITISH COSTS OF PNEUMATIC RIVETING 

Briti.sh pneumatic British hand 

No. of Price Total Piece- Total 

Distribution rivets per 100 cost work cost 

s. d. £ s. d. s. d. £ s. d. 

Keel (flat) 6.217 7 21 15 2 1110 36 15 8 

Shell 21,628 5 54 1 5 8 8 93 14 5 

Tank margin 1,122 8 4 4 13 6 10 5 12 2 

Longitudinals, open 24,632 3 6 43 2 1 8 6 104 13 9 

C. V. K. brackets 3,197 3 6 5 11 10 8 6 13 11 9 

Longitudinals under tank. 644 50 113 2 96 331 

Longitudinals, bars .... 2,989 36 547 96 14 3 11 

Tank top stiffeners 1,129 7 3 19 10 5 12 11 

Tank top margin 4,033 42 880 10 6 21 36 

Tank top lugs 1,520 5 3 16 10 7 12 

Tank top rider 3.209 3 6 5 12 4 10 6 16 16 11 

Tank top 4,467 3 6 7 16 4 10 6 23 8 

C.V.K. vertical keelson . 12,723 2 10 18 6 8 6 54 1 5 

Hold stringer 1,184 42 294 86 508 

Floors 123 3 6 4 4 8 6 10 5 

Floors Codd) 5 59 004 11 6 007 

C. V. K. (odd) 38 59 022 11 6 044 

Bulkheads 3,051 42 671 70 10 13 7 

£192 17 2 £416 19 1 

192 17 2 

Amount saved by machine over hand (British rates) . . £224 1 11 

Pneumatic Log Sawing Machine. A pneumatic log sawing ma- 
chine consists of a saw and frame weighing 85 lbs. and an engine 
of brass tubing weighing 65 lbs. The frame is manufactured in 
2 sizes to cut in 16 and 24-in. lengths. 

The capacity of the saw in logs is given as 500 per 10-hr. day 
or 20 cords of 4-ft. wood. 

The ordinary working pressure required is 75 lbs., the free air 
consumption at 65 strokes, per min., being 33 cu. ft. 

Air Consumption of Pumps. Andre Formis, June 14, 1913, in 



1176 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Engineering and Mining Journal, describes the use of a recording 
air meter for taking time studies of rocl< drills on air lines. 

The air meter was also used to investigate the air consumption 
of a small, single-stroke 7 by ZV^ by 7-in. plunger pump. The 
water was pumped a height of 250 ft. on an angle of 33 degs., 
the size of the suction and discharge lines being according to the 
manufacturers' specifications. The strokes per min. were counted 
and noted on the chart at the corresponding air-flow line. It was 
found that at 130 strokes. 85 cu. ft. were used. The h.p. drawn 
from the boilers to compress this amount of air was 13.1 h.p., ac- 
cording to the manufacturer's catalog. The theoretical power re- 
quired to pump the amount of water is 2.56 h.p.. without friction 
or leakage losses. The electrical power required to pump this 
amount would be conservatively four boiler h.p. 



Fig. 7, 



280 

51260 

§240 

J! 220 

"200 

§ 180 

<£ 160 

^ 140 

^ 120 

<f 100 

;| 80 

% 60 

o 40 

•§ 20 

^ 

25 SO 75 .100 

6(alIons of W(j!+er pe r M I n 
Pump performance as given by air meter. 



X 



Fig. 7 has been plotted from a set of observations. It shows 
that the most economical speed is about 75 gals, per min., corre- 
sponding to the point marked X. This happens to be about three 
times the water to be handled per day ; thus it determines the size 
of the sump, and the number of attendants required to run a given 
number of pumps. Of course, the economical point is determined 
by such considerations as leakage in air valve, slippage in water 
end and water valves, moisture in compressed air inducing freezing, 
and size of suction and discharge pipes. This confirms the well 
known fact that pumping by air is uneconomical. At times elec- 
tric pumping would entail considerable expense, but for permanent 
installations any reasonable additional cost will be repaid in a 
short time. 

Engfish Costs on Scaling Boilers. With regard to scaling boil- 
ers by pneumatic hammers, Messrs. John Allen and Sons, of Kil- 
burn (England) give the following comparative figures in the En- 
gineer for 1907, one boiler — Cornish, 30 ft. by 6 ft. — only being 



COMPRESSED AIR 1177 

referred to, the average thickness of scale being % in. The two 
pneumatic hammers weighed 9% lbs. each, with pistons 1 Vie-in. 
diameter, and 1%-in. stroke. When the work was done by hand 
8 men at 18 cts. per hour were employed for 9 hrs. per day, each 
man receiving $2.25 per day extra as *' dirt " money. The job took 
6 days. 

£ s. d. Cost per day 

8 men at $2.25 3 14 $18 

Total cost for the 6 days 22 4 108 

With 2 pneumatic hammers, 4 men employed, 2 using the pneu- 
matic hammers ar.d 2 their hand tools, the same job took but 3 
days. 

f s. d. Cost per day 

4 men at $2.25 1 17 $8.99 

Cost for the 3 days 5 11 26.97 

The saving in labor thus being. 16130 80.81 

Taking the above figures to be correct, it is seen that the two 
pneumatic hammers did no less than seven-eighths of the work, 
and that they could have done the whole of it in a trifle less than 
ZVi days, for which time the cost of labor would have been $15.73 
only, and the saving $9 2.16. 

The riveting hammers are now capable of closing rivets up to 
11/^ -in. diameter, and are employed in all kinds of constructional 
ironwork, both in the yards and in the field ; on boiler work, on 
furnaces, combustion chamber, and shell plating, and in shipbuild- 
ing for both shell, bulkhead, and deck riveting. 

Hydro -Compressor Installation Costs. The following from De- 
sign and Construction of Hydraulic Plants, by R. C. Beardsley, 
quotes Professor Unwin as stating that it is practical to transmit 
power by compressed air to a distance of 20 miles with a loss 
of 12%. 

The cost of a hydro-compressor installation is less than a turbine 
plant, as there are no journals, shafting, gearing, etc., the only 
cost being for the boiler iron and excavation. The cost of excava- 
tion will of course vary with the condition. Rock excavation will 
cost $5 to $8 per cu. yd. and earth from 50 cts. to $3. 

Mr. Weber places the cost of a 5,000 h.p. compressor at $42,000. 
The boiler iron ought not to cost more than 4 cts. per lb. erected. 
Of course the same dam, head gates, canals and racks are required 
as for a turbine plant, but no power house. 

For distances less than 5 or 6 miles (and no doubt the future 
will see this increased), the transmission of the power by means 
of compres.sed air is as efficient as by any other means, a 2% loss 
being usually allowed. A velocity of 60 ft. per sec. may be al- 
lowed in the pipes, and as each h.p. at 85 lbs. pressure takes 
about 14.4 cu. ft. of air per min., the area of the pipe may be 
determined. Weber gives the cost of a 20-in. steel pipe 4 miles 
long carrying 5,000 h.p. at 85 lbs. pressure as $3.05 per ft. laid, 
making the cost per mile $18,500, and for 4 miles $74,000. An 
-electric transmission would cost as follows : 



1178 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

2 governors (for 2 units) $2,000 

Generator house 5,000 

Switch board 2.000 

4 miles transmission line 4,500 

Step up and step down transformers 30,000 

Generators and exciters 50,000 

$93,500 

The cost is more in favor of the hydro-compressor plant, as the 
distance grows less, and vice versa. 

Victoria IVlines Hydro-Compressor Plant. The following article 
describing an application of Mr. Frizell's method for the com- 
pression of air by the direct action of falling water is taken 
from Engineering News. 

The hydraulic compressed air plant of the Victoria Mines is lo- 
cated in Ontonagon County, near Rockland, Mich. Water is taken 
from the Ontonagon River and after passing through the com- 
pressor is returned to the river a mile further down stream. A 
concrete dam 300 ft. long and 10 ft. high was built across the 
river 4,000 ft. up-stream from the compressor house, and a canal 
with a sectional area of 350 sa. ft. conducts the water from the 
dam to the compressors. At the foot of the canal three vertical 
circular and smoothly cemented shafts, each 5 ft. in diameter, 
were sunk to the depth of 330 ft. These shafts terminate in a 
chamber 57 ft. wide, 22 ft. high and 50 ft. long. The chamber 
then narrows to a width of 18 ft. and a height to the center of the 
arched roof, of 25 ft. This part of the chamber is 232 ft, long, 
making a total length of 282 ft. Here the chamber is reduced to 
a tunnel 10 ft. high, and after a run of 40 ft., it ascends on an in- 
cline to the surface. 

At the bottom of the shafts are fitted steel tubes, which extend 
into the chamber 16 ft. These tubes flare from a diameter of 
5 ft. at their connection with the shafts, to 7 ft. 4 ins. at their 
base, while immediately below each of them is placed a concrete 
spreading pier. Steel, tubes are also fitted to the upper ends of 
the shafts and extend 6 ft. above the base of the forebay. Into 
these are telescoped other pipes, to which are attached the head 
pieces of the compressors. 

By this arrangement the flow of water through the compressors 
is controlled, the head piece being lowered below the water level 
of the forebay, when the compressor is working, or raised above 
the water line, so that no water can pass through it, when the 
compressor is shut down. 

The air capacity of the underground chamber, between the water 
line and the roof, is 80,264 cu. ft. Out of the top of this chamber 
extends a 24-in. air main, while alongside of it runs a 12-in. blow- 
ofe pipe. This latter pipe has its lower end on a level with the 
water line of the chamber, which is at such a height as to keep 
the down-take tubes of the compressors always sealed with water. 
The office of this blow-off pipe is to prevent the air pressure be- 
coming so great as to force the water away from the down-take 
tubes, thereby breaking the water seal and allowing the air to 



COMPRESSED AIR 1179 

escape through them. When the air pressure becomes sufficient to 
force the water to the level of this blow-off line, air and water 
escape from the blow-off pipe until the pressure is relieved and the 
end of the blow-off pipe becomes again sealed by the water. The 
air and the blow-off pipes are both cemented air-tight into a 30- 
deg. tunnel, which carries them to the surface, where the blow-off 
terminates and the air main is continued to the mines. It may 
be remarked that when the blow-off is in operation it throws a 
mixed stream of air and water some 500 ft. into the air. 

The headpiece referred to above consists of an annular pipe or 
header attached to the adjustable telescoping pipe. This header, 
which is about 10 ins, in diameter, is connected with eight 7-in. 
vertical intake air pipes, the upper ends of which always project 
above the water level of the forebay. The headpiece is supported 
by I-beams of the compressor house. The headpiece and concave 
adjusting cone can be raised and lowered by lifting screw and 
capstan nuts. The convex casting of the adjustable head is riveted 
to a larger diameter tube, thereby making each headpiece an in- 
verted tank, or float. 

The compressor is set in operation by lowering the headpiece by 
turning the capstan nut until the lower rim of the convex casting 
settles a few inches below the surface of the water in the forebay. 
In this position the water rushes over the %-in. air tubes and 
passes down between the conoid castings into the vertical shaft. 
On passing the ends of the small air tubes the water drops away 
at an increased velocity, thereby creating a partial vacuum, which 
causes air from above to rush in. This air is taken up by the 
water, in the form of small bubbles, and carried down the shaft, 
being gradually compressed thereby. On reaching the bottom of 
the shaft the mixed volume of water and air is spread out in all 
directions by the conical cement pier. The water then slowly flows 
along the air chamber, while the air rises through it and accumu- 
lates in the dome of the chamber. On reaching the end of the 
chamber the water is free of air and flows up the inclined shaft 
and discharges into the tail race. 

Automatic regulation of the flow of water over the small air 
tubes is obtained by means of a small air pipe, which runs from the 
air chamber' up to and connects with the adjustable headpiece. 
The end of this pipe in the chamber is placed at such a height 
that, when the air pressure reaches the desired point, the pressure 
will raise the adjustable head and stop the flow of water over the 
air tubes. As soon as the air pressure in the chamber is relieved, 
the headpiece is lowered and the compressor placed in operation 
again. 

As noted above, three vertical shafts are used instead of one 
larger one. This arrangement was decided on for the reason that 
a higher efficiency could be obtained during a dry season, with 
less water, and also that thereby a very high efficiency could be 
secured through a range of 1,000 to 5,000 h.p. According to tests 
which were made by Messrs. Sperr and Hood, of the Michigan 
School of Mines, the efficiency of the plant, when running at about 



1180 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

maximum capacity, is 82%. The total distance between water 
level of the forebay and the water level of the air chamber is 
342 ft while the distance between forebay water level and tail race 
level is 71 ft. This gives an air pressure head of 271 ft., which 
produces a pressure of 117 lbs. per sq. in. in the air chamber. The 
plant was designed and built by Mr. C. H. Taylor, of Montreal 
and cost less than $22 per h.p.. while the dam and canal cost about 
the same. The cost of operating the plant averages about $2.25 
ner h p per year, allowing 5% interest on first cost. 

Cost of Compressing by Water and Electric Driven Conripressors 
and the Direct Action of Water. (Compressed Air Magazine Nov. 
1908 ) An hydraulic air compressor installed at Clausthal in 



Salvage 




/5 20 25 
Life inYeors 

Fig. 8. Depreciation of marine equipment. 
A — Steel steam vessels on great lakes. 
B — Steel steam vessels on tidewater. 
C — Steel barges, floats, etc., on tidewater, 
D — Wood tugs, barges, etc., on tidewater. 



1907. Water is led to the air suction pipe of cast iron 218 mm. in 
diameter and 150 m. long, which is laid down an inclined shaft 
discharging into the bottom of a receiver 1.1 m. in diameter and 
4.5 m. high, which rests on an I-beam support in the shaft 52 m. 
below the overflow tunnel. On the receiver is a pressure gauge 
and a pipe that passes up parallel to the discharge, entering it at 
the discharge level. 

The compressed air escapes through a valve passing into the 
reservoir and then through an 80 mm. pipe to the mine. The 
overflow water passes up through a 218 mm. pipe 50 m. long. 

The average flow of water through the sy.stem was 3 cu. m. 
per min., falling 99-yio m. between the intake and discharge levels 



COMPRESSED AIR 1181 

yielded 10 cu. m. of air per min, at 90 lbs. per sq. in. The work 
performed was 54 h.p.. and the theoretical power of the water was 
70.5 h.p., with an efficiency of 77%. 

The turbine wheel installed had an efficiency of about 75% and 
the compressor an efficiency of 85%, the combined efficiency being 
64%. 



CHAPTER XVI 
GAS PLANTS- 

Cost of Trenching and Pipe Laying. The reader is referred to 
Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data for detailed costs of trenching, 
paving and pipe laying. 

Percentage of Gas Manufactured on Wliich There is No Return. 

We have derived the following figures from the 1914 Report of the 
Gas and Electric Light Commission of the Commonwealth of Massa- 
chusetts, There were 59 companies reporting which manufactured 
a total of 13.234,929,044 cu. ft. of gas, Of this amount 758,097,294 
cu. ft. or 5.73% was unaccounted for and 81,633,744 cu. ft. or 0.62% 
was used by the companies. This makes a total of 839,731,038 cu. 
ft. or 6.35% of the total gas inanufactured, on which there was no 
return. That this amount can be materially lessened is shown by 
the fact that some of the companies report losses as low as 1% 
or less and further the same company seldom holds the unenviable 
record of showing a maximum for " gas unaccounted for " for tw^o 
years in succession. The maximum of gas unaccounted for was 
18.75% for the year ended June 30, 1914, and 21.47% for the year 
ended June 30, 1913. 

Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 90,000. The following 
is an abstract of an ajjpraisal report by Henry L. Gray. 

The gas manufactured by this company is distributed and sold 
in a western city of 85,000 population and in suburban towns of 
5,000. 

The average number of cu. ft. of gas manufactured daily during 
a year was 815,900, of which amount 666,600 cu. ft. were sold, and 
149,300 cu, ft. remained unaccounted for, or a loss of 18.3 per cent. 

The following table shows the number of consumers and services 
as well as the number of meters and other appliances in use. 

December 31, 1911 Total 

Number of services 11,762 

. Number of consumers 11,810 

Number of meters . 11,910 

Number of arcs 3,575 

Number of ranges 11.411 

Number of gas plates 1,835 

Number of water heaters 5,564 

Number of room heaters 4,019 

Number of gas engines 3 

Number of miscellaneous appliances 2,199 

Total mileage of mains 236 

Manufacture of Coal Gas. Coal gas is primarily a mixture of a 
number of simple gases, the principal ones being hydrogen, marsh 
gas, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Hydrocarbons are pres- 

1182 



GAS PLANTS 1183 

ent in certain forms, together with certain inert gases and im- 
purities, which are later removed. It is produced by the destructive 
distillation of coal in air tight retorts or ovens, which are heated 
externally. The design of the generating apparatus differs con- 
siderably in various plants, but the principle remains the same in 
all. Approximately three hundred pounds of coal are charged into 
a retort, which is then sealed and heated by the combustion of 
coke for about four hours, in order to expel all of the gas from 
the coal. The retort is then opened, the coke withdrawn, to be 
later used for fuel, or in the manufacture of water gas ; the retort 
is recharged and the process continued. Air is carefully excluded 
from the retorts, the gas being discharged under water ; and this 
fact is responsible for the incomplete combustion. A ton of good 
gas coal will produce about 10,000 cu. ft. of gas, 1,400 lbs. of coke, 
12 gals, of tar and a varying quantity of ammonia. 

Mmiufacture of Water Gas. Water gas is largely a mechanical 
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is produced by 
the decomposition of steam brought in contact with incandescent 
coal or coke. It contains practically no impurities, with the excep- 
tion of sulphureted hydrogen, which is later removed. As it comes 
from the generator this gas burns with a pale blue or colorless 
flame, on account of the absence of illuminants, or hydrocarbons, 
and the gas has no value as an illuminating gas except when used 
in burners of the Welsbach type, which contain a mantle that 
becomes incandescent through heat, and thus affords light. Conse- 
quently, in order to burn water gas in the ordinary burner, it must 
first be carburetted, or enriched, with hydrocarbons. This is ac- 
complished by means of introduction of crude oil into the generator, 
which diffuses and becomes permanently fixed in the gas. 

The production of water gas requires about thirty-five to forty- 
five pounds of coke, and about four or five gallons of oil for 1,000 
cu. ft. of gas generated. The chief objection to water gas is the 
high percentage of carbon monoxide which it contains, carbon 
monoxide being a very deadly gas if inhaled. In ordinary use, 
however, there is little likelihood of an accident resulting from this 
source. 

Manufacture of Oil Gas. Oil gas is produced in almost the same 
manner as is coal gas, crude oil being destructively distilled in re- 
torts, instead of coal. The production of oil gas, however, is largely 
confined to western cities, where a suitable supply of coal is either 
not available, or is too expensive for use. Oil gas is similar in 
composition to coal gas, but in many cases contains impurities which 
are difficult to remove. Many California cities are supplied with oil 
gas, owing to the presence of large quantities of low grade fuel oil. 

Capacity of Plant. The plant under consideration produces both 
coal and water gas. The apparatus for the production of the 
former consists of eleven benches of six retorts each. These 
benches are of the semi-regenerative type, and have a total capa- 
city of 550,000 cu. ft. per day. The water gas generating apparatus 
consists of three sets of producers of the Lowe type, having a 
total rated daily capacity of 1,750,000 cu. ft. which is probably 



1184 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

considerably in excess of the actual capacity. Owing to the fact 
that it is impossible to run a gas plant to its full capacity for any 
great length of time, on account of the necessity of shutting down 
different parts for cleaning and repairs, it is probable that the 
maximum continuous output of this :,jlant under existing conditions 
will not exceed 1,100,000 cu. ft. per day. 

It Is probable that the purifying apparatus in use by this plant 
is entirely too small to take care of the output ; and by the 
installation of an additional condenser and scrubber to the 7 ft. 
water gas set, and by the reconstruction of the 9 ft., 6 in. water 
gas set, and with the completion of the additional storage holder 
now in course of construction, it may be possible to increase the 
total output to 1,400,000 cu. ft. per day. 

Operation of Plants. The water gas is manufactured by passing 
steam over incandescent coke and is carburetted or enriched by 
gas oil having a density of 26 degs. Baume at 60 degs. F. The 
purification of the gas is accomplished by means of various tar ex- 
tractors, condensers, scrubbers, washers and purifying boxes filled 
with iron oxide. The circulation of the gas through this purifying 
apparatus is produced by means of steam driven blowers and ex- 
hausters. After purification the coal gas is discharged directly into 
the present storage holder, having a capacity of 502,000 cu. ft. 
The water gas, however, is first discharged into a relief holder, 
having a capacity of 115,000 cu. ft., where it is allowed to cool 
somewhat before being pumped into the storage holder. Eventu- 
ally, however, both gases reach the storage holder, amd are mixed 
together before distribution, in the approximate ratio of 48 per 
cent, coal gas and 52 per cent, water gas. 

Distribution. The gas is distributed throughout the city by 
means of two separate distribution systems, known as the high 
pressure and the low pressure systems. The gas distributed through 
the high pressure system is forced through the mains by Ingersoll- 
Rand compressors, and is used to supply the outlying districts. 
The high pressure system also acts as a booster for a large part 
of the low pressure system, in which the gas is presumed to circu- 
late under the pressure produced by the weight of the holder. 
About 65% of the total production of gas is sent out from the plant 
through the high pressure mains, a large portion, however, eventu- 
ally finding its way into the low pressure system in order to boost 
those sections of the latter system on which there is an unusually 
heavy demand. 

By-products. Very little attention is given by the present com- 
pany to the manufacture of by-products, the greater portion of the 
coke produced being used for fuel in the recuperators of the coal 
gas plant, and in the water gas apparatus, only about twenty-five 
per cent, of the total quantity of coke produced being sold. The coal 
tar is sold to a refiner just as it is produced, no attempt being made 
to reduce it at the plant. The ammonia still was dismantled some 
time ago on account of its inefficiency, and a new one is. at the 
present time in process of construction. The company is completing 
a new holder, having a capacity of ^,000,000 cu. ft. 



GAS PLANTS 1185 

TABLE I. CONDENSED ESTIMATE OF REPRODUCTION COST 

1. General office buildings $ 18,900 

2. Gas plant buildings 26,853 

3. Shops and miscellaneous buildings 17.225 

4. Benches 33,000 

5. Water gas apparatus 35,450 

6. Purifying apparatus 33,775 

7. Station meters 8,700 

8. Boilers 4,300 

9. Other plant machinery 23,130 

10. Miscellaneous plant apparatus 7,440 

11. Plant piping and fittings 13,228 

12. Holders 91,875 

13. Paving 413,983 

14. Distributing mains * *681,184 

15. Services 180.239 

16. Governors and regulators 10,807 

17. House meters 166.024 

18. Arc lights 48.360 

19. Teams and vehicles 22,630 

20. Tools and implements 8,750 

21. Testing apparatus 4.254 

22. Furniture and fixtures 12.943 

23. Engineering, supervision and organization expense.. 186,305 

24. Interest during construction 102,468 

25. Contingencies , 107,591 

26. Stores and working capital 80,000 

27. Brokers' fees 87,728 

28. Real estate 153,147 

Total cost as of Jan. 1st, 1912 $2,580,289 

* This includes an item of $70,000 for a transmission main con- 
necting two widely separated parts of the system. 

The costs used in this appraisal are based on prices prevailing 
previous to the World War. 

TABLE II. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION 

1. GENERAL OFFICE BUILDINGS. 

Office buildings, one story, brick and terra cotta 

with composition roof, 92,000 cu. ft. at $0.20 $18,400 

Brick vault, at office 500 



$18,900 



GAS PLANT BUILDINGS. 



Boiler house, brick and corrugated iron, 25,168 cu. 

ft. at $0.05 $ 1,258 

Water gas building for 6 ft. 6 ins. and 7 ft. water 

gas sets, brick with corrugated iron roof, 44,800 

cu. ft. at $0.09 ■ 4,032 

Purifier house, brick with corrugated iron roof, 

65,158 cu. ft. at $0.1 6,516 

Exhauster house, brick with corrugated iron roof, 

20,832 cu. ft. at $0.08 1.667 

Compressor house, frame with corrugated iron 

walls and roof, 35.400 cu. ft, at $0.06 2,124 

Coal bunker, frame and corrugated iron, 75,200 cu. 

ft. at $0.04 '. 3,008 

Water gas building for 9 ft. 6 ins. water gas set, 

frame with corrugated iron walls and roof, 58,384 

cu. ft. at $0.07 ■ 4,087 

Retort house, frame with corrugated iron walls and 

roof, 82,110 cu. ft. at $0.03 2,463 



1186 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Coke shed, frame with composition roof, 3,000 sq. 

ft. at $0.35 % 1,050 

Blower house, corrugated iron, 240 sq. ft. at $0.50. 1:^0 

Oil pump house, corrugated iron, 170 sq. ft. at $0.50 85 

Shed over ammonia storage tank and tar well, 

frame and corrugated iron, 626 sq. ft. at $0.50.. 313 

Plant tool shed, corrugated iron, 260 sq. ft. at 

$0.50 130 



$26,853 

SHOPS AND MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS. 

Stable, frame, 52,605 cu. ft. at $0.05 $ 2,630 

Meter shops, frame, 53,482 cu. ft. at $0.05 2,674 

Fitting shop, two story frame, 25,685 cu. ft. at $0.05 1,284 

Storeroom and blacksmith shop, two story and 

basement, frame with corrugated iron, 79,747 cu. 

ft. at $0.05 3,987 

Warehouse, two story, frame and corrugated iron, 

35.910 cu. ft. at $0.04 1,436 

Works office, frame, 21,250 cu. ft. at $0.07 1,487 

Retort tool house, frame and corrugated iron, 

100 sq. ft. at $0.50 50 

Garage, frame and corrugated iron, 1,464 sq. ft. at 

$0.35 512 

Brick and tile shed, frame and corrugated iron, 

1,200 sq. ft. at $0.20 240 

Pipe rack, frame and corrugated iron, 640 sq. ft. 

at $0.50 320 

Wagon shed, frame and corrugated iron, 1,060 sq. 

ft. at $0.50 530 

Paint and oil house, frame and corrugated iron, 200 

sq. ft. at $0.50 ,. 100 

Pipe shed, corrugated iron roof, no sides, 800 sq. 

ft. at $0.25 200 

Cement sidewalk, 6,770 sq, ft. at $0.11 745 

Brick vault, works office 350 

Tile vault, storeroom office 400 

Fence, board, 6 ft. high, painted, 800 lin. ft. at $0.35 280 



$17,225 



4. BENCHES. 

11 coal gas benches, Parker-Russell " Sixes," half 
depth, complete in place, with foundations, stacks 
and hydraulic main, at $3,000 , $33,000 

5. WATER GAS APPARATUS. 

Water gas set. West. Gas Cons. Co., 9 ft. 6 ins. by 9 
ft. 6 ins. by 9 ft., consisting of: 
1 generator 9 ft. 6 ins. by 15 ft. 
1 carburettor 9 ft. 6 ins. by 21 ft. 
1 superheater 9 ft. ins. by 26 ft. 6 ins. 
1 seal, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft., complete 
in place, with foundations, charging floor and 

connections $16,135 

Water gas set, Gas Machinery Co., type, 7 ft. by 
7 ft. by 7 ft., consisting of: 
1 generator, 7 ft. by 14 ft. 
1 carburettor 7 ft. by 14 ft. 
1 superheater, 7 ft. by 24 ft. 
1 seal, steel, 6 ft. by 4 ft., complete, in place, 

with foundations, charging floor and connections $9,275 

Water gas set. West. Gas Const. Co., 6 ft. 6 ins. by 
6 ft. 6 ins. by 6 ft., consisting of: 
1 generator, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 16 ft. 
1 carburettor, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 18 ft. 6 ins. 



GAS PLANTS 1187 

1 superheater, 6 ft. by 24 ft. 

1 seal, steel, 5 ft. by 3 ft. complete, in place, 

with foundations, charging floor and connections $ 9,275 



PURIFYING APPARATUS. $35,450 

Purifier set, consisting of: 

4 purifier boxes, Floyd 16 ft. by 12 ft. by 8 ft., 

cast iron, 
1 center seal, 
1 traveling cover hoist, complete, in place, with 

fundations and connections $11,475 

2 purifier tanks, steel, 11 ft. 6 ins. by 21 ft., com- 
plete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
tions, at $4,075 8,150 

Scrubber, 5 ft. by 16 ft., complete, in place, with 

foundations and connections 375 

Scrubber, 5 ft. by 20 ft., complete, in place, with 

foundations and connections 465 

Scrubber, 6 ft. by 24 ft. complete in place, with 

foundations and connections 660 

Scrubber, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft., complete, 

in place, with foundations and connections .... 2,640 

Condenser-scrubber, 6 ft. 6 ins. by 29 ft. 6 ins. com- 
plete, in place, with foundations 800 

Tubular condenser, 6 ft. by 16 ft., complete in place, 

with foundations and connections 850 

Tubular condenser, 5 ft. by 21 ft. complete, in 
• place, with foundations and connections 900 

Tubular, condenser, 6 ft. by 22 ft. complete, in place, 

with foundations and connections 1,145 

Condenser, cast iron, 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 24 ft. com- 
plete, in place, with foundations and connections 2,465 

Tar extractor, "P & A" #5, with 6 ft. 4 ins. by 5 
ft. 6 ins. by 4 ft. wash box. complete, in place, 
with foundations and connections 1,900 

Tar extractor, " P «& A " #10, complete, in place, 

with foundations and connections 2,130 



7. STATION METERS. $33,775 

Station meter, " H & M," 9 ft. with Hinman drum, 

capacity 56,000 cu. ft. per hour, camplete, in place $2,900 

Station meter, " H & M," 8 ft., with Hinman drum, 

capacity 45.000 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place 2,500 

3 high pressure meters, Westinghouse, #300, capac- 
ity 40,000 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place, at 
$850 2,550 

High pressure meter, "Westinghouse," #100, ca- 
pacity 1,000 cu. ft. per hour, not installed 450 

High pressure meter, "Westinghouse," #50, ca- 
pacity 8,500 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place, . 300 



$8,700 



High pres.sure meter, "Westinghouse," #100, ca- 
pacity 16,000 cu. ft. per hour, not installed.... 450 

High pressure meter. "Westinghouse," #50, ca- 
pacity 8,500 cu. ft. per hour, complete, in place 300 

BOILERS. ^8,700 

2 boilers, "Erie," 72 ins. by 18 ft., 125 # pressure, 
complete, in ])lace, with foundations, brick work, 
full front, all fittings' and 48 ins. by 55 ft. steel 
stack $4,000 

Feed water heater, 150 h.p., complete in place.... 300 

$4,300 



1188 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

9. OTHER PLANT MACHINERY. 

2 compressors, Ingersoll-Rand (Imperial) class 
10-1 12 ins. by 16 ins. by 16 ins., complete, in 
place, with foundations and connections, at $3,900 $7,800 

Blower " Sturtevant " # 7, extra heavy, not installed 260 

Blower, "Sturtevant" tcl extra heavy, belt con- 
nected to 10 ins. by 12 ins. 45 h. p. Atlas engine, 
complete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
tions 1,095 

2 blowers, ''Sturtevant," #6 extra heavy, direct 
connected to Kerr 24 ins. — 120 h.p. horizontal 
turbines, complete, in place, with foundations and 
connections, at $2,060 4,120 

Exhauster, "Roots" #7 direct connected to 9 ins. 
by 9 ins. " Wachs " engine, complete, in place, 
with foundations and connections 1,430 

Exhauster, "Roots" #5 direct connected to eV^ 
ins. by 7 ft. " Oil City " engine, complete, in place, 
with foundations and connections 1,231 

Exhauster, "Roots," #5 direct connected to 5}^ 
ins. by 7 ins., " Safety " engine, complete, in 
place, with foundations and connections 1,235 

Governor, " Connelly," automatic and balance, com- 
plete, in place, with foundations and connections 1,115 

Outside packed plunger pump, " Worth ington," 
10 ins. by 6 ins. by 10 ins., complete, in place, 
with foot valve and intake pipe 320 

Outside packed pump, " Worthington " 5^4 ins. by 

3% ins. by 5 ins., complete, in place ' 157 

2 Duplex pumps, "Worthington," AY2 ins. by 2% 

ins. by 4 ins., complete, in place, at $65 130 

Duplex pump, "Worthington," 7 V^ ins. by 5 ins. by 

8 ins., complete, in place 140 

Duplex, pump, "Buffalo" TV2 ins. by 5 ins. by 8 

ins., complete, in place 162 

3 Duplex pumps, " Gardner," 6 ins. by 4 ins. by 6 

ins., complete, in place, at $105 315 

Duplex pump, "Canton #5," 5 ins. by 2% ins. by 

4 1^ ins., complete, in place 70 

Deep well pump, "Marsh," 8 ins. by 24 ins. by 

41/^ ins., complete, in place, with 4l^ ins. by 40 

ins. artesian deep well brass cylinder 300 

Centrifugal pump, " United Iron Works 4 ins," 

direct connected to G. R. 20 h.p., 220 volt, d.c. 

motor, complete, in place 375 

2 oil heaters. Western Gas Construction Company, 

at $30 60 

Oil heater, own make 25 

Oil Alter, American it 1 30 

2 oil meters. National #1, at 40 80 

Hydraulic elevator, " Craig-Ridgway," capacity one 

ton, complete, in place 1,060 

Coal elevator and conveyor, " Jeffrey," with G. E. 

20 h.p. 220 volt, d.c. motor, complete, in place. . . 1,440 

Ammonia plant, 10% complete . 180 

$23,130 

10. MISCELLANEOUS PLANT APPARATUS. 

Patterns of miscellaneous fittings and apparatus . . $2,000 

Seal, concrete, 4 ft. by 4 ft. by 7 ft 25 

Seal, concrete, 3 ft. 9 ins. by 6 ft. by 6 ft. 6 ins 43 

Separator, concrete, 6 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ft. 6 ins. . . 50 

Separator, concrete, 7 ft. by 5 ft. by 6 ft 95 

Tar and ammonia separator, concrete, capacity 10,- 

875 gals 480 

Tar well, concrete, capacity 5,475 gals 165 



GAS PLANTS 



1189 



Tar well, concrete, capacity 37,000 gals 

Water reservoir, concrete, capacity 37,250 gals... 

Ammonia storage tanlv, steel, capacity 13,535 gals., 
complete, in place, with foundations and connec- 
tions 

Tar tank, double deck, timber and galvanized iron, 
capacity 40,875 gals 

Water tank, on top of coal bunkers, 1,430 gals, 

, capacity 

Artesian well 6 ins., 154 lin. ft., at $3 

7 coal and coke cars, steel, one cu. yd. capacity, 24 
in. gauge at $100 

Tram track, 12 # rail, 24 in. gauge, complete, in 
place, 465 lin. ft., at $1 

11. PliAN*r PIPING AND FITTINGS. 

Cast iron pipe, 16 ins., 560 lin. ft. at $3.60 

Cast iron pipe, 12 ins., 880 lin. ft. at $2.50 

Flanged pipe, 12 ins., 84 lin. ft. at $2.75 

Cast iron pipe, 8 ins., 302 lin. ft., at $1.40 

Wrought iron pipe, 8 ins., 580 lin. ft., at $1.10 

Blast pipe, 15 ins. 216 lin. ft., at $1.50 

Miscellaneous small pipe, 6 ins. and under with 

fittings 

Fittings, 16 ins 

Fittings, 12 ins 

Fittings, 8 ins 



$880 
615 



750 
600 



100 
462 



700 
465 



$7,440 

$2,016 
2,200 
231 
423 
638 
324 

2.000 
2,068 
3,250 

78 

$13,228 



12. HOLDERS. 

Gas holder, 3 lift, in steel tank, capacity 502,000 cu. 
ft., complete, in jolace, with foundations and 
connections $45,000 

Gas holder, single lift in concrete tank, capacity 
115,000 cu. ft., complete, in place, with founda- 
tions and connections 24,000 

Gas holder, single lift in brick and concrete tank, 
capacity 56,000 cu. ft., complete, in place, with 
foundations and connections (Used as oil stor- 
age tank) , 11,200 

Gas holder, 4 lift in steel tank, capacity 1,000,- 
000 cu. ft. at Plant B. in course of construction, 
expenditure to date 11.675 



$91,875 



13. PAVING. 

Asphalt paving, torn up and relaid, 69,588 sq yds. 

at $4 $278,352 

Brick paving, torn up and relaid, 18,088 sq. yds., at 

$3.50 63,308 

Stone block paving, torn up and relaid, 14,030 sq. 

yds. at $3.50 63,308 

Stone block paving, torn up and relaid, 14,030 

sq. yd.s., at $4 56,120 

Bitulithic paving, torn up and relaid, 2,301 sq. yds. 

at $4 9,204 

Granitoid paving, torn up and relaid, 871 sq. yds. 

at $4 3,484 

Wood block paving, torn up and relaid, 414 sq. yds. 

at $3.50 •• 1,449 

Plank paving, torn up and relaid, 3,444 sq. yds. 

at $0.60 2,066 



$413,983 



1190 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

14. DISTRIBUTING MAINS. 

WROUGHT IRON SCREW PIPE 

% in. 250 lin. ft. at $0.14 $35 

1 in., 1,605 lin. ft., at $0.16 257 

114 in., 17,550 lin. ft. at $0.18 3,159 

IVa in., 45.324 lin. ft, at $0.20 9,065 

2 in., 231,632 lin. ft., at $0.24 55,592 

2 V2 in., 4,045 lin. ft., at $0.30 1,214 

3 in., 48,955 lin. ft, at $0.41 20,071 

4 in., 583,209 lin. ft., at $0.51 297,437 

6 in., 106,802 lin. ft, at $0.78 83,306 

CAST IRON PIPE 

3 in., 18,965 lin. ft, at $0.44 8,345 

4 in., 89,850 lin. ft, at $0.62 55,707 

6 in., 57.870 lin. ft, at $0.90 52.083 

8 in. 22,270 lin. ft, at $1.30 ' 28.951 

10 in.. 1 60 lin. ft at 1.78 285 

12 in., 10,975 lin. ft, at $2.20 24,145 

16 in., 8,540 lin. ft., at $3.07 26,218 

Miscellaneous fittings for above pipe 15,314 



$681,184 

15. SERVICES, 

SERVICE CONNECTIONS 

% in., 53 at $11.60 $615 

% in., 557 at $12.70 7,074 

% in., 998 at $14.00 13.972 

% in., 98 at $23.00 , 2,274 

1 in., 2,432, at $14.20 34,534 

114 in., 5.073 at $15.80 80,153 

11/2 in., 326 at $17.35 5,656 

2 in., 222 at $28.90 6,416 

21/2 in., 6 at $35.70 214 

3 in., 21 at $50.00 1,050 

4 in., 3 at $100 300 

SERVICE EXTENSIONS 

% in., 222 at $10.90 2,420 

1 in.. 480 at $10.50 5,040 

114 in., 101 at $11.80 1,192 

1 V2 in., 18 at $12.95 233 

2 in., 5 at $15.90 80 

STUB SERVICES 

% in., 60 at $9.35 3,450 

1 in., 171 at $10.85 1,855 

1% in., 445 at $11.70 5,207 

1% in., 594 at $12.70 7,544 

2 in., 64 at $15.00 960 

$180,239 

16. GOVERNORS AND REGULATORS. 

Double district station, governors, #02, complete $426 

High pressure line governors, 4 in 324 

High pressure line governors, 2 in. 2 at $88.00.... 176 

Regulators, it 4 Reynolds, 66 at $37.30 2,462 

Service regulators, 5 light, 1,616 at $4.00 6,464 

Regulator chambers, concrete, 20 at $30.00. 600 

Regulator chambers, wood, 42 at $7.50 315 

Governor chambers, wood, 4 at $10.00 40 

$10,807 

17. HOUSE METERS. • 

3 light 3,388, at $5.25 $17,787 

5 light, 7,297 at $5.90 43.052 



GAS-PLANTS 



1191 



10 light, 270 at $7.95 $2,147 

20 light, 38 at $11.45 435 

30 light, 38 at $18.10 . 688 

45 light, 8 at $26.35 211 

60 light, 10 at $34.50 345 

100 light, 6 at $57.00 342 

#5 A, 1,974, at $7.20 14,213 

#2 Equitable, 31, at $9.55 296 

#4 Equitable, 10 at $10.05 ' 101 

#4V2 Equitable, 22 at $10.05 221 

# 6 Equitable, 24 at $17.35 416 

3 light prepay, 711 at $9.80 6,968 

5 light prepay, 560 at $10.35 5,796 

10 light prepay, 37 at $1 2.15 450 

20 light prepay, 4 at $15.30 61 

#5 A prepay 293, at $10.00 2,930 

Meter connections and .service extension inside of 

house, $13,913 at $5.00 69,565 

$166,024 

18. ARC LIGHTS. 

Inside arcs, inverted 3 light, 2,393 at $14.10 - $33,741 

Inside arcs, inverted 5 light, 159 at $16.25 2,584 

Outside arcs, inverted 3 light, 200 at $20.80 4,160 

Outside arcs, inverted 5 light, 32 at $25.00 800 

Inside arcs, standard 4 light. 476 at $12 65 6,021 

Outside arcs, standard 4 light, 49 at $21.50 1,054 

$48,360 

19. TEAMS AND VEHICLES. 

14 assorted horses at $250 $3,500 

2 roadster, " Hudson," 4 cylinder, 20 h.p., com- 
plete, at $1,350 2,700 

1 touring car, " Winton," 6 cylinder, 48.6 h.p., 

complete . . .' 4,100 

1 delivery car, " Carter," 2 cylinder, 18 h.p.. com- 
plete 1,500 

1 auto truck, " White," 4 cylinder, 22 h.p., com- 

plete 3.250 

2 auto truck, " Reo " 1500#, single cylinder, 10 

h.p., complete, $725 1,450 

8 motorcycles, " Excelsior," single cylinder. 4 h.p., 
with one tandem seat and shock absorber, 

at $250 2,000 

1 fitter's wagon, double, wooden top ' 200 

1 fitter's wagon, single, wooden top 175 

2 dump wagons, double, at $125 250 

1 meter wagon, single 240 

3 running gear wagons, double at $75 225 

1 double running gear wagon with coke box 90 

5 open fitter's wagons, single, at $140 700 

1 drip wagon, complete, single 325 

1 truck, double 225 

1 running gear, single, with dump boards 175 

1 delivery wagon, single 75 

2 service wagons, single, at $125 250 

1 light driving buggy 175 

6 push carts, at $12.50 75 

Harness 700 

Tarpaulins, storm covers, blankets, etc 250 

$22,630 

20. TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. 

Tools in tool room $4,530 

Tools in use in various depts 2,700 

Works tools (mechanical) 750 



1192 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Retort house tools . $100 

Water gas tools 200 

Engineering- instruments 470 

$8,750 

21. TESTING APPARATUS. 

Laboratory equipment $1,814 

Recording instruments 1,250 

Testing meters, provers, etc 1,190 

• $4,254 

22. FURNITURE AND FIXTURES. 

Office furniture and fixtures $12,943 

$12 943 
Unloaded total $1,863*050 

23. ENGINEERING, SUPERVISION AND ORGANIZATION EXPENSES. 

10% of all preceding items $186,305 

24. INTEREST DURING CONSTRUCTION. 

5% of all preceding items $102,468 

25. CONTINGENCIES. 

5% of all preceding Items $107,591 

26. STORES AND WORKING CAPITAL. 

Amount necessary for proper maintenance and 

operation of property $80,000 

27. BROKERS' FEES. 

3.75% of all preceding items $87,728 



Total, exclusive of real estate . . $2,427,142 

28. REAL ESTATE. 

Real estate, including loading charges 153,147 

Total, including real estate $2,580,289 

Operating Record. The following operating statistics are aver- 
ages taken for 13 months from Nov. 1910 to Dec. 1911. 

Total consumption 19,998,000 cu. ft. 

Cost in holder per M cu. ft $0.3722 

Distribution cost per M cu. ft 0.0884 

General expense, including taxes per M cu. ft 0.2798 

Total operating expense per M cu. ft $0.7404 

Comparison of Calorific Values, Coal and Water Gases. The only 
logical way to present the comparative cost so that it appears in 
its true light is to show the cost per unit of calorific power derived. 
Under present conditions about 48% of the total gas manufactured 
is coal gas, having a calorific energy of approximately 550 B.t.u. ; 
while the remaining 52 per cent, is water gas, having a calorific 
energy of approximately 660 B.t.u., or 20% greater than that 
possessed by coal gas. By using these figures in connection with 
average costs of generating coal and water gas it is seen that the 
cost of coal gas per 100 B.t.u. is 4.95 cts., while the cost of water 
gas of similar calorific power is 5.05 cts.' 



GAS PLANTS 1193 

TABLE III. COMPARATIVE COST OF COAL. GAS AND WATER 

GAS 

COAL GAS 

Monthly average 
Item cost per M cu ft. 

manufactured 

Operating- labor $0.1041 

Coal carbonized = . . . . 0.3444 

Bench fuel 0.1386 

Steam 0.0166 

Purifying material 0.0010 

Miscellaneous supplies 0.0064 

Maintenance land and buildings 0.0017 

Maintenance of apparatus 0.0108 

Oil, waste and power 0.0020 

Gross total $0.6331 

Residuals, sold (credit) 0.3606 

Net total $0.2725 

WATER GAS 

Operating labor $0.0397 

Oil 0.1413 

Coke 0.0957 

Steam 0.0497 

Purifying material O.OOll 

Miscellaneous supplies 0.0064 

Maintenance land and buildings 0.0016 

Maintenance of apparatus 0.0115 

Oil, waste and power 0.0019 

Gross total $0.3491 

Residuals sold (credit) 0.0165 

Net total $0.3326 

The result is slightly in favor of coal gas ; but the calorific power 
of coal gas is too low for commercial purposes, and is dependent 
upon the water gas to enrich it to a commercial basis. As the 
calorific power of the water gas can be easily regulated by changing 
the amount of oil used in carburetting it, while that of the coal gas 
is determined by the quality of the coal used, it can readily be 
seen why the former is manufactured. 

Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 25,000. The following 
data are abstracted from our appraisal report of a public utility 

TABLE IV. GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ESTIMATED COST 
OP REPRODUCTION OF PROPERTY 

1. Gas making machinery $ 85,612 

2. Distributing mains (45 miles) 94,637 

3. Services 37,388 

4. Meters 25,1 62 

5. Buildings 5,677 

6. Electric wiring at plant 103 

7. Tools and in.struments . . ., , 1,862 

8. Horses and vehicles 250 

9. Furniture and fixtures 714 

10. Miscellaneous equipment and apparatus 200 

Total $251,605 



1194 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

11. Engineering 5% of items 1 to 10 inc $ 12,580 

12. Business management 5% of items 1 to 10 inc 12,580 

$276,765 

13. Legal expense, 11/0% of items 1 to 12 inc $ 4,151 

$280,916 

14. Interest during construction, 5% of items 1 to 13, inc.. .$ 14,046 

$294,962 

15. Contingencies, 5% of items 1 to 14 inc $ 14,748 

$309,710 

16. Broker fees, 5% of items 1 to 15 inc $ 15,486 

$325,196 

17. Stores and supplies $ 17,622 

18. Working cash capital 10,182 

$353,000 

19. Operative real estate $ 8,700 

20. Legal expense, interest during construction and broker- 

age fees, 12% of item 20 1,044 

$362,744 

21. Non-operating real estate $ 2,225 

Total cost as of June 30, 1911 $364,969 

Note : The costs used in this appraisal are based on prices pre- 
vailing previous to the World War. 

property which included this gas plant, which supplied 2139 cus- 
tomers, in a western city of 25,000 population, with 37,544,000 cu. 
ft. annually. 

The following table gives weights and prices of certain of the gas 
plant equipment included in the appraisal. 

Weight, lbs. Price 

1 4 ft. Lowe water gas set 31,000 $ 3,800 

1 150 M cu. ft. gas holder 300,000 19,750 

1 #3 exhaui^ter, engine and by-pass, consisting 
of inlet and outlet valves, automatic by- 
pass valve and connections for same 3,200 638 

1 #3 P. & A. tar extractor, with by-pass, con.sist- 

ing of three valves and necessary connec- 
tions 2,800 440 

2 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 11 ft. 6 in. purifiers with 

12 in. duplex valve 74,000 5,700 

1 66 in. station meter and by-pass consisting of 

three valves and necessary fittings 9,170 1,300 

1 3 ft bv 11 ft. condenser ; 3,660 250 

1 3 ft. -4 in. bv 14 in. condenser 5,700 415 

1 wa.sher 30 ins. by 42 ins. by 28 ins 4,800 325 

1 scrubber 3 ft. -4 ins. by 21 ft 4,300 270 

1 scrubber 4 ft by IS ft. by 8~ ins 4,800 297 

1 purifier 8 ft. by 10 ft. by 3 V. ft 12,500 790 

1 oil heater 600 90 

1 % in. oil meter •. . . 310 90 

1 12 in. Connelly governor 850 480 

1 42.000 cu. ft. gas holder 130,000 8,200 

1 #5 blower for water gas set 550 98 



GAS PLANTS 1195 

TABLE V. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION 
OF PROPERTY 

1. GAS MAKING MACHINERY 

Benches. 

1 Coal gas bench, half depth, Parker-Russell type con- 

sisting of six retorts whose safe daily capacity is 

40,000 cu. ft., estimated $3,500.00 

2 Coal gas benches of the Parker-Russell type consist- 

ing of six retorts each. Contract price 5,826,00 

Extra work on benches 838.25 



Total cost of benches $6,664.25 

Water Gas Set. 

1 4 ft. Lowe double superheater apparatus. This con- 
sists of 1 generator, 1 carburettor and 1 scrubber, 
and has a safe daily capacity of 100,000 cu. ft $8,904.40 

Additional improvements on water gas set 986.23 

$9,890.63 
Primary Condenser. 

This is a 5 ft. diameter by 19 ft. high combination air 
and water primary condenser. This contract also 
called for a few other changes to be made to the 
plant including a 9 ft. 6-in. addition to be made to 
one scrubber and the installation of some 10 in. pip- 
ing, also six 3-in. sight " U " overflows and a 24 in. 
by 36 in. drain tank. Contract price $2,716.00 

Additional cost to company 193.44 

$2,909.44 
Coal Gas Condensers. 

1 Coal gas condenser. 3 ft. diameter by 11 ft. high. 

Cost of condenser $250.00 

Installation 25.00 



$275.00 
1 Coal gas wrought iron condenser 3 ft. 4 ins. diameter 

by 14 ft. high. Co.st of condenser $415.00 

Installation 41.50 

$456.50 
Coal Gas Scrubbers. 

1 Coal gas wrought iron scrubber 4 ft. diameter by 18 

ft. 8 ins. Cost of scrubber $297.00 

Installation 53.00 

$350.00 
1 Coal gas wrought iron scrubber 3 ft. 4 ins. diameter 

by 21 ft. high $300.00 

Chollar Washer. 

1 Chollar washer 2 ft. 6 ins. by 3 ft. 6 ins. by 2 ft. 4 ins. $350.00 

Exhauster. 

1 P. H. & F. M. Root's exhauster size 3. The cost of 
the exhauster is included with 150,000 cu. ft. gas 
holder. 

1 P. H. & F. M. Root's exhauster Size 4. Cost of ex- 
hauster • $ 723.00 

Materials 288.52 

Labor 92.89 

$1,104.41 



1106 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Tar Extractor. 

1 P. & A. tar extractor — 250,000 cu. ft. capacity, No. 3. 
The cost of the extractor is included with 150,000 
cu. ft. gas holder. 

Purifier. 

1 Small wet seal purifier, 8 ft. by 10 ft. by 3% ft. with 

a capacity of 60,000 cu. ft., (estimated) installed. . |1,000.00 

2 Duplex purifiers 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 11 ft. 6 ins., with 

dry seal covers, beams, columns, oxide elevators, 

duplex operating valve, 12 in. connections, overhead 

• twift and two layers of trays and dumping spouts. 

Contract price , $5,758.00 

Extra charges * , 3,493.49 



$9,251.49 

Station Meters. 

1 American Meter Co.'s 4 ft. by 4 ft. Standard Meter, ca- 
pacity 90,000 cu. ft., f.o.b. Philadelphia $575.00 

Freight and installation 100.00 



$675.00 



1 Meter 66 in. with a commercial capacity of 311,000 cu. 
ft. The price of this is included under the cost of 
the purifiers. 

Gas Holders. 

1 Gas holder, 42,000 cu. ft. The holder and tank are 
used for a stoarge unit for water gas, (estimated) 
installed $12,000 

1 Gas holder. 150,000 cu. ft., together with other appa- 
ratus. Contract price $21,954.00 

Miscellaneous charges 5,600.69 

$27,554.69 
1 Boiler, 30 h.p. horizontal tubular, used for generating 

steam for the water gas plant $350.00 

1 Boiler, 6 h.p. upright 150.00 

1 Duplex steam pump, 3 in, by 2 in. by 4 in. Cost. . , . 33.50 

Installation 6.50 

$40.00 
1 Duplex steam pump, 4^/^ ins. by 2% ins. by 4 ins. 

Cost $51.00 

Installation 9.00 

$60.00 

1 Duplex steam pump 3V> ins. by 2^^ ins. by 3 ins. Cost $47.50 

Installation 7.50 

$55.00 
1 Ammoniacal liquor concentrator, capacity for concen- 
trating liquor, resultant from ammoniacal carbon- 
ization of 20,000 tons of coal. Total charge $2,245.22 

1 Oil heater (estimated) installed $110.00 

1 No. 5 Buffalo blower driven by 8-h.p. Erie engine. 

Price $266.00 

Installation, etc 1 8.00 

$284.00 

* These extra charges include cost of improvements to Chollar 
washer and old purifier, also installation of station meter. The 
price of the station meter itself f.o.b. plant was $1,400. 



GAS PLANTS 1197 

1 Tar well 10 ft. by 12 ft. by 9 ft., built of 2-in. 

plank. 

Excavation 40 cu. yds. at $0.50 $20.00 

Material 25.00 

Labor 2.00 

$47.00 

2 Bri.stol recording- gauges $ 80.00 

1 Fairbank.s-Morse 6 h.p. gas engines 340.00 

1 10 h.p.-G. E. motor. Price motor 170.00 

Miscellaneou.s 37.39 

$207.39 

1 No. 6 Sturtevant gas booster $550.00 

Installation 88.92 

$638.92 
1 Oil tank. 10,000 gals $350.00 

3 Bristol pressure gauge, not installed $105.00 

Piping and Covering. 

Pipe line, water gas machine to holder, 71 ft. 6 Ins., 
8 in. riveted pipe at 7 lbs. per foot, 500.5 lbs., 501 

lbs. at $0.06 ; $30.06 

7, 8 in. ca.st iron elbows at $5.53 38.71 

Labor erection 21.00 

$89.77 
Pipe line, water gas holder to exhauster. 75 ft. 6 in. 

wrought iron pipe at $0,611 $45.83 

4, 6 in. fittings at $0.85 . , ." .S.40 

Labor erection . , 25.00 

$74.23 
Steam pipe. 

165 ft. 1V> in. pipe at $0.765 $12.62 

125 ft. 1 in. pipe at $0.0639 7.99 

140 ft. 1^/2 in. covering, $0.15 21.00 

Fittings r estimated) , , . , 10.00 

Labor 35 00 

$86.61 
Water pipe. 

175 ft. 2 in. pipe at $0,118 $20 65 

Fittings ("estimated) 1.50 

Labor 5 00 

$27.15 
Railing about condensers. 

87 ft. 114 in. pipe at $0.0639 $5 56 

20, 1^4 in. railing fittings at $0.14 2.80 

Labor 3.00 

$11.36 
Railing about purifiers. 

60 ft. 1 in. pipe at $0.06 $3.60 

15, 1 in. fittings at $0.10 1.50 

Labor 2.00 

$7.10 
Pipe from coal shed to oil tank. 

145 ft.. 3 in. pipe at $0,245 $.35.53 

Miscellaneous material 18.79 

Labor 10 86 

$65.18 



1198 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Ammonia pipe from tank to side track. 

150 ft. 2 in. pipe at $0,147 $21.75 

Fittings 0.99 

Labor 8.30 



Steam and water-line to ash pans of benches, total .... 

Water line. 

2 in. pipe from storage tank to works, 170 ft. 2 in. 

pipe at $0,145 

Miscellaneous material 

Labor 

Circulating pump to ammonia still. 

62 ft. 1 V4. in. pipe 

Miscellaneous material 

Labor 



Water Tank. 

The old purifiers erected near the Sub-Station and 
connected to the works by a 1-in. pipe. Tanks 
measure 7 ft by 7 ft. by 1 ft. 5 ins., built of 14 -in. 

metal. Total weight 2,730 lbs., at $0.03 

Erection and pipe line installation 



$31,04 
11.49 



$24.65 

4.11 

11.55 



$40.31 

$4.50 
0.71 
5.94 



$11.15 



$81.90 
35.55 



$117.45 

Miscellaneous small piping not detailed (estimated) . . ,$100.00 

Main from station meter to large holder. 

230 ft. 10-in. pipe at $1.22 $270.60 

1 10-in. by 6 in. reducer 5.40 

1 10-in. Ell double hub 9.00 

1 10-in. drip 5.00 

2 10-in. 45 degree bends 12.06 

Labor 90.00 

$392.06 
Main from Governor to Elk Street. 

105 ft. 12-in. pipe at $1.56 $163.80 

1 12-in. tee at $8.88 8.88 

2 12-in. to 8-in. reducers, at $8.00 16.00 

2 8-in. valves at $20,69 41.38 

Labor 30.00 

$260.06 
Main from Booster to Elk Street. 

50 ft., 8-in. pipe at $0.87 $43.50 

217 ft, 6-in. pipe at $0,60 130.20 

1 8-in. by 6-in. by 6-in. tee 3.45 

2 6-in. valves at $11.29 22.58 

Labor 35.00 

$234.73 

12-in. Connolly governor, price f.o.b. plant $480.00 

Installation (estimated) 50.00 

$530.00 

%-in. oil meter, price f.o.b. plant $90.00 

Installation (estimated) . 10.00 

$100.00 
#5 blower for water gas set, price f.o.b. plant, not in- 
stalled $98.00 

Pumps : 1 Wagner 3 in. by 2 in. by 3 in. ; 1 Snow 3 

in. by 2 in. by 3 in., estimated $50.00 



GAS PLANTS 1199 

Ammonia liquor well, 4 ft. by 12 ft. by 9 ins., built of 
3 in. lumber 

Excavation 16 cu. yds. at $1.00 $16.00 

Lumber 1,158 ft. b.m. at $25.00 per M 30.00 

$46.00 

Pressure gauge board (estimated) $12.00 

Oxide in purifiers, estimated 4,160 bushels at $0.45 $1,872.00 

Total gas making machinery $85,611.63 

2. DISTRIBUTING MAINS 

1-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 

Material. 3998 lin. ft. pipe at $0.0639 $255.47 

Fittings, 3998 lin. ft., at $0,003 11.99 

Total material $267.46 

Labor, excavation and refill, 3998 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. by 

2.5 ft.), 370 cu. yds. at $0.75 $277.50 

Drayage, 4 tons at 1.5 miles, 6 ton-miles, 6 ton miles at 

$0.40 2.40 

Laying pipe, 3998 lin. ft. at $0.03 119.94 

Painting pipe, 3998 lin. ft. at $0.00112 4.48 

Total labor $404.32 

Total 1 in. pipe $671.78 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft .' $0,067 

Labor, cost per ft 0.101 

Total $0,168 

2-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 

Material, 106.861 lin. ft. pipe at $0.118 $12,609.60 

Fittings, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.0048 512.93 

Total material $13,122.53 

Labor, excavation and refill, 106,861 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. 

by 2.5 ft.). 9895 cu. yds. at $0.75 $7,421.25 

Drayage, 214 tons at 1.5 miles — 321 ton miles. 321 ton 

miles at $0.40 128.40 

Laying pipe, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.03 3,205.83 

Painting pipe, 106,861 lin. ft. at $0.00142 151.74 

Total labor . , $10,907.22 

Total 2-in. pipe $24,029.75 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0,123 

Labor, cost per ft 0.102 

Total $0,225 

3-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 

Material, 54,999 lin. ft. pipe at $0.2673 $14,701.23 

Fittings, 54,999 lin. ft. at $0.0047 258.50 

Total material $14,959.73 

Labor, excavation and refill, 54,999 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. by 

2.5 ft.), 5093 cu. yds. at $0.75 $3,819.75 

Drayage, 220 tons at 1.5 miles — 330 ton mile.s, 330 ton 

miles at $0.40 132.00 



1200 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Laying pipe, 54.999 lin. ft. at $0,065 3,574.94 

Painting pipe, 54,999 lin. ft, at $0.00172 94.20 



Total labor $7,620. 



Total 3-in. pipe $22,580.62 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0,272 

Labor, cost per ft 0.139 

Total $0,411 

4-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 

Material, 45,445 lin. ft. pipe at $0.3355 $15,246.80 

Fittings 45,445 lin. ft. at $0.0067 304.49 



Total material $15,551.29 

Labor, excavation and refill, 45,445 lin. ft. trench (1 ft. 

by 2.5 ft.), 4208 cu. yds. at $0.75 $3,156.00 

Drayage, 250 tons at 1.5 miles, 375 ton miles, 375 ton miles 

at $0.40 150.00 

Laying pipe, 45.445 lin. ff at $0.08 3,635.60 

Painting pipe, 45,445 lin. ft. at $0.00191 86.80 



Total labor $7,028.40 



Total 4-in. pipe $22,579.69 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0,342 

Labor, cost per ft 0.154 

Total $0,496 

6-in. Cast Iron Pipe. 
Material, 6305 lin. ft. pipe at 30 lbs. per ft., 189,150 lbs. at 

$40.00 per ton . $3,783.00 

Lead, 526 joint at 8 lbs. per joint, 4208 lbs., at $0.0525 

per lb 220.92 

Oakum. 526 joints at 9/16 lbs. per joint, 300 lbs. at 

$0.09 27.00 

Total material $4,030.92 

Labor, excavation and refill, 6,305 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. by 

2.5 ft.), 1,168 cu. yds. at $0.75 $876.00 

Bell holes, 526 at $0.08 42.08 

Drayage, 189,150 lbs. pipe 
4,208 " lead 
300 " oakum 

193,658 " 97 tons at 1.5 miles — 146 ton 

miles, 146 ton miles at $0.40.. 58.40 

Laying pipe, 6305 lin ft. at $0.03 189.15 

Painting pipe, 6305 lin. ft. at $0.00231 14.56 

Total labor $1,180.19 

Total 6-in. C. L pipe $5,211.11 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0.64 

Labor, cost per ft 0.186 

Total $0,826 



GAS PLANTS 1201 

6-in. Wrought Iron Pipe. 

Material, 6000 lin. ft. pipe at $0,611 $3,666.00 

Fittings for 6000 lin. ft. at $0.0712 427.20 



Total material $4,093.20 

Labor, excavation and refill, 6000 lin. ft. trench (1.5 ft., 

by 2.5 ft.), 944 cu. yds. at $0.75 $708.00 

Dray age, 57 tons at 1.5 miles — 86 ton miles, 86 ton 

miles at $0.40 34.40 

Laying pipe, 6000 lin. ft. at $0.06 360.00 

Painting pipe, 6000 lin. ft. at $0.00231 1'3.86 



Total labor $1,116.26 



Total 6-in. W. L pipe $5,209.46 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0,682 

Labor, cost per ft 0.186 

Total $0,868 

8-in. Cast Iron Pipe. 
Material, 5353 lin. ft. pipe at $0.40 lbs. per ft., 214,120 lbs. 

at $40.00 per ton $4,282.40 

Lead, 447 joints at 11 lbs. per joint, 4917 lbs. at 

$0.0525 per lb 258.14 

Oakum, 447 joints at 11/16 lbs. per joint 307 lbs. at 

$0.09 per lb 27.63 

Total material $4,568.17 

Labor, excavation and refill, 5353 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. by 

3 ft.), 1227 cu. yds. at $0.75 $920.25 

Drayage, 214,120 lbs. pipe 
4,917 " lead 
307 " oakum 

219,344 " 110 tons at 1.5 miles — 165 ton 

miles, 165 ton miles at $0.40. . 66.00 

Bell holes, 447 at $0.08 35.76 

Laying pipe. 5353 lin. ft. at $0.03 160.59 

Painting pipe, 5353 lin. ft. at $0.00269 14.40 

Total labor $1,197.00 

Total 8-in. C. L pipe $5,765.17 

Unit Costs. 

Materia], cost per ft $0,853 

Labor, cost per ft 0.224 

Total $1,077 

Note : Fittings are listed separately. 

8-in. Converse Lock Joint Pipe. 

Material, 8784 lin. ft. pipe at $0,675 $5,929.20 

Lead, 550 joints at 8 lbs. per joint, 4400 lbs. at $0.0525 

per lb 231.00 

Oakum, 550 joints at % lbs. per joint, 357 lbs., at 

$0.09 32.13 

Total material $6,192.33 

Labor, excavation and refill, 8784 lin. ft. trench (2 ft. 

by 3 ft), 1952 cu. yds. at $0.75 $1,464.00 



1202 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Dray age, 125,699 lbs. pipe 
4,400 " lead 
357 " oakum 



130,456 " — 65 tons at 1.5 mile — 98 ton 

miles, 98 ton miles at $0.40. $39.20 

Bell holes, 550 9,t $0.08 45.00 

Laying pipe, 8784 lin. ft. at $0.03 263.52 

Painting pipe, 8784 lin. ft. at $0.00269 23.63 

Total labor $1,835.00 

Total C. L. J. pipe $8,027.68 

Unit Costs. 

Material, cost per ft $0,716 

Labor, cost per ft 0.198 

Total $0,914 

Note : Fittings are listed separately. 

"Valves. 

3 6-in. valves at $16.29 $48.87 

3 4-in. valves at 10.53 31.59 

4 3-in. valves at $6.00 24.00 

3 2-in. valves at 3.00 9.00 

Total $113.46 

Fittings. 

32 8-in. crosses at $5.80 $185.60 

20 6-in. crosses at 4.00 80.00 

8 8-in. plugs at 1.50 12.00 

5 6-in. plugs at 1.00 5.0a 

2048 lbs. lead at $0,525 107.62 

133 lbs. oakum at $0.09 . ." 11.97 

Drayage 10.00 

Labor 35.00 

Total $447.19 

Total valves and fittings $560.65 

3. SERVICE CONNECTIONS. 

8,584 lin. ft. %-in. 

198,209 lin. ft. 1-in. 

17,280 lin. ft. 1%-in. 

3,628 lin. ft. iy2-in. 

3029 Connections, 227,761 lin. ft. 

227,761 lin. ft. at $0.16 $36,441.76 

Painting 227,761 lin. .ft. at $0.00112 225.09 

$36,696.85 
42 Connections. 2688 lin. ft., 2-in. 

2688 lin. ft. at $0.23 $618.24 

Painting 2688 lin. ft. at $0.00142 3.82 

$622.06 
1 Connections, 135 lin. ft. 4 ins. 

135 lin. ft. at $0.51 $68.85 

Painting 135 lin. ft. at $0,00191 0.26 

$69.11 
Total service connections $37,388.02 



GAS PLANTS 



1203 



880 

42 

426 

140 

4 

7 

433 

123 

461 

42 

31 

6 

12 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 



4. METERS. 

3 Lt. Prepayment at $10.45 $9,196.00 

3 " " " 8.70 365.40 

5 " " " 12.22 5,265.72 

5 " " " 10.4? 1,088.80 

10 " " " 14.05 56.20 

10 " '• " 12.05 84.35 

3 Lt. Plain at $6.87 $2,974.71 

3 " " " 5.12 629.76 

5 " " " 8.25 3,803.25 

f " " " 6.50 273.00 

10 " " " 10 53 326.43 

10 " " " 8.53 51.18 

20 " " " 15.00 180.00 

20 " " " 12.00 ■ 24.00 

60 '• " 55.00 

60 " " 50.00 

100 " " 63.95 

150 " " . 95.00 

200 " " 117.00 

200 " ". 112 00 

300 " " "205.00 410.00 

Total meters $25,161.75 



5. BUILDINGS. 

Coal Shed. 

This is a one-story frame building measuring about 70 
ft. by 25 ft. by 25 ft high. There is also an ad- 
dition about 70 ft. by 17 ft. These buildings are 
frame, covered with corrugated iron. 

Clearing site, grading, etc $300.00 

8,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per square . . 536.00 

14,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 per M 350.00 

Incidentals 100.00 

Total $1,286.00 

Old Retort House. 

This is a brick building with iron truss roof which is 
covered with corrugated iron. The general dimen- 
sions are 40 ft. by 40 ft. by 25 ft. The walls are 
12 ins. thick. 

Grading, clearing, etc $50.00 

60,000 brick at $12.00 per M 720.00 

1400 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq 94.00 

Pipe trusses 60.00 

Incidentals 50.00 

Total $974.00 

New Retort House. 

This is a frame building covered with cori-ugated iron. 
The East wall is of rubble masonry, while the South 
wall is formed by the old retort house. The gen- 
eral dimensions are 50 ft. by 30 ft. by 26 ft. 

Grading, etc $200.00 

Rubble wall, 56 cu. yds. at $5.00 280.00 

4,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 268.00 

10,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 250.00 

Floor, etc 75.00 

Incidentals 75.00 

Total $1,148.00 



1204 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Purifying House. 

This is a one-story frame building covered with corru- 
gated iron and measures 65 ft. by 30 ft. 

Clearing site, grading, etc $250.00 

5,000 ft b. m. lumber at $25.00 . . . , 125.00 

5,5U0 .sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 369.00 

3.800 brick at $12.00 456.00 

Meter room 25.00 

Incidentals 75.00 

Floor 30.00 

Total $1,330.00 

Oxide Platforms. 

There are 2 oxide platforms placed one over the 
other. The uppei one is frame covered with corru- 
gated iron. The floor of this one partially forming 
the roof of the lower one, which is about 40 ft. 
longer than the upper one. General dimensions 
of upper platform are 45 ft. by 14 ft. 

630 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 $42.00 

1,500 ft. B. M. lumber at $25.00 38.00 

Incidentals 10.00 

Lower platform 60.00 

Total $150.00 

Boiler Room. 

This measures 12 ft. by 10 ft. by 8 ft. Three sides and 
the roof are covered with corrugated iron. The 
other side being formed by the new retort house. 

400 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $27.00 

Lumber 5.00 

Total $32.00 

Coke Shed. 

This is a frame building open at the sides, the loof 
being covered with corrugated iron.. The general 
dimensions being 50 ft. by 33 ft. 

2,000 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $134.00 

6,000 ft. b. m. lumber at $25.00 ■. 150.00 

Total $284.00 

Oil House. 

This is a frame biulding measuring 6 ft. by 6 ft. 

Estimated $12.00 

Bunk House. 

This is a frame building measuring 24 ft. by 15 ft. and 
contains 360 sq. ft. of floor area. 
Cost at $0.50 sq. ft $180.00 

Coal Shed. 

This measures about 12 ft. by 10 ft. and is open at the 
front. 
Cost $10.00 

Governor House. 

This is a frame building covered with corrugated iron 
and measured 16 6 ft. by 14.6 ft. 

700 sq. ft. corrugated iron at $6.70 per sq $47.00 

.Lumber 10.00 

Total " ;. $57.00 



GAS PLANTS 1205 

Booster House. 

This is a frame building covered with corrugated iron, 
it measures 13 ft. by 20 ft. One side of this is 
formed by the 150,000 cu. ft. gas holder, the other 
partially by the governor house. 
Estimated cost $25.00 

Fence. 

378 lineal feet of board fence, 6 ft. high at $0.50 

per lin. ft $189.00 

Total buildings $5,677.00 

Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of 15,000. The following 
is abstracted from one of our appraisal reports of a western Power, 
Light and Water Co. and is for the "Gas Department." This de- 
partment furnishes gas for domestic and lighting use to about 1,300 
customers in two adjoining cities, having a combined population of 
15,000. The system consists of an oil gas generating plant of 
100,000 cu. ft. daily capacity, and 25.6 miles of mains. 

During 1911 the company distributed 21,898,000 cu. ft. of gas. 

Process of Manufacturing Oil Gas. The process of making fuel 
and illuminating gas from crude oil consists in spraying the oil 
over the highly heated checkerbrick interior of brick-lined steel 
generators, much resembling those used in the manufacture of 
water gas. 

The gas is manufactured from absolutely crude oil from the 
Baker.sfield, California, district. The oil now used has a specific 
gravity of 16° to 17° Baume. A distillation test of a 15° oil used 
in 1908 gave the following results. 

Below 150° F 6.133% 

150' to 300° F 70.111% 

Re.sidue 23,756% 

No distillation above 270°. 

An analysis of a 15.8° Baume oil (similar to that used) at one of 
the San Francisco plants in 1908 gave the following results. 

Carbon 85.0% 

Nitrogen 1.0% 

Sulphur 0.8% 

Oxvgen 1.0% 

Hydrogen 12.2% 

If the oil contains less than 1% of sulphur, it is very easily purified 
in oxide purifiers. If above 1%, a large purifying capacity must 
be provided. Nearly all of the California oils contain a low per- 
centage of sulphur. The iron oxide used as purifier by the Com- 
pany is made from copperas and lime. Some iron borings are used, 
but only when they can be obtained cheaply. 

In making a run the interior of the generator is heated by an 
oil flame under a blast to a temperature of 2300° to 2800° F. 
This takes from 8 to 12 minutes if the generators have not been 
allowed to cool. The stack valve is then closed, the air cut off 
and the oil turned onto the hot brick. This part of the operation 



1206 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

lasts from 10 to 20 minutes or until the generator becomes too 
cool for making further gas. Enough steam is admitted to carry- 
in the oil and to atomize it. Near the end of the run the oil is 
cut off and steam at boiler pressure admitted for from 1 to 2 
minutes to purge the generator. 

The generators usually consist of cylindrical steel shells 6 ft, to 
16 ft. in diameter and 20 ft. to 40 ft. high. In some cases the 
generators are in two parts, connected at the bottom in the form 
of a U. One called the primary to which the blast and oil burners 
are connected at the top is about .5 as high as the other. This 
does away with the necessity of arches over the combustion cham- 
bers and thus lengthens the life of the fire brick interior. 

From the generators the gas is passed through washers, scrubbers 
and purifiers, much as coal or water gas is handled, except that no 
condensers are used as the only impurities to be removed are sul- 
phureted hydrogen and lampblack. 

The sulphureted hydrogen is taken out by oxide purifiers and 
the lampblack is washed out in the washers and scrubbers, 
separated from the water in settling tanks, known as lampblack 
boxes, and used generally as boiler fuel. In some cases the lamp- 
black is used as fuel in water-gas generators. 

The gas produced has the same properties and constituents as 
good coal-gas. 

Description of Plant. The gas system consists of an oil generat- 
ing plant of 100,000 cu. ft. daily capacity, 25.55 miles of high pres- 
sure mains, and 1,686 service connections, 1,277 of which were 
in use. 

The generating plant occupies 26,250 sq. ft. of ground. There 
are two generators with a combined daily capacity of 500,000 cu, ft. 
No. 1 is a 300,000 cu, ft. machine, 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 21 Zt., originally 
of the well known " Lowe " type, but remodeled. No, 2 is a 200,000 
cu. ft. cylindrical machine, an old scrubber purchased from the 
San Francisco Gas and Electric Co. being used as the shell. There 
is a small wash box for each generator. One scrubber of 200,000 
cu. ft. daily capacity serves both generators. A single lift, steel 
holder, set in a wooden tank, receives the gas from the scrubber. 
Its capacity is 20,000 cu. ft. There are two purifiers consisting of 
wooden tanks with steel covers and water seals. Gas is stored 
under a pressure of about 60 lbs. per sq. in. in four steel tanks, hav- 
ing a total capacity of 1,831 cu ft. 

The plant is equipped with two boilers, aggregating 120 h.p,, a 
110,000 gal. wooden oil tank, and a lampblack separator. 

A 12 in. by 12 in. motor driven compressor is used for forcing 
the gas into the high pressure storage tanks. There is a separate 
blower for each generator, both of which may be driven from the 
same engine. A motor is also arranged to be belted to either 
blower. A spare engine-driven compressor has been installed. 
Provision is thus made for complete operation, by either electricity 
or steam. Piping, pumps, meters, etc., are provided for the proper 
handling of the oil and steam. 

There is no station gas-meter. 



GAS PLANTS 1207 

The gas mains are laid with an average cover of 2 ft. 9 ins. A 
3 ft. by 1 ft.-6 in. trench is excavated for laying mains. The largest 
main is 3 ins. in diameter, the small size being made possible by 
the high pressure (5 to 10 lbs. per sq. in.) maintained for distribu- 
tion. This pressure is controlled by governors at the storage tanks 
Before being laid, the pipe is carefully cleaned, tested, painted with 
two coats of red lead, and fitted with recessed couplings. 

At all times there are a considerable number of services not in 
use. To reduce the pressure to a proper working value a regulator 
is installed at each customer's premises. The pressure is varied 
according to conditions and the appliances used, the range being 
from 3 to 8 ins. of water — generally about 4 in-is. While most of 
the meters are of the ordinary plain recording type, there are a 
large number of prepay meters, these being preferred by many 
customers on account of the fact that they are conducive to economy 
in the use of, gas. 

Plant Capacity. The following tables give in condensed form 
data as to the extent and capacity of the Gas System. 

Capacity of Gas Plant Equipment June SO, 1912: 

Item Total capacity 

2 Generators 500,000 cu, ft. daily. 

1 Scrubber 200,000 " " 

2 Purifiers 100,000 " " 

2 Compressers 500,000 " " 

1 Holder 20,000 " " 

2 Boilers 120 h.p. 

2 Engines 55 h.p. 

2 Motors 60 h.p. 

Gas Plant Distribution System Data June SO^ 1912: 

Item Number 

Gas mains 25.6 miles 

Plain gas meters , 1,277 

Prepay gas meters 384 

Pressure regulators 1,277 

Gas services 1,686 

Gas customers 1,277 

Gas ranges connected 760 

Water heaters connected 174 

Gas arcs connected 22 

Operating Data. The gas companies are required by the State 
Public Service Commission to provide gas of a calorific power of 
550 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 

Following are the results of tAvo analyses of the gas. 

CO2 O C:,H, CO CHi H N 
Analysis #1, Nov. 1911... 3% 2% 7.8% 7.6% 22%. 52.1% 2.9% 
Analysis #2, Dec. 1911... 3.2% 1.1% 9.7% 7.7% 20.3% 52.4% 4.9% 

The company attempts to maintain an illuminating quality of 19 
candlepower. No tests of this are made as it is of little importance 
in the use of gas in modern appliances. 

To show as nearly as possible from data obtainable, details of 
the operating conditions, use of gas, cost of operating, revenue, 
and earnings of the gas system as now operated, the following 



1208 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

tables have been prepared. The data were taken from the com- 
pany's monthly operating and financial reports. 

TABLE VI. OPERATING DATA 

One year 

Jan. 1, 1911, 

to Dec. 31, 1911 

Total eas manufactured (not metered) cu. ft , .29,784,900 

Total gas consumed, cu. ft 21,898,000 

Losses, per cent, of amount manufactured 26.4% 

Pounds of oil carbonized 2,418,193 

Gas manufactured per lb. of oil, cu. ft. . . . ; 12.23 

Candle feet per pound of oil 234 

B.t.u. per cu. ft. fif gas 562* 

B.t.u. per lb. of oil 6,873 

Pounds of oil per gallon 7.88 

Total hours retort operation 3,373 

Total hours labor making gas 13,441 

Gas made per man per day, cu. ft 26.853 

Pounds of lampblack u.sed as fuel 734,625 

Pounds of oil used as fuel 104,359 

♦.November, 1911. to May, 1912. 



TABLE VII. FINANCIAL DATA 

EXPENSES 

Cost for one year 

Jan. 1, 1911, to 

Dec. 31, 1911 

COST OF MANUFACTURE. 

Operating : 

Generator fuel $ 2,586 

Boiler fuel 412 

Oil at $1.33 per bbl. of 42 gals 7,158 

Purification supplies 317 

Water 420 

Expense works , 625 

Manufacturing labor 3,547 

Purification labor 64 

Electric current at %c. per kw.-h 80 

$15,210 
Maintenance : 

Gas apparatus $ 1,220 

Steam plant 244 

Buildings 221 

$1,685 

COST OF DISTRIBUTION. 

Operating: 

Office expense , $ 43 

Complaint expense 585 

Setting and removing meters 2,177 

Electric current 361 

$3,166 
Maintenance : 

Mains $ 772 

Services 1,607 

Meters 766 

$3,145 



GAS PLANTS 1209 

Cost for one year 
Jan. 1, 1911, to 

COMMERCIAL EXPENSES. Dec. 31, 1911 

Collection $ 506 

Office 936 

Office salaries 1,502 

$2,944 

GfiNBRAL EXPENSES. 

Accidents and damages $ 3 

General expense 1,118 

Insurance 132 

General salaries 1,361 

$2,554 
NEW BUSINESS. 

Advertising $ 1,084 

Soliciting 880 

Gas appliances 900 

House fitting 161 

$3,025 
Total all expenses $31,729 

Maintenance. The gas plant has not been in operation long 
enough to require a very great outlay for maintenance, except the 
replacing of the burned out fire brick in the generators. 

It is necessary to do this about once a year and the cost runs 
from $150 to $250 per generator. 

The total outlay for maintenance was in 1910 $3,082 and in 1911 
$4,830. The entire system is being maintained in good operating 
condition. 

Efficiency and Adequacy of Plant. The gas generating plant is 
quite efficient and is economically handled. During the year 1911 
the average production of gas was 12.23 cu. ft. per lb. of oil. The 
results of several runs made on a San Franci.sco plant with the 
most modern equipment and under the best conditions give an 
average of only 15.1 cu. ft. per lb. of oil. 

Previous to June of 1911 the losses on the gas system were very 
large as it is difficult to prevent leakage on a high pressure system. 
At that time a determined effort was made to reduce the losses 
by making a careful inspection of services, meters,, tank.s, etc., and 
stopping all leaks di.scovered. The losses at once decreased. Dur- 
ing the winter of 1911 and 1912 they jumped again. However, 
when a hot water furnace which was found on the .system without 
a meter was cut off they dropped back and have averaged 12% 
since December, 1911. 

The manufacturing plant is fully adequate to supply the demand 
for some time, except that it will be necessary to increase the 
purifier capacity. A much needed improvement is an increa.se in 
the holder capacity. A 50.000 cu. ft. holder has already been pro- 
posed. This would do away with the necessity of running the 
generators more than a few hours a day and is expected to reduce 
the cost of operation of the plant. 

The company now runs free services to the customer's meter, 
in cases where large gas ranges are installed. In other cases the 



1210 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cost of making the connection is charged. This policy has been 
varied from time to time. In the beginning services were installed 
free of charge and as the company now maintains all services, 
they have been considered as the property of the company in the 
estimated cost to reproduce the plant. 

TABLE VIII. GENERAL SUMMARY OF REPRODUCTION 
COST 

1. Gas mains ' $ 50,535 

2. Gas services . 24,936 

3. Gas meters 19,007 

4. Gas plant buildings 9,380 

5. Miscellaneous buildings 293 

6. Gas making and storage equipment 30,746 

7. Shop equipment 783 

8. Tools and instruments , , 533 

9. Furniture and fixtures 317 



$136,530 

10. Engineering, 5% items 1 to 9 inclusive 6,827 

11. Business management, 5% items 1 to 9 inclusive 6,826 

$150,183 

12. Legal and general expense and taxes, li/^% items 1 

to 11 inclusive 2,253 

$152,436 

13. Interest during construction, 5% items 1 to 12 inclusive 7,622 

$160,058 

14. Contingencies, 5% items 1 to 13 inclusive 8,003 

$168,061 

15. Brokerage fees, 5% items 1 to 14 inclusive 8,4 03 

$176,464 

16. Stores and supplies 6,536 

17. Working cash capital 1,892 

18. Real estate 1.650 

19. Legal expense, interest and brokerage fees, 12% item 

18 198 

Grand total as of June 30th, 1912 $186,740 



TABLE IX. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
TION OP PROPERTY 

1. GAS MAINS 

Material : 

Wrought iron pipe, painted, 1 in., 14,625 ft. at $0,069. . .$ 1,009 
Wrought iron pipe, painted, l^A in., 36,135 ft. at $0,097 3,505 
Wrought iron pipe, painted, 2 in., 79,855 ft. at $0.157.. 12,537 
Casing, painted, 3 in., 4,310 ft. at $0.34 1,465 

$18,516 
Elbows, ties, reducing ties, crosses, reducing crosses, 

expansion joints, drips, caps, and valves 270 

$18,786 
Add 2%, omission, waste, etc. 375 

Total material $19,161 



GAS PLANTS 1211 

Labor : 

Excavation and backfill, 134,925 ft. of trench, 22,555 cu. 

yds. at $1.25 '. $28,191 

Laying 1-in. iron pipe, 14,625 ft. at $0.02 292 

Laying 1^4 -in. iron pipe, 36,135 ft. at $0.02 723 

Laying 2-in. iron pipe, 79,855 ft. at $0,025 1,996 

Laying 3-in. iron pipe, 4,310 cu. yds. at $0.04 172 



Total labor $31,374 

Total gas mains $50,535 

2. GAS SERVICE. 

Taken as all %-in, services, of itn average length of 80 ft. 
Total number of services, 1,686. 

Material : 

Iron pipe, %-in. painted recessed couplings, 134,800 ft. 

at $0.05 $6,744 

"Phillips" patent connections, 1,686 at $1.70 2,866 



Total material $ 9,610 

Labor : 

Excavation and backfill, 117,860 lin. ft. at $0.10 $11,786 

Laying and connecting pipe, 134,880 lin. ft. at $0,02 2,697 

Making service taps, 1,686 lin. ft. at $0.50 843 



Total labor $15,326 



Total gas services $24,936 

3. GAS METERS. 

Gas Meters : 

3 light plain Standarrd 974 at $ 5.10 $ 4,967 

3 " " Maryland 58 " 5.05 293 

5 " " Standard 182 " 7.10 1,292 

5 " " Maryland 23 " 5.50 127 

10 " " Standard 14 " 6.95 97 

20 " " " 7 " 12.90 '.. 90 

30 " " " 8 " 17.30 138 

45 " " '• 2 " 27.00 54 

#3 " " Sprague 9 " 10.05 90 

3 " prepay Standard 252 " 9.10 2,293 

3 " " Maryland 101 " 8.70 879 

5 " " Standard 31 " 11.10 344 



1661 $11,664 

Pressure Regulators : 

One regulator assumed for each meter in service. 
All makes and sizes at an average price. 

Pressure regulators, 1,277 at $4.75 = $ 6,066 

Installation meters with regulators, 1,277 at $1.00 .... 1,277 



$ 7,343 



Total gas meters $19,007 

4. GAS PLANT BUILDING. 

Main Gas Plant Building: 

Brick, concrete floors, corrugated iron roof, i/^ pitch. 32 
ft. 6 ins. by 87 ft. by 18 ft. high. 

Foundation — concrete, 56' cu. yds. at $8.50 $ 476 

Brick rin place), 196,126 (est.) at $24.00/M . . .. 4,708 

Concrete floors, 2,752 sq. ft. at $0.15 413 

Roof timbers (in place), 1.760 f.b.m., at $30.00/M 53 

Roof iron, 650 lbs. at $0.04 26 



1212 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Corrugated iron roofing, 3,670 sq. ft. at $0.05 $184 

Floor and stair to meter room, 2nd floor, 1,280 f.b.m., 

at $30.00/M •. 38 

Windows, 11 100 

Doors, 4 80 

Stone window ledges and door sills 65 

Addition 12 ft. by 14 ft. by 9 ft. high brick, cor. iron 

i-oof 231 



Purifier House: $6,374. 

Brick, cor. iron, pitched roof: 
Plank floor, 32 ft. by 32 ft. by 16 ft. to .eaves. 

Foundations, 20 cu. yds. at $)f.50 $ 170 

Brickwork, 65,184 brick at $24.00/M 1,564 

Plank floor, 3,000 PTB.M., at $30.00/M 90 

Roof rafters, etc., 680 F.B.M., at $30.00/M 20 

Roof corrugated iron, 1,308 sq. ft. at $0.05 65 

Door, stairs, etc 30 

Lampblack Shed: $1,939 

Frame; corrugated iron roof, 24 ft. by 28 ft. 

Area, 672 sq. ft., at $0.10 $ 67 

Lampblack boxes; 1 9^^ ft, by 64 ft. by 30 ins. — 9 com- 
partments, 1 6 ft. by 11 ft. by 4 ft. 

Planking, 3010 f.b.m., at $30.00/M 90 

Iron, 300 lbs. at $0.04 12 

Excavation, 8 ft. by 14 ft. by 5 ft.. 20 cu. yds. at 

$1.00 20 

Purifier Storage Shed: ^^^^ 

Rough shed, tar paper roof, 18 ft. by 100 ft. by 7 ft $ 441 

Concrete floor, 48 ft. by 18 ft., 864 sq. ft. at $0.15 130 

Concrete wall, 2 ft. 6 ins. by 62 ft. 32 

$603 

Hose house ; frame. 8 ft. by 10 ft $ 35 

Regulator house ; frame, 8 ft. by 10 ft 35 

Small oil tank house ; frame, 20 ft. by 4 ft 30 

Gas Shop: ^^^^ 
Rough frame building, shingle roof, 30 ft. by 20 ft. by 8 

ft. high, plank floor, 600 sq. ft., at $0.20 $ 120 

Lighting, Wiring, etc., at Plant : 

22 lights — (wiring, sockets and lamps in place) $ 40 

Lockers 15 

$55 

Total gas plant buildings $ 9,380 

5. MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS. 

Storeroom Building: 

Single story frame, plank floor, % pitch. 

Tar paper roof. Decks and shelving inside, 75 ft. by 40 

ft. by 12 ft. to eaves. 3,000 sq. ft. at $0.40 $ 1,200 

Shed on end of building 40 

Lighting, 15 drop lights (open wiring) 23 

Water piping, etc 12 

Platform 3-in. floor. 12 ft. by 45 ft, 2,700 ft. b.m., at 

$30.00 81 

5 ft. board fence, 550 ft. at $0.20 110 

$1,466 



GAS PLANTS ^ 1213 

Divided on basis of space occupied. 
2/5 to water, 
2/5 to electrical, 
1/5 to gas, 

1/5 interest in storeroom buildings $293 

Total miscellaneous buildings - $293 

6, GAS MAKING AND STORAGE EQUIPMENT. 

1 Lowe #5 crude oil gas generator (known as #1 generator), 

1 Washer, 4 ft. by 5 ft. by 3 ft. 6 ins. 

1 Scrubber, 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 18 ft. 6 ins. 

1 Gas holder, 40 ft. by 18 ft., 20,000 cu. ft. capacity. 

4 Cylindrical boiler iron gas tanks, 29 ft. by 4 ft. 6 ins. diam. 

2 Wooden purifier tanks, 10 ft. by 10 ft. by 5 ft. 6 ins., riveted 

steel covers and seals. 
1 Rix compressor, 12 ins. by 12 ins. (belt driven), 
1 Boiler in brick setting, 40 h.p., 

1 Stack for boiler and generator, 

2 (Chaplin Fulton pressure governors, 2 in., 
1 Sturtevant #5 blower, 

1 Jewell engine, 10 h.p. 
1 Boiler feed pump, 
1 Oil pump, 

8-in. pipe from scrubber to gas holder, 
8-in. pipe holder to purifiers, 
6-in. main purifiers to compressors, 

3-in. piping, compressors to pressure tanks, then to gov- 
ernors and to line. 
Oil piping to # 1 generator, meters, etc.. 
Blast connections blower to gas generator. 
All of the above apparatus was erected in place ready for 

operation (in 1905), under contract for the sum of.. $20,400 
30 h.p., 220 V. 3 phase, 850 r.p.m. motor * with starter in 

place and wired $ 440 

Additions to and remodeling Lowe gas generator : 

In 1910, the Lowe generator purchased under the contract 
in 1905, was completely remodeled. The height of the 
shell was increased from 13 ft. to 18 ft. A 3-ft. water 
heating tank was added on top making the final dimen- 
sions 5 ft. by 8 ft. by 21 ft. All interior brickwork 
was replaced. All burners, blast connections and gas 
connections to washer were replaced. The above work 
was done at a cost of $2,337.55. Estimated addition to 
cost of generator by above improvements $ 1,800 

Foundations for above machinery : 

Concrete foundations for generator, scrubber, etc., 963 

cu. ft $ 259 

No. 2 Generator: 

Old scrubber purchased from the San Francisco Gas and 

Electric Co. and converted into a generator and 

wa.'^her. (Generator 24 ft. by 6 ft. diam. Washer 4 ft. 

by 6 ft. diam $ 400 

Labor cutting off scrubber and placing on cars San 

Francisco 197 

Work on gas generator 382 

Foundation for generator 218 

Brickwork for gas generator, labor and material 902 

Freight on generator, San Francisco to plant 80 

Labor setting, connecting, etc., by local company 

(estimated) •.... 400 

$2,579 
♦ Motor drives Rix compressor. 



1214 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Boiler (80 h.p.) with stack ; f.o.b. San Francisco $ 875 

Freight, brickwork and erection, estimated 485 

$1,360 

Engine: (45 h.p. Atlas high speed) f.o.b. San Francisco. . . .% 440 

Freight , 50 

Installation 50 

$540 
Ingersoll Rand compressor: (12^4 in. by 12 ins.) (estimated) 

— installed $ 950 

Belt 60 

Belt tightener 25 

$1,035 
Blower for No. 2 Generator : 

30 h.p. 3 place motor with speed control connection. 
Motor mounted on wooden platform. Pipe to gas gen- 
erator, estimated cost $545 

Piping, Pumps, Oil Equipment, etc., Added to Plant since 
Original installation: (All estimated). 

Iron pipe, 8 ins.. 215 ft. at $0.22 $ 47 

Ells, 3 ins., 10 ft. at $0.50 5 

Gate valves, 3 ins., 4 ft. at $4 50 18 

Angle valve, 3 ins., 1 ft. at $8.00 8 

Pipe, 4 ins., 134 ft., at $0.35 47 

Ells, 4 ins., 3 ft. at $0.60 2 

Gate valve, 4 ins., 1 ft. at- $7.80 8 

Pipe, 1 1/2 ins., 75 ft. at $0 08 6 

Ells, IVa ins., 4 ft., at $0.12 1 

Valves, 1 V2 ins., 3 ft. at $1.50 4 

Pipe, 1 in., 170 ft. at $0.05 8 

Ells, 1 in. 5 ft. at $0.10 1 

Labor on above pipe 30% of material 431 

Wooden oil storage tank, 30 ft. diam. by 22 ft. high, tar 

paper roof, cost estimated, com])lete 950 

Steel oil tank ^-in., 15 ft. by 4 ft. diam. (complete)., 214 

Concrete well, 5 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ft 35 

1 Duplex oil pump 60 

1 Lowe oil trap 50 

4 Oil meters, at $25.00 100 

Covered pipe, 3 ins. in place, 90 ft. at $0 50 45 

Pipe, ^ in., in place. 100 ft. at $0.02 2 

Pipe. 1/2 in., in place, 50 ft. at $0.04 2 

Pipe, % in., in place, 150 ft. at $0.05 7 

3 Bristol recording pressure gauges 125 

$1,788 
Total gas making and .storage equipment $30,746 

Detailed Cost of a Gas Plant in a City of of 2,600. The following 
data is abstracted from our appraisal report of a company which 
supplies gas for lighting and cooking purposes in a western city of 
2,600 population. 

The plant consists of a 72,000 cu. ft. oil gas generator of the 
Lowe Type — of the necessary scrubbers, purifiers, piping, oil stor- 
age tanks, boilers, etc., and of 1 single lift 21,000 cu, ft. gas 
holder in a brick tank. The company now has in service 7.9 miles 
of .75 in. to 4 in. wrought iron and cast iron mains, and 212 meters. 

The processes of manufacture are almost identical with those in 
use at the plant in the city of 15,000 population, previously de- 



GAS PLANTS 1215 

scribed in this chapter. The oil used for generating- being the 
same as that used in that plant and costs $1.62 per bbl. in the 
storage tanks. 

The company serves from 200 to 225 customers. The principal 
use of the gas service is for cooking. Practically all lighting is 
done with electricity. 

Capacity of Plant. The following table gives in condensed form 
the extent and capacity of the plant as of June 30, 1912. 

Oil gas generators 1 72.000 cu. ft. 

Washers 1 72,000 cu. ft. 

Scrubbers 3 72,000 cu. ft. 

Purifiers 2 172,000 cu. ft. 

Holders 1 18,600 cu. ft. 

Boilers 1 30 h.p. 

Mains 7.9 miles 

Meters in service 212 

Following is a table of operating data for the month of June, 
1912, which may be taken as a fair average of operating conditions 
for the year. 

Gas made 248,900 cu. ft. 

Gas used at w-orks and office . . . .' 1,300 " " 

Gas consumed, customers' meters 224,300 " " 

Gas lost 23,300 " " 

Gas lost, per cent, of gas made 9.2% 

Oil, carbonized 14.398 lbs. 

Oil burned, heating retorts 6,131 " 

Oil used, total . . : 20,429 " 

Gas made per lb. of oil 12.1 cu. ft. 

Oil used as boiler fuel 1,794 lbs. 

Cost of oil $0.0386 per gallon 

The follow^ing table is an analysis of Operating Expenses from 
the Company's financial statement for June, 1912. 

OPERATING EXPENSES 

Manufacture. 

Fuel generating $30.05 

" boiler 8.78 

" gas making 70.87 

Purifying material 12.10 

Labor 93 45 

Miscellaneous 5.75 

$220.70 

Maintenance $ 2.03 

Distribution 1.67 

Commercial expense 53.62 

General expense 35.87 

New business, expenses . 13.14 

Total expense $327.03 

TABLE X. GENERAL SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COST OP 
REPRODUCTION OF PROPERTY- 

1. Gas mains $11,945 

2. Gas services o'oSn 

3. Gas meters „'e 9 

4. Gas plant buildings 2,545 



1216 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

5. Gas making- and storage equipment $14,485 

6. Tools and instruments -. 33 

7. Furniture and fixtures 41 



137,184 

8. Engineering-, 5% of items 1 to 7 inclusive 1,859 

9. Business management, 5% items 1 to 7 inclusive 1,859 

$40,902 

10. Legal and general expense and taxes, 1%% of items 1 

9 inclusive 613 

$41,515 

11. Interest during const I'uction, 5% of items 1 to 10 in- 

clusive 2,076 

$43,591 

12. Contingencies, 5% items 1 to 11 inclusive 2.179 

$45,770 

13. Brokerage fees, 5% items 1 to 12 inclusive 2,288 

$48,058 

14. Stores and supplies 1,571 

15. Working cash capital 767 

16. Real estate . 750 

17. Legal and general expense and taxes 12% of item 16. . . 90 

Grand total as of June 30, 1912 . $51,236 



TABLE XI. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
TION OF PROPERTY 

1, GAS MAINS 

Material : 
Pipe: 

%-in. wrought iron pipe, 3,265 ft. at $0.052 $ 170 

1-in. wrought iron pipe, 13,755 ft. at $0,069 949 

114 -in. wrought iron pipe, 16,400 ft. at $0,097 1,591 

2-in. wrought iron pipe. 3,010 ft. at $0,157 473 

3-in. wrought iron pipe. 600 ft. at $0.27 162 

4-in. cast iron pipe, 4,230 ft. at $0.41 1,734 



$5,079 

Fitting:s 39 

Lead joints, c. i. pipe, 5*4 lbs. per joint, 1,750 lbs. at 

$0.06 105 

2% commission, waste, etc 104 

$5,327 
Labor : 

Excavation and backfill, 41,260 ft. trench, 7,640 cu. 

yds. at $0.75 : $ 5,730 

Laying pipe, w.i., %-in.. 3,265 ft. at $0.02 65 

Laying pipe, w.i., 1-in., 13,755 ft. at $0.02 275 

Laying pipe, w.i.. 114-in., 16.400 ft. at $0.02 328 

Laying pipe, w.i., 2-ins., 3.010 ft. at $0,025 75 

Laying pipe, w.i., 3-ins., 600 ft., at $0.03 18 

Laying pipe, c.i., 4-ins., 4,230 ft. at $0.03 127 

$ 6.618 
Total gas mains $11,945 



GAS PLANTS 1217 

2. GAS SERVICE. 

Material : 

Iron pipe, 1-in., 25.440 ft. at $0,069 $1,757 

"Phillips" patent service connections, 318 ft. at $1.80.. 572 

$2,329 
Labor. 

Excavating and backfilling trench, 19,080 ft. at $0.10.. 1.908 

Laying pipe, 25,440 ft. at $0.02 509 

Making ser-vice taps, 318 ft. at $0.50 159 

$2,576 

Total .service connections $4,905 

3. GAS METERS. 

Material : 

Gas meters, 268 at $8.10 $2,171 

Labor : 

Installing gas meters, 212 at $0.75 159 

Total gas meters $3,230 

4. GAS PLANT BUILDING. 

Main Building: 28 ft. by 95 ft., 16 ft. to eaves. 
1 to 2 pitch roof. 

Frame, corrugated iron roof, 25 ft. 6 ins. by 28 ft. 
Brick, corrugated iron roof. 30 ft. by 28 ft. 
Frame, shingle roof, 40 ft. by 28 ft. 

Foundations, concrete, 30 cu. yds. at $9.00 $ 270 

Lumber in frame portion and timber under corrugated 

iron roofs, 12,649 ft. b.m. at $35.00/M 443 

Brick, in walls and partitions. 52,248 at $25.00/M 1,306 

Corrugated iron roof. 2,217 sq. ft. at $0,055 122 

Shingle roof, 9,000 shingles at $5.00/M 45 

Doors, 4 at $16.00 64 

Windows. 5 at $10.00 50 

Lean-to frame, 12 ft. by 12 ins., 144 sq. ft. at $0.50 ... . 72 

Lean-to frame, 12 ft. by 14 ins., 168 sq. ft. at $0.40 68 

Lighting , 35 

$2,475 
Gas Meter House: 5 ft. 7 ft. by 6 ft. high. 

Frame, walls and roof filled with saw-dust, tar paper 

roof, 35 sq. ft. at $2.00 70 

Total gas plant buildings $2,545 

5. GAS MAKING AND STORAGE EQUIPMENT. 

Oil Gas Generator: 72,000 cu. ft. capacity, arranged to be fired 
from either end of a " U " shaped generating chamber. 
Lowe type, rebricked to a special design, 6 ft. by 6 ft. 
by 10 ft. high. 5/16-in. shell, complete in place with quick 
changing stack valves, double set of oil burners and 
steam inlets, washer connections and two stacks $1,850 

Washer and Scrubbers : 

1 Cylindrical wa.sher, 32- ins. by 40 ins. in place.... $ 100 

1 Cylindrical scrubber, 4 ft. by 16 ft. high, in place 350 

2 Cylindrical scrubbers, 3 ft. by 8 ft. high, in place, at 
$175.00 350 

$ 800 



1218 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Gas Piping- : 

8-in. cast iron pipe, 10 ft. at $1.40 $ 14 

8-in. cast iron crosses, flanged, 6 at $12.00 72 

8-in. cast iron tees, 2 at $9,00 18 

8-in. Wrought iron pipe, screw, 34 ft. at $0.90 . , 31 

6-in. Wrought iron pipe, screw, 170 ft. at $0.65 110 

6-Jn. Wrought iron tees, screw, 2 at $2.25 5 

6-in. Wrought iron ells, screw, 5 at $2.00 10 

6-in. Gate valves, screw, 2 at $24.00 48 

4-in. Wrought ii^on pipe. 44 ft. at $0.38 17 

4-in. Wrought iron crosses. 8 at $1.60 13 

Labor on piping, 25% of material 84 



$422 
Purifiers : 

1 10-ft. by 10 ft. by 2% ft., steel shell, In place $ 800 

1 11 ft. by 11 ft. by 6 ft., steel shell, in place. 1,500 

$2,300 

Station Meter : 

On 4-in. main, 3 ft. drum $275 

Blast Equipment: 

1 Sturtevant # 3 blower $ 35 

1 Motor 71/2 h.p. with starter 160 

1 Engine, 10 h.p 150 

3-in belt, 25 ft. at $0.30 8 

Connections, blower to generator 20 

Platforms, foundations, pulleys, wiring, etc 35 

Labor installing blower, motor and engine 40 

$448 
Boiler : 

30 h.p. tubular, set in brick, with 24-inch stack, complete 

place $450 

Water, Steam and Oil Piping ; Oil and Water Pumps, etc. : 

1 Compressor, 3 ins. by 5 ins $70 

1 Oil pump, single acting, 3 ins. by 6 ins. by 6 ins 60 

1 Centrifugal pump, 2 ins 90 

2 Motors, G. E., 2 h.p., 3 phase 100 

1 Oil tank. 300 gals 90 

1 Pressure gauge 10 

2 National oil meters, at $35 70 

1 Oil filter : 20 

Iron pipe, y2-in., 150 ft. at $0.04 6 

Iron pipe, %--in., 100 ft, at $0.05 5 

Iron pipe, 1-in., 165 ft. at $0.06 10 

Iron pipe, 1 i/^-in.. 100 ft. at $0.09 9 

Iron pipe, 2-in., 320 ft., at $0.12 38 

Valves, %-in., 4 at $0.90 4 

Valves, 1-in., 3 at $1.10 3 

Valves, IV'-in.. 3 at $1.40 4 

Valves, 2-in., 3 at $2.00 6 

Labor on piping, pumps, etc 94 

$689 
Generator and Scrubber Foundations : 

Concrete. 24 cu. yds. at $10.00 $240 

Lampblack Box : 

Lumber, 1,840 ft. b.m. at $35.00/M $64 

Iron, 495 lbs. at $0.05 25 

$89 



GAS PLANTS 1219 

Water Storage Tank and Well : 
Water tank. 

Wood stave tank, 20 ft. diam. 10 ft. high, redwood staves 

and bottom, 3,108 ft. b.m. at $'52.00/M $162 

Iron band.s, 1.872 lbs. at $0.05 93 

Labor assembling- and placing tank 75 

Tower. 

Timber, 2,675 ft. b.m. at $30.00/M 80 

Iron, 190 lbs. at $0.05 9 

Well. 

Excavation, 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 20 ft., 18 cu. yds. at $1.00. . 18 

Timbering, 1,200 ft. b.m. at $32.00/M 38 

Drilled well, 200 ft. deep at $2.00 400 

Oil Tanks. ?875 
Wood tank, same as water tank above, except set on sills 
and lowered into the ground about 2 ft., excavation, 23 

cu. yds. at $0.50 $12 

Sills, 648 ft. b.m. at $25.00/M 16 

Tank in place 290 

Shingle roof over tank 33 

3 steel tanks, 16 ft. long. 4 ft. 6 ins. diam. at $200.00. . . 600 

Excavation and installation 40 

Gas Holder: ^^^^ 
Steel holder in cement lined brick tank, set in ground 

about 12 ft., 21,500 cu. ft. capacity. 

Excavation. 873 cu. yds., at $0.75 $ 655 

Brick in tank. 47,080 at $25.00/M 1,171 

Concrete bottom of tank, 6 ins. thick, 31 cu. yds. at 

$10.00 310 

Cement plaster, lining tank 120 

Framework and guides, cast iron, 9,000 lbs. at $0.04.. 360 

Steel, 8.688 lbs. at $0.08 695 

Steel tank, #12 reinforced, steel, 22,024 Ibs.at $0.08... 1,762 

Painting, 8,300 sq. ft. at $0.01 83 

$ 5,156 
Total gas making and storage equipment $14,485 

Cost of Reproduction of the Properties of the Kings County 
Lighting Company. Table XII, derived from " Exhibit No. 17," 
Case No. 1273 of the Public Service Commission, 1st District New 
York, gives the estimated cost of reproduction of the properties of 
the Kings County Lighting Company, N. Y. Details of certain of 
the accounts included in this table are given in Table XIII which 
has been prepared from further material in the above mentioned 
exhibit. 

TABLE XII. ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUCTION OF THE 
PROPERTIES OF THE KINGS COUNTY LIGHTING 

COMPANY 
Account Contract cost 

General structures $ 20.482 

F'urnaces, boilers and accessories 25,221 

Water gas sets and accessories 82,353 

Misc. power plant equipment 2,041 

Works and station structures 201,462 

Holders 255,675 



1220 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Purification apparatus $27,663 

Accessory equipniem at worlis 7U,605 

Trunk lines and mains 712,351 

Gas services 166,151 

Gas meters 127,429 

Gas meter Installation 24,539 

Municipal gas lighting fixtures 31,892 

Gas engines and appliances 1,181 

Gas tools and implements 

Gas laboratory equipment 1,454 

Sub-total, construction accts $1,750,660 

Land devoted to gas operations 251,281 

General equipment 12,036 

Total, fixed capital accounts $2,013,977 

Floating capital and operating assets 53,885 

Engineering administration and incidentals, 15%. 209,855 

Total, reproduction cost of the operating property... $2,277,717 



TABLE XIII. DETAILS OP ESTIMATED COSTS OF REPRO- 
DUCTION OF THE KINGS COUNTY LIGHTING COMPANY 

BOILERS, FURNACES AND ACCESSORIES 

1 B. & W. 215 h.p. boiler $ 3,041.80 

2 B. & W, 106 h.p. boiler 3,050.73 

2 B. & W. 106 h.p. boiler 3,426.73 

2 Worthington feed water pumps 250.26 

1 Oil tank 3.50 

1 Water barrel 1.00 

1 Steel .stack 831.88 

1 Steel stack 812.00 

1 Steel stack 840.00 

1 Berryman feed water heater . 392.50 

Coal handling machinery-misc 475.68 

3 Coal cars 450.00 

Coal conveying machinery 320.72 

Wooden split pulley 15.00 

Solid iron pulley 6.00 

Rubber comp. belting 20.00 

Coal handling machinery, track, etc 1,757.50 

1-3 Ton Hower Ry. platform scale 242.00 

Coal hopper 101.59 

1 Single vertical engine 240.00 

Coal hopper with screen 125.00 

1 Mast and gaff 865.81 

1 Clam-shell bucket 400.00 

1 Rawson & Morrison Mfg. Co. hoist 750.00 

Levers, etc., hoisting engine 16.98 

1 75 h.p. vertical boiler 824.50 

1 50 h.p. vertical boiler 597.90 

1 100 h.p. Mason horizontal boiler 1,905.54 

1 Cameron feed water pump 230.00 

1 Turbo blower std. damper regulator 69.00 

25 ft. 11/2-1". steam rubber hose 21.88 

10-ft. 1-in. steel jointed wire covered steam hose 11.20 

20-ft. 1 % -in. wire bound steam hose 23.20 

1 Wooden ladder, 12 ft 2.76 

2 Iron wheelbarrows 10.00 

2 Water pails , .60 

Rack for irons 4.30 

4 12-ft. hose 10.00 

4 12-ft. slice bars 7.00 



GAS PLANTS 1221 

4 Schoop shovels $3.44 

1 Stack 5 ft. dis., 125 ft. high 750.00 

Net cost $22,928.00 

Contractors' profit, 107o 2,293.00 



Contract cost $25,221.00 

WATER GAS SETS AND ACCESSORIES 

1 12-ft. William.son vertical single unit generator $24,012.97 

1 8-ft. Lowe generating set 8,959.21 

2 8-ft. Lower generating sets 19,077.91 

2 Condensers 4,752.08 

2 Condensers 5,411.08 

2 Berryman oil heaters 500.00 

2 90-h.p. high speed center crank automatic engines 4,579.63 

2 No. 11 blowers 956.12 

180 ft. leather belting 234.00 

Miscellaneous gauges, etc 58.53 

1 2-ton hydraulic elevator 840.00 

Blast piping 1,072.41 

4 Charging cars 588.00 

1 90-h.p. Terry turbine blower 2,790.25 

1 Coal spout 2.25 

1 2-ton elevator 925.00 

2 Coal buggies 120.00 

1 Coal car 50.00 

1 Coal yoke 10.24 

1 Wheelbarrow : 5.00 

Miscellaneous gen. tools 121.58 

Net cost $74,866.26 

Taken as $74,866.00 

Contractors' profit, 10% 7,487.00 

Contract cost $82,353.00 

HOLDERS 

1 2,000.000 cu. ft. holder $148,570.85 

1 500.000 cu. ft. holder 51,244.60 

1 107.000 cu. ft. holder 17,045.46' 

1 100,000 cu. ft. holder 15,571.05 

Net cost $232,432.06 

Taken as $232,432.00 

Contractors' profit, 10% 23,243.00 

Contract cost $255,675.00 

TRUNK LINES AND MAINS 

Mains : Unit price 

li/i-in., 264 ft. at $0.1839 $ 48.55 

1 i/a-in., 3,706 ft., at $0.2024 750.09 

2-in., 2.937 ft., at $0.2246 549.65 

3-in., 13,011 ft., at $0.3150 4,098.47 

4-in., 359,146 ft., at $0.4150 149,045.59 

6-in., 365,208 ft., at $0,600 219,124.80 

6-in., 42 ft., W. I., at $0,748 31.42 

8-in., 19,108 ft., at $0,876 16,738.61 

8-in., Ill ft.. W. T., at $1,176 130.43 

12-in., 48,668 ft., at $1,352 65,799.14 

10-in., 70 ft., W. I., at $1.666 116.62 

16-in., 6,966 ft., at $2,040 14,210.64 

20-in.. 9,377 ft., at $2,796 26.21 8.09 

24-in., 61 ft., at ?3.694 . , 225.33 

$497,197.43 



1222 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Fittings : 

Crosses, at $0,027 per lb $ 4,855.92 

Tees, at $0,027 per lb. 1,347.36 

Klbows, at $0,027 per lb 438.09 

Reducers and increasers at $0,027 per lb. , 903.57 

Caps and plugs at $0,027 per lb 718.92 

Sleeves, at $0,027 per lb 24.44 

$8,288.30 
Pavement : 

Ashphalt, 30,325.51 sq. yds. at $3.00 $ 90,976.53 

Asphalt block, 2,727.05 sq. yds., at $3.50 . 9,544.67 

Belgian block, 5,524.56 sq. yds. at $.50 2,762.28 

Brick, 1,441.58 sq. yds. at $2.50 3,603.95 

Granite, 1,444.98 sq. yds., at $.50 722.49 

Macadam, 39,308.02 sq. yds., at $.75 29,481.01 

$137,090.93 
Valves, pits and drips : 

Drips, at $0,027 per lb $ 3,936.20 

Valves (at manufacturers' quoted prices) 889.90 

Pits (at estimated prices) 186.93 

$5,015.03 

Net cost, Acct. No. 231 $647,591.69 

Taken as $647,592.00 

Contractors' profit, 10% 64,759.00 

Contract cost ,.$712,351.00 

GAS METERS 

Goodwin : 

3 light, 431 at $5.25 $ 2,262.75 

5 light, 156 at $6.30 962.80 

10 light, 22 at $8.75 192.50 

20 light, 17 at $12.60 214.20 

30 light, 2 at $19.25 38.50 

45 light, 5 at $29.40 147.00 

60 light, 7 at $38.50 296.50 

100 light, 3 at $61.25 183.75 

A. M. Co.: 

3 light, 3,010 at $125.25 15,802.50 

5 light, 16,294 at $6.30 102,652.20 

10 light, 76 at $8.75 682.50 

20 light, 78 at $12.60 982.80 

30 light, 39 at $19.25 750.75 

45 light, 21 at $29.40 617.40 

60 light, 15 at $38.50 577.50 

100 light, 13 at $61.25 796.25 

200 light, 2 at $125.50 251.00 

Reeves, 5 light, 1 at $6.30 6.30 

U. S. M. Co., 5 light, 1 at $6.30 6.30 

N. Y. Imp. M. Co., 5 light, 2 at $6.30 12.60 

Total No., 20,197. 

Net cost also contract cost. $127,429.10 

Taken as $127,429.00 

GAS METER INSTALLATION 

Net cost also contract cost : 

Installation of 19.631 gas meters at $1.25 $24,538.75 

Taken as .,.•..•, $24,539.00 



GAS PLANTS 



1223 



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1224 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XV. COST OF CAST IRON MAINS 

EXCAVATION FOR MAINS 





f — 


Trench — 




-\ 


Cu. yds. per 




Width 


Depth Cross-sectional lin. ft. 


Size, ins. 


ft. 


-ins. 


ft. 


-ins. area in sq. 


ft. Of trench 


3 


1 


8 


3 


6 


5.83 


.216 


4 


1 


8 


3 


6 


5.83 


.216 


6 


1 


10 


3 


8 


6:74 


.250 


8 


2 





3 


10 


7.67 


.284 


10 


2 


4 


4 





9.33 


.346 


12 


2 


6 


4 


2 


10.40 


.385 


16 


2 


10 


4 


6 


12.75 


.472 


20 


3 


2 


4 


10 


15.30 


.566 


24 


^ 3 


6 


5 


2 


18.10 


.670 






WEIGHT OF CAST 


IRON MAINS 




Size, 


Weight per 






Additional 
weight per 


Weight per 

ft. used, 

lbs. 


ins. 


] 


length, lbs. 






length add 












2%. lbs. 


3 




180 






183.6 ■ 


15.3 


4 




228 






232.6 


19.4 


6 




360 






367.2 


30.6 


8 




504 






514.1 


42.8 


10 




670 






683.4 


56.9 


12 




870 






887.4 


74.0 


16 




1,300 






1,326.0 


110.5 


20 




1.800 






1,836.0 


153.0 


24 




2.450 






2,499.0 


208.3 



Weight includes bells ; 2 per cent, is added for overweight. 

Average cover is figured at 3 ft. 

Excavation, back-filling and hauling excess dirt at $0.75 per 
cubic yard. 

Cartage at $2.00 per ton average all kinds of material on as much 
of material as would be handled twice. 

For specials add 4 per cent, of cost of pipe, 

COST OF CAST IRON MAINS 



o 

$0.45 
0.52 
0.75 
0.99 
1.29 
1.62 
2.38 
3.25 
4.43 

CAST IRON PIPE PRICES 

Price f.o.b. cars per ton $27.00 

6 per cent, store-room expense 1.62 

Total per ton $28.62 







^5s 


bX) 




W 0) 


M 
1 • 




1^ 

5-^ 




ns^ 




Art 


O 


3 


$0,219 


$0,015 


$0,020 


$0,162 


$0,020 


$0,009 
0.011 


4 


0.278 


0.019 


0.020 


0.162 


0.026 


6 


0.438 


0.031 


0.040 


0.188 


0.035 


0.018 


8 


0.612 


0.043 


0.050 


0.213 


0.044 


0.024 


10 


0.814 


0.057 


0.060 


0.260 


0.061 


0.033 


12 


1.060 


0.074 


0.080 


0.288 


0.074 


0.042 


16 


1.581 


0.111 


0.160 


0.354 


0.109 


0.063 


20 


2.189 


0.153 


0.250 


0.425 


0.152 
0.215 


0.083 


24 


2.981 


0.208 


0.400 - 


0.502 


0.119 



GAS PLANTS 1225 



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1226 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Service Connections. The following data were taken from 
Exhibit No. 17, Case No. 1273, Appraisal of Kings County Lighting 
Company, N. Y. 

Based on observation of costs of labor and materials, shown 
in company's records, the average cost of fittings per 
service, was found to be $0.35 

On the same basis, the average cost of labor, per foot of 

service, was found to be 0.07640 

The cost of hauling was estimated at 0.00178 

Making total labor cost, per foot of service $0.07818 

Unit Costs of Gas iVIains. In Table XIV is given the derivation 
of the net unit prices used in Table XIII, Trunk Lines and Mains, 
as abstracted from Exhibit No. 17, Case No. 1273, Appraisal of 
Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y. 

Tables XV and XVI show the development of unit prices of 
gas mains as introduced by Wm. A. Baehr in Exhibit No. 29 in the 
above mentioned case. 

Table XVII gives the development of the cost of Lead Joints as 
used in Table XV. 

TABLE XVIL COST OF LEAD JOINTS FOR CAST IRON 
MAINS 





Weight, 


Weight, 


Cost 


Cost per 


Size, ins. 


lead, lbs. 


yarn 


per joint 


foot of joint 


3 


4.5 


0.25 


$0,238 


$0,020 


4 


6 


0.25 


0.313 


0.026 


6 


8 


0.40 


0.421 


0.035 


8 


10 


0.50 


0.526 


0.044 


10 


14 


0.60 


0.732 


0.061 


12 


17 


0.80 


0.892 


0.742 


16 


25 


1.00 


1.203 


0.109 


20 


35 


1.30 


1.819 


0.152 


24 


50 


1.75 


2.593 


0.215 



COST OF MATERIAL 

Lead 5c at the work 

Yarn 5.3c, at the work 

Detailed Cost of Gas Services. Table XVIII gives the detailed 
cost of services as submitted in evidence by Wm. A. Baehr at the 
hearing of the Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y, 

Effect of Length on Cost of Laying 2 in. Gas iVIain. Table XIX 
prepared from actual costs on some 147 different pipe laying jobs 
extending over a period from 1903 to 1911, shows a decided tend- 
ency for lower costs as the length of pipe increases. The apparent 
in average costs for the 401-500 and 601-700 distances is mainly 
due to a larger percentage of the more recent jobs with the higher 
rates of pay. 

Cost of Relaying Pavement. The following data were abstracted 
from evidence submitted by Wm. A. Baehr at the hearing of the 
Kings County Lighting Co., N. Y. The prices are based on a 
paving contractor furnishing all tools, machinery, labor, and ma- 
terial necessary for relaying pavement in trenches to be excavated 



GAS PLANTS 



1227 



and back-filled by the gas company to the sub-grade of the pave- 
ment in place. 

The prices are based on the assumption that men taking up the 
pavement will not cover concrete, brick, and cushion sand which 
has been removed from the pavement, with the excavated earth, 

TABLE XVIII. DETAILED COST OP GAS SERVICES 



% 
1 

iy4 
11/2 
2 
3 



$1.30 
1.90 
2.60 
3.10 
4.15 
8.70 



MM. 



0.16 
0.23 
0.31 
0.37 
0.50 
1.40 



(h ' ^ be 

m 
$0.09 
0.13 
0.17* 
0.21 
0.28 
0.58 



O 
$0.10 
0.10 
0.10 
0.10 
0.10 
0.15 






$1.90 
2.00 
2.10 
2.15 
2.30 
2.60 






'"d rt^ 






$6.94 
6.94 
6.94 
6.94 
6.94 
6.94 



$2.44 
3.16 






$2.44 
3.40 



12.40 1.49 0.83 0.35 3.00 6.94 6.45 



o 

$10.49 
11.30 
12.22 
12.87 
20.11 
26.57 
.40 34.86 



The average length of service is taken at 50 ft. and is based on 
the average length of service, laid from 1906 to 1910. 

Cartage is taken at $1.00 per ton and excavation and back-filling 
at $0.75 per cubic yard. 

The cost of fittings was taken as 12 per cent, of the cost of the 
pipe. 

Gas stops, 2 in., iron cock, brass plug. Gas stops, 3 and 4 in., 
iron cock, brass washers. 

Average width of trench, 2 ft. Average depth of trench, 2 ft., 6 
ins. 



TABLE XIX. 


EFFECT 


OF LENGTH ON COST OF LA 




2- 


■IN. GAS 


MAIN 




Length of 


Number 








pipe laid, 


of jobs. 




-Labor cost per 


foot s 




ft. 


included 


Max. 


Min. 


Average 


1- 50 


18 


$0.3525 


$0.0710 


$0.1423 


51-100 


23 


0.1836 


0.0420 


0.0942 


101-200 


45 


0.1897 


0.0462 


0.0923 


201-300 


27 


0.2750 


0.0480 


0.0859 


301-400 


13 


0.0953 


0.0602 


0.0756 


401-500 


15 


0.1750 


0.0643 


0.1086 


501-600 


4 


1105 


0.0341 


0.0696 


601-700 


2 


0.1179 


0.0943 


0.1017 



and will leave them convenient for replacing in the pavement. 
Also that in removing pavement with sand, pitch or asphalt filler, 
the men will not destroy rpore than 10 per cent, of the brick. To 
these figures the cost of cutting through the pavement should 
be added. 

In using the above costs the following overcuts in trenches are 
to be allowed : 



1228 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1. Granite block on sand and portion concrete base — 

warite and laboi , eic. ouiy - $1.00 pel' sq. yd 

2. Asphalt on concrete base , 3.00 per sq. yd 

3. Vitrified brick on edge 2.60 per sq. yd 

4. Ctunmon brick on edge 1.50 per sq. yd 

5. Macadam 75 per sq yd 

6. Granite bloclc on sand-base, laid 2.50 per sq. yd 

In using the above costs the following overcuts in trenches are 

to be allowed. 

Asphalt o 6 ins. Granite 10 ins. 

Belgian block 8 ins. Macadam ins. 

Brick 16 ins. 

Cost of Buildings and Equipment of a Large Gas Plant. Tables 
XX and XXT were introduced by Wm. W. Randolph as Kxhibits 
"A" and "B" in the hearing of the Kings County Lighting Co., 
N. Y. ' 

EXHIBIT "A" 

Cost new 
Generator House No. 1 $ 16.100 

52 ft. 8 ins. by 50 ft. 2 ins. by 33 ft. ins., ground 
floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
gable roof monitor type corrugated iron on steel on 
steel trusses. Including machinery foundations. Also 
included with this building is the runway between No. 1 
and No. 2 houses. 
Generator House No. 2 41,000 

95 ft. 6 ins. by 53 ft. ins. by 48 ft. 11 Ins., ground 
floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
gable roof monitor type slate on steel on steel trusses. 
Including machinery foundations. Also included with 
this building is pit partly under Generator House No. 
2, and partly under Wash Room. 
Boiler House, Engine House, Exhauster House. Tar Tank 

House and Condenser House 45,900 

Boiler House, 53 ft. 1 in. by 42 ft. ins. by 16 ft. 8 ins. 
ground floor to truss chord, one story building, brick 
walls, gable roof corrugated iron on steel on steel 
trusses. Including machinery foundations. 

Engine and Exhauster House, 50 ft. 4 ins. by 41 ft. 
ins. by 25 ft. 6 ins. ground floor to truss chord, two 
story building, brick walls, gable roof slate on wood on 
wood trusses. Including machinery foundations. 

Tar Tower Hou.se, 43 ft. ins. by 26 ft. 4 ins. by 89 
ft. in. bottom of settling wall to eaves, three story 4 

building, brick walls, peaked roof slate on wood. Iii- 
cluding machinery foundations. Also included with 
this building are the tar wells under it. 

Condenser House, 44 ft. 4 ins. by 41 ft. ins. by 24 
ft. 2 ins. ground floor to truss chord, two story building, 
brick walls, gable roof, slate on wood on wood trusses. 
Including machinery foundations. 
Purifier House 14,400 

67 ft. 4 in.s. by 49 ft. 4 ins. by 27 ft. ins. ground 
floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
gable roof monitor type slate on wood on steel trusses. 
Repair Shop and Stable 12,300 

67 ft. ins. by 41 ft. ins. by 22 ft. 6 ins. high 
ground floor to truss chord, two story building, brick 
walls, gable I'oof, slate on wood on wood trusses. 
Office and Meter Hou.se 17,900 

40 ft. ins. by 44 ft. ins. by 37 ft. 10 ins. ground 
floor to truss chord, three story building, brick walls, 
gable roof slate on wood on wood trusses. Including 
machinery foundations. 



GAS PLANTS 1229 

Coal Shed $62,500 

108 ft. 2 ins. by 52 ft. ins. by 52 ft. 7 ins. brick 
floor to eaves, steel and wood construction, roof moni- 
tor ty])e tar and gravel on wood. This building in- 
cludes runways from coal shed to Houses No. 1 and No. 
2. 

Coal Tower House on Dock : 

Included with coal handling machinery. 

Artesian Well House : 2,100 

14 ft. ins. by 14 ft. ins. by 22 ft. ins. basement 
floor to eaves, brick walls, roof slate on wood, gable 
type. 

Men's Room House (Wash Room) 4,800 

30 ft. 8 ins. by 31 ft. 2 ins. by 24 ft. 3 ins. ground 
floor to truss chord, two story building, brick walls, 
roof tar and gravel on wood. 

Valve and Boiler Hou.se at Holder Station 7,200 

65 ft. 2 ins. by 27 ft. ins. by 14 ft. ins. boiler 
house floor to truss chord ; 23 ft. 4 in. valve house from 
ba.sement floor to truss chord. Brick walls, roof (large 
ventilator) part slate on wood, part tin on wood. In- 
cluding machinery foundations. 

Dock (Pier) : 

Frame construction, 582 ft. 6 ins. long 24,800 

Fences and paving^ 10,000 

$259,000 
20 per cent. Overhead Charges 51,800 

Total Buildings $310,800 



TABLE XXI. COST OF GAS PLANT EQUIPMENT 
EXHIBIT "B" 

Cost new 
Generating Apparatus : 

3 8 ft. 6 ins. Lowe water gas sets to the outlet of 
washer, with 8 ft. 6 ins. diam. Generators and 8 ft. 
ins. diam., carburetters and superheaters ; 2 located 
in generator house No. 1, and 1 in generator house 

No. 2 $ 29,700 

1 Williamson set of water gas apparatus. Diam. of 
generator 12 ft., diam. of superimposed twin car- 
buretter and superheater 14 ft, total height 46 ft. 
4 ins 22,000 

Boilers : 

4 106 h.p. Babcock & Wilcox boiler.s, water tube, in-1 
eluding boiler room piping and 2 steel stacks 39 ins. 
diam. by 120 ft. high. Located in boiler room. . . , )■ 18,680 

1 215 h.p. Bab(;ock & Wilcox water tube boiler, in- 
cluding boiler room piping and 1 steel stack 39 ins. 
diam. by 122 ft. 6 ins. high. Located in boiler room 

1 90 h.p. vertical tubular boiler including steel stack 
2 ft. diam. by 40 ft. high. Located in hopper house 
on dock. Included with coal handling machinery. . . . 

1 50 h.p. vertical tubular boiler including steel "stack 
20 ins. diam. by 25 ft. high. Located in valve house 
at the fi5th Street Holder Station 700 

1 100 h.p. horizontal tubular boiler including steel stack 
30 ins. diam. by 65 ft. high. Located in valve house 
at the 65th Street Holder Station 2,090 



1230 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Scrubbers : 

1 primary scrubber 4 ft. by 7 ft. by 20 ft. high. Located 

in generator house No. 2 $ 770 

1 shaving .scrubber 10 ft. diam. by 27 ft. 9 ins. high, 

including foundation. Located in yard 3,000 

1 shaving scrubber 10 ft. diam. by 25 ft. high, including 
foundation. Located in yard 2,500 

2 scrubbers 7 ft. diam, by 22 ft. 1 in. high, including 
foundation. Located in yard 4,620 

Condensers : 

2 condensers 7 ft. diam. by 22 ft, 1 in. high, including 

foundations. Located in yard 6,820 

2 condensers 7 ft. diam. by 22 ft, 1 in. high. Located 

in condenser room 5.280 

Tar and Ammonia Extractors : 

1 P. & A. tar extractor with 16 -in. connections. Lo- 
cated in tar house 2,200 

1 standard rotary washer scrubber 7 ft. diam. by 12 ft. 

Z¥i ins. long. Located in condenser house 4,180 

Purifiers : 

4 purifiers 16 ft. by 24 ft. by 7 ft. 6 ins. deep. Located 

in purifier house 20,350 

Holders : 

1 relief holder in steel tank, capacity 100,000 cu. ft., 

including foundation. Located in yard 18,600 

1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 100,000 cu. ft., 

including foundation. Located in yard 19,000 

1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 500,000 cu. ft,, 
including foundation. Located at 65th Street Holder 
Station , 53,700 

1 storage holder in steel tank, capacity 2,000,000 cu. 
ft., including foundation. Located at 65th Street 
Holder Station 175,500 

Exhausters and Blowers : 

1 No. 10 Roots exhauster and 1 13 in. by 12 in. di- 
rect connected N. Y. safety vertical engine. Located 
in condenser room 3,300 

1 No. 8 Roots exhauster and 110 in. by 12 in. direct 
connected N. Y. safety vertical engine. Located in 
engine room 1,850 

2 No. 6 Roots exhausters and 2 7 in. by 9 in. direct con- 
nected Oil City Boiler Works, vertical engines. Lo- 
cated in engine room 2,680 

2 No. 11 Buffalo Forge blowers and 2 13 in, by 12 in. 
Sturtevaht engines, double belted. Located in en- 
gine room 4,840 

1 N. Y. blower and 1 90 h,p. Terry turbine direct con- 
nected, including 6 1/^ in. by 12 in. by 12 in. Smith- 
Vaile condenser pump. Located in Generator House 
No. 2 3,020 

1 shaving blower and 1 6 in. by 6 in, Sturtevant ver- 
tical engine (belted). Located in loft over stable. 
Including piping, etc., to shaving blower 820 

1 turbo blower 15 in. diam,. connected to Spencer 
damper regulator. Installed on boilers Nos. 1 and 2. 
Included with boilers. 



Pumps 



2 6 in. by 4 in. Worthington duplex pumps. Located in 

boiler rooni • . ^ 250 



GAS PLANTS 1231 

1 7 in. by 7 in. by 13 in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
cated in basement of engine room $350 

. 1 6 in. by 5% in. by 6 in. Worthington duplex pump. 

Located in basement of engine room 160 

1 10 in. by lOi/^ in. by 18 in. Cameron simplex pump. 

Located in Hopper house in dock 690 

17'/^ in. by 6 in. by 10 in. Worthington duplex pump. 

Located in Artesian well house 270 

1 5 in. by 4 in. by 8 in. Davidson simplex pump. Lo- 
cated in basement of the engine room 130 

1 6 in. by 3 in. by 7 in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
cated in basement of the engine room 140 

2 41/^ in. by 2% in. by 4 in. Worthington duplex 
pumps. Located in basement of engine room 165 

2 6 in. by 5% in. by 6 in. Worthii^gton duplex pumps. 

Located in tar house 320 

1 6 in. by 3 in. by <? in. Cameron simplex pump. Lo- 
cated in valve room 65th Street Holder Station 140 

Station Meters : 

1 11 ft. 3 ins. by 11 ft. 3 ins. station meter located in 

office building 5,170 

1 equitable proportional meter with 16 in. connections. 

Located in office building. Capacity 150,000 cu. ft. 

per hour 1,200 

1 Westinghouse air meter No. 12, located in the engine 

room 80 

Elevators : 

1 steam hydraulic elevator, located in generator"! 

house No. 2 I 

1 steam hydraulic elevator, located in purifying house }■ 3,330 
1 elevator with crane engine hoist located in genera- j 

tor house No. 1 J 

Scales : 

1 6 -ton wagon scale. Located outside office building. 

Including pit, etc 500 

1 4-ton platform scale. Located in coal shed 160 

1 4-ton track scale. Located in hopper house on 

dock. Included with coal handling machinery. 

Coal Handling Apparatus : 

1 grab bucket hoist and cableway complete, consisting 
of steel mast and gaff, clamshell bucket, drum hoist 
with 617 ft. of steel trestle and double cable tracks 
including 4 3-ton cars, located on dock. Also in- 
cluded with this is hopper house on Dock R. R., track 
scales, engines and 90 h.p. boiler 33,000 

Coal Buggies : 

4 side drop cars, 2000 lbs. capacity. Located in gen- 
erator house No. 2 770 

2 side drop cars, 1000 lbs. capacity. Located in gen- 
erator house No. 2 100 

2 2-\vheel coal buggies. Located in generator house 

No. 1 100 

Shops : 

Machine shop equipment ] 

Blacksmith shop equipment L o 200 

Carpenter shop equipment f ' 

Meter shop equipment J 

Laboratory equipment 1,100 



1232 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Tanks, Wells, Etc. 

1 steel oil tank 15 ft. diam. by 15 ft. high, capacity 
20,386 gals. Including foundation. Located in the 
yard $750 

1 steel oil tank 35 ft. diani. by 35 ft. high. Including 
foundation. Capacity 251,881 gals. Located in the 
yard 8,250 

1 steel well water tank 13 ft. diam. by 20 ins. high. 
Capacity 19,858 gals. Located in tar tower 550 

2 steel tar tanks 10 ft. diam. by 6 ft. high. Capacity 

each 3,500 gals. Located in tar tower 440 

1 settling well 40 ft. diam. by 12 ft. deep, brick with 
two brick partitions. Capacity 112,755 gals. Lo- 
cated in yard 4,400 

1 brick tar well under far house 32 ft. 6 ins. by 13 
ft. by 14 ft. Included with buildings. Capacity 35,- 
000 gals. 
1 brick tar well under tar house 32 ft. 6 ins. by 14 ft. 
Included with building. Capacity 18,000 gals. 

1 brick tar well under tar house 23 ft. by 6 ft. 2 ins. 
by 14 ft. Included with building. Capacity 14,850 
gals. 

2 driven pipe wells at works 1 

1 driven pipe well at Holder Station ) 1,100 

Miscellaneous : 

1 feed w^ater heater 1 ft. 6 ins. diam. by 6 ft. 8 ins. 1 
high. Berryman type. Located in the boiler room | 

1 feed water heater 1 ft. 6 ins. diam. by 4 ft. high. . }- 550 
Berryman type. Located in the tar tower | 

2 oil heaters 2 ft. diam. by 6 ft. high, Berryman type. | 
Located in generator house No. 1 J 

1 Bristol indicating and recording pyrometer, located 
in the office and connected to the Williamson water 

gas apparatus 440 

1 3 in. type " G " Worthington water meter. Located 

in office basement 120 

1 1 % in. Worthington oil meter. Located in tar house 80 
1 incinerator for burning refuse. Located in office base- 
ment 110 

1 20 in. Smith & Sayre governor. Located in valve 

room 65th Street Holder Station 530 

Gauges — Miscellaneous 550 

Yard connections — piping, valves, valve boxes, man- 
holes, etc 55,000 

Street department tools and tool wagon 600 

Rented arc lamps — 136 inside, 41 outside 1,450 

48th Street office equipment 1 „ nrn 

48th Street shop equipment j "^'"^^ 

General stable equipment 6,000 

$541,165 
20 per cent, overhead charges 108,233 

Total machinery $649,398 



Miscellaneous Data Pertaining to Various Complete Plants. 

Massachusetts. Tables XXII-XXV are made up from the An- 
nual Report of the Gas and Electric Light Commissioners of Massa- 
chusetts for the year ending June 30, 1916. From Table XXIII it 
is possible to tell whether the companies make coal gas, water gas, 
or both. Tables XXIV and XXV give in detail the expenses of 
manufacture and distribution. 



GAS PLANTS 



1233 



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1234 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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Gas Dep't. 

Bit. & 


suo:^ CD . 


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GAS PLANTS 



1235 



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1236 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

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GAS PLANTS 



1237 



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at; 3 5 






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1238 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



00 t- ■* CO CO O 05 «0 00 ff* r-< lO «D ■* OS OS «C •^ C<l 

l^-J-O Jj t> o eo ■* M ■* u3 «D CO <o CO ec eo lo i> oi as t>- tH 

0000TH«>US«£>t-<D00t-<Ot-rt<«D«DeDU5e0«O 

Q 

Q 00-*-1<T-(THini<MU5oO<^'_<MIM_t-aveCWU5-<*(M 

02 SXBnpiSaJ ^-^L^w"«£jo«ooo«£5l^-o6-^colnlnaiLOC:1-^ 

SSar'I'BlOJ. oooi-HSOoot-r-icgT-J.anH^scooasaiw 

_• I I, u- ^^ ^^ r-l,-(iH 1-1 ,-,,-1 

►1 9SU9ClX9 c^qorH-fTHOOeot^-^oo-^ooTt* -toiftoMiH 

Q p9^nC[{J^SipuXl citJffOrHrH'it'T-i'-^ioeoioocci ." cq co\t< ec o 
I 

p^ 8SUadX9 u5^>r^-*^^c«o^o-^^HeoolTt^t^t-(^^^oooalOl 

PM tH tH (M iH tH tH C<i j-i. r^ iH rH 

w 
H 

^ 9SUadX9 OOooOOOM(MOO!MT-!^COIr-0-,U5U5Tj<rt<osOO 

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02 UOi:^nqu:^i!JlQ «Ocoi>iHi>t>i>^uit>irso'co«OT-it--i>TjH'inoo" 

^ • • • ^ rH^ rH 

^ Sl'BnpiS9J C5u50eocq«o-^aiOoeckftoo-*aiui05cooo 

H »<^»T va'Doi T M T(< OS 00 ■* •* lo ci ■* u5 CO iri ui o 00 «c c^i i>^ c<i 

1-1 E>&K*i A^ fc"-'''<J (Di^t-eowcO'^eous^eoeoMticO'^coT-t-'f 

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H 9SU9ClX9 '5^<MOi«>OiHt>-ooOaiM<iM0^05eooooocooo 

<i HOT 1 ">n nn r j m ^J oi oi ^mV^ in «d t- u:3 od «b lo o «d uj ai a; c^ 

^ uui+juyuad cDt^t_cot-t-'*n>Oioo«Dt-<M^i>oo«or--<*' 

H 

O fOot~-i^'^oo'*iO'3iaioOi-itDa-oooc(M-*o 
DIOS «>coooco'*oqi-it-fOcieooo-*<iMT-^eoCr--* 
fl >«-M(M0Ot— Oa5CDt^^i-lT-H.-<00C:Ct-C:r-l 



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t"* 1-1 iH tH M 

^ ::::::::::::::::::: 

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H ::::::::::::::::::: 

J • • • 

M :■:::::::::::::::•: 

^ :.:........ : . 

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ft ^ c5.ti^^ ^.^ C S ^ C ji;.2i oo S c'C 
x!>~Za'a;dot3<^'=^>~;ftfc.<u"r'a5K^3^ 



GAS PLANTS 



1239 



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q:^ 



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• IC O-j C^l rH 00 -* ■* T-l • (M CO IM O 
CDt^Ot 

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'■^ci<~:d>c^<^-iAxC) ;ust-*d ■ id .'dd 



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oj o :3 






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1240 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Wisconsin. Tables XXVI-XXVIII are compiled from data in 
the Report of Railroad Commission of Wisconsin, June 30, 1914. 

New York. Table XXIX is abstracted from the annual report, 
the Public Service Commission of New York, 2nd District, for the 
year ending Dec. 31, 1915. 

Table XXIX gives the itemized operating expenses of five gas 
companies in New York State. A and B manufacture water gas 
only; C, D and E coal gas only. 

A is the Binghamton Gas "Works, which had 82.3 miles of mains, 
11,591 consumers meters in service, and sold 244,179 M ft. of gas 
out of 255,247 manufactured. 

B is the Nassau and Suffolk Ltg. Co. which had 225.9 miles of 
mains, 5,525 meters in service, and sold 181,573 M out of 266,145 
manufactured. 

C is the Ogdensburg Gas Co., which had 12.3 miles of mains, 1,- 
528 meters, and sold 24,005 M out of 27,923 manufactured. 

D is the Canandaigua Gas-Light Co. which had 13.8 miles of 
mains, 2,358 meters, and sold 27,869 M out of 29,044 manufactured. 

E is the Homer and Cortland Gas Light Co. which had 26.4 
miles of mains, 2,299 meters, and sold 29,571 M out of 35,121 manu- 
factured. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
PUMPS AND PUMPING 

The process of pumping is logically divisible into suction pump- 
ing and force pumping. In the former the pressure on the column 
of liquid is exerted by the atmosphere behind a vacuum generated 
by the pump, whereas in the latter the pump is doing all the push- 
ing and no pulling. 

Since the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to only about a 34 
ft. column of water this is the theoretical limit of the suction or 
lift capacity of a pump. The practical limit is about 25 ft, with a 
first class plunger pump and considerably less than this with equip- 
ment of the centrifugal type. 

It follows, therefore, since centrifugal pumps are extremely sim- 
ple and inexpensive, that where it is convenient to place the pump 
below or near the level of the source of supply the economic ad- 
vantages are likely to be in favor of the rotary type. In other cases 
the plunger type is generally more desirable. 

Of late years, the air lift has come into quite general use and 
possesses some very striking advantages for special work, particu- 
larly in view erf its cheapness in first cost and simplicity of opera- 
tion, two practical advantages which are apt to offset a consider- 
able deficit in theoretical efficiency. In comparing two different 
methods of pumping and then deciding on the type of equipment 
to be installed, it should be borne in mind that these costs are of 
various classes, some of which are very prominent in certain equip- 
ment in which others are inconsiderable, while with a radically 
different type these items may be reversed with sometimes star- 
tling effect upon the cost equation. 

These items of cost may be figured on the basis of the following 
list by way of memorandum : 

Annual cost: 

1. Initial expense -|- installation X annual interest rate. 

2. Initial expense + installation X annual depreciation rate. 

3. Initial expense + installation X annual rate for repairs. 

4. Labor cost of attention and operation. 

5. Superintendence. 

6. Overhead. 

7. Annual cost for fuel oil and other supplies. 

8. Or annual cost of purchased power. 

1241 



1242 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The above annual costs, divided by the total amount of water 
pumped, will give the unit cost for the particular conditions in- 
volved. This should be worked out for each type of equipment, 
having regard to its particular efficiency, fuel cost, etc., before de- 
ciding upon the particular type for the work in hand. 

Classification. Pumps may be classified in various ways, but for 
the consideration of their mechanical action Turneaure and Russell 
in Public Water Supplies state they may be best considered under 
the following heads : 

1. Displacement-pumps. 

2. Impeller-pumps. 

3. Impulse-pumps. 

4. Bucket-pumps. 

The various subdivisions of the classification are shown in the 
diagram : 






5ce 



Recipro- - 
eating 



Rotary 



CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS 

I Double 
Action i Single 

f Pi <?tnTi r Inside-packed 
Class ] piunilr 1 Outside-packed 
I Plunger [center-packed 

(Single 
Power ■{ Duplex 
LTriplex 



Type 



Steam 



lApplication 



f High-pressure 
I Compound 

TDirect-acting 
i Arrangement ■< Crank and flywheel 
^ L Compensator 



Hydraulic 



Direct-acting. 
Crank and fly wheel 



Arrangement J Horizontal 

y-r [Surface .suction) 

-•-^ 1 Submerged or deep well 



Air-displacement f^J^^^.^ 
Steam-vacuum ^ V't niirv^r. 
continuous-flow [ g, P^^-^^eting 



Impeller 

Continuous applica- 
tion through some 
mechanical agency- 
or medium 



rimpeller {^Zf 



^ ^ -J, ,J r>..c^ J Side suction 
CentrifugaH Case (Double suction 

[Arrangement {^^SSSi^ 

r Water 
Jet ■{ Steam 
I Air 

Impulse (as name implies) — Water-ram, Humphrey gas pump. 

( Wheel 
Bucket (receptacle alternately filled and emptied) |Band 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1243 



Pump Prices hereinafter given are all net f.o.b. factory. 

Centrifugal Pumps. The centrifugal pump has been developed 
and perfected during the past seven years, so that it is now recog- 
nized as a simple, reliable pump of great range. 

TABLE I. IRON VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 







OJ^ 




0) 


Shipping wt, 








•d • 


^i 


^^ 


h 


(lbs.) Price complete 




?^ 


«H_fl 


4) W 


O) t|_( 














TJ "^ 


°--5 


i| 


-o 




'd 




1 


3 <3 

0*0 


§& 


i?" 




c 


^ 


g^ 

m 


g3 

1 

5 




1! 


1« 






02 


l| 


1V2 


.058 


5x 6 


70 


2:75 


120 


135 


$20 


$30 


2 


.10 


7x 8 


120 


3:33 


198 


250 


32 


50 


3 


.22 


7x 8 


260 


3:5 


235 


340 


47 


73 


4 


.30 


8x10 


470 


4:0 


380 


495 


55 


85 


5 


.45 


10x10 


735 


4:6 


605 


785 


70 


105 


6 


.59 


12x12 


1,050 


4:6 


740 


1,050 


85 


140 


10 


1.52 


20x12 


3,000 


5:4 


1,430 


1,925 


165 


275 


12 


2.00 


24 X 14 


4,200 


6:0 


2,640 


3,000 


210 


350 


'12 


2.00 


20 X 12 


4.200 


3:75 


2,000 


2.500 


185 


325 


18 


4.50 


36x18 


10,000 


7:0 


6,000 


7,000 


470 


790 


18 


4.50 


30x16 


10,000 


6:5 


2,900 


3,300 


420 


710 



• Refers to low-lift pumps for elevations up to 25 ft. 
TABLE II. IRON HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 



5fi 



« 




H 


1-S 


«»-i;^ 

■?>. 










C 



Id 




^1 


u 


1 


M 





R';^ 


a© 


c3«M 


0^ 




*c 


5 


3 
W 


5 = 


W 


5° 


fc 


^ 


0. 


iy2 


2 


70 


.058 


6x 6 


17x31 


175 


$22 


2 


3 


120 


.10 


8x 8 


23 X 37 


350 


37 


3 


4 


260 


.22 


8x 8 


25x39 


415 


55 


4 


5 


470 


.30 


10x10 


29x41 


615 


65 


5 


6 


735 


.45 


12 X 12 


34 X 54 


940 


82 


6 


8 


1,050 


.59 


15x12 


37x55 


1,180 


100 


10 


12 


3,000 


1.52 


24 X 22 


51 X 69 


2,610 


197 


12 


15 


4,200 


2.00 


30x14 


63x71 


3,615 


250 


*12 


12 


4,200 


2.00 


20x12 


51x59 


2.800 


250 


18 


20 


10,000 


4.50 


40x16 


93x103 


9,000 


650 


*18 


20 


10,000 


4.50 


30x16 


66x72 


5,800 


575 


*24 


24 


15.000 


6.50 


48x20 


90x98 


10,800 


1,075 


24 


24 


15,000 


6.50 


48x36 


94x137 


13,000 


1,500 



* Low-lift pumps for elevations up to 25 ft. 



The principal trouble with a centrifugal pump, especially when 
the pump is at a substantial height above the water, is in starting 
it. When the pump sucks it must be reprimed and started again. 
Therefore, if the amount of water to be handled is not as great as 



1244 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the minimum capacity there will be many stops and knock-offs to 
prime. Before starting up a steam pump, especially in cold weather, 
it should be well warmed up by live steam from the end of a hose 
in order to thaw out any ice that may have formed in the cylinders 
and to give the iron parts a chance to expand gradually. 

Iron Vertical Centrifugal Pumps, submerged or suction type, 
furnished complete with short shaft and coupling, one bearing, 
pulley for connecting shaft and dischai'ge elbow, are used exten- 
sively for irrigation purposes, sewage pumping, and for any place 
where a pump may be placed in a pit. Suitable for elevating water 
50 to 60 ft. 

Iron Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps for belt drive. A pump used 
extensively for all purposes. 

The above pump, fitted with a direct connected vertical steam 
engine costs: 4 in. side suction, 4x4 in. engine, $210; weight, 1,290 
lbs. 5 in. side suction, 5x5 in. engine, $224 ; weight 1,440 lbs. 6 in. 
side suction, 6x6 in. engine, $238 ; weight 1,570 lbs. 

Double Suction Iron Pumps, built extra heavy for elevating water 
to great heights. 

TABLE III. DOUBLE SUCTION CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 







• w^ 




is 














(B M 


<a CO 




<B 




t* 






c* 


^73 




§1 











o 

m 


.2 


1^ 


% 


S ft 


IS 




IS 


I 


s 


3 
m 


w 


s° 


S 




2 




iVi 


2 


70 


.058 


7x 8 


20 X 


30 


290 


$30 


2 


31/2 


120 


.10 


8x 8 


26 X 


35 


510 


45 


3 


31/2 


260 


.22 


8x 8 


27 X 


38 


615 


67 


4 


5 


470 


.30 


10x10 


33 X 


40 


900 


87 


5 


6 


735 


.45 


12x12 


37 X 


49 


1,530 


125 


6 


7 


1,050 


.59 


15x12 


43 X 


51 


1,730 


175 


10 


11 


3,000 


1.52 


24x12 


57 X 


73 


3,325 


387 


12 


13 


4.200 


2.00 


30x14 


69 X 


82 


5,500 


560 



19 20 10,000 4.50 40x16 90x80 . 9,300 1,025 

Direct Connected Dredging Pumps, complete with suction and 
discharge elbow, flap valve and steam primers, lubricator and oil 
cups. Cast iron impellor. The shipping weight and the price may 
vary 20% from the averages given in Table IV. 

Belt Driven Sand and Dredging Pumps, complete except for pipe 
or hose, in Table V. - 

Pulsometer. A very well known steam operated vacuum pump 
consists of two bottle shaped cylinders with the necessary valve 
inlet and outlet pipes. The operation of this pump is sustained 
by alternate pressure and vacuum. Steam, cushioned by a- layer 
of air automatically admitted, is brought to bear directly upon the 
liquid in the pump chambers and forces it out through the dis- 
charge pipe ; the subsequent rapid condensation of the steam, ef-. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1245 



TABLE 


IV. DIRECT CONNECTED DREDGING PUMPS 








Size 


of 






^\ 




aq-lTj 


"S 


1 

(U _ 


cylinders 




.S^ c 


a 




No. pum 
diam. o 
tion an 
charge 


03 

1 


aa 

1" 


E 
5 


o 


§S8 


m m 

Si 


4-> 


.2 

u 
0^ 


4 


15 


Single 


5 


5 


30 


2 


1,600 


$224 


4 


20 


Single 


6 


6 


30 


2 


1,800 


240 


4 


25 


Double 


5 


5 


30 


2 


2,000 


328 


6 


15 


Single 


6 


6 


60 


4 


2,500 


285 


6 


20 


Single 


7 


7 


60 


4 


2.700 


316 


•6 


25 


Double 


6 


6 


60 


4 


3,000 


415 


8 


15 


Single 


9 


9 


125 


6 


4,750 


501 


8 


20 


Double 


7 


7 


125 


6 


5,800 


567 


8 


25 


Double 


8 


8 


125 


6 


6,500 


723 


10 


15 


Single 


10 


10 


200 


8 


7,500 


645 


10 


20 


Double 


9 


9 


200 


8 


9,500 


822 


10 


25 


Double 


10 


10 


200 


8 


10,500 


1,000 


12 


15 


Single 


12 


12 


300 


10 


10.000 


892 


12 


20 


Double 


10 


10 


300 


10 


12,800 


1,069 


12 


25 


Double 


12 


12 


300 


10 


16,000 - 


1,485 



TABLE V. BELT DRIVEN PUMPS 



is -§f ^1 ^B ^ d- 

I^iOQffiO mJCU 

4 4 30 4 12x12 1,200 2 $108 

6 6 60 8 18x12 1,850 41/0 155 

8 8 125 15 24x12 3,600 6 245 

10 10 200 25 30x14 4,550 8 31Q 

12 12 300 30 40x16 8,000 10 435 

fected by the peculiar construction of the pump, forms a vacuum in 
the working chambers, into which atmo.spheric pressure forces a 
fresh supply of liquid through the suction pipe. This action is 
maintained quite automatically, and is governed by a self-acting 
valve ball in the neck of the pump, which obeys the combined in- 
fluences of steam pressure on one side and vacuum on the other. 
The valve ball oscillates from its seat in the entrance to one 
chamber to its seat in the entrance to the other chamber, thereby 
distributing the .steam. 

This pump will do all classes of rough service water raising 
up to 75 ft. elevation. It has no piston, no packing, no oil, and 
seldom breaks down, but is very uneconomical of steam. 

Each pump is furnished complete with either basket or mush- 
room strained steam and release valve connection, and pump hook 
for suspending when necessary, but no piping. 



1246 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Another pump working- on similar principles, but which may be 
slightly more economical in steam consumption and works ag^ainst 
greater heads, the main differences are in the steam distribution, 
which, in this type, is governed by a simple engine, and in the 
necessity of oil for lubrication. These pumps will work, admit- 
ting 30% of air or 25% of grit, and a continuous run of four months 
has been recorded. They are especially valuable in quicksand and 
wherever the quantity of water is variable. The cost of repairs is 
nominal. 

TABLE VI. PULSOMETER PUMPS 



Size of pipe (ins.) 



Capacity in gals, per 
min. at different eleva- 
tions and boiler h.p. 



Price, 

f.o.b. 

New York 



% 

y2 
% 

% 
1 

2 



3 
xn 

11/2 

2 

21/2 

3 

31/2 
4 
5 
11 



11/2 
2 

21/2 
3 

3y2 

4 

5 



«H 

\a 

20 

60 

100 

180 

300 

425 

700 

1,000 

2,000 



17 

50 

80 

160 

265 

375 

625 

900 

1,800 



13 

38 

65 

115 

200 
275 
450 
650 
1,400 



4 

5 

6 

9 

12 

15 

25 

35 

70 



> 'A 



$68 
90 
135 
158 
203 
248 
360 
450 
900 



>l 
^ a 

PQ 

$71 
95 
142 
168 
217 
270 
396 
495 



A ■ 
.^^ 

01 — 

^^ 

95 

140 

295 

430 

570 

745 

1,375 

2.100 

3.800 



These pumps are made in two types ; the standard consists of 
two vertical cylinders, each with a discharge and suction valve, 
topped by one simple, 3 -cylinder horizontal engine, with the neces- 
sary air cocks, lubricator and condenser piping, but no steam, suc- 
tion or discharge pipe is supplied. 

The Junior consists of a single cylinder, a steam piston valve, 
suction valve, discharge valve, condenser pipe, check valve and 
stop cock, and is furnished with patented foot valve and quick 
cleaning strainer. 

Capacity 

in gals. ^Greatest->, 
, — Size of pipes (ins. ) — ^ per dimensions. Weight, 
Steam. Suction. Dis'ge. minute. Br'dth. H'g'ht. 
% 3 21/2 100 

% 4 3 150 

% 5 4 200 



Cat. 
No 



141/2 

171/2 
21 



Lbs. 
219 
290 
410 



Price. 

$100 

125 

175 



Capacities stated in table in gallons per minute and per hour are 
calculated on a head or lift of 20 ft. These capacities diminish at 
the rate of about 6% for each 10 ft. of additional head up to 100 ft., 
the highest lift, 

A Double Acting Force Hand Pump for filling tank wagons 
from brooks or other water sources has a capacity, with one man 
pumping, of one to two barrels per minute. Maximum total lift 
and force, 50 ft. ; maximum lift 25 ft., cylinder diameter 5 ins., 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1247 

stroke, 5 ins. capacity per stroke 0.85 gal. Suction hose 2 ins., 
discharge hose 1 in. ; price of pump, with strainer, hose-couplings 
and clamps, but no hose, $8. 

Lift and Force Diaphragm Pump, No. 3, one man pumping, ca- 
pacity, 4,000 gals, per hour; price, with 15 ft. of hose, $42; with 
20 ft. of hose, $48. No 4, two men pumping, capacity 6,000 gals, 
per hour; price, with 15 ft. of hose, $61.50, with 20 ft. of hose, $70. 
Diaphragm pumps are suited for general construction work, where 
the pumping is intermittent and the amount of water to be raised 
is small. The life of the pump depends on the care it is given 
and the amount of grit the water contains. In very gritty water a 
diaphragm wears out in two or three weeks. These cost $1.30 
each ; extra strainers, which are sometimes broken by careless 
handling, cost $1.35 each. A set of brass hose-couplings costs $3. 

Lift and Force Diaphragm Pump, No. 6, capacity 1,000 gals, per 
hour with one man working; weight 50 lbs.; price, with 10 feet of 
suction and 25 ft. of connection hose, $54. No. 8, 4,000 gals, per 
hour with two men pumping; weight 270 lbs.; price $104.50. No. 
10, 6,000 gals, per hour with two mem pumping; weight, 395 lbs.; 
price $139.75. Pumps alone. No. 6, $25; No. 8, $70; No. 10, $90. 
Pumps, with 20 ft. of suction hose and 200 ft. of connection hose. 
No. 6, $123.50; No. 8, $200; No. 10, $276. 

The above pumps are especially suitable in mining prospecting 
or for any work where the water contains as much as 50 per cent, 
of solids. These pumps will handle grout and quicksand. 

A Diaphragm Pump, known as No. 3 Contractors' Mud Pump, 
with double diaphragms, and a gasoline engine rated at 3 h.p., and 
having a speed of 500, all mounted on a truck, equipped with 15 ft. 
of 3 in. spiral wire suction hose and 25 feet of discharge hose, 
with brass couplings and strainer, tools, etc., costs $300. The ca- 
pacity of this pump is from 6,000 to 8,000 gals, per hr. of water 
containing a considerable amount of sand, sewage and gravel. It 
is guaranteed for one year; weight, 1,000 lbs.; space occupied 
2 ft. by 5 ft. 

Suction or Bilge Pump, consisting of a tin pipe with a plunger 
worked by hand. 

Diam. ins. Price per lin. ft. 

2 $0.45 

21/2 50 

3 55 

31^ 60 

4 65 

Pumps less than 5 ft. long charged as 5 ft. 

Special Pump. In the Marsh steam pump, the steam valve is 
made of brass, and though nicely fitted, moves freely in the central 
bore of the steam chest. It has no mechanical connections with 
other moving parts of the pump, but is actuated to admit, cut off 
and release the steam by live steam currents, which alternate with 
the reciprocations of the piston. Each end of the valve is made to 
fit the enlarged bore of the steam chest, and it is due to those 
enlarged valve heads, which present differential areas to the action 



1248 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of steam, and the perfect freedom of the valve to move without 
hindrance from other mechanical arrangements or parts, that the 
flow of steam into the pump is automatically regulated. Because 
the pump is so regulated it can never run too fast to take suction ; 
or, should the water supply give out when the throttle valve is wide 
open, no injury can occur to the moving parts. The steam valve 
does not require setting. The steam piston is double, and each head 
is provided with a metal packing ring, the interior space constitut-' 
ing a reservoir for live steam pressure, supplied by the live steam 
pipe through a drilled hole. At each end of the steam cylinder 
are similar holes leading to each end of the steam chest, which, 
together with the centrally drilled hole and the space between the 
piston heads, constitute positive means for tripping or reversing the 
valve with live steam. 



TABLE VII. COST AND WEIGHT OF MARSH STEAM PUMPS 



Size 
B 

BB 
C 



Gallons 
per hour. 

200 

400 

500 



Horse- 
power. 

36 

60 

75 



Floor 

space, ins. 

7x12 

8x16 

10 X 22 



Weight, 

lbs. 

40 

75 

145 



Price 

$11.50 

14.00 

25.00 



TABLE VIII. 



SIMPLEX PISTON PUMPS FOR TANK AND 
LIGHT SERVICE 



Diam. Diam. 

steam water 



nders. 


cylinders. 


stroke. 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b. 


ns. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


3 


3 


3 


125 


$33 


3% 


3% 


6 


260 


50 


4 


4 


5 


300 


56 


4 


5 


5 


370 


62 


4 


5 


6 


420 


68 


5 


4 


. 6 


420 


68 


5 


5 


6 


490 


74 


5% 


eys 


8 


780 


100 


6y2 


6y2 


8 


890 


115 . 


8 


8 


10 


1,400 


168 


8 


9 


10 


1,500 


180 


8 


8 


12 


1.600 


190 


8 


9 


12 


1,750 


200 


8 


10 


12 


2,000 


230 


8 


12 


12 


2,650 


300 



These pumps are furnished with bed-plate, outboard bearing and 
gears ready to receive motor, all in accordance with the require- 
ments for the construction of fire pumps of the Underwriters Asso- 
ciation. Thirty h.p. for each fire-stream will drive these pumps 
against 100 lbs. pressure. 

For elevations of 250 to 2,000 feet — 110 to 865 lbs. pressure long 
stroke, — single-acting Triplex Plunger Pump for heavy duty. The 
prices given are for regular construction which provides — iron 
plungers, cylinders and glands and rubber disc valves reinforced 
with bronze plates working on bronze guides and seats. Air cham- 
bers are furnished on sizes 10x14 in. and larger. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1249 



TABLE 


IX. SIMPLEX PISTON 


PUMPS, BOILER FEED 




PUMPS OR HEAVY 


SERVICE 




Diam. 


Diam. 








steam 


water 








cylinders, 


cylinders. 


Stroke, 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


5 


3 


6 


360 


$61 


7 


5 


10 


930 


118 


10 


6 


12 


1,650 


194 


12 


7 


12 


2,150 


247 


12 


7 


16 


2,650 


290 


14 


8 


12 


2,650 


290 


14 


8 


14 


3,000 


325 


14 


9 


16 


3,500 


370 


16 


9 


16 


4,000 


410 


18 


12 


16 


5,100 


500 


20 


14 


16 


6,000 , 


590 


20 


12 


24 


7,400 


710 


TABLE X. 


DUPLEX 


PISTON PUMPS FOR TANK OR LIGl 






SERVICE 






Diam. 


Diam. 








steam 


water 








cylinders, 


cylinders, 


Stroke. 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


3 


2% 


3 


125 


$34 


41/2 


3% 


4 


310 


56 


5% 


4% 


5 


650 


90 


6 


5% 


6 


700 


95 


6 


TY2 


6 


860 


112 


6 


8% 


6 


980 


125 


TV2 


7% 


6 


1,000 


125 


7% 


SVa 


6 


1,100 


137 


7% 


6 


10 


1,250 


155 


7% 


81/2 


10 


1,600 


195 


8 


8 


10 


1,600 


195 


9 


81/2 


10 


2,200 


250 


10 


12 


12 


4,400 


450 


10 


14 


12 


4,700 


470 


10 


16 


12 


5.000 


500 


TABLE 


XI. DJJPLBX PISTON PUMPS, BOILER FEED 




PUMPS OR HEAVY 


SERVICE 




Diam. 


Diam. 








steam 


water 








cylinders, 


cylinders. 


Stroke, 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b., 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


2 


11/4 


2% 


90 


$29 


3 


2 


3 


100 


30 


3y2 


2^4 


4 


165 


40 


4V» 


2% 


4 


265 


50 


5y; 


3 ¥2 


5 


410 


66 


6 


4 


6 


560 


78 


TV2 


5 


6 


780 


100 


7V2 


4y2 


10 


1,100 


140 


8 


5 


10 


1,220 


155 


8 


6 


10 . 


1,350 


162 


9 


5 


10 


1,400 


168 


10 


6 


10 


1,650 


195 


10 


6 


12 


2,700 


300 


12 


7 


12 


4,100 


420 


14 


SV2 


12 


4,600 


460 



1250 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XII. DUPLEX PLUNGER PUMPS, CENTER PACKED 
TYPE FOR BOILER FEED AND HEAVY SERVICE 



Diam. 


Diam. 








steam 


water 








binders, 


cylinders, 


Stroke, 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


41/2 


2% 


4 


530 


$79 


5% 


31/2 


5 


680 


95 


6 


4 


6 


840 


110 




5 


6 


1,100 


132 


7% 


41/2 


10 


1,600 


176 


8 


5 


10 


1,750 


189 


8 


6 


10 


1,950 


205 


9 


5 


10 


2,100 


215 


10 


6 


10 


2,600 


255 


12 


7 


10 


3,800 


340 


12 


SVa 


10 


4,200 


370 


14 


81/2 


10 


5,100 


440 


10 


6 


12 


3,200 


300 


12 


7 


12 


4,500 


390 


14 


81/2 


12 


6,200 


510 


♦ 14 


7% 


12 


5,700 


480 


*16 


9 


12 


7,600 


610 


*18 


10 


12 


9,200 


720 


*20 


12 


16 


16,000 


1,150 



Underwriters' fire pumps. 



TABLE 


XIII. AUTOMATIC 


DUPLEX PISTON 


FEED PUMI 






AND RECEIVERS 




Diam. 


Diam. 








steam 


water 








cylinders. 


cylinders, 


Stroke 


Weight, 


Price, f.o.b. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


lbs. 


factory 


3 


2 


3 


400 


$84 


41/2 


2% 


4 


550 


94 


5y4 


31/2 


5 


950 


118 


6 


4 


6 


1,150 


138 


71/2 


5 


6 


1,250 


147 


71/2 


41/2 


10 


1,650 


194 


8 


5 


10 


1,750 


210 



For 150 lbs. water pressure. 



TABLE 


XIV. AUTOMATIC DUPLEX PLUNGER FEED 
PUMPS AND RECEIVERS* 


Diam. 

steam 

cylinders, 

ins. 


Diam. 

water 

cylinders, 

ins. 


Stroke, 
ins. . 


Weight, 
lbs. 


Price, f.o.b. 
factory 




2% 

31/2 

4 

5 

5 


4 
5 
6 
6 
10 


700 
1,200 
1,450 
1,550 
2,150 


$125 
138 
164 
178 
430 



• For 200 lbs. water pressure. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1251 



TABLE XV. UNDERWRITERS' ROTARY FIRE PUMP 



Capacity 

per min., 

gals. 

500 
1,000 



Stand. 
250 gal. 

fire 

str'ms. 

2 

4 



R.p.m, 



275 
245 



Suet, 
disc, 
pipe, 
ins, 
6 



Disc, 
hose 



2 ¥2 
2Y2 



Price f.o.b. 

factory, (30 

days; 20% 

10 days) 

$750 
$1,450 



TABLE XVI. DOUBLE-GEARED TRIPLEX PUMPS 



Gals, per 
Diam., ins. revolution 
stroke 14 ins. of crank 
shaft 

5 3.57 

6 5.14 

7 7.00 

8 9.13 

10 14.28 

11 17.28 

12 20.56 

13 24.12 

14 27.98 



Working 

pressure, 

lbs. 

865 
605 
435 
345 
215 
175 
150 
130 
110 



Suet, 
pipe, 
ins. 



7 
7 
8 
12 
12 
12 
12 



Disc, 
pipe, 
ins. 

5 
5 



10 
10 
10 
10 



Gear ratio 5 to 1. Double belt, — pulley 60 by 14 ins. 
speed 40 r.p.m. of crank shaft. 



Price 
f. o. b. 
factory 

$2,100 
2,025 
1,985 
1,970 
1,910 
1,875 
1,875 
1,910 
1,950 

Customary 



Formulae for the Cost of Pumps. In Tables XVII to XIX are 

given formulae for the cost boiler feed pumps, centrifugal pumps 
and geared power pumps. These formulae were developed by A. A. 
Potter in Power, Dec. 30, 1913. 

TABLE XVII. BOILER FEED PUMPS 

(After Potter). 

Cost in $ equals 

Capacity gals, per hr. 

Type gals, per hr. multiplied by 

Single-cylinder, piston pattern. Up to 6.000 (17.8 + 0.2586) 

Single-cylinder, piston pattern. 6,000 to 27,000 (106.8 -f 0.011045) 

Duplex, piston pattern Up to 29,000 (585 + 0.0115) 

Single-cylinder, outside-packed, 

plunger Up to 24,000 0.034 

Duplex outside-packed plunger 

pattern Up to 49,000 0.042125 



TABLE XVIII. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 

(After Potter). 

Cost in $ equals 

Capacity gals, per min. 
Type gals, per min. multiplied by 

Horizontal, low pressure, single- 
stage Up to 5,000 (52 +0.05525) 

Horizontal, high pressure, single- 
stage Up to 5,000 (61 +0.0868) 

Horizontal, high pressure, single- ^,.„„. 

stage 5, 000 to 20,000 (210. +0.0567) 

Horizontal, high pressure, multi- 
stage .... Up to 2,200 (117. +0.233) 

Vertical, low pressure, single-stage Up to 20,000 (60. +0.05575) 

Vertical, high pressure, single-stage Up to 20,000 (50. +0.0865) 

Vertical, high pressure, multi-stage Up to 1,100 (125.7 + 0.27) 



1252 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIX. GEARED POWER PUMPS, (After Potter.) 

Cost in $ equals 

Capacity gals, per hr. 

Type gals, per hr. multiplied by 

Single cylinder Up to 20,000 (90 + 0.0316) 

Single-acting, triplex Up to 83,000 (56 + 0.03867) 

Double-acting, triplex Up to 89,000 (195 + 0.0148) 

Rotary force pumps 1,200 to 20,000 (8 + 0.0117) • 

Wet vacuum pumps Up to 13,000 (18 + 0.01435) 

Wet vacuum pumps 13,000 to 50,000 (14 + 0.00863) 

TABLE XX. PUMPS FOR MINING AND HEAVY DUTY 

(Duplex, com.pound, with semi-rotary steam valves and outside 
end packed plunger water end). 

Size of pumps : 

Diam. high pressure steam cylinder, ins. ... 30 

Diam. low pressure steam cylinder, ins. ... 50 

Diam. of plungers, ins 14 

Length of stroke, ins 48 

Theoretical discharge : 

Gallons per stroke 31 

Gallons per minute 2,325 to 3.100 

Corresponding to strokes per minute 75 to 100 

Floor space required, ft 45 X 16 

Shipping weight, lbs 170,000 

Cost f. o. b. cars, factory $10,500 

Cost of erection on foundation, but not in- 
cluding foundation $450 to $500 

Cost of attendance. — Three men working in 8 hr. shifts at from 
$1.65 to $2.40 per day each. (Wages would vary with loca- 
tion.) 

Average fuel consumption with pump running condensiiig is 35 
lbs. of steam per h.p.-hr. 

Miscellaneous cost, oil, waste, etc., approximately $350 per annum. 

TABLE XXI. COMPOUND HEAVY DUTY PISTON PUMPS 

Size of pump : 
Diam. high press, steam cyl., ins. 14 18 24 

Diam. low press, steam cyl., ins. 20 26 36 

Diam. water cylinder, ins 10 14 18 

Length of stroke, ins 16 20 20 

Diam. of pump openings : 

Steam, ins. 2 2 % 3 

Exhaust, ins 31/2^ 5 6 

Suction, ins 8 10 12 

Discharge, ins 6 8 10 

Theoretical discharge in gals. : 

Displacement per stroke ....... . 5.44 13.324 22.024 

Per minute 100 ft. piston speed.. 408 800 1,322 

Per hour 100 ft. piston speed 24,480 48,000 79,314 

Water pressure against which 

pump will deliver water ai 

full speed with 100 lbs. steam 

pressure at the throttle 150 130 140 

Approximate dimensions: x 

Length, ins 130 155 165 

Width, ins 25 32 42 

Heie^ht, ins 72 95 105 

Cost, net f. o. b. factory $700 $1,100 $1,900 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1253 

These pumps are designed for a maximum pressure of 150 lbs. 
per sq. in. in the water end. 

TABLE XXII. DOUBLE-ACTING OUTSIDE CENTER PACKED 
PLUNGER PUMPS 
Size of pump : 
Diam. of steam cylinder, ins... 16 20 26 

Diam. of water cylinder, ins.... 10 14 18 

Length of stroke, ins 16 20 24 

Diam. of pump openings: 

Steam, ins 2 21/2 3 

Exhau.st, ins 21/2 3 1/2 5 

Suction, ins 8 10 12 

Discharge, ins 6 8 10 

Theoretical discharge in galls. 

Displacement per stroke 5.44 13.22 22.42 

Per minute at 75 ft. piston speed 306 600 991.5 

Per hour at 75 ft. piston speed. . 18,360 36,000 59,490 

* Horse power of boiler pump 

will feed at 30 strokes per 

min 2,200 5,375 10,575 

Approximate dimensions : 

Length, ins 130 160 185 

Width, ins 22 30 45 

Height, ins 65 80 100 

Cost, net f. o. b. factory $575 $1,100 $1,800 

♦ In this computation a slippage of 10% has been allowed. 

These pumps are designed primarily for boiler feed service but 
are equally well adapted for general service. The water end is 
designed for a pressure of 180 lbs. per sq. in. 

TABLE XXIII. HYDRAULIC RAMS 

Gallons per min. 

Size of drive required to Weight, 

pipe, ins. operate ram lbs. Price* 

lU 2- 6 150 $35.00 

lt/2 6- 12 175 38.50 

2 8- 18 , 225 42.00 
21/^ 12- 28 250 46.00 

3 20- 40 275 52.50 

4 30- 75 ■ 600 105.00 
6 75-150 1,200 192.50 
8 150-300 2,200 350.00 

12 375-700 3,000 525.00 

* Prices given above are for single-acting rams ; double-acting 
rams cost from 10-20% more than those listed, the smaller sizes 
costing proportionally more. 

The prices given are net prices f. o. b. factory. For a success- 
ful installation the ram should be supplied with a liberal quantity 
of water under at least a 3 ft. head. The size of delivery pipe 
depends upon the installation but in general its diameter would be 
about one-half as large as the drive pipe. 

Cost of Pumping in Water Works Steam Pumping Stations. A 
valuable discussion, with data, ©» the cost of pumping water in 
steam plants was presented in a paper by Kenneth F. Lees before 



1254 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



the 1913 annual convention of the Connecticut Society of Civil En- 
gineers. 

The cost of pumping water is best considered under the following 
headings, which will be discussed in the order given: 1, Losses 
in pumping. 2. Duty of pumping plants, 3. Cost of pumping equip- 
ment. 4. Cost of pumping, as shown by calculation, for plants 
of varying capacity and type. 5. Cost of pumping, as shown by 
results of actual practice. 

The losses in pumping may be divided into four general head- 
ings: 1. Losses of generation. 2. Losses of conversion. 3. Losses 
in transmission. 4. Losses in application. 



Torai Lnerqij o1 fuel 



Available in Furnace; 



uti/izeam Boiler 




Delivered by Steam Pipe 



Available in Engine 



I HP Energy Appliea 

^ A H PDeiiverea by Engine 
>, Energy Deiiverea buRope9i%ofiHl* 
V, 5Zl05t in pump rnction 
\K- d% Lost in i^oier Friction 
T^ Energy Delivered by Pump 
^\ 74dloflHP 




Diagram OF Steam Plant DiACftAMOf Rope Driven Centritugal Pump 

Pig. 1. Diagram of steam plant. Diagram of rope driven centrif- 
ugal pump. 



Each of these general headings may be subdivided as shown. As 
an illustration of the value these losses assume in practice, Fig. 
1 gives the efficiency diagrams as reported by Mr. Meade for the 
Rockford pumping plant, using a rope-driven centrifugal pump. 
In the diagram for the steam plant the length of the ordinate rep- 
resents the total energy of the fuel. Of this 48% was found to 
be available in the furnace, while of this latter energy only 75% 
was utilized by the boiler, which is equivalent to about 63% of the 
total energy of the fuel. There was a drop of 4% in the steam 
pipe, a further drop of 15% as energy available in the engine, 
while of the total energy in the fuel only 5% was found to have 
been utilized as indicated horsepower. 

In the diagram for the pump this indicated horsepower is laid 
off on a 100% scale, and the various losses from the engine to 
the pump are shown, the energy delivered by the pump having 
been found to be but 74.8% of the i.h.p. of the engine. This is 
equivalent to about 3.75% of the total energy of the fuel, and illus- 
trates well the necessity for the reduction of losgeg %q a minimum 
tliat pumping may be done economically. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1255 



Duty represents the ratio of work done to the energy expended 
in doing it. The terms usually used to express duty of pumping 
engines are foot pounds duty per 100 lbs. of coal, per 1,000 lbs. 
of steam, or per 1,000,000 heat units. 



Generation. 



rFuel. 



Generation 



PUMPING LOSSES (Mead). 

Losses in Pumping. 

[ Internal combustion 7 

J engine gas, oil j Engine losses 

] r Furnace 

[steam < Boiler 

LPiping 
Ram losses 
Water j Direct [ram] j Velocity losses 

power. 1 Indirect [wheels] | Wheel losses 



Conversion 



fElectric [primary bat-"| 

teries] | Various mechanical 

J Wind [mills] L and other losses 

Minor j Waves [motors] | due to method 

sources Sun heat [solar en- used 
^ gines] ^ 

Conversion. Losses in Pumping. 

r Internal combustion 

engine Included in engine losses 

J Steam Engine and connection losses 

I Electrical Dynamo losses 

Hydraulic Pump losses 

^Pneumatic Compressor 

Transmission. Losses in Pumping. 



Transmission- 



Mechanical . 



Direct connected L^ . 

shaft belt, rope, J Various losses due 

chain, gear, com- to method used 

binations I 

J Pipe friction 

Hydraulic ] Motor losses 

.^- Connections 
Transformer losses 

Electrical .-< Wire losses 

* * * Motor losses 
^ Connections 
I Pipe friction 

Pneumatic J Air cooling 

* I Motor losses 
I Connections 



Application. Losses in Pumping. 



Application 



Pumping 



^ , flnflux 

Inlet pipe ^ Velocity 

LFriction 



Pump 



C Friction in valves 
J and water 



I ages 

I Mechanical friction 



LDischarge pipe Pipe friction 

^a-m Pipe losses 

fRadiation 

Steam ^ Condensation 

iPipe losses 
^Air Air pipe losses 



1256 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Duty based on coal is very indefinite, since the heat value of 
coal varies greatly, and should be used only where the entire plant 
is considered and when the class of coal is also specified. 

Duty based on steam is more definite, but still not exact. Steam 
has a greater value at high than at low pressures. Entrained 
water from the boiler and condensation in the pipes also cause a 

TABLE XXIV. DUTY, CORRESPONDING COAL PER HORSE 

POWER HOUR AND COAL REQUIRED TO RAISE 

1,000,000 GALS. 100 FT. HIGH 



Pounds of 

Duty in coal per 
million ft. -lbs. h.p. per hr. 

1 19.8 

10 19.8 

20 9.9 

30 6.6 

40 4.95 

50 3.96 

60 3.3 

70 2.83 

80 2.47 

90 2.2 

100 1.98 

110 1.8 

120 1.65 

130 1.52 

140 1.41 

150 1.32 

160 1.24 



Pounds of 

coal per million 

gals. 1000 ft. high 

83,398 

8,340 

4,170 

2,780 

2,085 

1,668 

1,389 

1,191 

1,042 

926 

834 

758 

695 

641 

595 

556 

511 



TABLE XXV. 



1,000,000 

gals, per 

24hrs. 



4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

12 

15 



COMPOUND CONDENSING LOW DUTY PUMP- 
ING ENGINES 



Pumping 

machinery, 

foundations 

and piping 

$ 6,900 

9,200 

11,500 

13,800 

16,100 

18,400 

23,000 

27,600 

34,500 



Boilers, 

setting, piping 

and appurtenances. 

$ 3,000 
3,500 
4,000 
5,000 
5,500 
6,000 
7,500 
8,000 
10,000 



Total 
cost 

$ 9,900 
12,700 
15,500 
18.800 
21,600 
24,400 
30,500 
35,600 
44,500 



Triple condensing low duty pumping engines. 

3 $ 8,400 $2,000 $10,400 

4 11,200 2,400 13,700 

5 14,000 3,000 17,000 

6 16,800 3,500 20,300 

Compound condensing high duty pumping engines. 

5 $16,500 $2,000 $18,500 

6 19,800 2,500 22,300 

7 23,100 3,000 26.100 

8 26,400 3,500 29,900 
10 33.000 4,000 37,000 
12 . 39,600 5,000 44,600 
15 49,500 6,000 55,500 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1257 



Triple condensing high duty pumping engines. 

6 J 28,800 $2,000 $ 30,800 

7 33,600 2,500 36,100 

8 38,400 2,500 40,900 
10 48,000 3,000 51,000 
12 57,600 3,500 61,100 
15 72,000 4,000 76,000 
20 96,000 5,500 101,500 
25 120,000 7,000 127,000 
30 144,000 8,000 152,000 

TABLE XXVI. OPERATING COST OF COMPOUND CON- 
DENSING LOW DUTY PUMPING ENGINE 



.s 




O &D 




^t 


be bo 




ij 


ill 


i 


C M O 


§ 

ao 


.ti-S^M 


tM dJUS 


<v & <£ 


Ul ^ 


<D (0 \. 


•"t-T 


<^ S's^h-; 


O >><X> 


ti'S-^ 


s >> 


M ^'O 


o'^ 


^^u^ 


^^^ 


C^ m 




BSic 


+j ^ 


Itta 


°ao 


•;3 C c^ 


|s 


iss 


Q, 


3,000,000 


% 4,687 


$ 897 


$3,600 


$ 420 


$13.15 


4,000,000 


5,672 


1,196 


3,600 


490 


11.26 


5,000,000 


6,504 


1,495 


3,600 


560 


9.99 


6,000,000 


7,807 


1,794 


3,600 


700 


9.52 


7,000,000 


8,410 


2,093 


3,600 


770 


8.93 


8,000,000 


9,600 


2,392 


3,600 


840 


8.44 


10,000,000 


11,913 


2,990 


3,600 


1,050 


8.07 


12,000,000 


13,320 


3,588 


4,800 


1,120 


7.81 


15,000,000 


16,784 


4,485 


4,800 


1,450 


7.75 


Operating cost of triple condensing low duty 


pumping engine. 


3,000,000 


$3,118 


$1,092 


$3,600 


$280 


$11.08 


4,000,000 


3,907 


1,456 


3,600 


350 


9.57 


5,000,000 


4,590 


1,820 


3,600 


420 


8.57 


6,000,000 


5,203 


2,184 


3,600 


490 


7.85 


Operating ( 


3ost of compound condensing high duty pumping 


engine. 


5,000,000 


$3,556 


$2,145 


$3,600 


$280 


$7.85 


6.000,000 


4,161 


2,574 


3,600 


350 


7.31 


7,000,000 


4,800 


3,003 


3,600 


420 


6.94 


8,000,000 


5,379 


3.432 


3,600 


490 


6.62 


10,000,000 


6,550 


4,290 


3,600 


&60 


6.19 


12,000,000 


7,665 


5,148 


3,600 


700 


5.86 


15,000,000 


9,355 


6,435 


3,600 


840 


5.75 


Operating 


cost of triple 


condensing high duty 


' piumping 


engine. 


6,000,000 


$3,285 


$3,168 


$3,600 


$280 


$7.07 


7,000,000 


3,766 


3,696 


3,600 


350 


6.70 


8,000,000 


4,161 


4,224 


3,600 


350 


6.33 


10,000,000 


5,028 


5,280 


3,600 


420 


5.91 


12,000,000 


6,025 


6,336- 


3,600 


490 


5.64 


15,000,000 


7,096 


7,920 


3,600 


560 


5.45 


20,000.000 


9,180 


10,560 


4,800 


770 


5.22 


25,000,000 


11,1^2 


13,200 


4,800 


980 


4.95 


30,000,000 


12,999 


15,840 


e,ooo 


1,120 


4.92 



1258 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

variation in results. Hence in considering duty with respect to 
steam the terms dry steam and a specified pressure should be 
included. 

Duty in terms of B. t. u. is absolutely definite. 

Low duty in a pumping plant means high coal and steam con- 
sumption for a given output, and thus increased cost for boilers. 
High duty means lower cost for boilers and fuel and increased cost 
of machinery. The next table gives the relation between duty, 
the corresponding coal per horsepower per hour, and the weight of 
coal required to raise 1,000,000 gals. 100 ft. high. 

To summarize, then, we have in favor of high duty : 1. Main- 
tenance account for boilers. 2. Interest on boilers. 3. Sinking 
fund for boilers. 4. The coal account. 

Against high duty we have : 1. Maintenance account for ma- 
chinery. 2. Interest on machinery. 3. Sinking fund for machin- 
ery. 4. Oil, waste, packing, etc. It is evident, therefore, that in 
every plant the layout question of duty must be considered in 
determining probable cost of pumping. 

The above relations are shown in the following tables by Charles 
A. Hague, relating to initial and operating costs of plants with 
various types and classes of pumping engines, adequate boilers 
and fittings, the data are such as will show the prevailing condi- 
tions in the average run of plants in waterworks service. While 
it is, of course, safer to consider each particular case by itself, 
the tables will indicate closely approximate results. The data 
for the tables follow : 

Number of days for year's work 365 

Number of hours of pumping per day 16 

Number of shifts per day 2 

Length of shifts, hours 8 

Pay of operating engineers per year $1,200 

Pay of firemen per year 600 

Pay of extra men per year 600 

Maintenance account of engines 3% 

Sinking fund for vertical triple expansion engines. . . 3% 

Sinking fund for all other types of engines 5% 

Maintenance account for boilers 4% 

Oil, waste, packing and small repairs 1% 

Coal, per ton of 2.000 lbs $3.00 

The calculations for cost are based on a fair average price for 
machinery, foundations and appurtenances, together with boilers and 
their appliances. Also upon an actual evaporation in the boilers 
of 8 lb. of steam produced at working pressure per pound of coal. 

Price of coal $3 per net ton of 2,000 lb. in the fire room ready 
for firing, and upon a water load on the plungers "bf 90 lb. per sq, 
in., which is equivalent to a head of 207 ft., including suction and 
friction of water. The tables are self-explanatory. 

In considering the cost of pumping, as shown by results of actual 
practice, tables compiled by Mr. Sando some years ago (1902) give 
a fair idea of the expenses involved in large plants throughout the 
country, and the division of these expenses. The results of tests 
on more modern plants that have been recently reported, and of 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1259 



which many have been consulted not only for steam, but also for 
oil, gas and electric plants, conform fairly well with them. See 
Tables XXVII and XXVIII. 



TABLE XXVII. 



ACTUAL COST OF PUMPING IN VARIOUS 
CITIES 



Division of 









lotai pump- 
ing expenses. 


Cost of a 24 hr. 




m 














cS <s 




l-s§ 


if. 


1.11 


^8 




oa» 


o o 


of coal for 
ir. pump hors 
er at $1 per 
of 2,240 lbs. 




i3^ 




>82 


5^ 




c3 q c 


ill 

PQ 


Cost 
24h 
pow 
ton 


Philadelphia 


.320.0 


205.0 


$3.38 


34 


66 


$100.36 


$53.27 


$15.77 


Baltimore . . . 


. 24.26 


177.3 


3.46 






64.97 


46.75 


13.51 


Boston 


.115.07 
. 60.4 


71.23 
256.0 


5.07 
0.986 


44 
44 


56 
56 


73.34 
49.06 


32.26 
17.29 


6.36 


Pittsburgh . . 


17.52 


Cincinnati . . . 


. 55.58 


248.6 


1.39 


43 


57 


139.74 


36.10 


25.97 


Buffalo 


.114.0 
.135.8 


147.73 
154.2 


1.86 
1.50 


39 
40 


61 
60 


76.76 
65.71 


25.64 
25.99 


13.82 


St. Louis . . , 


17.32 


Milwaukee . . 


. 29.76 


145.47 


3.30 


59 


41 


77.73 


25.17 


7.62 


Cleveland . . . 


. 73.72 


205.1 


1.48 


48 


52 


51.40 


19.19 


12.59 


Providence . . 


. 13.26 


171.6 


5.18 


35 


65 


86.51 


36.84 


7.11 


Brooklyn Bor 


















ough 


".173.4 


107.4 


3.15 


42 


58 


161.60 


52.44 


16.65 


Manhattan 


















Borough . . 


. 52.77 


111.55 


5.25 


48 


52 


128.46 


66.63 


12.69 


Chicago 


.358.1 


102.4 


2.85 


35 


65 


101.43 


40.17 


14.24 



Consideration of the foregoing tables, both those with theoretical 
and actual results, show a great variation in the cost of pumping 
with location of plant, equipment of plant and with management. 
It is therefore difRcult to come to any definite conclusion as to the 
cost of 1,000,000 ft. -gals. However, we may take as an average 
value, representing general practice, a cost of 414 cts. to pump that 
quantity of water. 

Cost of Complete Pumping Engines. Charles A. Hague, in the 
Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Dec. 1911, gives 
the following data :• 

Cost of pumping engines complete, with foundations, piping and 
appurtenances, per million gallons per 24 hrs. capacity. 

1. Compound-condensing, low-duty engines, horizontal $2,300 

2. Low-duty triple, condensing, horizontal 2,800 

3. Cross-compound, condensing, , horizontal 3,300 

4. High-duty triple, condensing, vertical 4,800 



The first and second are non-rotative or " direct acting " ma- 
chinery, and the third and fourth are of the crank -and-fly-wheel 



1260 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



asuadxa 






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<J 




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13 


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eg 


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a 

3 






+-> 




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o 




C 


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W 


m 


w 


mm 


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m 


<i 


< 


m 


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lo 


U5fO 


fO^ 


(O^tO 


o 


in 


OS 


WOJiH 


Tj<eot- 


i-l«0 


0O<M 




t-iH(35 


(£.00 


CO OOO 


IrtOO 




CO 


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as-*«o 


■^irs 


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•SW'-i 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1261 

type. The figures do not include anything for buildings, land, 
chimneys, wells, boilers, etc. 

The cost of boilers with mechanical stokers, feed-pumps and 
appurtenances, steam piping, and minor details — everything ready 
for service under average conditions — would be covered by $20 
per boiler h.p. 

It is impossible to include all plants, therefore these averages 
are based on : 

Total water load against the plungers, 90 lbs. per sq. in., or a 
head of 207 ft. including suction and friction. 

Actual evaporation in the boilers under working conditions, 8 
lbs. of water per pound of coal, with feed at 150 degs. and with coal 
at $3 per net ton of 2,000 lbs. 

Steam pressure at throttle valve of engine, 75 lb. gauge, for 
low-duty compound; 125 lb. gauge, for low-duty triple and cross- 
compound; 150 lb. gauge, for high-duty triple; an allowance of 5 
lb. above the pressures given for boiler pressures. 

The desire is often expressed for a schedule, rate of cost, or 
price of pumping engines, but it is a very difficult matter to make 
a price list at any certain time, which will be reliable beyond an 
approximate guide for estimate. Although the water-works pump- 
ing engine has been brought largely to a commercial basis in man- 
ufacture and sale, the conditions under which it must operate 
are special for the location where wanted, and all prices pertain- 
ing to specially defined contracts are more or less changeable. 

The following table gives an example of how methodically the 
cost of plants built on the unit basis may be determined. In some 
cases these figures may be too high and in others too low ; they 
are closely approximate, and enough of the data are based on 
records fairly to insure the figures in the table as safe for prac- 
tical use in making estimates. However, the table is so close that 
it would be taking chances for an engineer or a contractor to 
guarantee the production of results for the figures named, without 
inevstigating each case by itself. The work contemplated is for 
the best type of modern, triple-expansion pumping engines, and 
high-pressure boilers. The buildings are assumed to be of good 
design and quality ; of brick, or of stone where stone is cheap ; 
the roofs steel -trussed and slate-covered; the chimneys adequate; 
and the intakes properly proportioned and thoroughly screened. 
The cost given includes everything except the land. 

COST OF COMPLETE PUMPING STATIONS. 

Pressure of Cost of plant, Pressure of water ^^^. ^^ „i^^+ ^^^ 

watAr Inarl nftr mill sral Inarl mi.-m>Prl * -"^? ^^ plant, per 



water load per mill. gal. load pumped 

mped against, capac. incl. against, in 11 

in lbs. per sq. in. reserve per sq. in. 



y-vdLci iyja.Kx iJci iiiiLi. ^a.L. 1.JCIU ijuiiii/cu. r>Ti11 era! nor\-An 

pumped against, capac. incl. against, in lbs. incl reserve 



30 $6,750 90 $8,250 

40 7.000 100 8.500 

50 7.250 110 8.750 

60 7.500 120 9.000 

70 7.750 130 9,250 

80 8,000 ... 



1262 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

There are cheaper classes of pumping engines, but they are 
necessarily of lower economic efficiency, and therefore require more 
boiler capacity, more coal storage, and other incidentals which, 
when balanced up, will tend to keep the figures about the same. A 
cheaper and less durable building may be used, but in the long 
run this will need more repairs, which when capitalized will bring 
the account fully up to the figures given and most likely exceed 
them. 

It is scarcely possible that the cost of equipping pumping sta- 
tions for water-works will be increased much on account of a 
higher type of steam machinery, because it is evident that the top 
limit has just about been reached, with the record of a little more 
than 181.000.000 ft. lbs. per 1.000 lbs. of steam. Ten years ago it 
nearly touched the 180,000,000 mark; and a gain of 0.8 of 1% in 
ten years, with every nerve strained, is eloquent evidence of the 
top limit. The Mariotte curve is about the nearest approach to 
perfection possible for the steam engine to accomplish, in ex- 
pressing the relation between the work done and the amount of 
steam used. If the terminal pressure is taken as expressing the 
steam used, and all the steam is accounted for by the diagram, 
then 9 6% mechanical efficiency of the machine, will be • the re- 
sulting figures, with a reasonable amount of steam used in the 
jackets and reheaters charged against the account. 

If there were no necessity for the use of steam jackets, or 
jacket steam, the figures would approach 200,000,000 rather closely, 
and if superheating can save jacket steam, and vitalize the work- 
ing steam in the cylinders, the latter figure may be reached in 
the near future, as far as the official test is concerned. This 
pleasing result may have te be obtained, however, by the use of 
a surface condenser with a comparatively small air-pump, and 
this type of condenser may require more maintenance account 
than the jet form ; and the superheat may have to be obtained 
at the cost of coal. 

Pumping Engine Economy. A critical discussion of the results 
obtained by the Nordberg and other high-duty engines is printed in 
Engineering News, Sept. 27, 1900. It is shown that the practical 
question in most cases is not how great fuel economy can be 
reached, but how economical an engine it will pay to install, tak- 
ing into consideration interest, depreciation, repairs, cost of labor 
and of fuel, etc. The following table is given showing that with 
low cost of fuel and labor it does not pay to put in a very high 
duty engine. Accuracy is not claimed for the figures ; they are 
given only to show the method of computation that should be 
used, and to show the influence of different factors on the final 
result. 

Cost of Electric Current for Punnping 1,000 Gallons per IVIinute 
100 ft. High. (Theoretical h. p. with 100% efficiency = 100,000 -f- 
3958.9 = 25.259 h.p.) 

Assume cost of current = 1 ct. per kw. hour delivered to the 
motor: efficiency of motor— 90%; mechanical efficiency of triplex 
pumps = 80%; of centrifugal pumps =7 2% j combined efficiency, 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1263 

TABLE XXIX. ANNUAL COST OF PUMPING WITH AN 800- 
H.P. ENGINE, AS INFLUENCED BY VARYING DUTY OF 
ENGINE, VARYING PRICE OP FUEL, AND VARYING 
TIME OF OPERATION. 

Duty per million B. t. u. 
First cost: 50 100 120 150 180 

Engine $24,000 $48,000 $68,000 $118,000 $148,000 

Engine, per h.p 30.00 60.00 85.00 147.00 185.00 

Boilers, economizers 27,000 13,500 11,250 9,000 7,500 

Engine and boilers 51,000 61,500 79,250 127,000 155,500 

Interest and depreciation: 

On engine, at 6%.. 1,440 2,880 4,080 7,080 8,880 

Boilers, 8% 2,160 1,080 900 720 €00 

Total depreciation 3,600 3,960 4,980 7,800 9,480 

Labor per annum 6,022 6,022 7,655 9,307 10,220 

Fuel cost: 

4,000 hrs. per yr. : 

$3 per ton 17,280 8,640 7,200 5,760 4,800 

$4 per ton 23,040 11,520 9,600 7,680 6,400 

$5 per ton 28,800 14,400 12,400 9,600 8,000 

6,000 hrs. per yr. : 

$3 per ton 25,920 12,960 10,800 8,640 7,200 

$4 per ton 34,560 17,280 14,400 11,520 9,600 

$5 per ton 43,200 21,600 18,600 14,400 12,000 

Total annual cost: 
4,000 hrs. per yr. : 

Coal, $3 per ton... 26,902 18,622 19,835 22,867 24,500 

4 per ton... 32,662 12,502 22.235 24,787 25,100 

5 per ton... 38,422 24,382 25,035 26,707 27,700 

6,000 hrs. per yd. : 

Coal, $3 per ton... 35,522 22,942 23,435 25,747 26,900 

4 per ton... 44,182 27,262 27,035 28,627 29,300 

5 per ton... 52,822 31,582 31,235 31,507 31,700 

triplex pumps, 72%; centrifugal, 64.8%. 1 kw.= 1.34 electrical 
h.p. on wire. 

Triplex, 1.34 X 0.72 = 0.9648 pump h.p. ; X 33,000 = 31,838 ft. lbs. 
per min. 

Centrifugal, 1.34 X 0.648 -= 0.86382 pump h.p. ; X 33,000 — 28,654 
ft. -lbs. per min. 

1,000 gals. 100 ft. high = 833,400 ft. -lbs. per min. 

Triplex, 833,400 -i- 31,838 = 26.1763 k.w. X 8,760 hrs. per year X 
$0.01 = $2,293.04. 

Centrifugal, 833,400 -=- 28,655 = 29.0840 k.w. X 8,760 hrs. per year 
X $0.01 = $2,547.76. 

For 100% efficiency, $2,293.04 X 0.72 = $1,650. For any other 
efficiency, divide $1,650 by the efficiency. For any other cost per 
kw.-hr. in cts., multiply by that cost. 

Cost of Pumping 1,000 Gal. per Min. 100 ft. High by Gas Engines. 
Assume a gas engine supplied by an anthracite gas producer using 
1.5 lbs. of coal per brake h.p.-hr., coal costing $3 per ton of 2,000 
lbs. 

Efficiency of triplex pump 80%, of centrifugal pump, 72%. 



1264 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXX. COST OF FUEL. PER YEAR FOR PUMPING 1,000 
GAL. PER MIN. 100 FT. HIGH BY STEAM PUMPS 



(1) 


(2) Efficiency 


(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 


(7) 




100% 


90% 












10. 


198. 


178.2 


142.56 


0.5846 


0.42090 


153.63 


460.89 


11.88 


166.667 


150. 


120. 


0.6945 


0.50004 


182.51 


547.53 


14. 


141.433 


127.87 


101.83 


0.8184 


0.58926 


215.08 


645.24 


14.256 


138.889 


125. 


100. 


0.8334 


0.60005 


219.02 


657.06 


15. 


132. 


118.8 


95.04 


0.8769 


0.63125 


230.44 


691.32 


16. 


123.75 


111.375 


89.10 


0.9354 


0.67344 


245.80 


737.40 


17.82 


111.111 


100. 


80. 


1.0417 


0.75006 


273.77 


821.31 


20. 


99. 


89.1 


71.28 


1.1692 


0.84180 


307.26 


921.78 


23.76 


83.333 


75. 


60. 


1.3890 


1.00008 


365.03 


1095.09 


30. 


66. 


59.4 


47.52 


1.7538 


1.26270 


460.&9 


1382.67 


35.64 


55.556 


50. 


40. 


2.0835 


1.50012 


547.54 


1642.62 


40. 


49.5 


44.5 


35.64 


2.3384 


1.68360 


614.52 


1843.56 


47.52 


41.667 


37.5 


30. 


2.7780 


2.00016 


730.06 


2190.18 


50. 


39.6 


35.64 


28.51 


2.9230 


2.10450 


768.15 


2304.45 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


g 


h 


(1) 


Lbs. steam per i.h, 


.p. per hour. 








(2) 


Duty mill 


ion ft.-lbs 


i. per 1.000 lbs. steam, b, : 


100% effy. 


. c. 90%. 


(3) 


Duty per 


100 lbs. ( 


coal. 90% effy., 1 


S lbs. stei 


im per lb, 


. coal. 


(4) 


Lbs. coal 


p(-r min. 


for 1.000 gals.. 


100 ft. high. 




(5) 


Tons, 2.000 lbs., in 


24 hrs. 










(6) 


Tons per 


year. 365 


days. 










(7) 


Cost of fuel ner year at $3.00 per 


ton. 







Factors for calculation: b=:1980-^a; c = b X 0.9 ; d = c X 0.8 ; 
e = 8334 ^ 1000 d ; f = e X 0.72 ; g = f X 365 ; h = g X 3. 

For any other cost of coal per ton, multiply the figures in the 
last column by the ratio of that cost to $3.00. 

1,000 gals, per min. 100 ft. high = 833,400 ft.-lbs. per min.H- 33,- 

000 = 25.2545 h.p. 

Fuel cost per brake h.p.-hr. 1.5 lbs. X 300 cts. -^ 2.000 — 0.225 ct. 
X 8,760 hrs. per year =$19.71 per h.p. X 25.2545 = $497,766 for 
100% efficiency. 

For 80% efficiency, $622.21; for 72%, efficiency, $691.34; or the 
same as the cost with a steam pumping engine of 95,000,000 ft.- 
lbs. duty per 100 lbs. of coal. 

Cost of Fuel for Electric Current. Based on 10 lbs. steam per 

1 h.p.-hour, 8 lbs. steam per lb. coal, or 1.25 lbs. coal per 1. h.p. 
per hour. (Electric line loss not included.) 

Efficiency of engine 0.90, of generator 0.90, combined efficiency 
0.81. 

1 h.p. = 0.746 kw., 0.746 X 0.81 = 0.6426 kw. on wire for 10 lbs. 
steam. Reciprocal = 16.5492 lbs. steam per kw. hour. 8 lbs. 
steam per lb. coal = 2.06865 lbs. coal, at $3.00 per ton of 2,000 lbs. 
= 0.3103 cent per kw-hour. 

Lbs. steam per 1. h.p.-hr — 

12 14 16 18 20 30 40 

Fuel cost, cents per k.w.-hr. — 

0.3724 0.4344 0.4965 0.5585 0.6206 0.9309 1.2412 

Cost of Pumping Machinery for Water Works. W. H. Weston 
(Engineering Magazine. Jan., 1912) has published the following 
notes on the average cost of water works machinery: 

Average Cost of Pumping Machinery. Vertical triple-expan- 
sion crank and fly-wheel pumping engines per 1.000 gal. per 24 hrs. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1265 



Head pumped against, ft. 

250 to 300 16 

150 to 200 5 

50 to 75 4 

Horizontal-compound fly-wheel pumping engines per 1,000 gals. 
per 24 hrs. 

Head pumped against ft. 

250 to 300 $5.00 

150 to 200 4.00 

50 to 75 3.50 

Duplex compound direct-acting pumps per 1,000 gals, per 24 hrs. 
Head pumped against, ft. 

250 to 300 $3.50 

150 to 200 3.00 

50 to 75 2.50 

Average Cost of Water-Tube Boilers for Pumping Engines. 
Allowance made for reserve boilers. 

Allowance for reserve 
Horsepower per cent, of capacity 

of plant 

400 33 

600 33 

800 : 25 

1,000 20 

1,500 15 

Vertical triple-ex- Compound condensing 

Horsepower pansion crank and fly- crank and fly wheel 

wheel pumping engines pumping engines 

400 $4,000 $4,800 

600 6,800 6,800 

800 7,500 8,500 

1,000 9,000 10,500 

1,500 12,500 14,500 



Cost of Steam and Water Piping, Valves and Separators. 
(Pump piping not included). 

Vertical triple-ex- Compound condensing 

Horsepower pansion crank and fly- crank and fly wheel 

wheel pumping engines pumping engines 

400 $2,000 $2,300 

600 2.600 3,100 

800 3,200 3,800 

1,000 4,000 4,800 

1,500 6,200 7,300 

Feed Pumps 

400 $90 $105 

600 110 130 

800 135 160 

1,000 160 190 • 

1,500 220 265 

Heaters 

400 450 525 

600 525 620 

800 600 720 

1,000 700 850 

1.500 950 1,150 



1266 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Vertical triple-expansion crank and fly-wheel pumping- engines 
will use from 10% to 11 1/^ lbs. of steam per indicated h.p. per hr., 
for capacities between 10 and 35 million gallons per day, pump- 
ing against heads from 50 to 300 ft. 

Compound engines of this type will take from 12i^ to 13i^ lbs. 
of steam per indicated h.p.-hr. To get the total h.p. that the en- 
gine must develop, Mr. Weston takes the h.p. represented by the 
amount of water to be pumped to the given height plus 10% for 
pump engine friction, and 4% for pipe-line friction and slippage of 
the pump. We have found in many cases that this is a very 
small percentage for slippage. 

Cost of a Pumping Plant per Million Gallons Capacity. W. L. 
Du Moulin, in a paper presented before the American Society of 
Civil Engineers, June 2, 1915, describes the pumping plant of 
the Morenci Water Company, and gives the following costs: 

The cost of pumping engines complete, with foundations, aux- 
iliaries, condenser, piping, etc., per million gallons capacity per 
24 hrs. was : 

Triple-expansion pumping engines $38,500 

Cross-compound " " 29,400 

Average of all " " 35,500 

The cost of the boiler plant, including piping, foundations, etc., 
was : 

Without economizers — per rated boiler h.p $30.50 

With economizers " " " ^' . . . . 42.50 

The total rated capacity of the boiler plant is 640 b.hp. 

The cost of the pumping plant, including engines, boilers, econo- 
mizers, piping, etc., per million gallons capacity per 24 hrs. was 
$41,500. These figures do not include anything for land, buildings, 
chimneys, wells, settling system, 10-in. pipe lines, etc., but prac- 
tically only the items mentioned. 

Comparison of the Costs of Pumping by Suction-Gas-Producer 
and Steam Engines was made in a paper by I. E. Gibson and 
S. H. Wright from an abstract of which in Engineering Digest we 
have taken the following : 

The Gas Plant belongs to the Delaware Water Co. and is situ- 
ated at the head of tide water on Christiana Creek. 

FIXED CHARGES 

Gas plant Steam plant 

Management $ 200 $ 200 

Superintendence 920 920 

Depreciation 1,694 1,987 

Sinking fund 1,043 1,297 

Interest 4,095 6,491 

Insurance 76 250 

Taxes 263 327 



Total $8,291 $11,472 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1267 



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1268 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The plant consists of two complete producer units rated at 110 
h.p. each and two 13x12 in., single-acting, three-cylinder vertical 
gas engines of 89 b.h.p., each direct connected to a 13x15 in., 
single-acting triplex pump. The engines run at 265 r.p.m., and 
the pumps, through a 5 to 1 reduction gear, at 44 r.p.m., at which 
speed each has a capacity of 1,640,000 gals, per 24 hrs. 

The cost of the plant was as follows: 

Building and property $38,750 

Producers and engines complete, including auxiliaries 13,000 

Pumps complete 7,250 

Piping, air chambers, etc 4,500 

Total $63,500 

Cost of plant per brake horse-power $392 

Cost of plant per million gallons capacity per 24 hr 19,250 

A high grade of anthracite pea coal is used, costing $5.10 per 
long ton delivered into the storage bins. 

The Steam Pumping Plant belongs to the Octoraro Water Co., 
and is located on the Octoraro Creek, near Quarryville, Penn, 
It consists of three 100 h.p. return-tubular boilers supplying steam 
to two horizontal, cross-compound condensing Corliss pumping 
engines, having 18 and 32 by 30 in. steam ends and 10x30 in. 
water ends delivering at a pressure of 150 lbs. These engines ran 
at 55 to 60 r.p.m. and are rated at three million gallons capacity. 
The cost of this plant was as follows : 

COST OF STEAM PLANT 

Building and land $37,875 

Boilers, engines, piping and auxiliaries 39,850 

Total ; $77,725 

Cost of plant per brake h.p. allowing 109^ for engine friction $190 
Cost of plant per million gallons capacity per 24 hrs 12,100 

The fuel u.sed is high-grade bituminous, costing $4.40 per long 
ton delivered at the plant. 

Comparative Cost of Plant and Operating Expenses for Pumps 
Driven by Reciprocating Steam Engines, Steam Turbines, and 
Diesel Oil Engines. The following figures from a paper by Francis 
Head before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, compare bids ob- 
tained by the City of Philadelphia in 1906 on low-lift pumping ma- 
chinery for the Torresdale filters : 

Coal Required for the Different Types and the Cost were as 
shown in Table XXXI. 

The specifications called for six units of 40,000,000 gals. each. 
These were to lift the water from a conduit leading from the 
river and deliver it to pipes 5 ft. in diam., by which it was to be 
led to the preliminary filters. The maximum lift measured from 
the .surface of the water to the discharge side of the i)ump was 45 
ft., no allowance being made for the velocity head in the water 
of discharge. Each bidder was required to furnish a complete 
plant as far as the machinery went, including engines, ping, boil- 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1269 



ers, etc., and to operate it for six months, and to make tests of 
24 hrs. and 30 days, respectively, to determine the duty and 
capacity. 



TABLE) XXXII. COMPARATIVE BID PRICES ON STEAM EN- 
GINES, TURBINES AND DIESEL ENGINES 



Steam 
engines 
245 



Time required in days to 

furnish plant 

Duty in million foot-lbs. 

per 100 lbs. steam 

Price bid $205,400 

Extra for house 52,528 

Electric plant and stack.. 20,000 



85 and 70 
millions. 



Comparative price based on 
duty and labor saved . . . 



Turbines Diesel oil engines 
300 250 for half plant. 
315 for whole plant. 
88 and 83 95 and 90 millions 
millions. per 5 gals. oil. 

$178,000 $298,000 

60,207 

20,000 



Cost of plant 


$277,928 


$258,207 


Extra for time at $250 per 










$13,750 


Extra cost of coal over oil 








$12,180 


3,068 


Extra cost of coal over oil 


per year. Capitalized at 






3.5% 


345,100 


87,650 






Comparative price based 




on duty 


$623,028 


$359,607 


Boiler room, labor and re- 






pairs 


$10,150 


$10,150 


Extra cost of operatmg 






steam plants per year. . 


22,230 


13,218 


Extra cost of operating 






steam plants per year. 






Capitalized at 3.5% 


635,100 


377,650 



$298,000 
$17,500 



$315,500 



$913,028 



$649,607 



$315,500 



TABLE XXXIII. 



COST OP COAL FOR VARYING PUMPING 
ENGINE DUTY. 





Lbs. coal 315.6 hp. 
per hp. lbs. per coal 
hour per hour 


24 
hours 


Cost per 
pump per 
24 hours 


70 million duty . . 
83 '• " .. 
90 " " . . 


2.83 893 
2.33 753 


21.435 
18,072 


$31.57 
26.63 
24.95 



The specifications stated that bids were to be made on the fol- 
lowing basis: The value of money will be taken at 3i^% per an- 
num. After the bids are scheduled drawings will be prepared giv- 
ing the necessary dimensions for the engine and boiler rooms to 
house the different classes of machinery. The cost of the build- 
ings will be computed at 15 cts. per cu. ft., measuring from the 
engine and boiler room floors' to midway between the top of the 
walls and the ridge purlin ; and the amount thus obtained will 
be used in ascertaining the cost of installation. In comparing the 
cost of operation coal will be figured at $3.30 per ton of 2,240 lbs. 



1270 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

and fuel oil will be figured at 3 cts. per gal. In comparing the 
bids with reference to the time for starting the machinery in 
operation, allowance will be made at the rate of $250 per calen- 
dar day for the bids specifying earlier dates of completion as 
compared with the bid specifying the longest time. In addition to 
this, there was a clause providing in case of failure to meet duty 
guaranteed, that for each million foot-pounds duty the pumping 
engines fall below the duty specified in the bid there will be de- 
ducted $1,000 from the contract price for each engine. 

The duty guaranteed for the 24-hr. run by the steam engines 
w^as 85,000,000 ft. -lbs. per 100 lbs. of steam; by the turbines 
88,000,000, and by the oil engines 95,000,000. For the 30-day test 
the duty guaranteed by the steam engines was 70,000,000 ; by the 
turbines 83,000,000, and by the oil engines 90,000,000. 

Forty million gallons per day against 45-ft. head requires 315.6 
h.p. in the water column. The I. P. Morris Co., whose design for 
the pumps was used by the Diesel Co., guaranteed 70% efficiency 
under the conditions of the contract, the pump shaft required 
450 h.p. 

With the Diesel engine 5 gals, of oil, fuel oil of commerce being 
used, per 90,000,000 ft.-lbs. means 34.65 gals, per pump per hr., 
costing $1.0395, or $24.95 per 24 hrs. per unit. 

The fuel saving per pump by the oil engine over the steam 
units, is as follows: 

Per hour Per j^ear 

Steam engines $6.62 $12,080 

Turbines 1.68 3,080 

It should be further noted that each of the steam propo- 
sitions emphasized the fact that the coal furnished must have 
14,500 B.t.u., or if it were less, due allowance must be made, which 
means that these guarantees were made on a good grade of 
bituminous coal. 

For the purpose of comparison, the duty on the 30 -day test alone 
was used. 

In comparing the actual cost of the plants to the city, accord- 
ing to the table, the turbine is the lowest, being $258,000 ; the 
steam engine comes next, $278,000, the oil engine being the high- 
est at $298,000. In making this comparison the foundations of the 
boilers and ash tunnels have not been included. When the extra 
cost of operating the steam plants over the oil engine is cap- 
italized at 31/^% in accordance with the specifications, and due 
allowance has been made for penalizing the oil engine and steam 
turbine, it will be seen that the cost of the oil engine was ap- 
proximately $315,500, the turbine engines was $649,600, and the 
steam engines was $913,000. The bid for steam engines was ac- 
cepted. 

Cost of Pumping Oil Long Distances. According to a memo- 
randum in the Engineering and Mining Journal in 1907, the cost 
of pumping oil as reported by the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion amounted to about 2 cts. per barrel for a distance of about 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1271 

100 miles. Therefore the cost to the Standard Oil Company of 
transporting a barrel from the Kansas oil field to the Atlantic 
seaboard would not be much, if any, in excess of 30 cts. 

Cost of Pumping for Municipalities. The data in Table XXXIV 
from Engineering- News, Aug. 12, 1909, give the cost of pumping 
in Philadelphia taken from annual reports of the Bureau of 
Water : 

TABLE XXXIV. COST OP PUMPING IN PHILADELPHIA BY 



YEARS 



Pay of em- 
Billions Fuel cost per ployees per Total cost per 
of gals. mil. gals. mil. gals. mil. gals. 

Year 100 ft. 100 ft. 100 ft. 100 ft. 

1894 121.2 $1.87 $0.98 $3.48 

1895 132.0 2.08 1.00 3.69 

1896 161.8 2.00 0.92 3.43 

1897 187.4 1.86 0.84 3.16 

1898 210.8 1.77 0.84 2.97 

1899 231.8 , 1.77 0.80 2.90 

1900 218.1 2.11 1.06 3.71 

1901 227.7 2.04 1.31 4.14 

1902 239.7 2.55 1.63 4.80 

1903 248.8 2.99 1.54 5.20 

1904 251.2 2.93 1.49 5.11 

1905 261.3 2.55 1.47 4.61 

1906 257.3 2.52 1.57 5.06 

1907 242.3 2.57 1.82 5.68 

Operating Costs of Various Pumping Stations. Dabney H. Mur- 
ray (Engineering and Contracting, Mar. 6, 1912) gives the oper- 
ating costs of various reciprocating engine pumping plants in 
Chicago as follows : 

Private Plant No. 1. The boiler equipment at this plant is as 
follows: Four 350 h.p. Babcock and Wilcox boilers, extension 
front, Hawley down draught, gravity fed, and two 350 h.p. B. & 
W. boilers, flush front, Hawley, hand fired. The total rated 
boiler h.p. is 2,100, the average h.p. on day watch is 1,400, and 
the load factor is 67%. 

The engine equipment is as follows: Two 65 h.p., two 250 h.p., 
and one 140 h.p. simple horizontal engines. Two 110 h.p. simple 
vertical engines, one 220 h.p. simple 2-cylinder vertical engines, 
one 33 h.p. 25 k.w. electric light engine, and one 30 h.p. 10 in. 
and 6 in. and 10 in. x 16 in. elevator pump. The total rated en- 
gine h.p. is 1,283, the average h.p. on day watch 400, and the load 
factor 28%. 

The daily payroll for this plant, for 12-hr. shift, is as follows: 

2 firemen at $3.10 $ 6.20 

4 firemen helpers at $2.68 10.72 

1/6 a.shman at $2.50 42 

Total for boiler room $17.34 

2 chief engineers at $3.48 6.96 

2 asst. engineers at $2.68 5.36 

2 oilers at $2.41 4.82 

1/30 windov/ washer at $2.25 . , > 08 



1272 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1/30 machinist, at $3 10 

1/30 steamtitter at $3 , 10 

$17.42 

% janitor (added) at $2.40 1.20 

% machinist (added) at $3 1.50 

$20.12 
1 asst. engr. (deducted) 2.68 

Total $17.44 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
and the maximum hp. per fireman per watch is 467. By hand 
firing 2,000 lbs. of Pocahontas coal is fired per hour per fireman 
on the avera.ge on the day watch, and 1,800 lbs. of Illinois slack 
coal. 

The number of city pumping engines equivalent to average num- 
ber of units in service is 2, the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per engineer per watch, as corrected is li/^, and 
per oiler per watch is 2. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of 
labor, as corrected, $1.48. The actual daily payroll is $57.72, and 
as corrected $23.64. The average pay per man per day is $2.62 
and per hr. is $0.33. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily 
payroll, as corrected, is 16.9. 

As engine room and machinery are not well kept, half time 
for one janitor and half time for one machinist are added. But 
as the average engine horse power is only 28% of average boiler 
h.p., the balance being used for other purposes, and as the engi- 
neers and others have other duties besides the care of the ma- 
chinery, the total pay roll, for the purpose of figuring the corrected 
items, is taken at $17.44 plus $6.20 = $23.64. 

Private Plant No. 2. The boiler equipment at this plant is as 
follows: Five 375 h.p. Stirling water tube boilers with Greene 
chain grates, hand fired. The rated boiler horse power is 1,875, 
the average h. p. on the day watch is 960, and the load factor 
Is 51%. 

The engine equipment is as follows: Five 250 h.p. vertical 
compound, non-condensing engine generators, one 400 h.p. 3-cylin- 
der, horizontal compound, non-condensing elevator pump, two 200 
h.p. 3-cylinder, horizontal compound, non-condensing elevator 
pump, two 30 h.p. 10 in. and 18 in. x 24 in. horizontal vacuum 
pumps, one 30 h.p. horizontal compound, duplex house pump, one 
25 h.p. horizontal simple, duplex house pump, and three 5 h.p. 
motor-driven elevator return pumps. The rated hp. of the total 
engine and motor units is 2,180, the average h.p. on day watch 
1,210 and the load factor 55%. 

The daily payroll for this plant, for an 8-hr. shift, is as follows : 

3 firemen at $2.40 $ 7.20 

6 coal passers at $2.32 o 13.92 

Total for boiler room $21.12 

1 chief engineer at $5 5.00 

3 asst. engineers at $^.60 10.80 

4 oilers at $2 , 8-00 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1273 

2 repairmen at $2.20 $ 4.40 

1 machinist at $3.60 3.60 

1 janitor at $2 2.00 

1 steamfltter at $2.80 2.80 

$36.60 

2 oilers (added) at $2.00 4.00 

Total $40.60 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1, 
and the maximum h.p. of boilers per fireman per watch is 465. 
On an average 2,000 lbs. of coal is fired by hand per hour per 
fireman on the day watch. 

The number of city pumping engines equivalent to averag'e 
number of units in service is 3, the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per engineer per watch ^s 2^4, the average equiv- 
alent number of pumping engines per oiler per watch is ly^, as 
corrected. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of labor is 2.96, as 
corrected. The actual daily payroll is $57.72, and, as corrected, 
is $61.72. The average pay per man per day is $2.62, and per 
hr. is 22 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll 
is 19.6 as corrected. 

Part of this plant does not run at night. In order to figure the 
corrected items above, two oilers were added, who would be the 
only extra men needed for full 24-hr. service. 

Private Plant No. 3. The boiler engine, and motor equipment 
of this plant is as follows : Pour 400 h.p. Heine water-tube boil- 
ers with Murphy stokers, gravity fed. The rated boiler h.p. is 
1,600, the average horse power on day watch is 880, and the load 
factor 55 per cent. 

There are two 470 h.p. simple horizontal, non-condensing en- 
gine generators, one 335 h.p. simple horizontal, non-condensing 
engine generators, and two 10 h.p. motor-driven air compressors. 
The rated h.p.. of the total engine and motor units is 1,295, the 
average h.p. on day watch 1,050, and the load factor 81%. 

The daily payroll for this plant, for an 8-hr. shift, is as follows: 

3 firemen at $2.17 $ 6.50 

3 coal passers at $1.67 5.00 

3 ash wheelers at $1.67 5.00 

Vo boiler washer at $2.50 1.25 

1 helper at $1.83 1.83 

Total for boiler room $19.58 

% chief engineer at $4.67 2.33 

1 1/> asst. engineer at $2.92 4.38 

3 oilers at $1.93 5.80 

1 janitor at $1.67 1.67 

1 laborer at $1.67 1.67 

1 machinist at $3 3.00 

$18.85 

1/2 chief engineer (added) at $4.67 2.33 

1/2 asst. engineer (added) at $2.92 1.46 

1 laborer (added) at $1.67 1.67 

Total $24.31 



1274 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
and the maximum h.p. per fireman per watch is 440. There are 
5,000 lbs. of coal, gravity fed, per hour per fireman on the aver- 
age during the day watch. 

The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
number of units in service is 1.4; the average equivalent number 
of pumping engines per engineer per watch is 2.1, as corrected; 
the average equivalent number of pumping engines per oiler per 
watch is 1.4 as corrected. The ratio of cost of coal to cost of 
labor is 3.33, as corrected. The actual daily payroll is $38.43, and 
as corrected is $43.89. The average pay per man per day is $2.08, 
and per hr. is 26 cts. The actual engine horse power per dollar 
of daily payroll is 17.1 as corrected. 

Private Plants Nos. 3 and 4 are near each other and are oper- 
ated by the same mana,gement, some of the men dividing their 
time between the two plants. Neither runs full 24 hrs. For the 
purpose of figuring the corrected items given under plants 3 and 
4, enough men were added to the payroll of each plant to run the 
plants independently of each other, and also to provide for full 
24-hr. service. 

Private Plant No. 4. There are four 450 h.p. Stirling water tube 
boilers, with chain grates, gravity fed. Their rated h.p. is 1,800, 
the average h.p. on day watch is 990, and the load factor Is 55%. 
There is one 140 h.p. horizontal compound pump, handling 2,000,- 
000 gals, against 150 lbs., used occasionally for elevator service. 

The engine and pump equivalent is as follows: Two 140 h.p. 
vertical compound pumps, each handling 2,000,000 gals, against 
150 lbs. ; one 670 h.p. 500 k.w. vertical compound engine generator, 
two 430 h.p. 320 k.w. vertical compound engine generators; two 
268 h.p., 200 k.w., vertical compound engine generators; two 134 
h.p., 100 k.w. vertical compound engine generators; one 40 h.p. 
house pump; one 50 h. p. house pump, and three 10 h.p. elevator 
return pumps. 

The total rated h.p. of the engine and pump units is 2,874, the 
average h.p. on day watch is 1,186, and load factor is 41%. 

The daily payroll, for 8-hr. shift, is as follows : 

3 "firemen at $2.17 $ 6.50 

3 coal passers at $1.67 5.00 

3 ash wheelers at $1.67 5.00 

1/0 boiler washer at $2.50 1.25 

l"helper at $1.83 1.83 

Total for boiler room $19.58 

1/2 chief engineer at $4.67 2.33 

li/> asst. engineer at $2.92 4.38 

3 oilers at $1.93 5.80 

1 janitor at $1.67 1.67 

1 laborer at $1.67 1.67 

1 machinist at $3 3.00 

$18.85 

V2 chief engineer (added) at $4.67 2.33 

1/2 asst. engineer (added) at $2.92 1.46 

1 laborer (added) at $1.67 1.67 

Total $24.31 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1275 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1%, 
and the maximum h.p. per fireman per watch is 495. During the 
day watch 5,610 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per hour per fireman. 

The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
number of units in service is 2.5; the average equivalent num- 
ber of pumping engines per engineer per watch, as corrected, is 
3.8 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per oiler 
per watch, as corrected, is 2.5. The ratio of cost of coal to cost 
of labor, as corrected, is 3.84. The actual daily payroll is $38.43, 
and, as corrected, is $43.89. The average pay per man per day is 
$2.08 and per hr. is 26 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of 
daily payroll, as corrected, is 26.9. 

Private Plant No. 5. The boiler equipment is as follows : Eight 
500 h.p. Aultman-Taylor water tube boilers, with chain grates, 
gravity fed. The total rated boiler horse power is 4,000, the aver- 
age h.p. on the day watch is 3.000, and the load factor is 75%. 

The generating units are as follows: Three 1,200 h.p. horizon- 
tal compound condensing engines ; one 800 h.p, horizontal com- 
pound condensing engine ; one 100 h.p. horizontal simple engine ; 
one 50 h.p. horizontal simple engine ; one 60 h.p. 2-stage compound 
air compressor; one 80 h.p. 2-stage compound air compressor; 
two 90 h.p. horizontal compound duplex steam pumps; one 300 
h.p. horizontal triple Corliss steam pump; one 300 h.p. compound 
elevator pump ; one 75 h.p. horizontal compound elevator pump ; 
three 90 h.p. horizontal duplex fire pumps; one 40 h.p. 30-ton ice 
machine; two 30 h.p. 10 in. and 18 in. x 20 in. vacuum pumps; 
and one 50 h.p. motor-driven duplex pump (not counted). The 
rated h.p. of the total generating units is 5,915, the average h.p. 
on the day watch is 2,900, and the load factor is 48%. 

The daily payroll follows, firemen and assistant engineers work- 
ing 8 hrs, all others 10 hrs. : 

3 firemen at $2.14 $ 6.42 

1 coal unloader at $2.20 2.20 

3 asst. unloaders at $2 6.00 

1 boiler wa.sher at $2.70 2.70 

2 asst. boiler washers at $2 4.00 

Total in boiler room $21.32 

1 chief engineer at $5 5.00 

3 as.st. engineers at $3 9.00 

5 oilers at $2 10.00 

2 janitors at $2 4.00 

1 machinist at $3 3.00 

1 machinist helper at $2 2.00 

Total $33.00 

The maximum number of boilers per firemen per watch is 6, 
and the maximum h.p. of boilers per fireman per watch is 3,000. 
On the day watch 15,833 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per hr, per 
fireman. 

The number of City pumping engines equivalent to the average 
number of units in service is 5, the average equivalent number of 



1276 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

pumping engines per engineer per watch is 3.7, the average equiv- 
alent number of pumping engines per oiler per Avatch is 3. The 
ratio of cost of coal to cost of labor is 3. The actual daily payroll is 
$37.32, the corrected $54.32. The average pay per man per day 
is $2.49, per hr. 27 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily 
payroll is 53.4. 

Plant No. 5 does not run 24 hrs. The repair force is not suf- 
ficient to keep all the machinery in order. Three oilers, two assist- 
ant coal unloaders and one assistant boiler washer, amounting to $12 
per day, were added to give 24 hr. service; and one machinist and 
one helper, amounting to $5 per day, were added to keep up re- 
pairs to machinery. 

Private Plant No. 6. The boiler equipment is as follows : Ten 
500 h.p. Aultman-Taylor. water tube boilers with chain grates, 
gravity fed and equipped with fuel economizers. Total rated boiler 
horse power 5,000, average horse power on day watch, 4,000, and 
load factor of 80%. 

The engine, motor, pump and compressor units are as follows : 
One 400 h.p. 300 k.w. horizontal, compound, condensing engine; one 
670 h.p. 500 k.w. horizontal, compound, condensing engine; one 1,- 
340. h.p. 1,000 k.w, vertical compound condensing engine ; one 1,610 
h.p. 1,200 k.w. vertical compound condensing engine; one 670 h.p. 
500 k.w. turbine generator (not counter) ; one 165 h.p. compound 
condensing air compi'essor ; two 30 h.p. horizontal vacuum pumps; 
one 40 h.p. horizontal elevator pump ; one 40 h.p. horizontal circulat- 
ing pump; one 20 h.p., 16-ton ice machine; five motor-driven com- 
pressors or pumps (not counted) ; four 50 condensing sets. Total 
rated h.p. of engine, motor pump and compressor units is 4,545, 
average h.p. on daily watch 5,400, and load factor 119%. 

The daily payroll follows: 

3 firemen at $2 $ 6.00 

3 asst. firemen, 8 hrs., at $1.92 5.76 

2 water. tenders, 10 hrs. at $2.80 5.60 

2 ash shovelers, 10. hrs.,. at $2.40 4.80 

For boiler room $22.16 

1 chief engineer, 10 hrs., at $6 6.00 

3 asst. engineers, 8 hrs., at $3.29 9.87 

6 oilers, 8 hrs., at $2 12.00 

2 janitors, 10 hrs., at $2 4.00 

1 machinist, 9 hrs., at $3 3.00 

1 helper, 9 hrs., at $2 2.00 

Total ....... ... . :...... $36.87 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 5, 
the maximum h.p. of boiler per fireman per watch is 2,000. On 
the day watch 8,600 lbs. of coal are gravity fed per fireman, on 
the average. 

The number of City pumping engines equivalent to the average 
number of units in service is 8 ; the average equivalent number 
of pumping engines per engineer per watch is 6 ; and the average 
equivalent number of pumping engines per Qiler per watch- is 4. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1277 

The actual daily payroll is $45.43, the corrected $59.03. The 
average pay per man per day $2.52, per hr. 23 cts. The actual 
engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 91.5. 

Plant No. 6 does not run 24 hrs. One extra assistant shoveler, 
two janitors and two oilers are added to give 24 hr. service. 

Kirtland Street Station, Cleveland, Ohio, Municipal Plant. There 
are eight 272.5 h.p, B. & W. water tube boilers, with superheaters 
and chain grates, gravity fed. The total rated boiler horsepower 
is 2,180, the average h.p. on the day watch is 1,140, and the load 
factor is 52%. 

There are two 875 h.p. 25,000,000 gal. vertical triplex pumps, 
and three 585 h.p. 15,000,000 gal. horizontal compound pumps. 
The total rated h.p. of the engine units is 3,505, the average h.p. 
on the day watch is 1,820 and the load factor is 52%. One of 
the 585 h.p. units is located in a separate building, on opposite 
side of the boiler room from engine room in which the other four 
units are located. 

The work is done in 8-hr. shifts, the watchmen working 12 hrs. 
The daily payroll follows : 

4 firemen at $2.32 $ 9.28 

6 firemen at $2 12.00 

1 boiler cleaner at $2.56 2.56 

1 boiler cleaner at $2 2.00 

3 feed pump tenders at $2 6,00 



Total for boiler room $31.84 

1 chief engineer at $6.03 6.03 

1 asst. engineer at $4.11 4.11 

2 operating engineers at $3.24 6.48 

6 operating engineers at $3 18.00 

2 clerks at $2.63 5.26 

3 oilers at $2.16 6.48 

3 oilers at $1.84 5.52 

1 repair man at $2 2.00 

1 janitor at $2.24 2.24 

5 janitors at $1.76 8.80 

1 pipe fitter at $3.52 3.52 

1 pipe fitter helper at $2.24 2.24 

1 machinist at $3.52 3.52 

. 1 second machinist at $3.04 3.04 

1 blacksmith at $3.04 3.04 

2 blacksmith helpers at $2 2.00 

2 watchmen at $2.64 5.28 

$87.56 

The maximum number of boilers per firemen per watch is 2, 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 500. On the day watch 
there are 1,400 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 5. The number of City 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 7 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per watch is 2.1 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 3.-5. The ratio of the co.st 
of coal to cost of labor is 0.90. The daily payroll is $119.42. 



127S MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The average pay per man per day is $2.49, per hr. is 31 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 15.2._ 

North Point Station, Milwaukee, Wis., Municipal Plant. There 
are six 125 h.p. horizontal tubular boilers with Hawley down 
draught furnaces, flush front, hand fired, and three 150 h.p. hori- 
zontal tubular boilers, with Hawley down draft furnaces, extension 
front, hand fired. The total rated boiler h.p. is 1,200, the average 
boiler h.p. on the day watch is 470, and the load factor is 39.1%. 

The engine units are as follows: two 218 h.p, 8,000,000 gal., 
vertical compound, condensing beam engines; one 327 h.p. 12,000,- 
000 gal. Vertical Steeple compound, condensing engine, one 490 h.p., 
18,000,000 gal. vertical triplex condensing engines; two 545 h.p. 
20,000,000 ga,l. vertical triplex condensing engines, and one 561 h.p. 
12,000,000 gal. vertical triplex condensing engine. The rated h.p. 
of the total of the engine units is 2,904, the average h.p. on the 
day watch is 994, and the load factor is 34.2%. There are two 
separate boiler rooms, one on each side of the engine room. 

The work is done in 8-hour shifts. The daily payroll follows : 

6 firemen at $2.33 $14.00 

3 coal passers at $2 : 6,00 

1/2 coal weigher at $1.83 9 2 

% coal trimmer at $1.67 83 

$21.75 

1 engineer in charge at $4.17 4.17 

3 asst. engineers at $3.50 10.50 

6 oilers at $2.33 14.00 

1/2 machinist at $2.78 1.39 

1/2 blacksmith at $2.50 1.25 

1^ blacksmith helper at $2 1.00 

1/2 carpenter at $2.33 1.67 

2 janitors at $2 4.00 

5 helpers, etc., at $2 10.00 

$47.98 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 3, and 
the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch there 
are 855 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 7. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 4 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per month is 3 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 2. The ratio of the cost of 
coal to cost of labor is 0.96. The daily payroll is $69.73. The 
average pay per man per day is $2.40, per hr. is 30 cts. The actual 
engine h.p. per dollar of daily payroll is 14.3. 

Peoria, Illinois, Pumping Station. Private Plant. There are six 
150 h.p. Heine water tube boilers, with plain grates, hand fired, 
and three 400 h.p., 7,000,000 gal., vertical compound condensing 
pumping engines. The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 900 and of 
the engines 1,200. The average h.p. on the day watch is 300 for 
the boilers and 400 for the engines, the load factor being 33% 
for both. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1279 

The firemen work 9 hrs. and the assistant firemen 8 % hrs. ; all 
others work 10 hrs. 

3 firemen at $2 $ 6.00 

1 asst. fireman (who washes boilers, cleans 

filters, wheels ashes, etc.) at $1.83 1.83 

1 coal passer at $1.75 1.75 

$9.58 

1 chief engineer at $3.89 3.89 

2 asst. engineers at $2.50 , 5.00 

1 machinist at $2.50 2.50 

• 1 oiler and wiper at $1.83 1.83 

I laborer at $1.75 1.75 

$14.97 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 2 and 
the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch there 
are 1,833 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 

The number of city pumping engines equivalent to the average 
number of units in service is ly^ ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per engineer per watch is l\'z ; the average equiv- 
alent number of pumping engines per oiler per watch is 4. The 
ratio of the cost of coal to cost of labor is 1.08. The daily pay roll 
is $24.55. The average pay per man per day is $2.23, per hour is 
25 cts. The actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 16.3. 

Chicago City Pumping Station. Statistics of the eight major 
pumping stations of Chicago are given below. In all cases the men 
at the stations work 8 hrs. a day. 

Chicago Avenue Pumping Station. There are six 250 h.p. Scotch 
marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, gravity fed, 
erected 1900 to 1904. There are two 235 h.p., 12,000,000 gals., 
horizontal compound, Gaskill engines, piston speed 116 ft., 17.3 
r.p.m., erected 1887; and three 4498 h.p., 25,000,000 gals., vertical 
triple, Allis engines, speed of piston 488 ft., 61 r.p.m., erected 1904 
to 1906. The total rated boiler h.p. is 1,500, and the engine h.p. 
1,964. The average boiler h.p. under service is 1,000 and the engine 
h.p, 1,380. The boiler load factor is 67%, and the engine load 
factor 70%. 

The daily pay roll follows : 

II firemen at $2.96 $ 32.56 

5 coal passers at $2.74 13.70 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

1 conveyor engineer at. $3. 29 3.29 

$ 52.97 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

6 asst. engineers at $5.48 32.88 

12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 

5 laborers at $2.50 12.50 

6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 ' 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 

12/7 machinist at $5 * 8.55 

$109.21 



1280 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.1 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 273. On the day watch 
there are 1,130 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hr. per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 5. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 3.6 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per watch is 1.5 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.9. The ratio of the cost 
of coal to cost of labor is 0.83, The daily pay roll is $162.18. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.40, per hr. is 42.5 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 8.5. 

Fourteenth Street Pumping Station. There are six 250 h.p. 
Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, gravity 
fed, erected in 1904, and three 200 h.p. B. & W. water tube boilers, 
with Roney stokers, erected in 1898, but not now in use. 

There are three 296 h.p., 15,000,000 gal. vertical, triple, Allis 
engines, 159 ft. piston speed, 15.9 r.p.m., erected in 1891-92, and 
one 592 h.p., 30,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, Lake Erie engine, 123 
ft. piston speed, 19.3 r.p.m., erected in 1898. The total rated h.p. 
of the boilers is 1,500 and of the engines is 1,480. The average 
h.p. developed by the boilers is 1,000 and by the engines is 1,406, 
the load factors being 67% for the boilers and 95% for the engines. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

4 coal passers at $2.96 $29.60 

10 firemen at $2.74 10.96 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

1 conveyor engineer at $3.29 3.29 

$47.27 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

3 asst, engineers at $5.48 16.44 

13 oilers at $2.96 38.48 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

2 laborers at $2.50 5.00 

6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

$81.22 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2, 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 300. On the day watch 
there are 1,370 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 4.4; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per watch is 3.3 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 1.0. The ratio of the cost 
of coal to cost of labor is 1.15. The daily pay roll is $128.49. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.36. per hr. is 42 cts. The actual 
engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 10.9. 

Sixty -eighth Street Pumping Station. There are four 100 h.p, 
and four 129 h.p. horizontal, tubular boilers with common grates, 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1281 

hand flred, the former erected in 1898 and the latter in 1890 ; and 
four 3 40 h.p. B. & W. water tube boilers with chain grates, gravity 
fed. erected in 1906. 

There are four 263 h.p., 12,000,000 gal. horizontal, compound, 
Gaskill engines, 108 ft. piston speed, 16.2 r.p.m., erected 1886 to 
1898, and one 263 h.p. 12.000,000 gal. horizontal compound, Wor- 
thington engine, 96 ft. piston speed, 12 r.p.m., erected in 1890, and 
one 308 h.p., 14,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Holly engine, 
120 ft. piston speed, 18 r.p.m., erected 1898, and one 438 h.p., 20,- 
000,000 gal., horizontal, compound. Snow engine, 305 ft. piston 
speed, 43.5 r.p.m., erected 1906. The total rated h.p. of the bolters 
is 2,276 and of the engines is 2,061. The average h.p. developed 
by the boilers is 1,196 and by the engines is 1,700, the load factor 
being 53% and 82% respectively. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

10 firemen at $2.96 $ 29.60 

8 coal passers at .$2.74 21.92 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

6/7 crane engineer at $5.60 4.80 

$ 59.74 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 

21 oilers at $2.96 62.16 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 

5 laborers at $2.50 12.50 

1 rigger at $2.63 2.63 

6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 

12/7 machinists at $5 8.55 

6/7 machinist helper at $3.20 2.74 

$124.78 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.8 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 362. On the day watch 
there are 590 lbs. of coal hand fired and 6,650 lbs. gravity fed per 
hr. per fireman. 

The total number of units is 7. The number of city pumping 
engines equivalent to the average number of units in service is 
5.6 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per engineer 
per watch is 4.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping en- 
gines per oiler per watch is 0.6. The ratio of the cost of coal to 
cost of labor is 0.82. The daily pay roll is $184.52. The average 
pay per man per day is $3.23. per hour is 40.4 cts. The actual 
engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 9.2. 

Twenty-second Street Pumping Station. There are six 161 h.p., 
horizontal, tubular boilers with Hawley down draught furnaces, 
hand fired, erected 1884, and six 137 h.p., horizontal, tubular boilers 
with Hawley down draft furnaces, hand fired, erected 189 4. 

There are two 267 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, compound. Beam 
Quintard, Corliss engines. 196 ft. piston speed, 9.8 r.p.m., erected 
1876, and two 267 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, compound. Beam 



1282 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Quintard, Corliss engines, 187 ft. piston speed, 9.4 r.p.m., erected 
1884. The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,788 and of the. engines 
is 1,068. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 1,100 and by 
the engines is 965, the load factor being 62% for the boilers and 
90% for the engines. 

The daily pay roll is as follows: 

15 firemen at $2.96 $44.40 

8 coal passers at $2.74 21.92 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

$69.74 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 

9 oilers at 2.96 26.64 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

1 laborer at $2.50 2.50 

6/7 steamfltter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfltter helper at $3.50 3.00 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

$66.88 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 220. On the day watch 
there are 870 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 3.5 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per watch is 2.6; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.9. The ratio of the cost 
of coal to cost of labor is 1.04. The daily pay roll is $136.62. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.28, per hour is 41 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 7.1. 

Lake View Pumping Station. There are two 210 h.p. Scotch 
marine boilers erected in 1897, but not now in use. and four 250 h.p. 
Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, hand 
fired, erected in 1906. 

There is one 90 h.p., 5,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Wor- 
thington engine, 89.4 ft. piston speed, 14.9 r.p.m., erected in 1885, 
and one 215 h.p., 12,000,000 gal., horizontal, compound, Gaskill en- 
gine, 105 ft. piston speed, 17.3 r.p.m., erected in 1888, and one 234 
h.p., 13,000,000 gal. horizontal compound Gaskill engine, 105 ft. pis- 
ton speed, 17.3 r.p.m., erected 1891, and one 251 h.p., 14,000,000 gal. 
horizontal, compound, Holly engine, 119 ft. piston speed, 17.8 r.p.m., 
erected 1898, and one 450 h.p., 25,000.000 gal., vertical, triple, Allis 
engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 25 r.p.m., erected 1909. 

The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1.000 and of the engines is 
1,240. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 750 and by the 
engines is 790, the load factors being 75% and 64% respectively. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

9 firemen at $2.96 $26.64 

3 coal passers at $2.74 8.22 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

$38.28 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1283 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 

12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

I well tender at $2.74 2.74 

1 laborer at $2.50 2.50 

6/7 steamfitter at $5 4.70 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

6/7 machinist helper at $3.20 2.74 

$78.24 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
the maximum h.p. corresponding is 250. On the day watch there 
are 1,140 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 5. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 2.8 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines 
per engineer per watch is 2.1 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 0.7. The ratio of the cost 
of coal to cost of labor is 0.77. The daily pay roll is $116.52. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.37, per hr. is 42 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 6.8. 

Sprint) field Avenue Pumping Station. There are six 200 h.p. 
Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught furnaces, hand 
fired, erected in 1900, and two 250 h.p. Scotch marine boilers, with 
Hawley down draught furnaces, hand fired, erected in 1907. 

There are three 420 h.p., 20,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
acting, Worthington engines, 144 ft. piston speed, 17.6 r.p.m., erected 
in 1900, and one 840 h.p., 40,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
acting, Worthington engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 16.7 r.p.m., erected 
in 1906. 

The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,700 and of the engines is 
2,100. The average h.p. developed by the boilers is 900 and by 
the engines is 1,442, the load factors being 53% and 69% re- 
spectively. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

12 firemen at $2.96 $35.52 

7 coal passers at $2.74 19.18 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

6/7 hoist engineer at $5.60 4.80 

$62.92 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 6.85 

3 asst. engineers at $5.48 16.44 

13 oilers at $2.96 38.48 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

3 laborers at $2.50 7.50 

6/7 .steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter heli)er at $3.50 3.00 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

$83.72 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
the maximum h.p. corresponding is 225. On the day watch there 
are 1,190 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 



1284 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city 
pumping engines equivalent to the average number of units in 
service is 5.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines _ 
per engineer per watch is 3.9 ; the average equivalent number of 
pumping engines per oiler per watch is 1.2 The ratio of the cost 
of coal to cost of labor is 0.9. The daily pay roll is $146.64 The 
average pay per man per day is $3.30, per hour is 41 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 9.8. 

Central Park Avenue Pumping Station. There are six- 200 h.p. 
and two 250 h.p. Scotch marine boilers, with Hawley down draught 
furnaces, hand fired, the former erected in 1899 and the latter 
in 1907. 

There are three 405 h.p., 20,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, direct 
acting, Worthington engines, 144 ft. piston speed, 17.6 r.p.m., 
erected in 1900-01, and one 810 h.p., 40,000,000 gal., vertical, triple, 
direct acting, Worthington engine, 170 ft. piston speed, 16.7 r.p.m., 
erected in 1906. 

The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 1,700 and of the engines is 
2,025. The average h.p. develot)ed by the boilers is 1,100 and by 
the engines 1,380, the load factors being 65% and 68% respectively. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

13 firemen at $2.96 $38.48 

4 coal passers at $2.74 10.96 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

1 conveyor engineer at $3.29 3.29 

$56.15 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 $ 6.85 

3 assistant engineers at $5.48 16.44 

12 oilers at $2.96 35.52 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

3 laborers at $2.50 7.50 

6/7 steamfitter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

$80.76 

The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1.2, 
and the maximum h.p. corresponding is 254. On the day watch 
there are 1,062 lbs. of coal hand fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 4. The number of city pump- 
ing engines equivalent to the average number of units in service 
is 5.2 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per en- 
gineer per watch is 3.9 ; the average equivalent number of pump- 
ing engines per oiler per watch is 1.3 The ratio of the cost of 
coal to cost of labor is 0.92. The daily pay roll is $136.91. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.29, per hour is 41 cts. The 
actual engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 10.1. 

Harrison Street Puynpiny Station. There are two 340 h.p. B. & 
W. water tube boilers, with chain grates, hand fed to hopper, 
erected in 1906. There are tv/o 282 h.p., 15,000,000 gal., vertical, 
triple, Allis engines, 159 ft. piston speed, 15.9 r.p.m., erected in 1889. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1285 

The total rated h.p. of the boilers is 680 and of the engines is 
564, The average h.p. developed by the boilers Is 340 and by the 
engines is 628, the load factors being 50% and 111% respectively. 

The daily pay roll is as follows : 

/ 

3 firemen at $2.96 $ 8.88 

3 coal passers at $2,74 8.22 

1 boiler washer at $3.42 3.42 

$20.52 

1 chief engineer at $6.85 $ 6.85 

3 assistant engineers at $5.48 16.44 

6 oilers at $2.96 17.76 

1 janitor at $2.47 2.47 

1 well tender at $2.74 2.74 

6/7 steainfitter at $5.50 4.70 

6/7 steamfitter helper at $3.50 3.00 

6/7 machinist at $5 4.28 

$58.24 

. The maximum number of boilers per fireman per watch is 1 and 
the maximum h.p. corresponding is 340. On the day watch there 
are 2,160 lbs. of coal gravity fired per hour per fireman. 

The total number of engine units is 2. The number of city pump- 
ing engines equivalent to the average number of units in service 
is 2.3 ; the average equivalent number of pumping engines per 
engineer per watch is 1.7; the average equivalent number of pump- 
ing engines per oiler per watch is 1.15. The ratio of the cost of 
coal to cost of labor is 0.73. The daily pay roll is $78.76. The 
average pay per man per day is $3.65, per hr. is 4 6 cts. The actual 
engine h.p. per dollar of daily pay roll is 8. 

Tests and Operating Costs of Two Oil-Fuel Pumping Plants. 
These notes were published in Engineering News, Aug. 20, 1908, 
and are from plants at Wrentham and Wareham, Mass. 

The Wrentham plant includes 5.64 miles of 6, 8 and 10-in. cast- 
iron mains and 0.32 miles of 2-ln. with steel standpipe, 30 ft. in 
diam. by 50 ft. high with adjacent oil-fuel pumping plant. The 
entire works cost about $50,000. The supply is from 2.5-in. tubular 
wells tapping a sandy, waterbearing, gravel stratum. The flow 
is such that the whole group of wells flows naturally when un- 
capped 1 ft. above the ground. The pumping station contains one 
room 25 by 36 ft. Inside. The elevation of the floor being 5 ft. 
below ground level, the well water nearly floods the suction chamber 
of the pump. The equipment consisted of a 25 h.p., 12 by 12 in., 
two stroke cycle, horizontal, crude-oil engine (Mietz & Weiss), 
with a fuel oil tank and air compressor for starting. To this was 
geared an 8 by 10 in. Smith-Vaile pump, with actual ordinary use 
capacity of 250 U. S. gals, per min. at 90 r.p.m., against 130 lb. 
per sq. in. pressure. The test,- of which the summary was given 
above, was made on Wednesday, March 4, 1908, under normal daily 
conditions of pumr)ing, using ordinary fuel weighing 7.5 lbs. per 
gal. and costing about 5.75 cts. per gal. delivered at the pumping 
station, 1,5 miles from the freight station. 



1286 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The works at Wareham include 5.4 miles of 6, 8 and 10-in. cast- 
iron mains, 34 fire hydrants, a steel stand-pipe 20 ft, by 100 ft. 
high and a double unit oil-fuel-engine pumping plant in the village 
of Tihonet. The supply is from 2.5 in. tubular wells, the combined 
yield of six of which during a steam-pumping test covering 85.5 
continuous hrs, was at the rate of 315,000 gals, per day. The 
pumping station building is almost exactly like that at Wrentham. 

TABLE3 XXXV. SUMMARY OF TEST ON OIL FUEL PUMPING 
PLANTS. WRENTHAM AND WAREHAM, MASS. 

*Wrentham , fWareham ^ 

Single unit North unit South unit 

Length test hours 6 3.5 3.5 

Total No. revolutions.. 14,616 8,460 8,063 

Average r.p.m 40.6 40.3 38.4 

Average capacity pump 

gals, per min 262.28 260.34 248.06 

Total gals, pumped 94,419.36 54,651.6 52,087.0 

Lbs. per cu. ft. at 48 

and 49 deg. F 62.41 62.40 62.40 

Average pressure, lbs. 

per sq. in., pumped 

against 77.625 102.0 102.0 

Average vacuum, ins... 13.2 10.9 10.5 

Total equivalent height, 

corrected 197.88 249.86 249.33 

Equivalent pressure for 

total height, lbs. per 

sq. in 85.88 108.44 108.21 

Total work ; pump ; ft.- 

Ibs 155,888,912 133,915,544 108,339,314 

Average pump, h.p 13.122 16.44 15.63 

Hp.-hrs. developed at 

pump 78.732 57.54 54.71 

Total lbs. fuel oil 153.25 98.0 92.0 

Lbs. fuel oil per h.p.-hr., 

based on h.p. at pump 

end 1.95 1.70 1.70 

Cost pumping 1,000 

gals., cents 2.06 1.67 1.65 

Cost raising 1,000,000 

gals. 1 ft., cents 10.4 6.7 6.6 

* Wrentham test made under normal conditions. 
t Wareljam test made with force-main stop gate throttled to in- 
crease work done by engine. 



TABLE XXXVI. RECORD OF PERFORMANCE. WAREHAM 
AND WRENTHAM, OIL-FUEL, PUMPING PLANTS. (May, 
1908.) 

* Wrentham * Wareham 
plant plant 

Days operated 20 27 

Days idle 11 4 

Average pumping period 3 hrs., 34 mins. 2 hrs., 38 mins. 

Total gals, pumped; basis of 1% slip. 1,132,968 1,106,268 

Population supplied , 900 1,000 

Average daily consumption, gals, per 

capita 41 36 

♦ Both plants operating under normal daily conditions, 



PUMPS AND PUMPING , 1287 

Average per cent, of superintendent's 
and engineer's time at pumping sta., 
on basis of 9 hr. day, including Sun- 
days 30.9 43.1 

Gals, fuel for pumping 258 269 

Gals, fuel for warming up 26 33 

Gals, fuel chargeable to month 284 302 

Cost of fuel oil $17.04 $21.14 

Gals, lubricating oil 3.0 4.3 

Gals, cylinder oil 2.5 0.5 

Average pressure, lbs. per sq. in., 

pumped against 88.7 64.5 

Average ins. vacuum, suction main.. ;■ 12.6 10.2 
Total equivalent height of lift, includ- 
ing correction for gage heights 221.76 162.52 

Average gals, pumped per gal. fuel 

used in pumping alone 4,400 4,110 

Average gals, pumped per gal. fuel, 

all uses 4,000 3,660 

Average duty per 100 lbs. fuel for 

pumping alone 72,000,000 66,000,000 

Average duty per 100 lbs. fuel, all uses 65,000,000 59,000,000 

Average pump, h.p 9.55 9.2 

The pumping outfit consists of duplicate 25 h.p., 12 by 12 in. 
two-stroke cycle, horizontal crude-oil (Mietz & Weiss) engines, 
connected to two 8 by 10 in. vertical, triplex pumps (Sraith-Vaile), 
A test on both units was made on April 21, 1908, using ordinary 
fuel oil weighing 7.5 lbs. per gal. and costing about 7 cts. per gal. 
delivered at the station. 

Cost of a 64-h. p. Gasoline Pumping Plant and Pumping. P. E. 
Harroun in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil En- 
gineers, March, 1905, gives the following on the cost of a gasoline 
pumping plant for the water-works of Porterville, Cal., a city of 
2,000 population: 

Two gasoline engines : 

Two gasoline engines, each 32 h.p $2,860 

Hauling and placing on foundations 90 

Two belt tighteners 76 

Framing and placing same 22 

Fittings, foundation bolts, tubes, etc 48 

Labor, lining up, adjusting, etc., 30 cts. per hr. . . 38 

Belting 141 

Miscellaneous 11 

Cost of two engines in place $3,286 

Two pumps : 

Two 9 X 12-in. single acting triijlex pumps. ... $2,816 

Hauling and placing on foundations 170 

Foundation bolts, tubes and setting same 42 

Special castings 372 

Pipe, flanges and bolts 248 

Valves 160 

Fittings, gaskets, miscellaneous and blacksmithing 134 

Labor connecting up 100- 

Ejector, pipe fittings and connecting up 38 

Cost of two pumps $4,080 



1288 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

This makes the combined cost of engines and pumi3S, exclusive 
of concrete foundations, $7,366. 

The cost of pumping with this plant into a stand-pipe was as 
follows, in the month of May, 1904: 

1,700 gals, crude Coalinga oil, at 4 cts $68.00 

22 gals, engine oil, at 50 cts 11.00 

5 gals, engine gasoline, at 30 cts 1.50 

25 gals, pump oil, at 50 cts 12.50 

8 lbs. pump gear compounds, at 25 cts 2.00 

20 lbs. waste, at 10 cts 2.00 

% time of superintendent 50.00 

Full time of assistant superintendent 65.00 

Total per month $212.00 

During this month the pumps raised 12,678,000 gals, a height of 
164 ft. ; the pumps actually pumped 458 hrs. This makes the cost 
a trifle more than 10 cts. per million gallons raised 1 ft. high. 
There were 1,200 consumers who used 340 gals, per capita. The 
crude oil weighs 7.25 lbs. per gal., and develops 19,600 B.t.u. per 
gal. The best performance of the plant, extending over several 
days, has been 1.43 pints of crude oil per horse-power-hour. The 
combined efficiency of the pump and belting was 70%, so that 1 
pint of crude oil developed about 1 b.h.p. per hr. Half of the 
superintendent's time is charged to the plant and half to the office 
expense of the water-works system. 

Cost of Pumping with Gasoline and Cheaper Fuels Compared. 
C. R. Knowles (Engineering and Contracting, Mai'ch 1, 1916), 
states that on the Illinois Central railroad in order to utilize the 
existing equipment many of the gasoline engines now in service 
have been converted to kerosene and distillate engines by the 
addition of attachments for pre-heating the oil to or near the 
flashing point before the oil enters the cylinder. These attachments 
consist of generators or mixing chambers wherein the oil is heated 
by the exhaust of the engine. They are made in various sizes and 
types, both for throttling and for hit and miss governors. With 
these attachments the engine is generally started on gasoline and 
is allowed to run on this fuel until the cylinder and generator are 
heated, when the oil is cut in. On other types a retort is pro- 
vided where the oil is converted into a vapor or gas by heating the 
retort with a blow torch. Either method requires from flve to 
ten minutes to start an engine running on oil. Electric ignition is 
used, as with gasoline engines. Very little carbon trouble is ex- 
perienced with the use of these attachments and the lubrication 
required is about the same as with a gasoline engine. 

A series of tests as recorded in the table of various fuels was 
made, pumping a total head of 61 ft., with an 8xl0-in. single 
cylinder double acting pump direct connected to a 6-h.p. four-cycle 
horizontal gasoline engine equipped to run on kerosene and distil- 
lates as well as gasoline, controlled by a throttling governor. This 
engine was one of the first gasoline engines ever equipped to 
operate on low grade oils and has been continually operated on 
distillates from 36 degs. to 42 degs. Baume for the past six years. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1289 



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1290 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The distillate is the most economical of the fuels used. The cost 
per water horse-power being 53% of the cost of pumping with kero- 
sene, and only 27% of the cost of pumping with gasoline. The high 
cost of alcohol eliminates it as a fuel for pumping water and the 
result of the test is merely submitted as a comparative feature. 
No doubt better results could have been obtained by reducing the 
area of the combustion chamber as more compression is required 
to secure economical results from the use of alcohol in internal 
combustion engines. The power obtained from the use of kero- 
sene was practically the same as from the distillate, the only dif- 
ference being in the price of the two fuels. The gasoline test shows 
such results as might be obtained from the average gasoline engine 
under the same conditions. The fuel known as motor spirits, which 
has been widely advertised as a substitute for gasoline, operates 
under practically the same conditions as gasoline. An objection- 
able feature of this oil is a disagreeable odor and it would perhaps 
be undesirable to use in certain localities. 

Cost of Diesel Engine Pumping in a Municipal Water Works. 
H. H. Gochnauer (Engineering Record, June 3, 1916), states that 
Diesel oil engines, operated for the year ended April 1, 1916, fur- 
nished power for the municipal water supply of Appleton, Wis., a 
city of 18,000 inhabitants, at an average fuel cost of $2.82 per mil- 
lion gallons of water pumped against a head of 185 ft. The instal- 
lation consists of two 225-brake horsepower, three-cylinder, four- 
stroke cycle (Busch-Sulzer Bros.) Diesel oil engines, located op- 
posite and parallel to each other in such a manner that their air 
compressors can be belted to either unit. Each engine is directly 

TABLE XXXVIII. YEARLY COST OP DIESEL ENGINE 
OPERATION (1915-6) 

Cost per 

million 

Fuel oil : Total cost gallons 

44,610 gal. at 3.6 cts. per gal $1,605*96 $2.82 

Lubricating oil : 

Cylinder, 559.50 gal. at 30 ct $167.85 

Air compress, 33.23 gal. at 30 ct 9.97 

Engine, 109.46 gal. at 20 ct 21.89 

Kerosene, 80.53 gal. at 8ct 6.44 .36 

Labor : 

Chief engineer $1,350.00 

Three assistant engineers 2,340.00 6.48 

Materials : 

Miscellaneous supplies and expenses (heat- 
ing, telephone, stationery, printing, 

packing, etc.) $887.95 

Maintenance of engines (repair exhaust 

pipe) 22.64 

Maintenance of pumps 215.95 1.98 

Total operating cost $6,628.65 $11.64 

Note. — A break in the strainer system of the filter plant caused 
sand to be admitted into the cylinders of the pumps. One cylinder 
was so badly cut that it was necessary to reline it. The cost of 
this repair and the expressage on same constitute the pump main- 
tenance. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1291 

connected to two Deane double-acting triplex pumps of 2,000,000 gal. 
capacity each, located one on each end of the engine shaft. The 
total capacity of one unit, 4,000,000 gals., is sufficient for the city's 
fire protection. By running the two units alternately, one each 
week, one unit is always in reserve. 

Table XXXVIII gives the cost of operation of the Appleton pump- 
ing station from April 1, 1915, to April 1, 1916. 

Concrete Muffler and Operating Cost of a Small Diesel Engine 
Pumping Plant. Deep-well pumps, a lighting system and com- 
mercial motors are supplied in the village of Downer's Grove, 111., 
by a municipal electric plant consisting of two horizontal two- 
cycle 120-h.p. Snow Diesel engines. To cut down the noise of the 
exhaust the original mufflers were replaced by large reinforced- 
concrete mufflers designed by H. A. Gardiner, superintendent. They 
have conical roofs and a steel stack projecting 3 ft. above the top. 
The outside diameter is 8 ft. and the height 10 ft. The structure 
rests on six concrete piles, because if set on a solid foundation the 
ground in the vicinity starts vibrating in harmony with the exhaust. 
The size of the mufflers was determined by the piston displacement 
and scavenger air volume per stroke. The exhaust enters at the 
bottom and on the side, where a circular brickwork makes the gases 
whirl about the center of the muffler. This circular motion has a 
tendency to pull a vacuum behind the gases. On top of the brick- 
work forming the first stage is a system of grate bars, and on top 
of these are ordinary brick in loose layers which act as a baffle to 
break up the noise of the exhaust. On top of this is a fine wire 
screen with a layer of crushed stone to further break up the report. 
The conical-shaped top is merely to keep out the rain. A connec- 
tion to the sewer is made to drain the interior condensation. 

In order to keep the concrete from getting too hot when running 
continuously under heavy load, a .5-in. pipe is tapped into the 
exhaust pipe just outside of the muffler. Water is thus carried into 
the muffler as steam and keeps the temperature down. Frequently 
an accumulation of carbon in the muffler will catch fire, but it is 
allowed to burn out until the concrete begins to get too hot, when 
water is turned on full in the small pipe to put out the fire. This 
process makes the muffler self-cleaning. The mufflers are so ef- 
fective that the exhaust cannot be heard or any vibration of the 
air or ground felt when standing immediately beside them. 

When both engines are running their intakes exhaust about 4000 
cu. ft. of air per minute from the room. After the installation was 
made it was found to be practically impossible to keep the engine 
room warm enough in winter. This was ingeniously overcome by 
making an air intake to the room and at the same time utilizing 
a portion of the waste heat of the exhaust. The iron exhaust pipe 
on one side of the station was bricked in, leaving about a 6-in. 
space around the pipe and with the outer end of the brickwork 
open. The inner end of this brickwork opens into the floor of 
the engine room near the intake ports of the engine. The air is 
thus drawn in over the hot exhaust pipe. The advantage is two- 



1292 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fold — the warmed air produces a better mixture for the cylinders 
and gives the needed warmth for the engine room. 

The exhaust pipe from the other engine is carried through the 
oil-tank room and the whole room is used as an intake flue for the 
engine. Incidentally this heat in the oil-tank room keeps the oil 
in good shape in the coldest weather. 

Water Supply Provided by Deep Wells 

The village water requirements are supplied from two deep wells, 
and in order that the pumping could be done entirely by electrical 
means a spcial type of deep-well pump, manufactured by the 
Deming Company, was used. These two deep-well pumps are belt 
driven by 15-h.p. variable-speed motors. These were the first 
pumps of the kind to be installed and their operation is considered 
very satisfactory. During peak load on the electric system the 
deep-well pumps are slowed down to the bare requirements of the 
system. They discharge into a 60',000-gal. cistern from which ^the 
water is supplied under 60-lb. pressure to the mains and stand- 
pipe by two centrifugal, two-stage, 350-gal.-per-minute pumps, 
driven by 20-h.p. variable-speed motors, which are also slowed down 
during peak-load periods. 

Scalped oil is purchased in 10,000-gal. lots from the Texas Com- 
pany and stored in the 12,000-gal. tank in the station. The average 
fuel cost for the year 1915, placed in the tank at Downer's Grove, 
was 2.94 cents per gallon. The average cost of oil at the switch- 
board for the same period, including that used in trial runs, testing 
out, tuning up, etc., was 0.331 cent per kilowatt-hour. The oil 
consumption was found on test to be 0.50 lb. of oil per brake horse- 
power-hour full load ; 0.52 lb. of oil per brake horsepower-hour 
three-quarters load, and 0.60 lb. of oil per brake horsepower-hour 
one-half load, for oil having a heat value of 19,000 B.t.u. per pound. 
The over-all efficiency of the station is above 30 per cent. 

Comparative Cost of Pumping Water by Steam and Producer 
Gas in a IVlunicipa! Pumping Plant. Thomas E. Butterfield 
(Power, May 2, 1911), has given the following figures for the 
municipal plant of Haddonfield, N. J. The water is taken from 
four artesian wells about 220 ft. deep. From each well a 6-in. 
branch leads to a 12 -in. main extending from the well field to a 
water-tight concrete cistern 20 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. deep, the 
12-in. main extending about 30 ft. down into this cistern, water 
being siphoned out of the wells as soon as the pumps lower the 
water level in the cistern. 

Table XXXIX gives the daily expense with a rate of pumping of 
1,000,000 gals, per day. 

In making the comparison, data from steam pumping plants of 
similar size have been utilized to determine the cost of operation. 
The actual prices bid for a steam plant were used in determining 
the charges for interest, depreciation, sinking fund, etc. It should 
be understood, however, that the figures given do not represent the 
cost of operating the whole system because, with the exception of 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1293 

TABLE XXXIX. COST OF PUMPING BY STEAM AND GAS 

Producer 

Steam gas 

plant plant 
Interest on cost of building and contents for one day, 

rate 41/2% $ 2.20 % 2.85 

Daily average charge for repairs and maintenance. . . 0.35 0.41 

Daily debit to sinking fund, interest at 4%, based 

on complete renewal in forty years 0.48 0.68 

Daily cost of operation : 

(a) Labor: two men, 12 hours each, at $80 and 

$75 per month 5.10 5.10 

(&) Fuel at $3.50 per ton 9.45 2.13 

(c) Oil 0.20 0.25 

(fZ) Waste 0.02 0.02 

(e) Light (oil) 0.10 0.10 

.(/) Miscellaneous 0.20 0.20 

Total daily expense $18.10 $11.74 

Estimated cost of pumping 1000 gallons water by steam 1.81 cts. 
Estimated cost of pumping 1000 gallons water by gas. . 1.17 cts. 
Estimated saving per 1,000,000 gallons water pumped. . . . $6.36 

the building and contents, no charges are made for interest, main- 
tenance, depreciation and sinking fund for the general system. 
Office expenses, improvements, etc., are likewise not included, as 
these charges would remain the same with either gas or steam as 
the source of power. The cost of constructing the gas-power plant 
as compared with a steam plant of similar size, however, has been 
taken into consideration. 

Cost of Installing and Operating Pumps in a Small Waterworks. 
W. E. Housman (Engineering News, May 7. 1914), gives the fol- 
lowing comparative costs of installing and operating 3 pumping 
units. 

TWO 10-IN. SIMPLE DUPLEX STEAM PUMPS 

Two pumps, delivered and erected $ 3,200 

Foundationes 350 

Two 80-hp. return-tubular boilers bricked-in and erected on 

foundations with steel stacks 2,220 

One 150-hp. feed heater and two feed pumps 450 

Steam and exhaust piping, covered and erected 850 

Brick building (27 x 58 ft.) 3,700 

Total $10,770 

TWO TANDEM-COMPOUND DIRECT-ACTING STEAM PUMPS 

In this estimate the increased cost of the pump is about offset 
by the decreased boiler caiiacity required and the build- 
ing would be the same, hence the estimate of $10,770 

TWO 600-GAL. TRIPLEX PUMPS 

Two pumps with motor and starting apparatus $4,300 

Foundations 550 

Wiring and erection 500 

Building (30 x 26 ft.) 1,400 

Total $6,750 



1294 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TWO 600-GAL. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 

Two pumps with motor and starting apparatus $2,100 

Founda-tions 250 

Wiring and erection 400 

Building (24 x 28 ft.) 1,200 

Total $4,250 

To obtain the coal required, the assumed steam consumption 
multiplied by the hydraulic h.p. and divided by 34.5 gives the boiler- 
h.p.-load. With a 4.5-lb. (per boiler h.p.-hr.) rate and a liberal 
amount for banking the estimated figures result. This coal rate 
is excessive for a large and very good plant using good coal ; it 
should be increased for a poor plant and poor coal but may be 
decreased for very good coal. Moreover, the steam consumption 
given would be materially increased for old pumps in bad repair 
or units with poorly adjusted valves. 

ESTIMATED OPERATING CHARGES FOR SMALL. WATER WORKS PUMP 
INSTALLATIONS. 

Duplex Centrif- 

steam pump Triplex ugal 
Efficiency of pump, per cent, (not includ- 
ing 10% slip loss, etc.) : 

Pumping into mains 60 47 

Pumping into standpipe 47 62 

Steam, lbs. per water h.p. (includ. 10% 
slip loss, etc.) : 

Pumping into mains 80 

Pumping into standpipe 60 ..... 

Cost of installation : 

Pumping into mains $10,770 $6,750 $4,250 

Pumping into standpipe 10,770 6,750 4,250 

Cost per year of electric current at 3% 
cts. per kw-hr. : 

Pumping into mains 8,380 5,351 

Pumping into standpipe 4,190 4,843 

Cost per year of coal at $2.50 per ton: 

Pumping into mains 1,506 

Pumping into standpipe 1,369 ..... 

Interest and depreciation at 12%%: 

Pumping into mains 1,346 844 531 

Pumping into standpipe 1,243 844 531 

Oil, waste and repairs 215 135 65 

Total yearly charge : 

Pumping into mains 3,067 9,359 5,947 

Pumping into standpipe 2,827 5,169 5,439 

A Water Pumping Diagram. Frank Richards (Compressed Air, 
May, 1913), gives the diagram here presented, which may be found 
convenient for ready reference in water pumping comparisons or 
in preliminary estimates of pumping requirements. It represents 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1295 



throughout the theoretical h.p., or 100% efficiency, in pumping dif- 
ferent numbers of gals per min. to different heights, up to 1,000 ft. 
The weight of the gallon being taken as 8.34 lbs. the statement 
would be: Number of gallons per minute, multiplied by 8.34 





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pounds, multiplied by height of lift in feet, divided by 33,000 ft. -lbs., 
equals h.p. 

Thus 500 gals, x 8.34 x 800 ft. of lift ^ 33,000 = 101 h.p., as shown 
on the diagram. 

Efficiency Test of an Air Lift Pump. In testing a Talbot air 
lift pump in Camden, N. J., L. T. Edwards (Engineering and Con- 
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1296 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

General Electric air flow meter, and the water was measured by 
pumping- into a 1,000-gal, tank for an interval of time measured 
with stop wa'tches. The accompanying curves were plotted from 
the table. The normal output of the well was about 300 gals, per 
minute and the efficiency at this point was very nearly 60%. This 
efRciency is over all from the steam end of the compressor. Fif- 
teen per cent, was added to the theoretical air horsepower to allow 
for friction. The curves show that when the well is forced beyond 
the normal output, the efficiency falls off rapidly. This is due to 
the increase of water friction with the higher velocity and to the 
decreased submergence. 

The following data relate to the well and the test : Depth of 
well, 120 ft. ; diameter, 8 ins. ; surface to foot-piece, 106 ft. ; foot- 
piece to point of discharge, 115.5 ft. ; eductilon pipe, 5 ins. ; air 
pipe, 1.25 ins. 



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60 322 31.0 35.5 .186 

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Cost of Pumping Machinery and Reservoirs for Small Water 
Works. W. S. Johnson (Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 30, 
1914), gives the cost of several small pumping plants of municipally 
owned water works in Massachusetts. 

The cost of buildings for this machinery is given in the chapter 
on Buildings. 

The costs of distributing reservoirs for these plants are given in 
Table XLI. 

Cost of Pumping at Scranton, Pa. The total pumpage of the 
Maiden Creek pumping station of Scranton, Pa., for one year was 
2,259,191,840 gals., without allowance for slip. The station is 
equipped with Worthington and Allis-Chalmers pumping machinery. 
Bituminous coal costing $2.65 per gross ton delivered was used and 
6,022,100 lbs. were consumed during the year. The wood used cost 
?3.50 per cord, and an amount equivalent to 1,800 lbs. of coal was 
used. The average static head against which the pumps worked 
was 212.6 ft., and the average dynamic head was 291.8 ft. The 
number of gals, pumped per pound of equivalent coal was 375. The 
total cost of maintaining the pumping station was $13,301.91, or 
$5.89 per million gals, pumped, or 2 cts. per million gals, raised 
1 ft. (dynamic). The principal items in the station expenses were 
Coal, $7,129.83; oiling and packing, $1,010.73; firing boilers, $967 
running engines, $907.54 ; unloading and stacking coal, $601.76 
superintendence and general work, $528.43 ; oil and grease, $603.86 
tools and supplies, $354.70; watching, $300.74. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1297 



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PUMPS AND PUMPING 1299 

Cost of Pumping at Two River Flusliing Stations, Milwaukee, 
Wis. At Milwaukee, Wis., three rivers join and enter Lake Mich- 
igan. Two of the rivers, the Milwaukee, which flows south parallel 
to the lake shore, and the Kinnickinnic, which flows north and also 
parallel to the lake shore, are constantly being flushed out by means 
of pumping lake water into them some distance above their mouth. 
The tunnels supplying the water from the lake are each 12 ft. in 
diametei'. The Milwaukee tunnel is 2,5-34 ft. long and the Kinnic- 
kinnic tunnel is 7.185 ft. long. The pumping plants are each of 
the same capacity, rated at 500 cu. ft. per sec. 

The Milwaukee river flushing station is located at the lake end 
of the tunnel and is equipped with an E. P. Allis vertical tandem 
screw pumping engine and four return tubular boilers, 54 ins. x 16 
ft., with down draft furnace. 

The Kinnickinnic pumping station is located at the river end 
of the flushing tunnel. It is equipped with an Allis-Chalmers verti- 
cal tandem screw pumping engine and two horizontal tubular 
boilers, 72 ins. x 18 ft., with down draft furnaces. 

The data on the operation of these plants for the year 1909 are 
as follows : 

Milwaukee Kinnick- 

River innic River 

Total million gals, displaced 114,306 90,519 

Av. dynamic head pumped against, ft. 2.78 3.02 

Av. steam pressure, lbs 95 140 

Coal consumed when pumping, tons. . 2,207 1.694 

Grade of coal, .screenings Youghiogheny Youghiogheny 

Coal consumed per million foot, gals... 13.89 12.15 

Ft.-lb.s. of work per 100 lbs. of coal 58.523.230 68,887.288 

Coal used for starting fires, lbs 176.550 97.150 

Coal used for all purposes, tons 2.295.7 1,742.8 

Per cent, of ash 11.92 13.94 

Cost of coal per ton $2,405 $2,265 

Cost of operation : 

Salaries $11,940.00 $13,732.17 

Coal 6,653.76 4,877.53 

Total cost $21,627.80 $19,542.52 

Cost per million ft.-gals $0,068 $0,089 

Cost of Pumping Water by Gasoline, Kerosene and Steam Pumps 
for Railway Water Supply. 

(Abstract of committee report at the annual convention of the 
Association of Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings.) 

Chicago d Eastern Illinois R. R. A. S. Markley gives the follow- 
ing results of tests made to determine the cost of pumping at 
several of the water stations on this road. The results from the 
steam plant are given merely for comparison. 

Chicago & Northwestern Ry. The data in the table are given by 
A. W. Merrick as showing the cost of pumping by gasoline power. 

at. Louis & Southwestern Ry. J. S. Berry gives the co.st of pump- 
ing as follows, using an 8-h.p., gear burr (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
combination outfit : 



1300 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Suction, size, ins 4 

Suction, lift, ft 8 

Discharg-e, horizontal, size, ins '. 4 

Discharge, horizontal, distance, ft 100 

Discharg'e, vertical, size, ins 4 

Discharg-e, vertical, distance, ft 30 

Cost — 

Per 1,000 g-als., g-asoline $0.1700 

Per 1.000 g-als., coal 0.0335 

Per 1,000 g-als., labor 0.0420 

Gasoline, per g-allon 0.1700 

Coal, per ton 2.90 

Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburg. The following data are 
given by A. F. Miller : 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline. . $0.00625 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.0125 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, gaso- 
line 0.02 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals, labor, coal. . 0.05 

Cost of gasoline per gallon 0.10 

Cost of cosil per ton 2.50 



TABLE XLII. COST OF PUMPING WATER AT WATER 
STATIONS CHICAGO & EASTERN ILLINOIS R. R. 

Water station. Oxford. Winthrop. Tramms. 

Date Oct., 1900 Oct., 1900 1901 

Make of engine Stewart Stewart Stickney 

Size of engine, ins 6x10 6x10 

Make of pump Stewart Stewart Stickney 

Size of pump, ins 6 x 10 5x10 

Vertical section, ft 15 15 20 

Horizontal suction, ft 30 30 15 

Size of suction pipe, ins 4 4 6 

Vertical discharge, ft 45 45 45 

Horizontal discharge, ft 250 75 125 

Size of discharge pipe, ins 4 4 6 

Period of test 3 days 5 days 426 days 

Fuel Pick-up coal Mine-run coal Gasoline 

Amount of fuel (gals, or lbs.).. 760 1470 615 

Water pumped, gals 47,620 125,093 4,836,000 

Fuel per 1,000 gals, water (gal. 

or lb.) 15.9 11.75 0.13 

Cost of fuel (gal. or ton) $0.08 $1.80 $0.10 

Wages of pumper, per month. . . . 17.50 17.50 10.00 
Cost ignitor battery per 1,000 

gals, water $0.0011 

Cost of fuel per 1,000 gals, water $0.00638 $0.0106 $0,013 
Cost of labor per 1,000 gals. 

water $.0.0362 $0.0229 $0,028 

Total cost per 1,000 gals, water. $0.04258 $0.0335 $0.0421 

Kind of pump, size and h.p. : Combined gasoline, 8 -in. piston, 
8-in. stroke, 5-h.p. Steam, 10x7x10 in. (Blake). 

Suction, size and lift: Gasoline, 6-ft. suction, size 6 ins., 10 ft. 
lift. Steam, suction 5 ins., increased to 6 ins. at pump, lift 12 ft., 
distance horizontally 70 ft. 

Discharge, horizontal distance and size: Gasoline, discharge 5 
ins. increased to 6 ins. at pump, distance 35 ft. Steam, discharge 
4 ins. increivsed to 6 ins. at pump, distance 50 ft, 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1301 



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1302 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Discharge, vertical distance and size : Gasoline, discharge 6 Ins., 
distance 35 ft. Steam, discharge 6 ins., distance 36 ft. 

The difference in cost of labor per thousand gallons of water 
between coal and gasoline is explained as lying in salary of pumper, 
the man using coal receiving $33 per month and the man using 
gasoline receiving $5 per month. 

Lake Superior & Ishpeming Ry. The following data are given 
by A. Anderson: 

Total cost of pumping for 1907 : 

Whiteflsh Blapneck 
tank tank 

Labor, pumping $117.08 $187.91 

Keeping fire under tank 49.26 57.00 

Coal for fire under tank 19.37 19.37 

Gasoline 53.61 45.93 

Oil and waste 4.62 6.26 

Repairs to engine 48.59 72.59 

Repairs, buildings or tanks . 36.67 169.39 



Cost of all labor and material $329.20 $558.45 

No. gals, water pumped during year 2,176,000 3,208,500 

In explanation of these figures Mr. Anderson says the above 
statement is a record kept of pumping and repair costs at two of 
our principal water stations for the year 1907, and represents a 
year's maintenance and operation.- The gasoline cost per 1,000 
gals, of water is about $0.0187. A 3.5 h.p. gasoline engine was used 
at Whiteflsh and a 2.5 h.p. at Slapneck. The pumps and engines 
are located beneath tank. Fire is kept from about Nov. 1 to April 
to keep engines, pumps and water from freezing, using ordinary 
soft coal with station stoves, for this purpose. 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. J. F. Parker gives the following 
statement : 

We do not use on this division either gasoline, kerosene or coal. 
We have three plants where distillate is used and at the balance 
of. our pumping plants we use oil for fuel. I have given you the 
cost for one gas engine plant, also for one plant where crude oil 
is used for fuel. The deep well pump and power head used at the 
distillate plants is, I believe, machinery that is used only on the 
Paciflc coast. 

The cost at the station using distillate is given by Mr. Parker 
as follows : 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., distillate. ... $.039 

Cost of pumping water, per 1,000 gals., labor 015 

Cost of distillate per gal 08 

Kind of pump, size and horse power : Pomona deep well double- 
plunger pump, with No. 18 power head, operated by 10 -h.p. West 
Coast gasoline engine. 

Suction, size and lift : 6-in. suction, 80-ft. lift. 

Discharge, horizontal distance and size : 4-in. discharge, distance 
600 ft. 

Discharge, vertical distance and size : 4-in. discharge, distance 
27 ft. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1303 



TABLE XLIV. AVERAGE COST OF PUMPING WATER PER 
100 GALLONS BY GASOLINE ENGINE POWER FOR SIX 
MONTHS. AUG., 1902. TO JAN., 1903, INCLUSIVE (NOT 
INCLUDING REPAIRS) 

Consumption Consumption 

C & N W under 500,000 gals. over 500,000 gals. 

Ry. per month per month 

Gals, per Cost per Gals per Cost per 

Divisions month 1,000 gals. month 1,000 gals. 

Galena 334.000 $.0760 1,532.000 $.0413 

s;^r"^'" »«■»»» ■»=»» i5ji» s 

Average $0.0824 $0.0323 

Regarding the use of crude oil, Mr. Parker states: 
Our pumping is done principally by steam pumps, using crude 
oil for fuel at 25 cts. per barrel of 42 gals. With this oil we are 
enabled to raise water 80 ft., including suction and discharge, at a 
cost of $.0015 for the oil per 1,000 gals, of water pumped and $.015 
for labor, or a total of $.0165. At this crude oil plant, Victorville, 
we produced for the month 3,507,000 gals, of water at a cost of 
$77.50 for fuel, labor and maintenance, or an average of $.022 per 
1,000 gals, of water. 

Northern Pacific Ry. F. Ingalls furnishes the following data, 
where the cost of pumping with gasoline and coal are very nearly 
equal : 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline ..$0.0333 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.02 

.Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, gas 0.0225 
Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor, coal 0.039 

COvSt of ga.soline per gal 0.15 

Cost of coal per ton (lignite coal used) 1.25 



Kind of pump, size and horse power: 5 x 12-in. pump in steam 
plant. 20 h.p. gasoline engine, with Smith- Vaile deep well pump, 
in gasoline plant. 

Suction, size and lift: 6-in. suction, 800 ft. long, with 12-ft. 
lift, in steam plant; 8-in. suction, 18-ft. lift, in gasoline plant. 

Discharge, horizontal distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 100 ft. 
long, in steam plant; 6-in. discharge, 125 ft. long, in gasoline plant. 

Discharge, vertical distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 32 ft. to 
bottom of tank in both plants. 

Lake Erie & Western R. R. Penwell gives the following data : 

" We have but few gasoline pumping stations. We have two 
small plants that are not considered in this report that are very 
expensive. My experience has -been that if a small supply is re- 
quired there is but little economy in gasoline outfits, but where a 
large supply is required we have found the gasoline economical. 
We have but four gasoline pumping stations and no kerosene 
plants." 



1304 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
The following table gives results of Mr. Penwell's tests : 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., gasoline ..,.$0,032 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., coal 0.057 

Cost of pumping water per 1,000 gals., labor 0.012 

Cost of gasoline per gal 0.11 

Cost of coal per ton 2.50 

Kind of pump, size and horse power : Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 
Duplex, 10x7x12 in., steam plant. Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 8 x 12 
in., in gasoline plant. 

Suction, size and lift: 6-in. suction, 15-ft. lift. 

Discharge, horizontal distance and size: 6-in. discharge, 3,600 
ft. long. 

Discharge, vertical distance and size : 6-in. discharge, 50 ft. long. 

Total Fixed Charges and Operating Costs of Rotatory Pumps 
Compared with Those of High-Duty, Vertical, Triple-Expansion 
Type. The following figures based on estimates were prepared by 
"Walter O. Beyer, and published in Engineering Record, June 15, 
1912. 

CAPACITY 8,000,000 GAL. DALLY 

'c Vf-w ^t?ipfe-'- 491 w.h.p. steam- 

. Item. exp^lsI-o'oToOO ^"5^Xy%hrle'??f ' 

duty, three 125- ^^jj^' ^fi^jl^Jj^- 

h.p. boilers. ^-P- toilers. 

Cost pump, unit $72,000 $16,000 

Int. and depr., 10% 7,200 1,600 

Cost boilers 11,250 15,750 

Int. and depr., 17% 1,915 2.680 

Labor, 3 shifts, engines 2,700 2,700 

Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 1,800 1,800 

Total int., depr. and labor 13,615 8,780 

Fuel cost, $2 per ton 7,467 10,700 

Fuel cost, $3 per ton 11,129 16,100 

Fuel cost, $4 per ton 14,934 21,400 

Total annual cost, coal, at $2. . 21,082 19,480 

Total annual cost, coal, at $3.. 24,744 24,880 

Total annual cost, coal, at $4. . 28,549 30,180 



CAPACITY 20,000,000 GAL, DAILY 

280 ft. head vert. 981 w.h.p. steam- 
c. & f-w., trip.- turbine centrifugal 

Item. exp. 165,000.000 120,000.000 duty, 

duty, three 225- three 300-h.p. 

h.p. boilers. boilers. 

Cost pump, unit $120,000 $26,000 

Int. and depr., 10% 12,000 2 600 

Cost boilers 20,250 27!000 

Int. and depr., 17% 3,440 4,590 

Labor, 3 shifts, engines 2,700 2,700 

Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 1,800 1,800 

Total int., depr. and labor .... 19,940 11,690 

Fuel cost, $2 per ton 13,570 18,630 

Fuel cost, $3 per ton 20.335 27,945 

Fuel cost, $4 per ton 27,140 37.260 

Total annual cost, coal, at $2. . 33,510 30,320 

Total annual cost, coal, at $3. . 40,275 39,635 

Total annual cost, coal at $4. . 47,080 48,950 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1305 

CAPACITY 40,000,000 GAL. DAILY 

300 ft. head 275 deg. 2120 w.h.p., 28.5- 

superheat vert. in. vac. steam 

200-Ib. steam pressure. c. & f-w., trip.- turbine, centrifu- 

Item. exp. 223,000,000 gal, 193,000,000 

duty, three 350- duty, three 400- 

h.p. boilers. h.p. boilers. 

Cost pump $210,000 $55,000 

Int. and depr., 10% 21,000 5,500 

Cost, boilers 31,500 36,000 

Int. and depr., 17% 5,360 6,100 

Labor, 3 shifts, engines 7,200 7,200 

Labor, 3 shifts, boilers 5,320 5,320 

Total int., depr. and labor 39,480 24,120 

Fuel cost, coal, at $2 23,265 26,800 

Fuel cost, coal, at $3 34,897 40.200 

Fuel cost, coal, at $4 46,330 53,600 

Total annual costs, coal, at $2. 62,475 50,920 

Total annual costs, coal, at $3. 74,377 64.320 

Total annual costs, coal, at $4. 85,810 77,720 

The prices for pumping units are believed to be accurate and 
include condensers, piping and foundations complete. 

No account has been taken of the greater volume required in 
the buildings for reciprocating units. However, the difference in 
cost of foundations has been taken into account, because this is 
an addition in existing buildings and can be computed easily. In a 
comparison of this kind certain assumptions must necessarily be 
made. All figures of first cost of apparatus have been taken from 
or estimated from recent (1912) bids on the two types of machinery 
under consideration. The first cost per boiler h.p. we have taken 
to be $30 complete with piping, chimney, stokers, etc. The use of a 
lower figure would favor the turbine-driven pump as compared 
with the high-duty engine, but we believe with everything taken 
into consideration this will prove to be an average figure. We have 
assumed the following annual charges against pumping machinery: 
Interest 5%; depreciation, 3%; repairs and supplies, 2%; total, 10%. 

We have also assumed the following annual charges against the 
boiler equipment : Interest, 5% ; depreciation, 5% ; repairs and sup- 
plies, 5%; labor on maintenance, 2%; total, 17%. 

It will be noted in the above that an annual depreciation of 3% 
has been taken on the first cost of both the crank-and-flywheel and 
turbine-driven unit, equivalent to a life of ZZ\'z years. We have 
chosen this method rather than one in which the capital charges 
are figured on a constantly decreasing book value for the pumping 
machinery and boilers, in order to avoid a complicated method of 
accounting. For the reason that less data are available on the life 
of turbine-driven units than on crank-and-flywheel units, it is pos- 
sible that some objection may be made to this assumption of a life 
of 331/^ years for each machine. However, as in neither case the 
question of obsolescence has been taken into account, we believe 
the assumption a fair one. 

It appears that the steam turbine has reached a stage of de- 
velopment such that improvements will appear only as refinements 
of type, and possibly steam economies can be reduced only suffl- 



1306 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ciently to render obsolete the present good designs by better theo- 
retical design and by better steam conditions. The use of high 
steam pressures and superheat may be expected to gradually obtain 
further favor in this country as in European practice, where 250 
degs. Fahr. superheat and 200 lbs. steam pressure are not unusual. 
This, however, entails practically no change in turbines as con- 
structed for present steam conditions. 

Fuel costs are based on a boiler efficiency of 65% heat content 
of 13,000 B.t.u. per pound of coal and 24 hrs. per day operation. 
The duties given are on a basis of 150 lbs. steam pressure with no 
superheat. Three examples are taken based on coal at $2, $3 and 
$4 per ton. Where coal can be obtained cheaper than $2 per ton 
the advantages of the turbine-driven pump are more clearly marked. 

It will be noted that the point at which the total annual costs are 
equal for the 8,000,00 0-gal. crank-and-fly wheel vertical unit, and the 
8,000,000 gals, turbine, centrifugal unit is when coal costs $2.91 
per ton. Also for the 20,000,000 gal. vertical crank-and-flywheel 
unit, and the 20,000,000 gal. turbine centrifugal unit, the total 
annual costs will be equal when coal costs $3.25 per ton. Above 
these points the reciprocating unit has the advantage and below 
these points the rotatory unit has the advantage on the basis of 
these calculations. 

We believe that it can be assumed safely that the development of 
pumping machinery in the future will be along somewhat the same 
lines as the development of power producing machinery. At the 
present time one of the most noticeable features in the development 
of power machinery is the increasing favor with which larger units 
are being adopted. In large central station work five years ago 
the ordinary size of unit was from 1,000 to 15,000 kws. Now, not 
only in European practice, but also in American practice, 25,000 kw. 
units are being installed in the large stations. There are two rea- 
sons for this development, the first being the continual endeavor 
to obtain better economy, not only in actual steam consumption, 
but in capital charges, including first cost, buildings, real estate, 
etc. The second reason for the development along this line comes 
from the fact that engineers of to-day seem to have more initiative 
than formerly and where before the development of a 15,000-kw. 
turbine would have seemed an impossible task, now the installation 
of 25,000-kw. turbines is becoming a matter of course. 

We have assumed that there will be progress along this line in 
water-works pumping machinery and that installations of very 
large units will be made in the future. We have evolved a com- 
parison between two units of the types under consideration, each 
having a capacity of 40,000,000 gals, per 24 hrs., against a total 
head of 300 ft. This comparison is based on utilizing the greatest 
range of steam temperature which the best modern practice has 
established as commercially practicable, and which at the same time 
is not too intensely theoretical. We refer here to European prac- 
tice in which steam pressures of 200 lbs., 275 degs. Fahr. super- 
heat, and 28.5-in. vacuum are successfully and commercially util- 
ized. Especially important in this connection is the item of high 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1307 

vacuum, since in the case of waterworks large quantities of water 
are always available for condensing purposes. 

There is practically no development necessary on the turbine to 
take advantage of these conditior>6, as the turbine of almost exactly 
the same characteristics that would be necessary for this installa- 
tion is now in successful operation in hundreds of power-producing 
plants to-day. We have had to assume no steam consumption, as 
this is a matter of test, and practically have had to assume no 
pump efficiencies, as we have taken the minimum, which we know 
can be obtained on this size pump. 

It is apparent from these tables that the point at which the two 
curves of overall economy of the two units cross is at a cost of 
approximately $8.80 per ton for coal. 

Cost of Operating a Small Municipal Pumping Plant. S. Scarth 
(Power, May 2, 1911), states that Newark, N. Y., a small town of 
about 6,000 inhabitants, has a direct-pressure system with a stand- 
pipe located at the highest point in the village. Water is pumped 
from a receiving basin fed by gravity from springs. The average 
suction lift is 20 ft. and the discharge head averages 160 ft. 

The pumping station contains two horizontal return tubular boil- 
ers, 60 ins. by 16 ft. These are used alternately and are in fairly 
good condition considering their age, 24 years, and are allowed 
85 lbs. pressure by one of the leading boiler insurance companies. 

The pumps are Worthington direct acting, one a compound 12 
and 18% by 10^4 by 10 ins. in size and the other a simple 16 and 
10^4 by 10 ins. (the latter is held in reserve for emergencies). 
There is one boiler-feed pump 5% and 3i^ by 5 ins., delivering 
water through a Baragwanath heater to the boilers at a tempera- 
ture of 210 degs. 

Operating an average of 10 hrs. out of the 24 and, being subject 
to a fire call at any time, the plant has steam up with banked fires 
during the other 14 hrs. The night engineer reads the service 
meters monthly. Run-of-mine coal is used, which costs $2.95 per 
ton delivered in the coal bin. 

The cost of operating the station for the year ending Feb. 28, 
1911, was as follows (not including interest and depreciation) : 

310 tons coal at $2.95 $ 914.50 

Oil and waste 11.50 

Packing 13.25 

Repairs 43.50 

Engineer and assistant 1,083.50 

$2,066.25 

In the year 86,836,900 gals, of water against an average total 
head of 180 ft. were delivered to the mains using 310 tons of coal. 
This shows the duty of the plant to be slightly over 21,000,000 
ft. -lbs. of work per 100 lbs. of coal. The cost of pumping was, 
then, 2.379 cents per 1000 gals, delivered. 

The water end of the pump showed an efficiency of 90%. 

Cost of Oil Pumping in California. The following figures are 
taken from Technical Paper No, 70, Bureau of Mines, entitled 



1308 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

" Methods of Oil Recovery in California," to which the reader is re- 
ferred for more complete information on the methods pursued. 

VOLUMES OF NATURAL GAS REQUIRED TO OPERATE A GAS ENGINE OR TO 
SUPPLY A STEAM ENGINE PLANT USING GAS AS FUEL 

UNDER BOILERS. (After H. F. Oliphant.) 

Cubic feet 

per indicated 

h.p.-hr. 

Large gas engine, highest type 9 

Ordinary gas engine 13 

Triple-expansion condensing steam engine 16 

Double-expansion condensing steam engine 20 

Single-cylinder steam engine with cut-ff 40 

Ordinary high -pressure steam engine without cut-off. ... 80 

SteaiH engine ordinarily used for pumping oil wells 130 

Methods of Generating and Distrihvting Power for Pumping Oil 
in the California Oil Fields in 1913. The following data are given : 

No. of wells 6,223 

Flowing 217 

Compressed air 247 

Gas engines : 

Beams 1,217 

Jacks 1,042 

Electricity : 

Beams 559 

Jacks 310 

Steam : 

Beams 2,095 

Jacks 536 

Data Relative to Cost of Well-Pumping Equipment. The follow- 
ing data are given : 

DEPTH OF WELLS 800 -FT. GRAVITY OF OIL -|- 0.875 ( -j- 15 DEGS. B). 

Santa Clara Valley District. (Data by W. R. Hamilton.) 
Initial Cost of Installation. 
Pumping power — 

Station driving 17 wells, including cost of building, 20-h.p. 
gas engine, simplex power, belt, piping, jerker lines, 
labor — everything up to the derricks at the wells, but 
not including pumping jacks at wells, tubing or rods. .$3,068.36 
Cost per well 180.49 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 

Pumping. Cost, including wages of pumpers, all repairs and 
replacements for power plants and jack lines, lubricating oils, etc., 
but not including repairs to wells, depreciation of plants, or interest 
on investment, varied from 30 to 55 cts. a day per well, depending 
on the extent of the replacements necessary. An average for a 
long period would be about 43 cts. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1309 

DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.965 (± 15° B. ) . 

Kern River Field. 
Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines. 50.8 cts. per barrel. 
Air compressor. 2.4 cts. per barrel. 

Remarks. The difference in cost is due to the increased produc- 
tion when compressed air is used. 

DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.9 65 (± 15° B. ) . 

Kern River Field. 
Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines. 20.24 cts. per barrel. 

Pumping power. (Driven by electric motor) 18.28 cts. per barrel. 
Remarks. The daily production per well was about 20 bbls. 

DEPTH OF WELLS 1,000 ± FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.965 (±15° B. ) . 

(Kern River Field. Data by C. T. Hutchinson.) 
Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 

Air compressors. Three plants, one with a capacity of 4,000 
cu. ft. of free air and two with a capacity of 2,000 cu. ft. of air, 
$200,000. 

Remarks. The first plant comprised two compressors each with 
a capacity of 2,000 cu. ft. of free air. Each compressor had a 
Corliss steam cylinder and twin-tandem air cylinders, and each 
machine required 650 h.p. when developing a pressure of about 
150 lbs. per sq. in. There were five .207-h.p. water-tube boilers, 
one 75-kwt. electric-light plant, and two condensers. 

Depth of Wells 1,000 ± Ft. Gravity of Oil 0.9722 (U° B.) 
(Kern River Field, Data by Kern River Oil Fields.) 
Cost of Operation and Maintenance for 48 Wells. 
Steam engines : 



Labor 



$0.36 



Repairs '..'.'.'' 07 

General expense '.......'...'....... 03 

Fuel oil (assuming price of 30 cts. per baVrei) .* .' ." .* .' '. '. '. '. '. ,90 
Water 50 

Electric motors : 

Labor $0.29 

Repairs 07 

General expense '........'..'.'........'... .03 

Electric current !56 

Daily cost per well $0.95 

Depth of Wells 600 to 1,200 Ft. Gravity of Oil 0.9790 (13° B.). 
(Midway Field. Data by R. S. Hazeltine for 12 wells in group.) 

Initial Cost ayid Cost of Installation. 
Electric motors : 

New roof on engine houses $240.00 

Eleven 15 to 5 horsepower motors,! 

One 20 to 6 horsepower motor, V 6 670 00 

Three 25-kilowatt transformers. 



1310 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA ■ 

Installation $3,500.00 

Counterbalance for beams 300.00 

Discarded steam engines 1,000.00 

Total $11,710.00 

Cost per well $975.83 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines : 

Labor $409.50 

Fuel oil 523.20 

Water 697.00 

Repairs to boilers and engines 88.44 

Oil waste and packing 97.42 

Total $1,815.56 

Average daily cost per well $5.09 

Electric motors : 

Labor $432.70 

Electric equipment 390.27 

Fuel oil 156.20 

Water 349.89 

Repairs to boilers and engines 22.30 

Oil waste and packing 62.54 

Total $1,413.90 

Average daily cost per well $3.85 

Remarks. Boiler water was purchased at 5 cts. per barrel and 
oil produced was contracted at 50 cts. per barrel. 

DEPTH OF WELLS 900 TO 1,200 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL 0.9655 (15° B. ) . 

(Kern River Field. Data by A. G. Crites.) 
Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
Steam engines : 

Corliss condensing engines, 320 and 420 h.p $69,050.93 

Myers noncondensing cut-off engines 41,430.59 

Electric motors : 

Electric driven plant, 420-h.p 27,620.37 

Gas engines : 

Included under air compressors. 
Air compressors : 

One 320-h.p., driven by Buckeye gas engine pipe 

lines, etc., complete 39,344.19 

One 420-h.p., driven by Buckeye gas engine, complete 22,781.79 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines : 
Corliss — 

Interest for 1 year at 6% $ 4,143.05 

Depreciation for 1 year at 10% 6,905.09 

Labor, 4 men at $100 per month 4,800.00 

Repairs and incidentals (estimated) 1,800.00 

Fuel oil. 23,005 bbls. at 35 cts. per barrel 8,051.75 

Total for 1 year $25,699.89 

Myers — 

Interest for 1 year at 6% " $ 2,485.83 

Depreciation for 1 year at 10% 4,143.05 

Labor, 4 men at $90 per month 4,320.00 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1311 

Repairs and incidentals (estimated) $1,000.00 

Fuel oil, 51,500 bbls. at 35 cts. per barrel 18,025.00 

Total for 1 year $29,973.88 

Gas engines : 

Included under air compressors. 

Electric motors : 

Interest at 6% $ 1,657.22 

Depreciation at 10% 2,762.03 

Labor, 2 engines at $135 per month 3,240.00 

Repairs and incidentals (estimated) 500.00 

Power. 4,326,406 kw. at 1 ct. per kw , 43,264.06 

Total for 1 year $51,423.31 

Air compressors : 
One 320 h.p. — 

Interest for 10 months at 6% $1,967.21 

Depreciation for 10 months at 10% 3,278.68 

Labor — 

One engineer, $150 per month 1,500.00 

One engineer, $4.50 a day 1,363.50 

Extra labor, repairs 82.00 

Extra material for repairs 249.44 

Oil, water, and incidentals 710.20 

Total for 10 months 9,151.03 

Remarks. Natural gas is recovered by the vacuum made by the 

gas engines, its value not being considered therefore. 

Cost of power per h.p.-hr. was 0.00478 in 1910, 0.00488 in 1911, 

and 0.00260 in 1912. 

DEPTH OF WELLS 1.850 TO 2,000 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL ± 0.952 (±17° B. ) . 

(Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Cox.) 

Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
Gas engines : 

Installation, ^as mains, traps, tail pumps, foundations, 

engines proper, belting, and engine houses $1,260 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines : 

Average total cost per well per month $270 

Average total cost per well per day 9 

Gas engines : 

Three men per tour (12 hours) to 19 wells 33 

Two repair men 21 

Lubricating oil per well per month 6 

Repairs, power, and attendance per well per month 60 

Repairs, power, and attendance per well per day 2 

Remarks. Thirty and 45 h.p. engines. Five-inch water pressure. 

Magneto ignition. 

DEPTH OF WELLS 1,600 TO 2,500 FT. GRAVITY OF OIL 0.9589 (16° B. ) . 

(Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Crumpton.) 
Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 
Steam engines : 

One 23-h.p. engine complete $ 296.69 

One 40-h.p. boiler 473.00 



1312 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Boiler connections $ 116.15 

Engine house, 12 by 14 ft., bloclis, lumber, labor, etc.. . 66.80 

Total % 952.64 

Gas engines : 

One 30-h.p. engine and connections $1,027.04 

Engine house, 16 by 14 ft., cement foundation, including 

labor 250.13 

Total $1,277.17 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance, 
Steam engines : 
Operation — 

2 pumpers, at $105 a month, for five engines $ 42.00 

10 gals, of steam-engine oil, at 19 cts 1.90 

14 gals, of cylinder oil, at 30 cts 4.20 

180 bbls. of fuel oil for boiler for well 90.00 

Haulage of lubricating oil (labor and horse) 1.00 

Maintenance — 

Labor and horse per month per well 3.10 

Repairs of boilers per month per well 19.30 

Average per well per month $161.50 

Average per well per day $53.83 

Gas engines : 
Operation — 

2 pumpers, at $105 per month, for 11 engines $19.09 

13 gals, of engine oil, at 44 cents 5.72 

4 gals, of engine oil, at 23 cents .92 

Haulage of oil (labor and horse) 1.50 

Maintenance : 

Labor and horses, at $275 per month, for 50 engines 5.50 

Repairs and renewals, at $88.95, for 50 engines, per 

month 1.78 

Average per well per month $34.51 

Average per well per day $1.15 

DEPTH OF WELLS, 2.745 FEET. GRAVITY OF OIL ±0.952 (±17°B.). 

(Coalinga Field. Data by Thomas Cox.) 

Initial Cost and Cost of Installation. 

Steam engines : Per cent. 

A. Individual steam plant for each two wells, using oil for 

fuel 100 

Gas engines : 

B. Individual 30-h.p. gas engines 4-cycle type, magneto igni- 

tion ; including gas mains and accessories 195 

Electric motors : 

C. Motor at each well, necessary transmission lines, trans- 

formers, and receiving station; power purchased.... 100 

D. Central plant with steam turbines, fired with fuel oil, 

motor at each well 196 

E. Central plant with steam turbines, fired with natural 

gas, motor at each well 227 

F. Central plant. Engine-type generators, driven directly 

by gas engine. Electric motor at each well 264 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1313 

Air compressors : 

G. Central plant. Air compressors directly connected to gas 
engines, using natural gas. Air distributed to each 
well for operating steam engines 388 

H. Central plant. Steam-driven air compressors, boilers 
fired by natural gas. Air distributed to each well for 
operating steam engines 393 

I. Central plant. Steam-driven air compressors, boilers 
fired with fuel oil. No gas lines. Air distributed to 
each well for operating steam engines 337 

Cost of Operation and Maintenance. 
Steam engines : Per cent 

Comparative working cost of operation equipment A. . . . 100 
Cost of operating steam plants, based on 100-month 
wells, per well per month, one pumper per well : 

Labor attendance $104.88 

Fuel oil '. 105.47 

Labor, scaling boilers 15.62 

Repairs, material 9.57 

Engine repairs 5.56 

Lubricating oils 7.73 

Boiler flues 4.00 

Water 17.17 

Per well per month $270.00 

Per well per day , . . $9.00 

Gas engines : 

Comparative working cost of operating equipment B. . . 34 
Pumping cost for 8 wells with two men in attendance 
per month : 

Labor, 2 men, at $3.50 per day $210 

Lubricating oils, $7.50 per well 60 

One-quarter of 2 repairmen, at $8.50 a day 66 

Repairs and renewals 120 

8 wells, per month $456 

Per well per month 57 

Per well per day 1.90 

Electric motors : 

Comparative working cost of operation : 

Equipment C 80 

Equipment D 61 

Equipment E 50 

Equipment P 44 

Air compressors : ' 

Comparative working cost of operation : 

Equipment G 46 

Equipment H 56 

Equipment I 73 

Remarks, Percentage costs are based on investment for equip- 
ment necessary to operate 50 wells, pumping 100 bbls. a day per 
well. Steam plants using fuel oil, and placed between each of two 
wells, with 2-pump attendants to each two wells, are considered as 
unity for basis of comparison. 

The Thermal Efficiency of G.as Enc/ines of the Size and Charac- 
ter Available for Use of the Oil Field averages between 20 to 30%, 
such engines require from 8.5 to 13 cu. ft. of natural gas per 
h.p.-hr. At certain wells 2,700 ft. deep with 30 h.p. four-cycle 



1314 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

type engines the hourly consumption of natural gas is about 4,000 
cu. ft. when pumping at about 160 r.p.m. With oil producer gas 
from 40 to 60 cu. ft. per h.p.-hr. are necessary and the yeld of gas 
per lb. of oil will usually range from 50 to 70 cu. ft. 

Cost of Pumping by Electric Power. The actual expenditure 
of electric energy for pumping varies widely. The average used 
in 71 wells, each about 1,600 ft. deep, over a period of time for 
which records were kept, was 70.6 kw.-hrs. a day, which, at 1.5 
ct. a kw.-hr.. made the daily cost for pumping per well a trifle over 
$1.05. The deepest well, 2,692 ft, used about 90 kw.-hrs. daily. 

In another instance the average for 2 months for 8 wells vary- 
ing in depth from 1,000 to 2,800 ft. was 93 kw.-hrs. a day. In 
another instance the average for 12 wells averaging 1,100 ft. in 
depth, with oil of a specific gravity of 0.9622 (15.5 degs. B), was 
71.5 kw.-hrs a day. The average for another group of 107 wells, 
averaging 800 ft. in depth, with oil of 'a specific gravity of 0.9756 
(13.5 degs. B.), was 57 kw.-hrs. a day. In another instance, with 
58 wells pumped by three motor-driven jacks, the average per 
well a day was 26.2 kw.-hrs. For another group of some 220 wells 
operated by jacks, the cost of electric energy per well per month 
varied from $6 to $14.40. 

Electric power in the field is sold at varying prices, the common 
figure being about 1.5 cts. per kw.-hr. 

Cost of Pumping Water tor Irrigation Purposes. The following 
data on pumping water have been taken fi'om Water Supply Paper 
222, U. S. Geological Survey. In the district about Bakersfield, 
Cal., 50 pumping plants are in use to develop irrigation water. 
Half of these are electrically operated and belong to the Kern 
County Land Co. E3ach of these plants is equipped with 30 or 40 
h.p. motors direct connected with No. 8, 10 or 12 centrifugal pumps. 
Each pump is connected with from three to five 13 -in. wells, the 
number being determined by the yield of each well. Prom the 
data collected on these wells, the following cost averages were 
computed, on the basis of the quoted charge of 15 cts. per h.p. 
per 24 hrs., for the electric power used: 

Average depth to the water from the surface, ft. . . . 10 

Average suction 20 ft. Average total lift, ft 30 

Total yield of 25 plants, in se<i.-ft 100.34 

Total h.p. consumed 860 

Total cost per day to develop 100.34 sec. -ft, 860 h.p. 

at 15 cts $129.00 

Cost per sec.-ft. for 24 hrs $1.29 

Cost per acre-ft. of water developed $0.65 

The following data are for the cost of operation on a privately 
owned steam plant, which has a particularly advantageous location : 

Equipment: 30 h.p. steam engine. No. 12 centrifugal pump, 
five 15-in. wells 40 ft. deep: 6 ft. to water, 15-ft. suction, 
21 ft total lift: • » 

Cost of crude oil (fuel) and lubricant for 24 hrs $2.25 

Cost of labor 24 hrs 4.00 

Total cost $6.25 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1315 

Yield of plant in sec.-ft , 7 

Cost per sec.-ft. for 24 hrs $0.89 

Cost per acre-ft. of water developed $0.45 

Neither of these estimates makes any allowance for interest on 
investment in well and plant nor for deterioration, hence the costs 
as given are somewhat too low. 

Cost and Efficiency of Various Units In Irrigation Pumping In 
California. Pumping for irrigation is of two principal classes: (1) 
pumping from wells to utilize underground waters; (2), pumping 
from streams or low level canals to canal systems at higher level. 
Government investigations into the possibilities of pumping for 
irrigation have been made largely with the first class of projects in 
mind. These studies, though somewhat scattered, are the best 
sources of information available to the general irrigator and are 
summarized in Engineering and Contracting, Aug. 30, and Nov. 22, 
1911. 

California Tests of 1905. These tests were made by the Office of 
Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, in the summer of 
1905, and comprised 38 complete tests. 

For the gasoline engine and steam engine driven plants the plant 
efficiency is the ratio of the useful water h.p, to the indicated h.p. 
For the electrically driven plants the plant eflniciency is the ratio 
of the useful h.p. to the electrical h.p. 

The final relation of fuel consumption to water lifted is expressed 
as the number of gals, of oil or the number of k.w.-hrs. required 
per useful water hp.-hr. In reducing this to actual cost the price 
paid by the pump owner per gal. of gasoline per bbl. of crude oil 
or per kw.-hr. has been used. The number of hrs. which each 
plant runs per year, the cost of the plant and the cost of attendance 
and repairs have each been obtained as accurately as possible. 
From the nature of the case these items are somewhat uncertain. 
The rate of depreciation of pumping plants varies through an 
enormous range, being determined largely by the skill and care 
of the attendant. Many plants are not insured at all. Averaging 
all conditions found, the fallowing appears to be a fair estimate 
of the rates suitable for use in computing the fixed charges of the 
various types of plants : 

Gasoline Engine Plants : Per cent 

Depreciation 12 to 15 

Interest 6 

Taxes and insurance 1 

Average total 20 

Motor-Driven Plants : 

Depreciation , 7 to 9 

Interest •........ = 6 

Taxes and insurance 1 

Average total 15 

Steam Plants of Ordinary Type : 

Depreciation 9 to H 



1316 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Interest 6 

Taxes and insurance 1 / 

Average total 17 

Highest quality steam plants — average 12 

In the case of the larger steam plants that percentage has been 
chosen for each individual case which seemed suitable to the special 
conditions of the plant. These percentages are applied to the first 
cost of the entire pumping station, including the cost of wells. 
The latter of course varies greatly with the depth of the 
wells. 

The item of labor is also a ditflcult one to estimate. Some plants 
employ an engineer during the whole year, and others only during 
the pumping season Others have one man to look after several 
plants and many plants have no attention whatever. 

Gasoline Plants. Nine tests were made of gasoline engines run- 
ning centrifugal pumps. The discharge varies between 0.328 cu. 
ft. per sec, or 147 gals, per min , and 5.94 cu. ft. per sec, or 
2,666 gals, per min. The lift varies from 11.3 ft. to 9 6.5 ft. The 
pumps for lifts exceeding 90 ft. are compound centrifugals, all 
others are single runner pumps. The useful water h.p. varies 
from 1.65 to 30.9. The indicated h.p. varies from 5.64 to 63.1. 
This covers a wide range and includes within its limits the ma- 
jority of pumping plants in use for irrigation in California. 

The plant efficiency varies irregularly. It depends somewhat 
upon the condition of the gasoline engine, but probably chiefly 
upon the arrangement and condition of the pump and piping. All 
turns and obstructions in the piping, any variation in speed of the 
pump from the speed most suitable to the discharge and lift, any 
great length of discharge pipe, all tend to reduce seriously the 
plant efficiency. To secure the best results the size and speed of 
both pump and engine and all the connections and piping should 
be carefully planned for the special conditions under which the 
plant is to operate. In general the results indicate that the plant 
efficiency should vary from about 30% for the smaller plants to 
about 50% for the largest plants. Any unusual low value means 
a continual loss to the owner of the plant during its operation, 
due either to its careless handling or to its faulty design and 
construction. 

The amount of gasoline used per indicated h.p.-hr. varies rather 
regularly from 0.154 gal. for the smallest plant to 0.100 gal. for 
the largest. The amount of gasoline used per useful water h.p.-hr. 
depends upon both the plant efficiency and the amount consumed 
per indicated h.p.-hr. and hence is quite variable. The amount 
of gasoline required per useful h.p.-hr. varies from about 0.5 gal. 
for the smallest plant to 0.2 gal. for the largest plants. 

The plant efficiency in deep well pumps in general may probably 
be expected to surpass the efficiency of centrifugal "pumps. 

The price of gasoline has been remarkably low (7% cts. per gal.) 
in southern California, because of the fierce competition of oil 
producers and refiners in that region. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1317 

In other pumping localities 10 to 12 cts. a gal. is considered a 
low price for gasoline. 

On account of the great cost of wells, the total cost of plant 
bears no direct relation to the capacity of the pumping plant. 

In many cases the charge for attendance and repairs on gasoline 
engines is merely nominal, but when there is a charge for at- 
tendance it is of considerable importance in comparison with the 
cost of gasoline. In nearly all the tests reported above the annual 
fixed charges for interest, depreciation, and taxes, computed at 
20% on the total first cost of the plant, far exceed the cost of 
gasoline, attendance, and repairs per year. This relation evidently 
depends upon the number of hours the pump runs per year. Since 
in many cases the pumps are used to supplement natural stream 
flow, the amount of use of the pumps fluctuates from year to year. 
Hence the interest on the pumping plant is in the nature of insur- 
ance on the crop, and it is scarcely fair to charge this item in its 
entirety as cost of pumping. 

Tables XLIVA, XLIVB and XLIVC give the results of the B 
tests. The costs per ft-acre-ft. are obtained from the corresponding 
items under the cost per useful water hp.-hr. by multiplymg by 
1%. The costs per acre-ft. are obtained from the preceding col- 
umns by multiplying in each case by the lift. These results are 
interesting as showing what it is actually costing irrigators in 
southern California to pump water. 

Electrically Driven Pumps. The electrically operated pumps 
tested had approximately the same range in size as the pumps 
run by gasoline engines. 

As a rule, the plant efficiency for the electrical pump is definitely 
higher than for a corresponding plant operated by gasoline. This 
is probably largely due to the fact that less energy is absorbed in 
the motor than in a gasoline engine. There is less variation in 
efficiency due to size of plant for an electrically operated plant 
than for a gasoline plant. The plant efficiency of electrically 
operated pumps should at least be as good as 40% for a pump of 
5 useful water h.p. capacity, increasing to 55% for a pump with 
capacity of 40 useful water h.p. 

As compared with centrifugal pumps, tests show the screw 
pump to be less efficient ; the deep well pumps to have about an 
equal efficiency ; the triplex and rotary pumps to have somewhat 
higher efficiencies, but no very conclusive statements can be based 
on so few tests. 

Under the best conditions the smallest plants require about 1.6 
k.ws. per useful water h.p. and the largest 1.4 k.ws. All these 
plants burn crude oil as fuel. The largest ones are very much larger 
than any of the gasoline or electric plants tested, and hence not 
strictly comparable with them. 

For the plants using centrifugal pumps the plant efficiency does 
not seem to differ definitely from the efficiency for gasoline or 
electric plants. The plant efficiency of the plunger pumps is much 
higher than for any other type, while for the air lift plants it is 
very much lower. 



1318 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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PUMPS AND PUMPING 1321 

The amount of crude oil consumed varies from over 0.8 gal. 
per indicated h.p.-hr. for the smallest plant to a little over 0.2 
gal. for the largest plants. For those using centrifugal pumps 
the amount of crude oil used per useful water h.p.-hr. varies from 
2.5 gals, for the smallest plant to "about 0.5 gal. for the most 
economical plants. A comparison with gasoline engines of corre- 
sponding size shows that at least four times as much crude oil 
is required when burned under a steam boiler as is needed of 
gasoline when used in an internal combustion engine. When steam 
plants run intermittently, considerable fuel is required in getting 
up steam preparatory to starting the plant, so it is probable that 
in such cases the actual performance of the plants required more 
fuel in proportion to the work done than is shown in the tests. 

Conclusions. A comparison of the results obtained with centri- 
fugal pumps using gasoline, electricity, and steam as motive power 
shows that, at the prevailing prices, to raise 1 acre-foot of water 
1 ft. the cost of gasoline varies from 1% to 5 cts., the cost of elec- 
tricity varies from 4i/^ to 10 cts., and the cost of crude oil for 
generating steam varies from IV^ cts. upward. The total cost, 
according to the rates used for fixed charges and the figures ob- 
tained for attendance and maintenance, of raising 1 acre-foot of 
water 1 ft. for gasoline plants varies from 4 cts. upward, for 
electric plants it varies from 7 to 16 cts., and for steam plants it 
varies from 4 cts. upward. 

In a direct comparison of the use of gasoline and electricity 
figures show the cost of gasoline to raise 1 acre-foot of water 1 
ft. high to be 3.7 cts. and the cost of electricity to be 6.9 cts., 
while the total cost for the gasoline plant is 6.9 cts. and for the 
electric plant 8.8 cts. per foot-acre-foot. 

In a direct comparison of the use of electricity and steam two 
tests were made in succession on the same plant under identical 
conditions. The results show the cost of electricity per foot-acre- 
foot of water pumped to be 5.2 cts. and the cost of crude oil for 
producing steam to be 3.6 cts. 

In another test the pump was sucking air on account of a 
deficient supply of water. The results show that in this case 
having the pump too large for the water supply increases by 
about 10% the charge for electricity per acre-foot of water 
lifted. 

Cost of Repairs on Well Pumping Plants. Few figures are avail- 
able of the cost of maintaining well pumping plants for irrigation, 
and the following, though for the most part quite old, are therefore 
of interest. These costs were secured by the Government engi- 
neers in their studies of irrigation pumping in California: 

Plant 1. This plant comprised a 30-h.p. induction motor oper- 
ating an 8 X 24-in. deep well pump ; pumping was done from a 
12-in. well 300 ft. deep supplying 240 gals, per min. under 175-ft. 
head. The repair costs for this outfit for one year, 19 05, were 
$257.70. 

Plant 2. This plant comprised a 23-h.p. gasoline engine oper- 
ating a 7 X 24-in. deep well pump; pumping was done from a 



1322 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

lO-in. well 320 ft. deep supplying 143 gals, per min. under a 193-ft. 
lift. The repair costs for four years, 1902-5, were as follows: 

Year Cost of rei3airs 

1902 $56.48 

1903 82.75 

1904 83.55 

1905 34.19 

Average cost for four years $64.24 

Plant S. This plant comprised a 23-h.p. -gasoline engine oper- 
ating a No. 5 single centrifugal pump ; pumping was done from a 
10-in. well 385 ft. deep, supplying 458 gals, per min. under 5 8 -ft. 
head. The cost of repairs for five years, 1900-4, were as follows: 

Year Cost of repairs 

1900 $36.15 

1901 13.50 

1902 23.30 

1903 54.78 

1904 , 24.65 

Cost of a Small Irrigation Pumping Plant. R. Sibley (Journal 
of Electricity, Power and Gas) gives the following cost of a small 
pumping plant supplying 1,600 gals, per Tnin, near Acampo, Calif. 
The pumps were installed 12 ft. below the surface of the ground 
and connected to twin wells sunk 22 ft. between centers, the suc- 
tion pipes from each well being joined at the center by a tee con- 
nection with the pump. When pumping the water stood at 7 ft, 
below the pumps in the morning, 14 ft. below the pump at noon 
and 16 ft. below the pump at night. 

The contract accepted provided for 1 8-in. (Byron Jackson or 
Dow) centrifugal pump; 1 20-h.p. (Westinghouse or General Elec- 
tric) motor complete with automatic starter, low voltage release 
switch, wiring, etc., complete, 1-Type H overload relay circuit 
breaker to be installed complete and ready for operation, includ- 
ing belting, check valve, suction 8-in., with 12-in. discharge, for 
the sum of $699.28 ; the owner to dig pit, bore well and lay founda- 
tion for motor. 

The subdivided costs were as follows: 

Equipntent: 

Pump and 25 h.p. motor as per bid $ 699.28 

1-35 ft. piece, 8 in. O. D. casing 26.95 

2-9 ft. 5 in. pieces O. D. casing , . 16.94 

2-8 in. flanged elbows „ 12.80 

2-8 in. casing flanges 23.93 

5-sets bolts and gaskets 3.55 

1-8 in. tee 20.63 

Extra labor 10.00 



? 814.08 



Concrete Work: This consisted of concreting the entire in- 
terior 4 in. thick, reinforced, with 5 pieces tapering 
from 12 in. to in. No cost is made for the sand, as 
this was taken from the well-boring sand, being found 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1323 

of excellent quality. The gravel was hauled 15 miles 
and no actual cost was made for the gravel itself. 



Gravel. 



4 horses, 4 days at $1 per day $ 16.00 

Labor : 1 man. 4 days at $2.25 per day 9.00 

Cement : 61 sacks at 65c per sack 39.65 

Cartage on cement — 2 horses and 1 man % day.... 3.25 

Labor on setting concrete 21.00 

Concrete forms 2 men 2i/2 days at $2.25 per day.... 13.00 
Lumber for concrete forms and for pump house, 1,000 

ft. at $25 25.00 



$ 126.90 
Pump House (lumber used fiom concrete forms) : 

3,500 .shingles at $2.50 per M % 8.75 

Sheeting 5.00 

Labor on building 13.25 

Nails 1.00 

$ 28J}0 
Main Excavation: 

Pit 10 ft. deep. 10 ft. wide. 6 ft. to runaway $ 24.75 

Cost of second pit and leveling off first pit 25.25 

i 50.00 
Well Sinking: 

Boring two wells 12 in. diameter — 150 ft. and the 

other 350 ft. deep over .surface of the ground $ 63.25 

(Usual charge is for Vq, pit depth, but in this case, 
charges were made for 40 and 43 ft., respectively). 
Cost of pumping quicksand encountered, 6^/^ days at 

$14 per day 91.00 

Express charges 9.00 

$ 163.25 
Priming Pump: 

Priming pump : . . $ 5.00 

Iron ladder consisting of 9 pieces 2 ft. 6 in. x % in 1.50 

$ 6.50 

Total cost of plant $1,888.73 

Cost of Drainage Pumping in Louisiana. C. W. Okey (Engi- 
neering News, Oct. 14, 1915) gives the results of investigations 
of drainage pumping costs in Louisiana made by the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. The results are given in Table XLIIIA. 

Cost of Pumping Plant and of Pumping Water for Irrigation, 
Minidoka Project, U. S. Reclamation Service. The following costs 
from Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 24, 1912, were abstracted 
from a paper by Barry Dibble : 

The Poiver House is a reinforced-concrete structure with steel 
roof trusses and purlins, covered by matched lumber and galvan- 
ized corrugated iron. It measures 149 ft. long by 50 ft. wide and 
90 ft. high from the bottom of the tail-race to the peak of the 
roof. It contains five main generator units of the vertical type, 
each of 2,000-h.p. rated capacity, and operating under heads of 
46 ft. from forebay to tail-race. There are also two 180-h.p. tur- 
bine-driven exciters. Each main unit consists of a single Francis 



1324 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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PUMPS AND PUMPING 1325 

runner, 54 ins. in diameter, operating at 200 r.p.m., direct-con- 
nected to a 3-phase, 2,200-volt generator. The costs of the power 
house are given in Table XLVIII. 

Transmission Line. — There are 38.4 miles of transmission line 
of 33,000-volt capacity. Copper transmission cable is strung on 
wood poles spaced 250 ft. apart, except at certain river crossings 
with spans from 700 ft. to 1,100 ft, where steel towers are em- 
ployed. The costs of this transmission line is given in Table XLV. 

Puminng Stations are three, the first located at the end of the 
gravity canal and lifting the water to the first level, the second 
about 1.75 miles distant, lifting a portion to the second level, 
and the third, another 0.75 mile distant, raising a final portion to 
the third level. The first station has a maximum capacity of 600 
cu. ft. i)er second at normal speed. The lift at this station and 
at each of the others varies from 30 ft. to 31 ft. 



TABLE XLV. COST OF TRANSMISSION LINE, MINIDOKA 
IRRIGATION PROJECT 

Power line cost Pole line cost 

Per mile Per mile 

Total of line Total of line 

Surveys and location $ 18 $ 36 $ 175 $ 17 

Clearing 100-ft. right-of-way 356 34 

Pole and tower line complete, except 
conductors: 

Material 1,035 2,070 2,129 203 

Freight and hauling 255 510 1,333 127 

Labor 803 1,606 1,685 161 

Conductors (transmission and tele- 
phone) : 

Material 610 1,220 2,655 253 

Freight and hauling 83 167 557 53 

Labor 75 150 670 64 

Superintendence and clerical 18 36 200 19 

Miscellaneous 40 80 397 38 

Engineering 23 46 220 21 

Total $2,960 $5,920 $10,377 $990 



The buildings are reinforced concrete, 140 ft. long, 18 and. 30 
ft. wide and 45 ft. high. The first station contains four 125 cu. ft., 
and one 75 cu. ft. pumps; the second contains four 125 cu. ft. 
pumps, and the second contains two 125 cu. ft. and one 75 cu. ft, 
pumps. The pumps are installed in separate compartments and 
are direct connected and operated by 600-h.p. synchronous motors 
located directly above them. The costs of the pumping stations 
are given in Table XLVT. 

Costs of Operating. The costs of operating the pumping system 
are given in Table XLVII. Referring to this table a rate of depre- 
ciation of 5% per annum has been applied to the stations and 10% 
to the transmission lines. No interest is included, as the money 
for the work comes from the reclamation fund, which is prac- 



1326 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XLVI. COST OF PUMPING STATIONS AND EQUIP- 
MENT, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 

Number 1 Number 2 Number 3 

Excavation % 2,100 $ 5,300 $ 2,000 

Buildmg 35,000 40,000 19,500 

Hydraulic machinery 27,200 23,000 16,200 

Electrical machinery 44,700 42,800 17 300 

Freight and hauling 10,300 9,600 5'500 

Erection , 15,800 14,600 9,300 

Camp and permanent quarters 4,000 11,000 500 

Engineering and incidentals 5,000 3,000 2 000 

Administration charges, etc 8,500 7,000 5,500 

Total $152,600 $156,300 $77,800 

Capacity — cubic feet per second... 575 500 325 

Cost per second-foot capacity $265.40 $312.60 $239.40 

Pressure pipes, including adminis- 
tration charges $21,400 $16,500 $20,200 

Total length of pressure pipes — feet 849 540 825 

Cost per foot $23.90 $30.30 $24.50 

Cost per second-foot of capacity, in- 
cluding pressure pipes * $303.00 $346.00 $301.00 

* Average $318.00. 

TABLE XLVII. COST OF OPERATING AND MAINTAINING 
PUMPING SYSTEM, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 

Trans- 
Power mission ^-Pumping Stations— ^ 
house line No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Total 
Operation 

Labor $ 5.700 $ 700 $ 2,100 $ 2,100 $2,100 

Supplies 950 100 200 200 150 

Repairs : 

Labor 

Supplies and mate- 
rial 

Superintendence, cler- 
ical, camp, etc. . . . 
General expense and 
administration 



900 


600 


600 


600 


400 


300 


100 


100 


100 


80 


1,700 


200 


700 


700 


500 


450 


50 


150 


150 


100 



Total operating 

expense $10,000 $1,750 $3,850 $3,850 $3,280 $22,730 

Depreciation 21,700 3,400 7,600 7,800 3,900 44,400 

Total $31,700 $5,150 $11,450 $11,650 $7,180 $67,130 

Annual cost per acre, 

including depreciation $0,660 $0,108 $0,239 $0,243 $0,150 $1.40 
Operating expense per 

acre (48,000 acres). $0,208 $0,037 $0,081 $0,081 $0,068 $0,475 

tically loaned to the settlers without interest. In the table al- 
lowances for repairs, etc., has been increased over that so far 
needed, as this item will undoubtedly increase with time. It is 
not intended to include the item of depreciation in the annual 
charge made against the settlers. However, this item will have 
to be met as time goes on and the machinery wears out. This can 
be done by paying for replacements as they are needed, and in 
the meantime the settlers will have the use of their money, which 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1327 

ia worth 10 to 12% interest, whereas if the government collected 
a depreciation fund it would have to hold it without interest. 

During- the season of 1911, 114,000 acre-feet of water were 
pumped to the average height of 66 ft., equivalent to 7,560.000 
acre-feet lifted through 1 ft. The operating cost for this pumping 
was about $0,003 per acre-foot lifted through 1 ft., and the depre- 
ciation amounted to $0,006. Next year more water will be pumped 
at practically the same total cost, and therefore the unit cost will 
be reduced. 

Summary of Installation Costs : 

Power house and accessories $433,300 

Transmission line 34.000 

Pumping stations with pressure pipes 444.800 



Total investment on power system $912,100 

Investment per acre (48.000 acres) $19.00 

Summary of Annual Charges : 

Operation $ 22.730 

Depreciation . . . . , 44.400 

Total $ 67.130 

Per acre (48,000 acres) , $1.40 

A total of 14,000,000 kw.-hrs. was delivered to the pumping 
stations during the year at a cost of $37,000, including deprecia- 
tion, or $0.0026 per kw.-hr. If, as would be necessary in the case 
of a commercial company, interest, taxes, etc., amounting to, say, 
10% on the investment in the power house and transmission line, 
were added, the cost would have been $0,006 per kw.-hr. 



TABLE XLVIIl. COST OP 7.100-K.W. POWER HOUSE FOR 
PUMPING PLANTS, MINIDOKA IRRIGATION PROJECT 

Total Per 

cost kilowatt 

Building $ 82,000 $11.70 

Hydraulic machinery 73,000 10.40 

Electric machinery 83.000 11.80 

Freight and hauling 26.200 3.75 

Erection 55,500 7.90 

Tailrace 60.000 8.50 

Roads and telephone lines 7,300 1.40 

Camp and permanent quarters 23,200 3.30 

Engineering and incidentals 11,100 1.55 

Administration charges, etc 15.000 2.10 

Total $433,300 $62.40 

Rule for Converting Volumes of Water. In pumping costs, rela- 
tive to irrigation, it .should be remembered that an acre-foot 
amounts to 43.560 cu. ft. or very nearly 326.000 gals. (325,830); 
to change acre-foot to millions' of gallons multiply by 3.07, 

Thus when the cost per acre-foot lifted 1 ft. is $0,003, the cost 
per million gals, lifted 1 ft. is $0.00921. 

Cost of Mine Pumping. R. V. Norris in the Transactions of the 



1328 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1904, gives the following 
information on the cost of pumping at the Short Mountain Mine 
of the Lykens Valley Coal Co. : 

A strike, which confined the work at these mines almost exclu- 
sively to pumping, gave an opportunity to determine with con- 
siderable accuracy the cost. The mines are deep, the present 
workings are 711 ft. below the sea-level, and about 1,600 ft. 
below the lowest surface-opening. 

The pumping plant is divided into four lifts, shown in Table 
XLIX, which gives also all the other pump data. The greater part 
of the water is caught at No. 3 level and pumped from there to 
the surface. The pumps on No. 4 level handle only about one- 
third of the total pumped to the surface. Except the bottom lift, 
the pumps are all simple and direct acting, and many of them 
are old. 

The records of the actual water pumped (plunger displacement) 
were accurately kept by counters on each pump ; the labor costs, 
and repair and supply costs were known. At the boiler plants 
the labor, repair and supply accounts and the total coal used for 
steam at the colliery are accurate. During June, July and August, 
1902, practically all the steam generated at the colliery was used 
in pumping. During the time 7,692 tons of coal were used for 
firing, of which it is estimated that 232 tons were used in supplying 
steam for accommodation hoisting, ventilation and in condensation 
in unused steam lines, leaving 7,360 tons for generating steam for 
pumping. During these months 207,034,324 gals, were pumped from 
an average depth of 1,152 ft., making an average of 0.035 tons of 
coal per 1,000 gals. (0.277 tons per 1,000 cu. ft.). On this basis, 
correcting for average depth and for use of different proportions 
of cylinder and Babcock & Wilcox boilers, we find for the years 
1901 and 1902 as follows: 

1901 1902 
Total water pumped (plunger dis- 
placement), gals 567,113,616 1,116,320,253 

Average depth pumped, ft 1,141 1,093 

Total estimated coal used, tons 21,200 37,963 

Coal per M. ft. lb. in water, lbs 8.87 8.51 

Coal per h.p.-hr. in water, lbs 17.56 16.85 

As the average evaporation of the plant, with the proportion of 
cylinder and water-tube boilers in use June, July and August, 
1902, was 6.64 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel, the total steam made 
during these months was about 109,470,000 lbs. 

The ft.-lbs. of work used in pumping were 1,987,529,500,000; the 
duty of the pumps was about 18,156,000 ft.-lbs. per 1.000 lbs. of 
steam made by the boilers, which should be increased by 15% for 
steam used in Argand blowers and condensation, giving as the 
approximate duty of the pumping plant 20,880,000 ft.-lbs. per 1,000 
lbs. of dry steam. 

Dividing the total cost of making steam between the colliery 
and the pump-plant in proportion to the coal used, namely, 51% in 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 



1329 






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1330 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1901 and 77% in 1902, the total cost of pumping was as shown in 
Table L. 

The last results are based on the assumption that the steam 
used will vary directly as the lift, and the labor cost of pumping 
will not be affected by the slight change in average lift. 

The author says that in his 17 years of practice he had not 
until this occasion been able to arrive at even an approximate cost 
for pumping of this character and extent. 



TABLE L. COST OF MINE PUMPING (1901-2) 

1901 1902 
Total cost of labor, supplies and repairs 

for generating steam $22,059.72 $19,728.28 

Per cent, used for pumping 51 77 

Cost of labor, supplies and repairs in 

generating steam for pumping only .. $11,250.46 $15,190.78 

Coal used, 21.200 tons at 50 cts. per ton. 10,600.00 

Coal used, 37,963 tons at 50 cts. per ton 18,981.50 

Total cost of steam for pumping $21,850.46 $34,172.28 

Cost of labor, supplies and repairs for 

pumping-plant 8,915.06 12,236.09 

Total cost of pumping $30,765.52 $46,408.37 

Total cost per 1.000 gals $0.0543 $0.0416 

Average vertical lift, ft 1141 1093 

Cost per 1,000 gals., 1,000 ft. vertical 

height $0.0495 $0,039 

Cost per 1,000 cu. ft. 1,000 ft. vert 0.3712 0.292 

Cost per 1,000,000 ft.-lbs. in water 0.0060 0.0047 

Cost per h.p.-hr. in water 0.0112 0.0093 

Cost per h.p.-year, 24 hrs. per day, in 

water pumped $98.11 $81.47 

Cost steam only per year per boiler h.p. 

24 hrs. per day $17.77 $16.30 



Costs of Irrigation Pumping. A. Potter (Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Jan. 27, 1915) gives the following comparative state- 
ment of fuel consumption of the various economical types of 
pumping engines investigated for an irrigation project near Eagle 
Pass, Texas. 

The capacity of the plant was 67 cu. ft. per sec. ; the lift, 37 ft. 



Type of installation. Fuel 

Humphrey gas pump Wood. 

Humphrey gas pump Bitum. coal, 

Centrifugal pump and Diesel 

engine Fuel oil 

Centrifugal pump and gas en- 
gine operated on producer 
gas Wood. 

Centrifugal pump and gas en- 
gine operated on producer 
gas Bitum. coal 



Fuel consump- 
tion, 24 hours 
8.83 cords 
4.80 tons 

14.00 bbls. 



11.35 cords 



6.13 tons 



Fuel cost 

per acre 

ft, (lift 

37 ft.) 

$0,100 

0.145 

0.211 



0.128 



0.185 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1331 

The table is based on the following assumptions: 

Thermal efficiency of Humphrey pump (over-all pumping- h.p.), 
20%. 

Thermal efficiency of gas engine (brake h.p.). 24% + pump — 16%. 

Thermal efficiency of Diesel engine (brake h.p.), 32% -f pump -— 
21%-. 

Thermal efficiency of producer, lignite fuel, 75%. 

Thermal efficiency of producer, wood fuel, 65%. 

Mechanical efficiency of centrifugal pump, 65%. 

Eagle Pass bitum. coal, $4.00 per ton, 12,000 B.t.u. per lb. 

Mesquite wood, $1.50 per cord of 2,500 lbs.. 6.000 B.t.u. per lb. 

Fuel oil, $2.00 per bbl. of 335 lbs., 18,000 B.t.u. per lb. 

The estimated cost of constructing the pumping station, including 
head works, forebay, diversion dam and surge tank, is $60,000, 
of which amount the machinery, including the producer, represents 
approximately 50%. The annual cost of maintaining and operat- 
ing this pumping station, including fixed charges and depreciation, 
is $13,606. This amount is based upon irrigating the entire tract 
of 6,700 acres to a depth of 3 ft., corresponding to a fuel cost of 
30 cts. per acre irrigated and a gross charge of $2.06 for all fixed 
charges and maintenance, including fuel. 

The gravity project, on the other hand, involves an immediate 
expenditure of $300,000 and a yearly expenditure for fixed charges, 
maintenance and operation of $40,000. As the gravity canal would 
irrigate some 12,000 acres, this would place the gross charge per 
acre at $3.33. 

The pumping project will show up still better than the gravity 
project during the development period. For instance, assuming 
one-quarter of the land in each project to be under irrigation, the 
gross charge under the pumping project would be $6.79 per acre, 
and under the gravity project, $13.35 per acre. This would be 
decreased to $4.62 and $6.68, respectively, when one-half of the 
land in each project is under irrigation. 

Table L.1 gives a summary of results of 30 pump tests made. on 
five Humphrey pumps at Chingford. 

TABLE LI. RESULTS OF HUMPHREY PUMP TESTS 

Pump No 1 2 3 4 5 

No. of tests 6 6 6 6 6 

Average duration of 

tests, mins 9.27 8.95 8.37 9.67 10.0 

Lift, in feet 30.01 30.24 30.06 32.6 30.24 

Water pumped, gals, per 

min 40,088 39,327 39,656 39,196 21,739 

Water horsepower de- 
veloped 303.9 300.4 301.1 322.7 166.0 

Gas used per min. at 60 
degs. Y. and 30 ins. 
mercury, cu. ft 395.4 393.3 391.5 400.1 191.6 

Calorific (lower) value 

of gas, B.t.u. cu. ft.. 145. 7 , 146.4 146.2 142.2 138.1 

Average thermal ef- 
ficiency, per cent .. . 22.39 22.19 22.33 24.07 26.63 

Anthracite used per 

water hp.-hr., lbs... .946 .957 .949 .881 .796 



1332 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Formula for the Most Economic Size of Pipe to Carry Pumped 
Water. The following formula was deduced by Halbert P. Gillette 
in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 25, 1911. 

We propose showing that the most economic diameter for a cast 
iron pipe to carry pumped water is secured when the diameter 
in inches is equal to 15.7 times the square root of the number of 
millions of gallons of water pumped per day at eight hours. This 
simple rule, or formula, will be shown to be closely applicable even 
under wide variations of pipe, fuel and pump costs, etc. That 
such can be the case may seem incredible. 

However, we shall show that in the general formula for most 
economic size of pipe (eq. 23), all the elements of cost occur under 
a radical sign and that their sixth root must be taken. When 
the sixth root of a factor is extracted, it is clear that the factor 
may have a wide range of variation without altering its sixth 
root very materially. 

We think it will be difficult to find a better illustration of sim- 
plicity of a final formula in a problem of engineering economics 
where many factors enter than is seen in the one above announced, 
to the deduction of which we now pass. 

While the numerical examples that we shall give will relate to 
cast iron pipe, the general formula (eq. 23) applies to any sort of 
pipe — wood, steel, etc. 

It will be seen that, in solving for the most economic diameter 
of pipe, we use the method of the diffei-ential calculus. In other 
words, we solve for a minimum unit cost by tirst deriving a formula 
for the cost curve and then placing the differential coefficient equal 
to zero, which is tantamount to finding the point of the lowest 
point of the cost curve — the point where the tangent to the curve 
is horizontal. Engineers who do not understand the calculus can 
arrive at precisely the same results by substituting the values of 
the various factors in equation (18), and then substituting various 
vaTOes for the diameter of the pipe, x, until, by successive approxi- 
mations, a minimum value for the total cost, /, is derived. How- 
ever, that is a crude — though very common — method of solving 
problems in engineering economics. The differential calculus used 
in solving for minimum values is exceedingly simple, and it has 
the immense advantage of enabling us to derive general formulas, 
or rules, for quickly ascertaining the most economic combination 
in any given case. In brief, it enables us to deduce the general 
formulas of engineering economics, such as the one above expressed, 
and more particularly such as that given by equation (23). 

The symbols that will be used in this discussion are as follows, 
arranged alphabetically : 

A — area of waterway of pipe in square feet 

B — number of British thermal units (B. t. u.) per pound of 

fuel. 
C =r tons (2.240 lbs.) of fuel used per year pumping 
E — thermal efficiency of pump, engine and boiler (being the 

product of their several efficiencies). 
G = millions of gallons pumped in day of 8 hours. 
g — acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft. per sec. 
h = actual head in feet. 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1333 

H = friction head in feet. 

J =. capitalized cost of labor for operating pumping plant. 
K = total capitalized cost of pipe line in dollars. 
L — total length of pipe line in feet. 
M = capitalized cost of fuel. 
N = number of seconds of pumping per year. 
n = number of hours of pumping. 
p = price of fuel in dollars per ton. 
P =. capitalized cost of pumping plant. 
Q — cubic feet of water pumped per second, 
r = per cent, of interest on capital. 
R = work of overcoming the resistance of friction of water In 

pipe, expressed in foot-pounds for each second. 
s — capitalized cost per lineal foot of pipe line in place. 
T = total capitalized cost of pipe line plus capitalized cost of 

pumping plant plus capitalized cost of fuel and labor. 
t — the fraction of a dollar by which the diameter of the pipe 

(in inches) must be multiplied to give the capitalized cost 

per lineal foot of pipe line. 
V rr capitalized cost per horsepower of pump. 
W = weight in pounds of water pumped per second. 
X = inside diameter of pipe in feet. 
X = Inside diameter of pipe in inches. 

The total capitalized cost of any plant is the sum of its first 
cost and its capitalized annual expenses of operation, maintenance 
and depreciation. To capitalize any annual expense, divide the 
annual expense by the rate per cent, paid for the use of capital. 
Where the total output of the plant is a fixed number of units 
of work or product per year, we may, therefore, regard the total 
capitalized cost of the plant as being the " unit cost." 

To illustrate what we mean by capitalized cost of a structure 
or machine, let us assume that the first cost of a pumping plant 
is $70, and that the annual cost of maintenance (including depre- 
ciation) is $7. If the rate of interest on capital is 5 per cent., 
then the capitalized value of the $7 is $7 -^ 0.05 = $140. Adding 
this capitalized cost of maintenance, $140, to the first cost, $70, 
we have a total capitalized cost of $210. 

For a given annual output of product, that plant is most eco- 
nomic whose total capitalized cost is a minimum. 

In the case under consideration — a pumping plant and pipe 
line — we may ignore the labor item of annual cost of operating 
the pumping plant, for it is practically a constant (within the 
limits of choice of sizes of pipe and of pumps needed to effect the 
greatest economy). A constant added to a variable disappears 
upon differentiating for a minimum value. To make this clear, 
however, we shall include the capitalized cost of labor of operating 
the pumping plant. 

The grand total capitalized cost is 

T = K -\- P + M -\- J (1) 

K-L8 ( 2 ) 

s=tx ( 3 ) 

K - Ltx : (4) 

We shall discuss the numerical value of t below. 
The total horsepower of the pump is 



1334 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

W {h -\- H) ~ 550. Hence 

VW (/i-f H) 

P = (5) 

550 
W - 62.4 Q (6) 

62.4 Q V {h-^ H) 
P (7) 

550 



xf^ 



,032 pn+ 3,551 rVBE) 

X :-., ^ J _. = 3. J 

rBEt 



pC 

M = (8) 

r 

Substituting eqs. (4), (7) and (8) in eq. (1) 

62.4 Q V (h-\- H) p C 

T = Ltx-\ 1 \-J (9) 

550 r 

Any theoretical mechanics, wherein the subject of hydraulics is 
discussed, will give the same general formula foi- the friction head 
of water as is given in Weisbach. page 864, as follows: 

E= I — I ~ (10) 






X 

X = — (11) 

12 

Since g — 32.3, and tt = 3 1-17, eq. (10) becomes 
6259 /ZvQ^ 

H := (12) 

X" 

The work done in moving the water against the friction head, 
H, is 

R-WH (13) 

Substituting eqs. (6) and (12) in (13) we have 

6259 /Z.Q-'^ 390,562 /LQ^ 
R=zG2AQ (14) 

X^ X'' 

The energy of the fuel used in overcoming this frictional resist- 
ance may be expressed in terms of the number of heat units 
(B.t.u.) in a pound of fuel, multiplied by 778 (the mechanical equiv- 
alent in foot pounds, of 1 B.t.u.), multiplied by the number of pounds 
of coal used per second. This product must be multiplied by the 
thermal efficiency of the pumping plant. Hence : 

2,240 C 1,742,720 -B ^ C 
R- X119,BE:- (15) 

N N 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1335 

Hence : 

N B 

G = (16) 

1,742,720 ££ 

Substituting in eq. (16) the value of R given in eq. (14), we 
have : 

390,562 /i^IyQ' 0.224/iVZ/Q' 

C = = (17) 

1,742.720 S^ips B E x^ 

Substituting eqs, (12) and (17) in eq. (9) we have: 
62.4 gyff 62.4 QT (6259 /-LQ2) 

T = Ltx -\ h 

550 550a;5 

0.224 p/iVigs 

+ + / (18) 

rBEx"^ 

Equation (18) gives the grand total capitalized cost in terms 
of known constants and the pipe diameter, x. To solve for a 
minimum value of T, differentiate eq. (18) remembering that T 
and X are the only variables, and place the first differential coeffi- 
cient equal to zero. This will give us the lowest point on the 
curve of capitalized cost. Note that the second and fifth terms on 
the right side of the equation are constants and disappear when 
we differentiate. 

= (390,562 /FLQOfia; 
dT = Ltdx (19) 

^ (0.2i4p fN LQndx 

rBEx'^ 
dT 3551 /VLQ' 112 v f N L Q^ 

-Lt =0 (20) 

dx X^ rBEx^ 



Solving for x we have 
8 //g« (1.12 



/g« (1.12 i)N + 3,351 rVBE) 
x = \\ (21) 

rBEt 



But 

N .- 3600n (22) 

Hence : 

i/y» (1.13 pw + rVBE) 

(23) 

rBEt 



\1- 



Equation (23) gives, in the- most general form, the most eco- 
nomic diameter of pipe {x), for it is this value of x that satisfies 
the condition of minimum capitalized cost in eq. (18). 

Let us now consider the numerical values that should be assigned 
to the various constants in eq. (23), under any given conditions. 



1336 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Values of Constants. — The coefficient of friction, f, is strictly- 
speaking a variable ; but it varies only in a slight degree within 
quite wide limits of pipe diameter (if we use Darcy's formula for 
the coefficient) or of velocity of water (if we use Weisbach's 
formula). On page 867 of Weisbach's Mechanics, we find: 

0.017 
/ = 0.014 H ^r- (24) 

On the following page, Weisbach gives Darcy's formula for 
cast iron pipe, which is 

0.02 
/ = 0.02 H (25) 

X 

X being the diameter of the pipe in inches. 

In either case we can select a value for / that is practically 
constant within the limits of size of pipe or of velocity of water, 
under consideration. Nor shall we err materially in the value of x 
in eq. (23) if we call / = 0.2 for all sizes of pipe and velocities of 
water. 

The price of coal per ton, p, may range from $2 to $5 without 
producing a great effect on the value of a; in eq. (23), for the sixth 
root of $2 is 1.12, and the sixth root of $5 is 1.30. Assuming coal 
to cost $3 a ton, the sixth root of p is 1.20. 

The number of hours actually pumped yearly may have a wide 
range, but generally a pump is worked only 8 or 10 hours daily for 
about 300 days in the year, so that n — 2,400 to 3,000 hrs. Even if 
it is worked 24 hrs. daily for 300 days or three times as long as 
the 8 hrs. that we shall assume, it will increase the value of x 
only 20 per cent, for the sixth root of 3 is 1.20. 

The rate of interest on capital, r^ is usually 4 to 6 per cent, and 
we shall assume r— 0.05. 

■The first cost per horse power of pumping plant will usually not 
vary far from $70. But to this must be added the capitalized cost 
of annual maintenance. If annual maintenance cost is 8 per cent, 
of the first cost, we have $5.60 per year per hp. for maintenance, 
which capitalized at 5 per cent, gives $112. Hence the total capi- 
talized cost per horse power is $70 + $112 = $182. which is the 
value of V in eq. (23). 

The thermal efficiency of the pumping plant, E, is the product 
of the following efficiencies: (1) Thermal efficiency of the boiler, 
(2) thermal efficiency of the engine, (3) mechanical efficiency of 
the engine, and (4) mechanical efficiency of the pump. This prod- 
uct is usually about 0.05, or 5 per cent., for fairly large pumping 
plants, and rarely exceeds 7 per cent. We shall assume E = 0.05. 
Its value may be derived from known coal consumption per horse 
power of work done by the pumping plant in lifting water against 
the combined head and friction head. If, for example, the work 
thus done requires 4 lbs. of coal per hour per hp., and if the coal 
will yield 12,000 B.tu. (British thermal units per pound), we have 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1337 

48,000 B.t.U. required to do 1 hp. of work; but 1 B.t.u. = 778 ft. 
lbs., hence 48,000 X 778 ^ 60 mins. := 622,400 ft. lbs. of coal energy 
to perform 33.000 ft. lbs. of pump work per minute. Dividing the 
33.000 by the 622,400, we get about 0.05, or 5 per cent, thermal 
efficiency of the pumping plant. 

The first cost of cast iron pipe, including trenching, laying, etc., 
is given quite closely by the following rule, applicable to all 
diameters from 4 ins. up to and including 30 ins., for heads of 
water up to 100 ft. To ascertain the cost in cents per lineal foot 
of cast iron pipe in place, tnultijyly the diameter in inches hy 14. 

This rule is derived from actual detailed costs given in the Water 
"Works section of the second edition of Gillette's Handbook of 
Cost Data. It applies very closely when cast iron pipe costs 
$30 a ton delivered on cars, and for ordinary rates of wages. 

If there were no maintenance cost of the cast iron pipe, then the t 
in eq. (23) would be 0.14, according to the above rule. As a matter 
of fact, it is usually necessary to scrape cast iron pipe at intervals 
to remove rust, etc., from its interior, and it is certainly economy 
to do so wherever water is pumped through a pipe that has become 
even slightly tuberculated. We have no very reliable data as to 
the desired frequency of such scrapings, but we have accurate 
costs of each scraping (see Gillette's Cost Data, second edition, 
page 698 et seq. ). Pipes that had accumulated scale for 14 to 20 
years were scraped clean for 2 to 5 cts. per lin. ft. If we assume 
that a cast iron pipe is scraped once at 2 per cent, of its first cost, 
and if the scraping is done once in 4 years, we have 0.5 per cent, 
per year for cleaning. Capitalizing this at 5 per cent., we have 
0.5 per cent. 4- 5 per cent. = 10 per cent. Hence the capitalized 
annual cost of scraping is 10 per cent, of the first cost. 

If cast iron pipe has a life of 40 years and if interest is 5 per 
cent., a sinking fund table shows that 0.8 per cent, of the first 
cost deposited annually in the sinking fund will amount to the 
full first cost at the end of the 40 years. Hence the capitalized 
cost of this depreciation is 0.8 per cent, -r- 5 per cent. = 16 per 
cent. Therefore we have to add 10 per cent, for scraping and 16 
per cent, for depreciation, or a total of 26 per cent., to the first 
cost of the pipe, to get its total capitalized cost. Hence if t = 0.14 
for first cost, t = 0.14 + (26 per cent. X 0.14) = 0.176 (nearly) 
for the total capitalized cost. In other words, the total capitalized 
cost of the cast iron pipe in dollars per lineal foot is 0.176 times 
the diameter in inches. 

The number of Briti-sh thermal units per pound of coal, B, 
does not vary greatly from 12,000 ; hence we shall assume B — 
12.000. 

Summarizing our various values for the constants in eq. (23) 
we have : 

/=0.02 (coef. of friction). 

p = Z (price of coal in dollars per ton). 

n= 2,400 (hours pumped per year). 

r = 0.05 (rate of interest). 

V = 112 (capitalized cost of pumping plant, dollars per h.p.). 



1338 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

B = 12,000 (B.t.u. per lb. of coal). 
E = 0.05 (thermal efficiency of pumping plant), 
t = 0.176 (constant by which to multiply diameter of cast iron 
pipe in inches to get its capitalized cost in dollars per lin. ft.). 

Substituting these valties in eq. (23) we have: 



6 K 



6 /0.02 g=^ (1.13 X 3 X 2,400 + 0.05 X 112 X 12,000 X 0.05) 

Z.qJ- • . (24) 

0.05 X 12,000 X 0.05 X 0.176 



This reduces to 
X =z 7.3VO ' (25) 

Thus, if 4 cu. ft. are pumped per second, 
X = l.ZVi = 14.6 ins. 

If 4 cu. ft. are pumped per second for 8 hours, we have a 
delivery of 862,000 gals. 

In order to convert eq. (25) into millions of gallons (G) pumped 
per day of 8 hours, we have : 

X = 15.7V^ (26) 

Hence if one million gallons are to be pumped in 8 hours, G = 1, 
and eq. (26) becomes x = 15.7 ins. 

Expressing equation (26) in words we have this rule : 

The most economic diameter (in inches) of cast iron pipe for 
carrying pumped water is found by multiplying 15.7 by the square 
root of the number of million gallons pumped per day of eight 
hours. 

In using this rule, it should be remembered that we have assumed 
that the pump is working only 8 hours out of the 24, or that n = 
2,400 in eq. (23). If n is three times as great, or «,= 7,200, or 
pumping is done for 24 hrs. daily for 300 days in the year, then 
we must multiply the constant (15.7) in the above rule by 1.2. 
for the sixth root of 3 is 1.2. For a 24 hour day of pumping, the 
rule then becomes : 

Multiply 18.8 by the square root of the number of millions of 
gallons pumped per day o/ 24 hours, and the iiroduct is the m,ost 
,econom,ic diameter of cast iron pipe in inches. 

Comparing Relative Economy of Pipes Made of Different Ma- 
terials. — Equation (23) gives us a ready means of comparing the 
-economic merits of different kinds of pipe through which water is 
to be pumped. Thus, if wood stave pipe is contemplated, plat the 
.first cost per lineal foot of wood stave pipe of different diameters. 
On the curve of unit cost thus platted select a straight line that 
most closely fits the curve between the limits of size of pipe likely 
to be used. From this straight line derive the first cost value of tj 
as above indicated in the cast iron pipe example. Then estimate 
the life of the pipe, and derive the annual cost of depreciation, 
which must be capitalized and added to the first cost, as above 
explained. This will give the total capitalized cost value of t for 



PUMPS AND PUMPING 1339 

the wood pipe. Insert the proper coefficient of friction for wood 
pipe, bearing- in mind that in eq. (10) the friction coefficient, f, 
is exactly four times the friction coefficient given by Kutter for 
use in the Chezy formula {v— c^RS). In other words, if Kutter's 
friction coefficients are available, multiply them by 4 to get the 
proper value of / to be used in eq. (23). Having selected the 
proper values of / and t for wood pipe, either substitute in eq. 
(23) and solve for x, or, more quickly, determine the ratio of 
/ / 

— for wood pipe to — for cast iron pipe, and extract the sixth 
t t 

root of that ratio. This sixth root multiplied into the value of x 
in eqs. (25) or (26) will give the proper value of x for wood pipe. 
/ 0.02 

Thus the value of — for cast iron is =0.11 nearly. 

t 0.176 

/ 
If the corresponding value of — for wood pipe should prove to 

t 
be 0.22, then the ratio would be 0.22^0.11 = 2. The sixth root of 
2 is 1.12, hence eq. (25), for cast iron pipe, would become x =■ 

_ / 

1.12X 7.3VQ for wood pipe. We assume this value of — =0.22 

t 
for wood pipe merely for illustration. 

Having determined the most economic diameter for both wood 
and cast iron pipe, the pipe to select is the one giving the lowest 
total capitalized cost (T) when the respective values of x are 
substituted in eq. (18). remembering that the second and fifth 
terms of the right hand member need not be considered, as they 
are constant, and that the length, L, need not be considered, as it 
is common to all terms containing the variable x. 

However, if a numerical problem is worked out in this manner 
and the respective economic values of x for any two kinds of pipe 
be substituted in eq. (18), it will be seen that all terms except the 
first term in the right hand member of eq. (18) can be ignored 
in making the comparisons. In other words the element of added 
capitalized cost of pump or fuel is so slightly affected by differences 
in the pipe diameters of the two kinds of pipe under consideration 
that it may be ignored, the question then resolving itself merely 
into which kind of pipe shows the least capitalized cost per lineal 
foot. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES AND ELEVATORS 

Belt, Flight, and Screw Conveyors. For handling loose material 
a troughed belt is required, and though the load that can be sup- 
ported by a foot of belt is not great, the capacity of even a 
narrow belt is surprisingly high, owing to the speed at which a 
belt may be run. 

The capacity of a belt conveyor, according to Reginald Traiit- 
schold in Engineering Magazine, August, 1916, that is properly 
suited to its load, is entirely a question of speed at which the belt 
is run, and obviously this should be the highest speed at which 
the particular material can be efficiently conveyed. Table I gives 
speeds for belt conveyors when handling various materials. 

Fig. 1, shows the capacity of standard widths of belt conveyors 
when continuously and uniformly loaded and run at the economic 
speed for the material handled. This graphic presentation em- 
phasizes the comparatively large capacity of belt conveyors. For 
Instance, a belt conveyor only 12 ins. wide can handle nearly 90 
tons of sand per hr., while one 36 ins. wide has a capacity of about 
800 tons per hr. when run at a speed of 375 ft. per min. In prac- 
tice it is customary to discount these capacities, as they are 
only attainable under perfect loading conditions. Ninety per cent, 
of the records should be attainable in a well designed and care- 
fully operated system, however, and the subsequent discussion 
will be based on such attainment. 

TABLE L ECONOMIC SPEEDS OF BELT CONVEYORS FOR 
VARIOUS MATERIALS 

Average Speed 

weight in in ffiet 

Material lbs. per cu. ft. per min. 

Coke 33.5 250 

Broken stone (coarse) 165 275 

Lump coal 55 275 

Ashes 45 300 

Lime and cement 65 300 

Ore (average) 125 350 

Crushed stone 160 375 

Sand and gravel 110 375 

Fine coal 50 400 

On Fig. 2 are plotted the power requirements of conveyors 
handling various materials at their economic speeds, the belts 
being continuously and efficiently loaded to capacity. The data 

1340 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1341 

thus depicted apply to conveyors equipped with high grade 
lubricated idlers and should be slightly discounted for con- 
veyors equipped with the corresponding grade of ball-bearing idlers. 
These more efficient idlers reduce the power requirements for 
horizontal travel of conveyor about 33i^%. Though the data de- 
picted by the curves and the results obtained from the formula are 
for fully loaded belts, i. e. belts carrying their maximum load as 
given on Fig. 1, they should also be used for belts handling 90% 
of their capacity, as the slight unavoidable variation in load leads 
to slightly increased power consumption. 



%0 



800 



700 



I 



»l 



600 



;;j$ 500 

CO ^ 



i 



■,^m 



3^ 

^^200 



^. 



WHERe, W- Capaa/c/ in/on5(^000lb)f>erhr 
V, K= Constant- !^l tolbb (AveraqelS) 

% n = W/dtti ofconveyor(betf)in mctm 

v5 "i ^ y = Speed of conveyonn ft per 

■(3 ■% W'= Weight of material convei^ed 

"%. in pounds per cu ft 




Fig. 1. 



Capacities of standard belt conveyors, economically loaded 
and operated. 



The economy of belt conveyors in the consideration of power 
consumption is quite evident from a glance at Figs. 1 and 2, From 
the former it is seen that a 30-in. belt conveyor can handle about 
270 tons of fine coal per hr. when operated at its economic speed 
for that material. Such a conveyor, elevating the coal 20 ft. and 
distributing it by means of an automatic traveling tripper over a 
storage bunker 50 ft. long, would require a supply of 13.5 h.p. — 
5.5 h.p. for the horizontal travel. 5.5 for elevating the load, and 
about 2.5 for the tripper — if equipped with grease lubricated 



'1342 'MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

idlers (see Fig. 2). Similar service by a conveyor with ball- 
bearing idlers would consume about 11.75 h.p. 

In taking up the cost of belt conveyors, the questions of deteriora- 
tion and amortization must be duly considered. In the handling 
of certain materials, lighter and cheaper belts — and the belt is the 



WIDTH Of BELT IN INCHES 
12 14 16 18 ZO 22 24 26. Z8 50 32 




Horsepower required for Horizontal 
Conveyors 

WIDTH Of BEIT ININCHES 
12 M 16 18 70 2? ?4 26 28 30 32 



Sandi^raYtl 
^Crushed5tont 
"^SrokenSone 
(Coarse) te. 
Ore(Av.) § 
FtneCoal z 

s 

LimetCement g 
Ashes Q 

Lump Coal RJH y 

til ^ 

W^ 5 
11 ^ 

11^ 



BrvkertSlone § 
5and&0raKl § 
Cnished Stone >-> 




Additional Horsepower required for inclined 

conveyors to be added to horsepower required 

for tiori70ntol Conveyors 

WIDTH OF BEIT ININCHES 
12 14 16 18 20 2? ?4 26 28 JO. 32 , M 




Horsepower required for each pipper or fixed dump 
in length of conveyor to be added to horsepower 

required for conveyor 
GeHEifAL Formula m0003iv'Vf0i)IWLiWH 
HP' WOO 

w lYidth of Conveyor(belt)ininchei 

'V' Speed of " infipermin 
VlHE/tc. Yt^ Load handled in tons per houi 

L = L ength of conveyor in feet. 

H= ITise in length of convey onn ft 

Fig. 2. Horsepower requirements of belt conveyors. 



most expensive item entering into the equipment of a belt con- 
veyor — may sometimes be recommended than that required for 
more severe service ; but ordinarily the best grade of belt is none 
too good, no matter what service it may be subjected to. The 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1343 

large capacity of the equipment makes the question of initial cost 
of secondary importance. The general formula given in Fig. 3 
and the costs graphically depicted thereon are those for the average 
high grade belt conveyor with suitable rubber belting and well 
designed grease lubricated idlers. Cheaper conveyors may be pur- 
chased by sacrificing the quality of the belt, and more expensive 
ones by substituting idlers equipped with ball bearing. The cost 
of the belt is included in the first term of the second member of 
the formula, so that the cost of a conveyor with a cheaper belt is 
readily obtainable from the same formula simply by reducing the 
coefficient of the length by the difference in the cost of two ft. of 
high grade rubber belting and that of two ft. of the cheaper belt. 
Conveyors equipped with ball-bearing idlers, etc., cost about 5% 
more than the figures indicated by Fig. 3, but this difference in cost 
is frequently offset on shipments to distant points by the decrease 
in freight rates, ball-bearing idlers weighing less than grease or 
oil lubricated idlers. 




Fig. 3. 



75 lis 175 22S Z75 3Z5 J75 4?S 475 5Z5 57S 
LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEEIT 

Average cost of standard troughed rubber belt conveyors 
with grease lubrication. 



Fig. 4 shows the average cost of the various discharging devices 
required for the belt conveyor. The prices indicated by the vari- 
ous curves and also those derived from the general formula are 
those commanded by high grade equipment. The values given on 
both Figs. 3 and 4 are conservative and may be taken as ac- 
curate during normal market conditions. More expensive equip- 
ment may prove economical, but cheaper equipment is not to be 
recommended. 

The attention required, once a belt conveyor has been started up, 
is very slight, so that the labor charge for operating is extremely 
light, and in many plants could be overlooked entirely in an 
economic consideration. Belt conveyors do require periodic in- 
spection and some attention if they are to be maintained in good 
operating condition, so they should rightfully be charged with 
some labor expense. An arbitrary charge which covers most simple 
installations of belt conveyors of ordinary length is about 1.5 cts. 
per hr. per in. width of conveyor for installations with greasy 



1344 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

lubricated idlers, or a charge of 1 ct. per in. width for conveyors 
equipped with ball-bearing idlers. 

The expense entailed for grease or oil and the other incidental 
supplies required to keep the equipment in good operating condi- 
tions is, in a conveyor in frequent use, very nearly directly pro- 
portional to the h.p. consumed in operating the conveyor, and 




ZO JO 40 50 60 70 80 30 
TRAVEL OrTRIPPrR(LEMGTHOFTRACK) IN FEET 
Average Cost ofAutomatfcTraveJmq Tripper's 



100 




20 30 40 iO GO 70 60 90 
TRAVEL OF TRIPPERaEMGTH OF TRACK) IN FEET 
Average Cost of Hand propelled Trippfers 
Average Cost of Fixed Dumps 



100 



^|70 

#.40 



< IZ 14 16 16 ?0 21 24 Z6 ?8 50 32 34 36 
WIDTH OF BELT IN INCHES 

C' Average cos) in dollars 
w ■ tVidflj of bell m inches 
Lt-L enqth of tripper irack m feet 

Fig. 4. Average cost of discharging devices for belt conveyors. 

averages about 0.625 et. per hr. per h.p. Of this charge about 
0.5 ct. per hr. is the cost of the grease required, so that the aver- 
age supplies charge for roller-bearing conveyors is but about 0.125 
ct. per hr. per h.p. consumed. 

Deterioration and amortization of belt conveyors constitute an 
exceedingly complicated subject and one that here must, perforce. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1345 

be treated in a very general manner. Depreciation is due not only 
to wear but to constant and quite apparent continuous deteriora- 
tion of the belts, whether they are in use or not, so that the de- 
preciation charge is little affected by careful use, provided, of 
course, that the equipment is operated a reasonable amount of the 
time. This deterioration is largely due to the hardening of the 
rubber cover and the loss of resiliency, and is more apt to be ac- 
centuated by idleness than by sane and careful use. The rest 
of the mechanism is not more greatly affected than other mechan- 
ical equipment, if well cared for and not abused. Ordinarily a 
depreciation charge of about 25% on the belt and about 10% on 
the balance of the equipment covers all reasonable wear and tear ; 
the general formula on Fig. 5 is based on such apportionment. 
The curves shown are plotted from data compiled in a more in- 
tricate and exacting manner, but the discrepancy between the 



•5000 

o 8000 
3 7000 
o -6000 
^ 5000 
8 4000 
o 3000 
§ 2000 
"* 1000 



OcNCfiAL Formula 

Wnt/IE. 
C- Averoge cost in dollars 

Width of Comeyor<btlt)m i nches 
Length of Con\fey<. 




^m 



25 75 126 175 225 ?7S 3Z5 375 425 475 5Z5 i/i 



345 
52 2 
50 2 
28 e 

in 

nt\ 

20 S5 

'^E 
14 S 
1?^ 



Fig. 5. 



LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 

Annual depreciation of standard belt conveyors. 



results obtained from the general formula and the readings de- 
rived from the chart is so slight that dependence may be placed 
on either the figure readings or the formula. For conveyors with 
roller-bearing idlers the depreciation charge is reduced about 10%. 

Belt conveyor installations are, of course, subject to the usual 
burden of fixed charges, consisting of interest on investment, 
insurance, and taxes. These ordinarily amount to about 8.5% of 
the initial cost per year (6% interest, 1% insurance and 2% of 
three quarters of the value of the property for taxes). 

Flat belt conveyors for handling packages and other material 
which can be efficiently loaded on flat belts also prove highly 
economical in operation. The capacity of such belt conveyors 
depends upon the width of the belt and the speed at which they 
are run, as well as the proximity of the various pieces contributing 
the load. Their cost is usually somewhat less than that of troughed 
belt conveyors, and the power requirements are, of cour.se, de- 
pendent upon the load handled. The general formula for troughed 
belts on the various figures, with the exception of the one on 
depreciation, are, as a rule, applicable to flat ISelt conveyors for 
handling packages, etc., if, in the formula for cost of equipment, 
correction is made for the cheaper belt which may be safely em- 



1346 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ployed. The rate of depreciation is usually only about 25% of 
that for troughed belts, so, with this further correction, the eco- 
nomic value of flat belt conveyors can be readily obtained by 
calculation from the data for standard troughed belt conveyors. 

Flight Conveyors. When great quantities of material which is 
not liable to damage by direct contact with the propelling flights 
have to be handled at a rapid rate in a limited space, when the 
cost of power is not a governing condition and the initial invest- 
ment is a serious consideration, flight conveyors are frequently 
resorted to. Their capacity is great, owing to the compact load 



CeneralFohmulasx 



hk 



0.0026AVW' 



g.^i^m 




Where. 
Wf, - Capacity of homontoKomegorsjntQn% 

per hour. \ * 

Wi = Capaatij of'tnclined Conveyorsinfoni 

per hour ' 

A=Area of Flights in sq. irt. 

V = Speed oF Conveyor irr ft per mm 

M' = Weight of material handledin Ib.pee 

^^« . J 

5=^ Spacing of Fliqhts(lntervals>ininches 
L ^ inclination of conveyorin inches- 
inclined conveyor. 

Note: Inclining the conveyor reduces its- 
capacity by /-§.to 2 percent per degree 
angularity with the horizontal. 

^^ ^ '^ ' > -5 






5"! 



Fig. 6. Capacities of standard flight conveyors economically loaded 
and operated. 



per foot, notwithstanding the comparatively low speeds at which 
they have to be run. 

As in the case of belt conveyors, the economic speeds for various 
materials vary considerably, and the economic value of a flight 
conveyor depends upon its operation at the highest speed suitable 
for the load. Good practice is listed in Table II. These speeds 
are employed in figuring the capacities of various standard sizes 
of flight conveyors* depicted on Fig. 6, and are to be recommended, 
although considerable variation is allowable in specific installations. 

Fig. 6 is of particular interest in showing the great variety of 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1347 

TABLE 11. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR PLIGHT CONVEYORS 
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 

Advisable speed in 
Material ft. per min. 

Coke 100 

Broken stone (coarse) 125 

Lump coal — run of mine 125 

Ashes 150 

Lime and cement 150 

Ore (averag-e) 175 

Crushed stone 175 

Sand and gravel 175 

Fine coal 200 



M 






II _ 


















y 


1.3 
1.2 




General I 


"ORMULA : 


WH 












/ 




— 


Where, 
C-Cor 




1.000 










/ 


/ 


/ 


$ in 


sfai 


if= 0780 fcr roller fli 
_ O.Sii " shoe 
■jndled'm tons per h 
'or? in lenath of com 


jhfs: 




/ 


/ 


/ 




§ 


- 


W=Loadh 
H=Elevat 


our. \/ 
'eijor / J 


4 








o 




in feet 












e 








i 0-^ 

UJ 

^ 0.6 
s ^ 0.5 
















^y 


^ 


^\ 
























tX 


»>^ 


'f 
























^^ 


>^^ 


0' 
























/ 


A 


/^^ 


















i °-^ 

0.2 

0.1 








^\ 


f 




























A 


V 




























/ 


^ 




























^ 








J 























100 200 300 3.00. 700 900 1100 1100 1500 



CAPACITY m TOMS (2000LB.)PER HOUR 
Horsepower required for horizontal 
conveyors. 



|.W 












■ 


' 






— 




— 


— 


— 




,*.■* 


1.2 


























. , 


-'-' 


















- 










■— ^ 










0.4 
0,2 


















_^ 


---■ 


























^^ 






























. — ' 




























-^ 












■ 
















zlj 









1 


, 
























JOO 300 .500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 
CAPACITY IN TONS (2000 LB) PER HOUR 
/ ddi tonal horsepower Required forincliried 
conveyors. 

Fig. 7. Horsepower requirements of flight conveyors. 

standard sizes of conveyors that are readily procurable. In many 
instances, there are several conveyors of different sizes and spacing 
of flights which have the same, or about the same, capacity at the 
same speed. These cannot be equally economical, so that even 
greater care should be exercised in the choice of equipment. 

The selection is further complicated by the fact that the flights 
may be mounted on sliding wearing shoes or on rollers. The latter 



1348 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

construction adds to the cost of the conveyor, but reduces its power 
consumption. A general formula for calculating the power re- 
quirements of flight conveyors with double strands of chain, the 
usual type found in the manufacturing plant, and a graphic 
presentation of calculated results are given in Fig. 7. The reduc- 
tion in power consumption carried by equipping the flights with 
rollers or wheels is not as great as is generally claimed, for the 



a '900 

1 1700 

'C 1500 

§ I SOD 



31 900 
§8 700 



-^ertERAL Foffmu 


■ 1 






■ 




A 












.^ J 














^A 










y 


'^^ J 


C' Average cosf in dollars. 










y ^ 




^ 


A . Area of flightsin sq.'in -widthtlenath 




yy 






L • t fnalh of ConveijorJn 


ff 




^ 








-^1.-^ 










^ 






■^^ 




"^ _^ 


^ 


^ 














y^ 


J-^!J 




'''^ 












y 


.,<^ 


y 


■^^ 


t*^ 




















-<> 


i**^ 


















^^^-^ 


'^^ 


>^ 




















^r??3 


>^ 
















^ 






S^^^^ 


















^^ 
























jg^^j 




















-'' 


VT^^ 




















' '^ 


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1 





















75 125 175 225 

LENGTH OFCONVLYOR IN FEET 



175 



W K 



Fig. 8. Average cost of conveyors with sliding shoe flights. 

main consumption of power in any flight conveyor is in dragging 
along the load, the power consumed in dragging forward the 
chains and flights being appreciably secondary. Sliding-shoe flight 
conveyors, when fully loaded, consume but about 10% more power 
than similar flight conveyors in which the flights are mounted 
on rollers. Equipping the flights with rollers adds to their cost 




10 30 SO 75 125 (75 225 

LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 

Fig. 9. Average cost of conveyors with roller flights. 

to some extent, but reduces the rate of depreciation, and is in 
reality an economic gain. 

The multiplicity of standards for flight conveyors and the dif- 
fering spacing of flights make the derivation of an accurate formula 
for ascertaining the cost of the equipment an intricate and involved 
matter. Simple formulae which closely approximate average costs 
may be evolved, however, which serve for all practical purposes. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1349 

and such are given as the general formulae in Figs. 8 and 9. 
The data from Avhich the graphic depiction of average costs on 
these figures are plotted are from averages of the estimated costs 
of a number of installations, which will be found to agree closely 
with results obtained from the respective formulae. It will be 
noted that in both the formulae and on the two figures no ap- 
parent consideration is given to the question of flight spacing, and 
that apparently the costs of conveyors of certain width and length 
of flights are the same, irrespective of the spacing of the flights. 
This is not quite true, but the variation in spacing of flights in 
standard flight conveyors of deflnite width is not sufficiently great 
to make any very appreciable difference in their cost — the expense 
entailed by a few additional flights constituting but a small pro- 
portion of the total cost of equipment, that is, in the average con- 
veyor of reasonable length. 

The depreciation of flight conveyors is naturally rapid, for the 
load exerts a very destructive scouring or abrasion on both the 




6-.I6- y 

5x15; X 

4;ir 15^ 
fxio- §2 



Y/HtPt. 

F' DeffjsciafiQn Factor. 
'A •Ammfnig/ibinsq.in.WidthtLength. 
L • Length ofCvmeyerin ft. I 



75 100 125 150 Ub 200 225 250 275 500 
LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEFT 



Fig. 10. 



ZOiOWiO 
Depreciation factors for standard flight conveyors. 



flights and the trough. This deterioration is naturally much more 
pronounced when handling certain materials than it is when less 
destructive materials are dragged through the trough. The de- 
terioration due to the handling of certain materials is so very 
much more marked, in fact, that the character of the load must 
be taken into consideration in any reliable investigation of the 
average depreciation charge. Arbitrarily assuming a convenient 
basis of comparison, an average depreciation factor is arrived at 
in the general formula on Fig. 10, which, when multiplied by the 
" depreciation factor coefficient " given on the same chart, gives the 
average annual depreciation in dollars. The depreciation amounts 
to about the same in similar conveyors whether they are equipped 
with sliding-shoe flights or with roller flights, although the rate of 
depreciation is slightly lesri for the more eflicient type. 

Flight conveyors are usually shorter than belt conveyors, and in 
addition they require more attention in the way of opening gates, 
etc., so that the labor charge per ft. of conveyor is higher than in 
the case of belt conveyors, and averages between 2 and 3 cts. per 
in. width of conveyor. It is not correspondingly higher per ton- 



1350 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



nage handled, however, because of the large capacity of a flight 
conveyor of the same width and length of flight. 

The charge for incidental supplies, as in the case of belt con- 
veyors, is almost directly proportional to the power requirements ; 
and as a number of incidental repairs can logically be charged to 
the same expense, safe figures for this item are 2 cts. per hr. per 
h.p. for conveyors with sliding-shoe flights and about 10% less, 
or 1.8 cts. per hr. per h.p. consumed, for conveyors in which the 
flights are furnished with rollers. The incidental repairs on the 
latter type of conveyor, chargeable to the item of " supplies," are 




Fig. 11. 



G£fi£RAL Formula '■ 



^, O.lUid^W'R 

Where, W ^Capacity in tons {2000 Lb.) per hour. 
cl= Di'amefer of screw in inches 
Y/'= Weight of mafericil handled in Ib.percuSt 
R= Revolution of screws per minute. 

Capacities of standard screv/ conveyors, economically 
loaded and operated. 



less costly than those on flights with sliding shoes, but the lubri- 
cation charge is higher, so that the saving of the more efllcient 
construction is only about 10%. 

The burden of interest on investment, insurance, and taxes is 
proportionally no higher than in the case of other conveying equip- 
ment, and on the average amounts to about 8%% per year of the 
initial cost of the installation, in addition to which there is usually 
an annual renewal charge of about 20%, which is in excess of the 
depreciation usual to other conveyors, 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1351 

Screw Conveyors. Notwithstanding its comparatively limited 
capacity and relatively hig-h consumption of power, the screw con- 
veyor possesses considerable economic value and finds many uses 
about certain manufacturing plants — particularly in cement mills. 

Unlike the types of conveyors already analyzed, the economic 
speed of the screw conveyor is governed by its size (diameter of 
screw) rather than by the character of the material handled. 
Fig. 11 shows not only the capacity of the common sizes of screw 
conveyors handling the materials usually entrusted to them, but 

MATERIALS HANDLED AT STANDARD SPEEDS 



V C5 "SI 




fiote:5crewC(mveijorsrrKi(jbemhlledafasliahhndmatiol^ 

of<^nv7or: ^"^ led per hour for each foot rise, n length 



6CHERAL Formula: ftp. • ^^ 



WH£R£. W^ Load handled in tons per hour 
L- Length of conyeyor /ff feet. 
H~ Eleration in length of convey onn feet 

Fig. 12. Horsepower requirements of screw conveyors. 



also gives the advisable speeds at which to run the various sizes. 
These speeds may be varied to a considei^able extent when condi- 
tions make such departure advisable, but a lov/er speed is apt to 
sacrifice efficiency, and higher speed is apt to lead to trouble. 

In the consumption of power, screw conveyors are even less 
sparing than are flight conveyors, but as they are usually of com- 
paratively short length — a series of screw conveyors discharging 
into one another being employed if they have to carry the load 
any appreciable distance — and have a quite limited capacity, their 



1352 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

relative extravagance in the use of power is no serious handi- 
cap. 

Fig. 12 gives the horsepower required for standard sizes of screw 
conveyors per ft. when handling certain materials at their eco- 
nomic speeds. The general formula given for calculating horse- 
power requirements takes into consideration the elevation of load 
in inclined conveyors, but ordinarily screw conveyors are installed 
as nearly horizontal as possible ; any inclination not only increases 
their consumption of power, but tends to reduce their capacity, 
unless some positive mechanical feeding device is installed. 

Though there are many special types of screw conveyors on the 
market of differing design, the cost of the ordinary standard type 
folio w^s a fairly well defined relationship, which is expressed by 
the general formula given on Fig. 13. The curves of the chart 
plotted from this formula for-cibly indicate the low initial cost of 
this type of equipment — a few hundred dollars for any reasonable 
length and average capacity. 



350 



.300 



;Z50 



z20O 
8150 



GcnERALFoRHUU: 

C'Q/%dLf2.3ldt0.07d^ 
~ Where. 

C= Average cost in dollars! 
d-Size oT conveyor in inches^ DIamefer 

of screw. 
L = Length of Conveyor. 

in ft 




100 



5 10 15 20 25 30 55 40 
LENGTH OFCONVEYORIM FEET 

Fig. 13. Average cost of screw conveyors. 



Though cheap in first cost, the depreciation of screw conveyors 
is more rapid than that of almost any other type of conveyor — 
the propelling screw revolving in the midst of the load is sub- 
jected to a very destructive abrasive action. As in the case of 
flight conveyors, different materials affect differently the life of 
the propelling mechanism and the trough carrying the load. For 
instance, cement and lime have a much more destructive action 
on screw conveyors than has coke. Based on a convenient unit of 
depreciation, coefficients are tabulated on Fig. 14, which, when 
multiplied by the depreciation factor obtained from the plotted 
curves, or calculated from the general formula given on the chart, 
give the average yearly depreciation of standard screw conveyors 
in dollars. This depreciation factor is based on the continual 
operation of the conveyor, so that in charging depreciation against 
a conveyor not in continual use only that proportion of deteriora- 
tion which would be contracted in the actual working time should 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1353 

be charged against the installation, provided, of course, the con- 
veyor is in operation a reasonable number of hours per year. 

Once the ordinary screw conveyor is started, it requires little 
attention, unless something goes wrong. The legitimate labor 
charge, therefore, is low. In order that there may be no inter- 
ruption of service due to neglect, however, the conveyor should be 
frequently inspected, and if such inspection is charged to labor it 
will raise it to about 0.5 ct. per in. diameter of screw per hr., 
chargeable only during actual operating hrs. 




10 15 20 25 30 35 40 
LENGTH OF CONVEYOR IN FEET 

Fig. 14. Depreciation factors for standard screw conveyors. 



The charge for individual supplies though averaging nearly di- 
rectly proportionally to the power consumption of the conveyor, is 
much more serious than in almost any other type of conveyor ; 
for unless the various bearings are kept well lubricated the ma- 
terial being conveyed works between the shaft and bearing and 
is very destructive. A charge of 1 ct. per hr. per h.p. is not an 
excessive amount for the supplies, and may be taken as a con- 
servative average. 

Cost of Belt Renewals and Power for Driving Belts. Edwin H. 
Messiter, in Engineering and Mining Journal, has stated that in 
good practice the life of belts will be such that the cost of belt 
renewals should amount to 0.1 ct. per ton of ore delivered to the 
belt, and the h.p. required for driving it will average 0.00015 h.p.-hr. 
per ton for each ft. of horizontal distance through which the 
material is carried, plus 0.001 h.p.-hr. per ft. of height elevated. 

The Cost of Loading Bricks Into a Box Car Using a Portable 
Belt Conveyor. The following observations were made by A. C. 
Haskell (given in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 15, 1915) at a 
large brick manufactory in New Jersey where common bricks were 
being loaded into a box car by means of a portable belt conveyor. 
The car was on a siding and the bricks were (a) in piles about 
30 ft. away; and (b) brought in on small flat cars on an industrial 
track parallel to and 40 ft. from the siding. 

The conveyor was mounted on two wheels of about 4 ft. diameter 
and was driven by a small motor supported on the frame work, 



1354 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The belt was 20 ins. wide, 20 ft. long and had a speed of 240 ft. 
per min. The lower end was 1.5 ft. above the ground and the 
upper end 2 ft. above the car floor and extending about a ft. within 
the car. 

One man (1) (Fig. 15) stood at the foot of the conveyor and 
received bricks, four at a time, passed to him by two others (2) 
and (3) alternately, from the piles. (1) placed them on the 
conveyor and (4) and (5), standing in the car at the door, one 
on either side of the belt, took them off and passed them to (6) 
and (7) and to (8) and (9) who piled them in the car. 



Brick Pile 




Conveyor 



Fig. 15. Diagram showing positions of laborers loading bricks into 
a car with a belt conveyor. 

From the flat Koppel cars which were run in as mentioned above, 
the bricks were loaded onto wheelbarrows, wheeled to the foot 
of the conveyor and stacked on four at a time. 

The work was very fa.st and every unit was busy all the time. 
The only improvement that might have been suggested was that 
the bricks be placed with more uniformity on the conveyor. Some- 
times they were put on in batches of four so close to one another 
that (4) and (5) could not get them ofC and they would pile up 
on the car floor. The foreman should have seen that the bricks 
were placed on the belt at equal intervals and with such fre- 
quency that the men in the car could just handle them. 

The following time study was made when loading from the piles : 



100 bricks were loaded in 1.07 mins. 

102 bricks were loaded in 1.13 mins. 

103 bricks were loaded in 1.17 mins. 
100 bricks were loaded in 1.30 mins. 

405 bricks were loaded in 4.67 mins. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1355 

405 X 480 

On this basis in an 8-hr. day, — 41,600 bricks would 

4.67 
be loaded, which is between three and four car loads. Allowing 
45 mins. for shifting the conveyor, etc., the total would be reduced 
to 37,700. 

9 men at $1.75 $15.75 

1 foreman at $3.50 3.50 

Conveyor at $0.50 0.50 

$19.75 
or $19.75 + 37.7 = 52.4 cts. per thousand. 

Therefore to load a car with 12,000 bricks, which is about the 
average, would cost $6.30. A time study was made when they 
were unloading bricks from the flat Koppel cars with wheelbarrows 
and transporting them to the conveyor. 

The average number of men loading was two, and the average 
number of bricks loaded was 73 per min. The distance of travel 
to the foot of the conveyor was 30 ft. 

Average speed loaded = 30/0.22 — 136 ft. per min. 
Average speed empty = 30/0.13 = 230 ft. per min. 

On the above basis the total number of bricks handled per day 
by the three wheelbarrows would be : 

480 

X 3 X 73 = 40,900 

2.57 

Allowing, as before, for time to shift, the number would be 
37,000: 

2 men loading at $1.75 $ 3.50 

3 men transporting at $1.75 5.25 

9 men at conveyor at $1.75 15.75 

1- foreman at $3.50 3.50 

Conveyor at $0.50 0.50 

$28.50 

Or at a cost of $28.50/37.00 = 72.2 cts. per thousand, or at the 
rate of $9.25 per carload. 



Buckets "Weight, 
Size Gauge lbs. Price 
13 X 10 No. 14 4,650 $490 
16 X 11 No. 14 5,835 585 

" Back Gear Driving Connection " is an arrangement for driving 
the elevator and screen, particularly used with the smaller sizes, 
and takes power from the breaker. 

The cost of the iron work for a countershaft is about $50. 

Bucket Elevators and Conveyors. Reginald Trautschold in In- 
dustrial Management, Nov., 1916, states that for handling the 





TABLE 


III 


. COST OF 


ith geared 
ith geared 


head, 
head. 


50 
50 


ft. 
ft. 


centers. . . . 
centers. . . . 



1356 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

coal supply, etc., in a manufacturing plant, the bucket elevator 
is the most usually encountered equipment for elevating purposes. 
Such apparatus requires but limited space and delivers its load in 
a comparatively uniform stream, which develops good capacity 
and, at the same time, allows the discharge- of the elevator to be 
handled easily and rapidly from the point of discharge, the buckets 
being of relatively small proportions and carrying small individual 
loads. Formerly the buckets were attached to the chains or belt 
contiguously in order to secure a continuous load, but this neces- 
sitated extremely low elevator speeds that the succeeding buckets 
might pick up suitable loads. Present practice is to space the 
buckets further apart and run the elevator somewhat faster, the 
buckets so arranged picking up more uniform loads and filling more 
satisfactorily. Bucket elevators with their buckets spaced some 
distance apart will therefore be the type analyzed in this discussion. 
Table IV gives speeds at which various materials have been 
found to be most economically handled by standard bucket ele- 
vators, and these may safely be taken as representing the economic 
speeds of bucket elevators for the various materials. 

TABLE IV. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR BUCKET ELEVATORS 
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 

Average Advisable 

weight in lbs. speed in ft. 

Material per cu. ft. per min. 

Coke .' 33.5 100 

Broken stone (coarse) 165 125 

Lump coal 55 125 

Ashes 40-45 150 

Lime and cement 65 150 

Ore (average) 125 175 

Crushed stone 160 175 

Sand and gravel 110 175 

Fine coal 50-60 ^ 200 

The tabulated speeds suppose a certain interval between the 
buckets in order that each individual bucket may pick up a suit- 
able load. Usually this means the spacing of the buckets from 
12 to 18 ins. apart. Obviously the closer the buckets are arranged 
the greater the capacity of the elevator, provided that the indi- 
vidual buckets can pick up equal loads, so that the capacity of a 
bucket elevator is very nearly directly proportional to the spacing 
of its buckets, the speed being constant. 

Fig. 16 depicts the capacity of standard sizes of bucket elevators 
when continuously and uniformly loaded and operated at the eco- 
nomic speed for the material handled. This chart illustrates the 
wide range of capacities of a comparatively few sizes of standard 
bucket elevators, and emphasizes the necessity of careful selection 
of equipment if the capacity required is accurately known. An 
elevator of excessive capacity usually means uneconomic opera- 
tion — an idle piece of equipment being a costly investment — 
while an elevator of insufficient capacity is always an inexcusable 
economic blunder. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1357 

Bucket elevators being perfectly balanced when unloaded, the 
power required is simply that necessary for elevating the load, and 
for dragging the buckets through the charged elevator boot and 
overcoming the frictional resistance of the equipment ; so that a 
simple formula can be derived for ascertaining the horsepower 

I '"' 90005 

S iVhcre, W'Catucitii oFe/evafor tn tons perhr. 
1' L enqfh oF buckets in inches. 
w- Width oF buckets in inches. 
V - Velocity (Speed) oF buckets in feet 

_ per minute 
w'= Weight of material handled in 
pounds per cu. Ft. 
; V, _ 5 ' Spacing oF buckets m inches. 



The capacities as given are 
_, ttiose obtained when operat- 
the elevators at speeds 
st suited For the 
respective materials. 



X^'^ 




SIZE OF E.LLVATOR- LENGTH ny(lDTH a SPACING Of BUCKETS 



Fig. 16. Capacities of standard bucket elevators economically 
loaded and operated. 

required for any particular installation. This formula might be 
expressed as : 



15WH 



Hp. 



10,000 
where 

W = Load handled in tons per hr., as obtained from Fig. 16, and 

H = Height to which load is elevated, in ft. 

In the consumption of power, bucket elevators are not particu- 
larly economical, on account of the heavy frictional losses, the 
general inefficiency of the construction, and the resistance to the 
passage of the buckets through the charged elevator boot ; but 
this drawback is compensated for in large part by the quite de- 
cided advantages of compactness of equipment, simplicity of con- 
struction, and uniformity of discharge. Furthermore, a bucket 



1358 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

elevator is a comparatively cheap piece of equipment and does its 
work well while in good condition, notwithstanding its rapid de- 
terioration under severe usage. 

Standardization of the cost of bucket elevator equipment is made 
difficult by the great variety of buckets which can be employed 
and the multiplicity of chains or belts which can be used for sup- 
porting the buckets. In general practice, however, the variations 
in design of elevator and in the type of equipment employed may 
be grouped into a few classes which permit conservatively ac- 
curate analysis of costs. 

Three general designs of bucket elevators are in common use : 
First, elevators in which the buckets are attached to a single end- 
less chain ; second, elevators in which the buckets are attached to 

HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OFLOAD) IN FEET 
20 50 40 50 60 . 70 80 90 




Fig. 17. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 

bucket elevators. Standard detachable chain — 

buckets spaced 12 ins. 



two matched strands of endless chain ; and third, elevators in 
which the buckets are attached to an endless belt. Elevators 
employing but a single strand of chain are usually of small size 
and have to be installed at an inclination, in order that the buckets 
may satisfactorily discharge their load. These limitations natu- 
rally detract from the value and popularity of this type of design, 
and as the single chain has to be as strong as the combined 
strength of the two chains in double-strand elevators they are in 
reality little less costly than the more rugged and efficient double- 
strand elevator. Single-strand bucket elevators are also subject to 
more rapid depreciation, etc., so that they are no longer com- 
monly found in the efficient manufacturing plant. 

Double-strand bucket elevators can be run vertically by in- 
stalling choke sprockets to divert the direction of the descending 
buckets, so that they may discharge their load without undue spill, 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1359 

etc. This is the type of bucket elevator usually found in the 
manufacturing- plant and the type to be recommended. Bucket 
elevators with buckets attached to an endless belt possess the 
same drawbucks as single-strand elevators, but also they possess 
the advantage of slightly lower initial cost, even when a high- 
grade rubber belt is employed. 

Though the buckets which could be employed are numerous, the 
standard type of elevator bucket usually meets all requirements 
and may be of steel or of malleable iron. The more costly buckets 
are usually employed only for handling materials which are de- 
structive to steel. The chains customarily employed for bucket 
elevators are either the ordinary detachable link chain, com- 



HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR CELEVATION OF LOAD) IN I 
30 40 50 60 70 




Fig. 18. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 

Bucket elevators. Standard detachable chain — 

buckets spaced 15 ins. 

monly known as the engineering chain and the combination chain, 
a chain with malleable iron links and steel pins. 

Figs. 17, 18 and 19 give the average cost of standard bucket 
elevators with steel buckets and two strands of detachable link 
chain, buckets spaced 12 ins., 15 ins. and 18 ins. apart respectively. 
Table V gives factors for multiplying the average cost of standard, 
double-strand bucket elevators with steel buckets when the aver- 



TABLE V. STANDARD BUCKET ELEVATOR EQUIPMENT 
FACTORS 

Equipment Factor 

Malleable iron buckets and combination chain 1.78 

Malleable iron buckets and standard chain 1.57 

Malleable iron buckets and high grade rubber belt. ... 1.50 

Steel buckets and combination chain 1.20 

Steel buckets and standard detachable chain 1.00 

Steel buckets and high grade rubber belt 92 



1360 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

age cost of some other combination of standard equipment is de- 
sired. For instance, a 75-ft. bucket elevator with 20-in. by 6-in. 
steel buckets attached to two strands of detachable link chain at 
intervals of 18 ins. would cost about $950 (see Fig. 19). A simi- 
lar bucket elevator equipped with malleable iron buckets and com- 
bination chain would cost about $1,691 (950X1.78). 

A bucket elevator which is kept in good condition requires very 
little attention after it is started up, but care must be taken that 
the elevator boot does not become clogged, that unwieldy lumps 
of material do not find their way to the buckets, etc., so that a 
labor charge of about four cts. per in. width of bucket is not in- 

HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR CELEVATION OFLOAD) IN 
30 40 50 - 60-, 70 




Fig. 19. Average cost of standard, double strand (steel bucket) 
bucket elevators. 



frequent. Such a charge should cover the periodical inspections 
and may be taken as a fair amount for the labor expense. The 
expense for incidental supplies, such as grease or oil for lubrica- 
tion, is naturally quite high in the case of bucket elevators, owing 
to the unavoidable dust which is raised and which tends to clog 
up the oil holes of grease cups unless they are well supplied with 
lubricant; it will average close to 1.5 cts. per h.p. per hr. 

Depreciation of bucket elevators is not only comparatively rapid, 
but varies considerably with the service demanded of the equip- 
ment and the class of equipment comprising the installation. 
Standard elevators' with steel buckets and detachable link chains, 
subject to the service common in a manufacturing plant where the 
elevator is in fairly constant use, contract an annual depreciation 
expense approximating 331.^% on the cost of the buckets, 20% on 
the balance of the equipment. Malleable iron buckets, unless sub- 
ject to unusually severe service, contract a yearly depreciating ex- 
pen.se of about 20%, while the depreciation chargeable to a well 
cared for combination chain should not exceed 10% per year. The 
depreciation on the belt of an elevator employing such equipment 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1361 

for holding the buckets, if of high-grade rubber and duck con- 
struction, should average about 207o in elevators in frequent use. 
Notwithstanding the quite dissimilar rates of depreciation of 
different types of bucket elevators, the average net depreciation 
expense contracted is very nearly the same, quite irrespective of 
the class of equipment entering into the construction of the ele- 
vator, high-grade materials of their respective classes being em- 
ployed in the various types. That is, the yearly depreciation 
charge contracted by a well cared for bucket elevator with mal- 
leable iron buckets and combination chain is just about the same 
as that contracted by a similar elevator with steel buckets and 
detachable link chain, or by a similar elevator with high-grade 



HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OF LOAD) IN FEET 
20 50 40 50 60 70 80 




Fig. 



20. Average depreciation of standard bucket elevators 
buckets spaced 12 inches. 



rubber belting for supporting the buckets, although the respective 
rates of depreciation of various component parts is quite different. 
Figs. 20, 21 and 22 graphically depict the annual depreciation 
charge contracted in the average manufacturing plant in which 
the bucket elevators are properly selected and economically used. 
The general formulas given on the respective figures enable the 
depreciation charge to be rapidly calculated in installations in 
which the elevators are equipped for handling material other than 
fine coal or ashes. 

Bucket elevator installations are subject, naturally, to the usual 
burden of interest on investment, insurance, taxes, etc., consti- 
tuting the fixed charges contracted by any investment in mechan- 
ical equipment. This burden usually amounts to about 814% per 
year of the initial cost of the equipment (6% for interest, 1% for 
insurance and u.sually about 2% on the three-quarters of the ini- 
tial cost for taxes). 

In charging up the various expenses contracted in operating a 



1362 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

bucket elevator it is customary to charge up depreciation in pro- 
portion to the number of hrs. per year in which the elevator is in 
actual operation. A year being taken as 2,500 working hrs. This 



6 50 

^600 

^550 
o 

z 500 

Z450 
o 

§400 
U350 

CE 

^500 

Q 

_.250 

i200 

z 

< 150 



w 50 
< 



HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR rtLEVATION OF LOAO> IN FEET 
20 _.. 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 



iOer/s/f^L Formula 



■i-O.I5Dwl 



10000 
'^Where: D'= Avetoge Annual Depreciation indo/lars 
wl - Size of bucket - width x fengffi in inc/ies. 
H = Heigtil of eleyatpr in Feer. 
»v'= Weight of material handled in pounds per - 

cu. ft 
0- Facfofvaruing in verse lu *vifh sne ^ 
or bucket; varies from 7.1 to U For;^'^ 
standard buc/rets from 5'k4^ 
to 24"xS"in size inc/usiv 




Fig 21. Average depreciation of standard bucket 
buckets spaced 15 inches. 



is permissible, as the rate of depreciation during operating hrs. is 
comparatively high, and though there is a certain degree of de- 
preciation contracted during hours of idleness, such deterioration 



HEIGHT OF ELEVATOR (ELEVATION OF LOAD.) IN FEET 
30 40 . 50 60. 70 



Fig. 




55 
EEET 

22. Average depreciation of standard bucket elevators 
buckets spaced 18 inches. 



is negligible compared to that taking place while the elevator is 
in actual operation — providing the equipment is not to remain 
idle most of the time. 



CONVEYORS. HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1363 



Bucket Conveyors. The bucket conveyor consisting of a succes- 
sion of buckets attached to two matched strands of endless chain, 
which can be run in a horizontal path as well as in a vertical 
plane, represents a combination of bucket elevator and conveyor 
which possesses all the advantages of the elevator and performs 
the functions of a conveyor over horizontal stretches. 

The buckets for this type of apparatus may be of almost any 
proportions ; they may be rigidly attached to the chains, or may 
be of the pivoted construction so that they remain in an upright 



GENERAL Formula 



100000 s 



Where ; w^ Width of bucket 'in 'inches * <?fc 
buc/ret. * 

1= Length ofbuc/fet in inches: 
y^Speedof Conveyor in ft.permin. 
S = Spacing ofhucl^ets(intervals) in 'inches. 



W = Weight of Material i 
percu.ft 




J pounds 



I 
1^ 



II- 



III 

lit 



Fig. 23. 



SIZE OF BUCKETS - LENGTH x. WIDTH x SPAC) N& 



Capacities of standard bucket conveyors economically 
loaded and operated. 



position throughout their travel, excepting at the points where 
they are tripped to discharge their load. The proportions of the 
buckets are now fairly well standardized in practice, however, and 
the economic speeds at which the conveyors should be run are well 
established. 

Table VI gives the economic speeds for various materials for 
which this type of conveyor is well adapted. 

At the economic speeds recommended, the capacities of the usual 
standard sizes of conveyors with buckets spaced as commonly 
found in practice are given in Fig. 23. 



1364 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE VI. ECONOMIC SPEEDS FOR BUCKET CONVEYORS 
FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS 

Advisable speed, 
Material ft. per min. 

Coke 40 

Broken stone (coarse) 50 

Lump coal, run of mine 50 

Ashes 60 

Lime and cement 60 

Ore (average) 70 

Crushed stone 70 

Sand and gravel 70 

Fine coal 80 

This chart shows the excellent choice of equipment readily pro- 
curable on the market for capacities up to 35 tons of fine coal 
per hour, or corresponding capacities for other materials. This 
diversity of standard conveyors in the smaller sizes makes the 
economic selection of proper size for a specific task of particular 
Importance as well as one involving careful judgment. 



o 0.35 



;'So.25 



Oh 

OuJ 



0.15 



General Formula „. (AUBH)W /9Wl 

"P= 100000 nioo/ 

Where, For Conveyors with Pivoted Buckets only. 
A = Constant = 28 forConveijors nith Pivoted Bua 

=105 " , •' " /Flg/ct 
B= Constant=I0S " " " " Pivoted " 
-I5S " • '• " Rigid " 
L = Totat horizontal span oF Conveyor in feci 


kets 


^ 


OA 














W= Load handled in tons CZOOOLb.i pe, 














^ 
















































































































h\^ 


\^ 


























































~ 








y 




"h^ 




























\^ 


=z 


^W^ 






























K^^y^^o^- 






























- 




' 






■ 
















^:h- 


^^■^^^ ■ >< iV\ ' 


- 
























\ 


»v\t^/.j\ 
























-. 




\^54_ 


























Ji°l- 




















































•, 


W -'.-W- Xr 


0* 


























^y ^0//-,^'- 


























c. 
























































. 


\)?^ »<w:'_>/rv^ 


;' 


























^Z^Z^^'i 














































































~t'/'\'^yXi\^^' c^"-L 














• 












3^y\e^/V^o<*(nr' 


























oV ^yy^- 




^ 1 


























jyy ,'y:.Qy 
























0.1 






r 
























hes)j: 






V^.'%9«V 




















, 


c^ef 
















1 






lal ^•■--r 


s.- 


_ 




rtV/.:^^,-!,- 














II- 


oOT-^'l^-^-r^ke.X 




,(,'4V^„.\\>" ' 








lOn ^'--r-^tafi D 












irT. 1 










"fe^^ /-onv«y"'-2'"-'tr.;,r-.9 f 


' 1 


1 


















T^^^r? 


1 1 


1 


















' ^ V-hrT 1 


J . J 


















■— --iT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 















_ 





ZJ 0.05 



50 100 150 200 250 300 

CAPACITY IN TONS CZOOOLB.) PER HOUR. 

Fig. 24. Horsepower requirements of bucket conveyors. 



As in the case of bucket elevators, bucket conveyors are per- 
fectly balanced so that the power requirements comprise simply 
that required for the elevating operation, for the conveying opera- 
tion, and to overcome the frictional resistance of the equipment, 
etc. In bucket conveyors of the type in which the buckets are 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1365 



rigidly attached to the chains, considerable power is consumed in 
dragging the buckets through the supply of material in the feeding 
trough, etc. ; and in the type in which the buckets are attached to 
the chains so as to maintain an upright position while in any 
plane, power is required for operating the " reciprocating feeder " 
for loading the buckets. 

Fig. 24 shows the power requirements for both types of bucket 
conveyors, those with rigid buckets and those with pivoted buckets. 
The power required for the elevating operation does not differ so 
greatly in amount for the two types, but the difference is quite 
marked in the conveying operations, conveyors with the buckets 
rigidly attached to the chains being virtually flight conveyors of 
an inefficient type and therefore extremely lavish in the use of 
power. Bucket conveyors with pivoted buckets are economical in 



2W00 



LENGTH OF CONVIVOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL (H-u iH ONE 
DIRECTION-INFEET 
50 100 150 200 250 300 550 A^x) 450 500 550 600. 




Fig. 



25. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 18 inches. 



the use of power and are rapidly displacing the less efficient though 
very much cheaper conveyor with rigid buckets. 

The spacing of the buckets not only materially affects the ca- 
pacity of bucket conveyors but also has a considerable effect upon 
their cost — the buckets constituting an important item in the cost 
of the equipment. Figs. 25 to |32 inclusive depict the average cost 
of standard bucket conveyors ; the first four charts refer to con- 
veyors with rigid buckets, and the latter four to similar conveyors 
with pivoted buckets, the bucket spacing being 18 ins., 24 ins., 30 
ins. chnd 36 ins. respectively. These charts are derived from cost 
data from average installations' — as usually encountered. 

The general formulas given on the various figures permit ready 
calculations to be made of the average costs in cases where the 
vertical lift or the horizontal travel are abnormal — that is, where 
the ratio between the length of the two operations differs con- 



1366 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



siderably from the usual run of installations. The formulas also 
enable the cost of equipment for handling unusually heavy or ex- 
tremely light materials to be ascertained. In such special cases, 

LEKGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTALTRAVEL(H+L) IN ONE 
DIRECT10M IN FEET 
50 too -150 200 250 500 350 400 450 500 550 600 , » 




Fig. 26. 



Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 24 inches. 



LEHCTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEUHtL) IN ONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET 



50 



100 



150 



g :; 



20000 



> lOOOO 



?00 ?50 300 550 400' 450 500 550 600 ■. . 



Oener/kl Formula: 

€=0.00167 wl<H^L)w'tO005wlLt 15.25 /ftT 

Where : C=4 vera a e Cost in dollars. 

wl= Widfhx length ofbucket in inches 

H = Heii^ht to which load is elevated in feet. 

L ' Horizontal travel ofconveijor inone direcfiop 

in feet 
ty'= Weight of material handled in pounq 
percuft. ^ ^ 




Fig. 27. 



Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 30 inches. • 



heavier or lighter equipment is frequently advisable. For ordinary 
service, the results obtained from the figures are accurate enough 
for practical purposes. The initial cost of this type of conveyor 
is high compared to almost any other type of conveyor or elevator, 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1367 

so that a considerable variation in initial cost has. comparatively- 
little effect upon the net cost of operation per ton. 

Bucket conveyors require somewhat more attention during opera- 



40000 

55000 

2iOOOO 

§25000 

20000 

J 15000 
c 

c 

i 10000 

f 

5000 



LENGTH OFCONVEYOR-SUM OFVERTICALAMD HORIZONTAL TRAVEL<H+L) IN ONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET 

50 100 150 200 250 500 350 400 450 500 550 600 ^ . 

136x24 



6eM£ffAL Formula ■ 
C- 0.00159 wl(HtL)y 
Where: 



^ O.OOSivlLf 15.25 rWT 



C= Average Cost in dollars. 
nl-Widfnxlengfh or bucket in incfws. 
H = Height to r/hich load is elevated in Feet 
L = Horizon ta/ Travel of conveuor in one direcHon^ 
in feet , -^ 

vt' - Weight of material handled in pounds . 
percu. ft. '^ ^ 




^ = 



50x24 " 
361^20 o 



24x20 f 

20*x20" ^ 
24x15* i 



16x12' 
12x12* 



Fig. 



28. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 36 inches. 



iSOOO 
50000 

4^25000 

§20000 

z 

§ 15000 
u 

2 I 0000 

> 
< 

5000 



'XGenEftAL Formula ■ ' 

C=O.Q0i8dMHHtUw.tO.0SV^Lt075fm 
I Where. C= Average cost in dollars. 

wl ^ Width X length of budget in inches 

H = Height to which load is elevated in feet 

L =Mori7ontal travel oFconveuor inone 

airechon in feet 
w '^ Weight of mate rial handled in pounds 
per cuft ^ 



LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL) IN ONE 

^ DIRECTION IN FEET 

- ^° '00 150 700 ?50 500 350 4 00 450 500 55C 600 




zieiis"^ 



I&XI5 



12x12 ^ 
o 



Fig. 



29. Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 18 inches. 



tion than do some of the other systems of conveying machinery. 
In addition to the necessary periodic inspection, bucket conveyors 
with rigid buckets mu.st have the gates in the horizontal troughs 
opened and closed as required, and conveyors with pivoted buckets 



1368 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

necessitate some attention to the reciprocating feeder and for set- 
ting and shifting the tripping devices. The average expense for 
the less efficient type of construction will average about 5 cts. per 



43000 
4000O 

35000 

: 30000 

12 5000 

; 20000 

t 15000 

' 10000 

5000 



LENGTH OFCONVEYOR-SUM OF VERTICALANO HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(H+L) IN ONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET. 
50 100 150 «200 250 300 ^50 400 450 500 550 6 



I I I- 



"1 — r 



denERAL Fqrhula: 

C=0.02'32fYl(HtL)w't003/;ru tOlS /Pil 
Where C- Average cost in dollars 

v/l' Width* length of^ucl^et in inches 
H = Height to y/htch load is elevated in feet. 
'L = Horizontal travel oFconyeyor in one 
. ^ direction in feet 
Vv= neight oFmaterial handled in pounds^ 




^^ 



24.15^ 
1. 
20x15'^ 
18x15 -i 

le'xis'^ 

9 
16x12' 5: 

I2V12| 



225 275 325 
FEET 



Fig. 30. Average cost of standard bucket conveyor for handling 
fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 



UNSTH Of CONVEVOR • SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL <HtL) IN ONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET 
50 100 150 . 200 250 300 550 400 450 500 550 600 



40000 
35000 



^_^_OcNEf>AL Formula- 
£ C=O.O02iiwl(HiL)wtO0S/inLfQ.7S/^ 
Where- C = Average cost in dollars. 

wl = Widtf! x length of bucket in inches. 
H = Height to nhich load is elevated m feet 




Fig. 31. 



i^.verage cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling' 
fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 



hr. per in. -width of bucket, and for the conveyors with pivoted 
buckets in the neighborhood of 4 cts. per hr. per in. -width. 

Incidental supplies vary closely in cost with the power con- 
sumption of the apparatus ; in the case of bucket conveyors with 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1369 

rigid buckets it averages about 1% cts. per h.p. per hr., and for 
conveyors with pivoted buckets in the neighborhood of 1 ct. per 
h.p. Such charges cover not only the expense of the necessary 
grease or oil, waste, etc., but also the application of the lubricant. 
The question of lubrication is important in this type of conveyor 
and should be attended to regularly. 

The complexity due to the variation in bucket spacing of the 
two types of conveyors, so apparent in the consideration of average 
initial costs, is still further accentuated in the matter of depre- 
ciation, as the component parts of the two types of conveyors de- 
teriorate at quite different rates. The ordinary yearly deprecia- 
tion of the buckets for^the conveyors with rigid construction aver- 



t-ENGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL>INONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET 
SO 100 150 ?0O 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600_ • . 




Fig. 32. 



Average cost of standard bucket conveyors for handling 
fine coal, pivoted buckets, spaced 36 inches. 



ages close to 33i^%, while that of the pivoted types of buckets 
should not exceed 20%, unless the service to which the conveyor is 
subjected is unusually severe. The depreciation on the chains does 
not vary to any great extent, averaging about 15% per year. 
Chains for rigid buckets must be heavier because of the greater 
amount of power they have to transmit, and though subject to 
more of a scouring action than the chains for the pivoted type of 
conveyor they withstand the abrasive wear better on account of 
their greater weight. 

The horizontal troughs of the conveyors with rigid buckets wear 
out about as rapidly as do the rigid buckets themselves, while the 
rails, etc., of the more efficient ■ construction do not contract a 
depreciation of more than 10 or 15% per year — sometimes even 
less. The balance of equipment for either type of conveyor should 
not show depreciation at a greater rate than about 10% per year. 

Figs. 33 to 40 inclusive graphically depict the average annual 



1370 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

depreciation contracted by bucket conveyors when handling such 
material as fine coal in the manufacturing plant; the first four 
figures showing the average deterioration of conveyors with rigid 



5500 
<n 

§ SOOOg 

g4500 

z 

z 4000 
o 

*g 3500 

y 3000 

o2500 

< 2000 

i 1500 
< 

o 1000 



I.EN6TH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HfL) IN ONE 

DIRECTION IN FEET 
50 100 150 700 250 500 J50 400 450 500 550 600, 





'- — ' 








' 


' ' 


' 




t:=3 


"—z. 


Z=L 




zir 


^ 


rr: 


Er 


;^- 


: : Q= Q00066wl (HtDw 1 0002 wlL t I.S2S /ST 

:: Where; D= Average Annual Depreciation m dollars 


^ 


= 




= 


P 


^ 


^ 
^ 


i 


: : ¥iU Width x /engtfi of buckets in irn 
z: H' Heigt'ttowhichloadiselevatei 
■--. L' Hori2ontal travel oFconvetjori 
- - direction in feet. 
: : »v V Weeqht of material tiandled in 
'-'- pounds per cu. Ft 




feet 
e 


^ 


^ 




^ 




s5 


:=zr== 






= 


^ 


= 




^ 


^ 


1 


^ 






^ 


== 


^ 


:- , 


P 





1 


1 


S 




1 


Wi 


a 
^ 


= 




= 


= 


^ 


1 


1 


= 


i 


^ 


1 








= 


= 








= 


= 


^ 




= 


^ 


= 






^- 




= 


= 


75 


' — d 


T" 


n 


5 


r 


5 


27 


5 


32 


5 


3 


5 


425 


475 


525 


575 



12x12 K 
o 



Fig. 33, Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 18 inches. 



LENGTH OF CONVEVOR ■ SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL th.i_) IN 
ONE DIRECTION IN FEET 
250 500 550 400 45 500 550 600,/„, 




Fig. 34. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 24 inches. 



buckets spaced 18 ins., 24 ins., 30 ins. and 36 ins. apart respectively. 
The other four figures give similar data for conveyors with pivoted 
buckets. 

The general formulas given on the various figures permit the 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1371 

rapid calculations of average depreciation contracted by convey- 
ors of unusual proportions, conveyors handling other material than 
fine coal. etc. Usually the data obtained from the figures direct 



LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(HtL)l 

ONE DIRECTION IN F^ET 
50 100 ISO 200 2 50 ^00 SSO 400 450 500 550 



,9000 
8500 
I 8000 
17500 
:7000 
:-6500 
16000 
i 5500 
! 5000 
4S0O 
14000 
'3 500 
!5000 
^2500 
,2000 
; 1500 
i 1000 
: 500 



*O0OZnlL*IS25 /Wl 



GENERAL Formula 

D^0.00040nl(HfL)y 
Where. D- Average Annual Depreciation in dollars 
'A ^l^ Width K length of buctceto m inches. 

3 W = Height to nhich load /.s elevated m feet 

I L- Horiiontal trave/of Convei^onnone 

5 direction in feet 

r IV '= Yfeighf of material handled in 

oundspercu ft 




Fig. 35. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 30 inches. 

lEMGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICALAND HORIZONTAL TRAVELfHtL) INONE 
DIRECTION IN FEET 
250 30O 550 400 450 500_ 550 




Fig 36. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in rigid buckets, spaced 36 inches. 



are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, however, for in 
the case of bucket elevators it is customary to charge up only 
such proportion of the annual depreciation that is represented by 
the actual number of hours in which the system is in productive 



1372 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

operation. In the case of bucket conveyors with rigid buckets, 
this practice of apportioning the depreciation is justified by the 
comparatively high depreciation, providing that the conveyor is 



LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND H0R170NTAL TRAVEL (H+L) IN ONE 

DIRECTION IN FEET 
50 100 150 200 250 3.00 550 40O 450 SOO 550 600 




Fig. 37. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in pivoted buckets ; spaced 18 inches. 



LENGTH OF COMVEVOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRA\ EL fH.L> IN ONE DIRECTION 

IN FEET 
50 100 ISO 200 250 100 550 400 450 500 S50 600 




Fig. 38. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 24 inches. 



in use a reasonable number of hours each year ; but in the case 
of conveyors with pivoted buckets, such practice is only legitimate 
when the plant is in active operation, at least 60% of the work- 
ing hours of the year — i. e., from 4 to 5 hrs. each working day. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1373 

In installations in which the conveyor is not used more than about 
1,500 hrs. per year the depreciation charge of bucket conveyors 
with pivoted buckets should be figured on such usage. 

LENGTH OF CONVEYOR -SUM OF VERTICALAND HORIZONTAL TRAVEKH+ DIN ONE 

DIRECTION J N FEET 
.50 fOO ISO, 200 250 300 350 400 460 SOO 550 




Fig. 39. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 30 inches. 

LENGTH OF CONVEYOR- SUM OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRAVEL(H* DTNONE 

DIRECTIOIi INFEET 
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 60q,'.„ » , 




Fig. 40. Average depreciation of standard bucket conveyors 
handling fine coal in pivoted buckets, spaced 36 inches. 



Test of Motor- Driven Coai-Conveyor System. L. A. Quaj'le in 
Power, March 7. 1916, gives the following test on the coal and 
ash conveyor installed at the Fairmount pumping station, Cleve- 
land, Ohio, as made to determine whether the motors and con- 
veyor conformed with the specifications upon which they were pur- 
chased. 



1374 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The main conveyor was of the traveling-bucket type. The 
buckets were of compressed steel, counterbalanced to hold them 
in a horizontal position, and they overlap when traveling longi- 
tudinally. The cross conveyor is of the endless-belt type and con- 
veys the coal from the hopper into which the cars dump (in the 
space to the right) to the main conveyor, a distance of 10 ft. The 
ashes were dumped from the boiler ash hoppers into small cars, 
which were elevated to the floor above by a hydraulic elevator and 
dumped into the ash hopper. From here the ashes were conveyed 
upward into a large hopper, from which they slide into railroad 
cars. 

Conveyor data and the results of the tests on the conveyor run- 
ning loaded and also running light are given in the following table : 

Total number of buckets in conveyor 173 

Pitch of buckets 2 ft. 

Total length of conveyor 346 ft. 

Total height cog,l is elevated 55 ft. 

Rated capacity of conveyor, tons per hr 40 

Speed of conveyor running light- 40 ft. per min. 

Speed of conveyor running loaded 38.2 ft. per min. 

Time required for bucket to return to starting 

point 9 min. 5 sec. 

Type of main- and cross-belt conveyor motors, 
d.c, 115 volt compound wound, inclosed. 

Full-load rating of main-conveyor motor (57% 

amps.) 7.25 h.p. 

Full-load speed of main-conveyor motor 775 r.p.m 

Full-load rating of cross-conveyor motor (19% 

amps. ) 2.5 h.p. 

Full-load speed of cross-conveyor motor 1,200 r.p.m. 

Length of run, running light 27 min. 

Length of run, unloading coal 2 hr. 28 min. 

Net weight of coal in car No. 216,435 97,900 lbs. 

Net weight of coal in car No. 216,082 98,300 lbs. 

Total coal unloaded 98 tons 

Rate of unloading, tons per hour 39.78 

Input to both motors, conveyor running light. . . 115 v. 19 amp. 

Input to both motors, conveyor running light... 2.18 kw. 

Current input to both motors, conveyor run- 

• ning loaded 113 v., 41 amp. 

Average input to both motors, conveyor running 

loa'ded 4.63 kw. 

Rated continuous input to both motors 8.85 kw. 

Actual input in per cent, of rated input 52.3 

Max. temp, of bearings on main motor 120 deg. F. 

Max. temp, of bearings on cross-belt motor.... 116 deg. F. 

Max. temp, rise of main motor windings 25 deg. C. 

Max. temp, rise of cross-belt motor windings... 20 deg. C. 

Max. allowable temp, rise of main- and cross- 
conveyor motor windings 55 deg. C. 

Theoretical b.hp. required to elevate the coal 

and give it a velocity of 38.2 ft. per min.. . 2.22 b.hp. 

Efficiency of the conveyor, assuming an efficiency 
of 80% for main-conveyor motor and 78% for 

cross-conveyor motor 45% 

The conveyor handled slightly less than its rated capacity during 
the test, owing to the buckets not being completely filled. 

The ratio of current input running light (2.18 kw.) to current 
input running loaded (4.63 kw.) is 41%, which represents ap- 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1375 

proximately the efficiency of the conveyor and checks within 2% 
the b.h.p. method, which was used in obtaining the efficiency of 
45% shown by the test. 

A Bucket Conveyor Machine for loading wagons from open piles, 
consisting of a gasoline engine driven inclined conveyor mounted 
on a wagon truck, is built by the Link Belt Company of Phila- 
delphia, and is sold at $850 Engineering News, Feb. 22, 1912, 
gives the following data on its use : 

Comparative observations of the machine in use in a coal yard 
and of hand loading show the following costs per ton: 

MACHINE LOADING 

Cost, cts. 

Interest 2.55 

Maintenance 1.25 

Depreciation 2.12 

Power 0.37 

Team and driver 5.00 

Yard helper 1.25 

Total , . . . 12.54 

HAND LOADING 

Cost, Cts. 

Team and driver 15 

Yard helper 5 

Total 20 

This is based on loading only 10 tons of coal per day for a year 
of 200 days; interest is taken at 6%, maintenance and repairs at 
$25, depreciation at 5%, power at 10 cts. per kw.-hr., team and 
driver at 45 cts. per hr., yard helper at 15 cts. 

When desired, the head chute is made, without extra cost, with 
a screen plate. The extra cost of screening is then nothing com- 
pared with about 6.6 cts. by hand, making the total saving on a 
ton of screened coal 14 cts. 

These figures are for a very small use of the loader — about 10 
minutes of actual operation. The ton costs for power, team and 
men are fixed, but the other costs decrease with increasing use. 
If 50 minutes' average actual operation for a day can be secured, 
then the costs per ton for loading and screening drops to 7.8 cts. 
and the saving per ton amounts to 18.8 cts. The annual saving 
for the smaller use (unscreened) amounts to $149 ($281 for 
screened coal) : for the larger use it rises to $1,240 for unscreened 
and $1,880 for screened coal. It is evident that the machine would 
pay for itself in a year in a medium-sized yard. The figures 
quoted are for handling coal, but they should be about the same 
for handling broken stone, etc. 

Suction Conveyors. Reginald Trautschold in Industrial Man- 
agement, Nov., 1916, gives a system of conveying ashes in large 
power plants, and to a somewhat lesser extent of handling fine coal, 
which has been developed to a high .state of perfection during the 
past ten years, using the rush of air to a storage tank in which a 
partial vacuum is maintained by a high speed exhaust fan. The 



1376 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

conveyor proper consists siinply of a section of heavy cast-iron 
pipe in which small intakes are located before each boiler (in ash 
conveyors) to which the ashes are simply fed and are sucked in 
by the inrushing- air through the open intake, the conveyor duct 
being connected directly to the exhaust storag-e tank. A some- 
what similar arrangement is also satisfactorily in use for handling 
fine coal to temporary storage tanks. From these tanks the coal 
is subsequently distributed to other storage by other systems of 
conveying machinery. 

This pneumatic system of handling materials possesses many 
desirable features. It has also several peculiarities which are 
of interest from an engineering standpoint. The system is an 
expensive one to install and requires a considerable supply of 
power for a relatively small capacity ; but on the other hand, it 
calls for practically no individual labor expense and is extremely 
convenient and cleanly, solving the ash problem, which is so 
often an annoyance in the manufacturing plant. 

As the material handled by a suction conveyor is carried in a 
state of suspension, the capacity of the systein is not high. A 
4-in. conveyor (diam. of pipe, or conveyor duct) carries only 
about 2% tons of ashes per hr., while the largest size employed, 
the 12-in. conveyor, only about 23% tons per hr. 

The capacities of standard suction conveyors of the different 
sizes when handling fine coal or ashes are given in Table VII. 
When handling other material the capacity of the installation can 
be readily ascertained by the general formula 

W — 0.0385 k d2. where 

W = Capacity of the conveyor in tons per hr. 

d -— Diam. of conveyor duct in ins. 

k = Weight of material handled in lbs. per cu. ft. 

In the consumption of power, suction conveyors present one 
of their distinct peculiarities ; practically, the length of the con- 
veyor (the conveyor duct) has no appreciable effect upon the con- 
sumption, other than a slight increase due to greater leakage 
through the intakes, leakage which can be controlled to a great 
extent. This peculiarity is due to the fact that after a certain 
degree of vacuum has been created throughout the system, no 
more power is required to maintain such a vacuum in a long 
conveyor than in a considerably shorter one. The leakage through 
intakes which are not tightly closed tends to destroy the vacuum, 
but such leakage, even in a long conveyor with a number of in- 
takes, is slight compared to the inrush of air through the open 
intakes through which the conveyor is fed. The long conveyor 
requires a somewhat longer time in which to create the required 
degree of vacuum than is required by a shorter conveyor, but the 
volumetric contents of the conveyor duct per unit length is small 
compared to the contents of the exhausted storage tank. Quite 
an appreciable increase in the length of the conveyor, therefore, 
has very little effect upon the time required to secure the state 
of vacuum necessary for the successful operation of the system. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1377 

Another peculiarity of the suction conveyor is that the char- 
acter of the load has no appreciable effect upon the consumption 
of power. The degree of vacuum maintained is the important 
thing : the weight of material handled in no way affects the power 
consumption. 

In a 10-in. conveyor it takes just as much power to handle about 
17 tons of ashes as it does to .handle about 23 tons of fine coal 
per hour. 

TABLE VII. CAPACITIES, POWER REQUIREMENTS, AND 
COSTS OF STANDARD SUCTION CONVEYORS 





Capacities 


Average h.p. 


Approxi- 
mate aver- 


Diameters 


c — in tons 


1 per hr. — ^ 


required for 


age cost in 


in ins. 


Ashes 


Fine coal 


exhaust fan 


dollars 


4 


2.5 


3.7 


9 


2,300 


6 


6.0 


8.3 


20 


5,200 


8 


10.3 


14.8 


35 


9,300 


10 


17.0 


23.1 


55 


14,500 


12 


23.5 


32.3 


80 


21,000 



Table VII gives the average power requirements of standard 
suction conveyors when handling any kind of material such as 
may be successfully conveyed by such apparatus. A 12 -in. suc- 
tion conveyor requires a supply of about 80 h.p. to maintain the 
required degree of vacuum and such a conveyor would have a 
capacity when handling ashes of only about 23.5 tons per hr., or 
require nearly 3.5 h.p. for each tone of ashes carried. 

By far the most expensive item of equipment for a suction con- 
veyor is that represented by the powerful exhaust fan required. 
The storage tank, with its system of water spray for quenching 
hot ashes, etc., is also an expensive item and just as costly for 
a short conveyor as it is for a long one. The conveyor duct is 
comparatively inexpensive, so that the average cost of a complete 
installation is little affected by the length of the system. Further- 
more, the system is still relatively new, so that the average costs 
may be considered as practically independent of the length of the 
system and as governed almost entirely by the size of the con- 
veyor (the diam. of the conveyor duct). 

Table VI t gives the average cost of complete suction conveyor 
installations of ordinary sizes. The systems are expensive, but 
their convenience and cleanliness do much to compensate for their 
high initial cost. 

Practically no additional labor charge is contracted In the opera- 
tion of a suction conveyor. In fact, the duties of the boiler men 
are reduced rather than increased by such a system for handling 
ashes. No labor charge need therefore be made against the system 
when employed for handling ashes ; nor, for that matter, when fine 
coal is handled by the conveyor. In the matter of incidental sup- 
plies also, little expense is contracted. The bearings of the ex- 
haust fan, etc., have to be lubricated; there is some expense en- 
tailed in the supply of quenching water for the hot ashes, and 



1378 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

there are the usual incidental supplies required in keeping the 
fan and other mechanically operated parts in proper condition, 
but that is about the extent of the legitimate expense for supplies 
— amounting in all to about 1 ct. per h.p.-hr. 

Suction conveyors promise to be long lived if properly cared for. 
The chief item of depreciation is represented by the expense con- 
tracted for new elbows at points . where the direction of the con- 
veyor duct changes. Such elbows, or their back wearing blocks, 
wear out rapidly on account of the destructive abrasive action of 
the rapidly moving load carried in suspension and forcibly pro- 
jected against any surface deflecting a direct course. The ex- 
haust tanks in suction conveyors handling ashes deteriorate through 
the corrosive action of wet ashes, but except for these localized 
points of heavy deterioration a suction conveyor well withstands 
wear and tear. A conservative depreciation charge, one that is 
perforce arbitrarily chosen on account of the meagreness of re- 
liable data available, is 10% of the initial cost of the system per 
year. 

The system is subject to the usual fixed charges, consisting of 
interest on investment, insurance, taxes, etc., say 8.5% of the 
initial cost. 

Steam Jet Ash Conveyors. A system for handling ashes from 
the boiler grates that is even of more recent origin than the suc- 
tion conveyor consists of a conveyor duct, similar to that employed 
in the suction system of ash handling, leading to an elevated stor- 
age tank, but utilizing a steam jet taken from the boiler to create 
the rush of air through the conveyor duct for carrying the ashes, 
in place of the partial vacuum used in the suction system. The 
economy of this system is dependent upon the value of the steam 
utilized by the conveyor — the conveyor duct and the storage tank 
being comparatively inexpensive and adding no great burden of 
fixed charges to the installation. 

Steam Consumption and Capacity. Careful tests conducted in a 
plant equipped with this system of ash handling showed an aver- 
age steam consumption of about 265 lbs. per ton of ashes removed. 
At 20 cts. per 1,000 lbs. of steam, this would place the steam ex- 
pense of the system at about BVs cts. per ton of ashes handled. 
Adding a fixed burden of 25%, a conservative rate, would bring 
the net cost of handling ashes by the steam jet ash conveyor to 
about 6% cts. per ton — a figure which compares quite favorably 
with that contracted by the more complicated system. 

Operation of the Automatic or Gravity Railway consists in re- 
leasing a car with its load on a down grade on a trestle and stop- 
ping it by means of a counterweight of the counterbalance, which 
is so adjusted that it will allow the car to reach its destination 
over the bin or dump, where it is dumped by means of a tripping 
block. Then the momentum of the car having been spent, and its 
weight reduced, the counterweight falls back to its former position. 
In doing so the car is given suflficient momentum to carry it back to 
the point for receiving another load. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES. ELEVATORS 1379 

The ytandard types of car are built of one and two tons' capacity 
"With the ridge in the center so that all the material will discharge 
simultaneously and equally and without danger of overturning. 
The sides are fastened to each other so that one side cannot open 
unless the other' side opens equally at the same time. 

A plant in which an automatic railway effects important econo- 
mies is that of T. F. Quinlan, New York, described by A. E. 
Michel in Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912. Twenty- 
five thousand tons of coal are handled annually. The coal is 
hoisted by means of an electric hoist from the canal boats in i.^-ton 
tubs, on a mast and gaff, to an automatic railway car by which 
It is distributed in the yard. 

With the previous equipment, the coal was hoisted by horse 
power and trimmed into the stock pile. The old equipment cost 
$1,750, the new one $2,800. The unloading capacity with the old 
plant was 120 tons per day ; with the new machinery the capacity 
is 200 tons per day, an increase of 80 tons. 

The power is purchased by meter at 5 cts. per h.p.-hr., and costs 
less than 7 mills for each ton of coal hoisted and delivered to the 
car. 

The labor required to operate the new plant in taking the coal 
from the vessel to the stock pile, is as follows : Three shovelers 
are employed in the hold of the vessel, one man operates the elec- 
tric hoist, another dumps the coal into the car, weighs it, and at- 
tends to the automatic railway. 

The cost of handling to the stock pile, interest and depreciation 
included, was, with the old plant, 17% cts. per ton; with the new 
plant the cost is 7 % cts., the comparative operating costs being 
analyzed below. 

NEW PLANT 

Per 

Capacity 200 tons. day. 

3 shovelers. at $1.50 $ 4.50 

1 bolster, at $2 2.00 

1 man to dump, weigh and tend automatic car, at $1.50. . . . 1.50 

Electric power, oil, waste, etc 2.00 

Interest and taxes yearly, 10 per cent 2.24 

Depreciation, yearly, 1 per cent 2.24 

(Two last items based on a year of 125 days' work.) 

$14.48 
Daily cost per ton in stock pile 7 1^ cts. 

OLD PLANT 

Per 
Capacity 120 tons. day. 

2 shovelers, at $1.50 $ 3.00 

3 carts, horses and driver, at $3 9 00 

1 hoisting horse and driver, at $3 ■ 3.00 

2 trimmers, at $1.75 3.50 

Interest and taxes yearly, 10% 1-40 

Depreciation, yearly, 10% 1.40 

(Two last items based on a year of 125 days' work.) 

$21.30 
Daily cost per ton in stock pile 17% cts. 



1380 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

This difference of 10 1/^ cts. per ton on 25,000 tons maizes an ac- 
tual saving of $2,625 each year; thus every 13 months the cost of 
the new plant is saved in reduced pay roll. 

Comparative Cost and Value of First Quality and Second Quality 
Hemp Rope. To determine the relative value of first and second 
quality of Manila rope the following data were compiled by the 
Plymouth Cordage Company : 

1st quality 2d quality 

Length of rope in -coil 1,250 ft. 1,070 ft. 

Wt. of coil with lashings 97 lbs. 97 lbs. 

Wt. of lashings 1 lb. 3 lb. 

Assumed price i)er lb 12 cts. 9 cts. 

Comparative price per 100 ft 9 3 cts. 82 cts. 

Breaking strength 2,907 lbs. 1,450 lbs. 

Comparative value (estimated) 12 cts. 5% cts. 

The coils were accurately weighed and measured and a number 
of pieces of each were tested for strength upon a reliable testing 
machine, the above results being obtained from the various weights 
and measurements. 

The Life of a Wire Rope and the Effect of Oiling Thereon. Mr. 
W. D. Hardie in Engineering and Mining Journal, May 31, 1902, 
says that in some tests of greased and ungreased wire rope by 
Mr. Biffart two lengths of the same size and manufacture of rope 
were run over pulleys, the oiled lengths making 38,700 bends, as 
against 16,000 for the unoiled, before breaking. In other tests 
unoiled rope passed 74,000 times over a 24-in. pulley as against 
386.000 times for the oiled rope. This illustrates the value of 
lubricants in keeping down costs of rope service. 

Cost of Locomotive Cranes. 

15-ton, 8-wheel type, standard gauge revolving locomotive crane, 
with 46-ft. steel boom and cables for hoist. 

Crane shipped on own trucks. 
Cost of works $6,000 

15-ton, 4-wheel type, standard gauge revolving locomotive crane, 
with 38-ft. steel boom and cables for hoist. 
Cost_f. o. b. cars at work $4,850 

Equipment for above cranes. 

One 15-ton capacity swivel hook-block >. . . $ 50 

One 1 ^2 yd. clam-shell bucked 450 

Capacity, Cost, and Operation of Locomotive Cranes. Cranes 
are built in sizes ranging from 3 to 60 tons capacity ; the lightest 
ones being used chiefly around industrial plants and the larger 
bnes for special purposes, such as bridge erection, etc. The best 
all-around crane for maintenance of way work is the 8-Avheel crane 
of 20 to 30 tons capacity. Such a crane will cost from $7,000 to 
$8,000, The cost of operation depends on the number of days 
worked, the kind of work, etc., it being evident that a crane loading 
ballast will require more repairs than one doing light work in a 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1381 

storage yard. However, the average cost of operation will be 
about as follows: 

Interest $ 2.00 

Depreciation 2.00 

Repairs 2,00 

Fuel 2.50 

Supplies 0.50 

Labor 6.00 



Total $15.00 

This is somewhat higher than is usually claimed, but it is prob- 
ably a fair estimate. Where fuel is cheap and wages low, it may 
be reduced somewhat but it is usual to underestimate such items 
as depreciation and repairs. Depreciation and repairs have been 
figured on the basis of a crane being kept in service 20 years, but 
that in the meantime it will have been completely rebuilt once. 
The daily rate is based on using the crane 200 full days during the 
year. 

What a crane will earn depends upon the class of work it is 
doing, and the amount saved depends upon the method superseded. 
For instance, a crane will not switch cheaper than a switch engine, 
it will not excavate or handle material cheaper than a good stiff- 
leg derrick, it will not drive piles cheaper than a good piledriyer, 
or compete with any other good machine designed for special 
purposes. However, when its adaptability is taken into considera- 
tion, the fact that it may displace several machines (on account 
of being able to command a large territory) makes its value 
evident. 

It is when the ' use of a crane is compared with manual labor 
that its great saving is shown. Figures have been obtained from 
a large number of sources and while they show considerable varia- 
tion in general it may be claimed that a crane will save, as against 
hand work, as follows : 

Saving, 
per day 

Handling scrap and other material with a magnet $40 

Handling coal and other material with a clam shell bucket.. 40 

Handling lumber and timber 30 

On general construction wori< including switching 40 

From these figures it will appear that a crane may pay for itself 
in a year's time. 

A few comparative costs, selected at random, follow: 

Material handled By hand. With crane, 

cts. cts. 

»crap, ton 0.20 to 0.25 0.02 to 0.06 

Coal, ton See note 0.05 to 0.10 

Timber, M. ft 0.40 to 0.50 0.12 to 0.20 

Lumber, M. ft 0.40 to 50 0.25 to 0.35 

Piling, lin. ft 0.004 0.002 

Cast ir5n pipe (loading), cwt 0.032 0.016 

Cast iron pipe (unloading), cwt 0.021 0.012 

Note: The cost of handling coal is not given, as coal handled in 
any great quantity by hand generally has some labor-saving device, 
such as elevated tracks, etc. 



1382 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The saving in money is not the only saving that can be credited 
to the crane, as the liability of personal injuries is much less where 
heavy material is handled by mechanical means. 

A few typical examples of crane work follow : 

A large locomotive boiler weighing 25 tons has been picked out 
of a river bed, hoisted 60 ft. and loaded on a car in 25 minutes. 
By hand it would have taken two or three days and in this case 
a work train would have been necessary to handle the car. 

A stilf-leg derrick has been set up alongside a bridge and put 
into use in three hours. Without a crane it would take all day 
to unload and place the engine and derrick ready for setting up. 

A tower 100 ft. high has been set up with a temporary boom 
extension in less time than would have been required to rig a 
gin-pole to do the erection. 

At the Panama-Pacific Exposition there are a large number 
of statues ornamenting the buildings. These were placed very 
cheaply with a locomotive crane, the boom of which had been 
extended to over 100 ft. This enabled the crane to reach prac- 
tically all locations, and the statues were set up quickly and with- 
out damage. To have rigged poles to handle each one would 
have taken a great deal more time and would have cost much 
more. 

These examples might be continued indefinitely, but others will 
readily suggest themselves to the practical man. In general, how- 
ever, it may be claimed that a crane will do hoisting where tracks 
are available in less time than it will take to rig up any other 
device. 

The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. has a number of self- 
propelled locomotive cranes ranging from 5 to 15 tons capacity, 
the latter size being mo.st generally employed. The first cost of 
such a crane is from $6,500 to $7,500. The following data give 
the range of the cost per day : 

Interest $1.08 to $ 1.37 

Depreciation 1.08 to 1.80 

Repairs 0.26 to 1.00 

Fuel 0.65 to 0.83 

Supplies 0.12 to 0.15 

Labor 4.40 to 5.85 

Total $7.59 to $11.00 



These figures are gathered from different localities with varying 
labor scales and costs of fuel and for cranes employed on different 
classes of work. The labor item only covers the men actually 
operating the crane and not the crew needed incidentally in hand- 
ling material or the cost of a night watchman, which would be 
necessary in a majority of cases. 

The general storekeeper in the Milwaukee shops of this com- 
pany uses a locomotive crane with a magnet almost exclusively 
for handling scrap, and gives the total cost per day of operating 
it as $9.10. He states that he is able to accomplish an amount 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1383 

of work with the crane equivalent to what would require from 
$50 to $60 by hand labor. 

Locomotive cranes are used at the company's two principal 
bridge yards, which serve as distributing points for bridge ma- 
terial on the eastern lines and also in handling bridge material on 
track elevation work in Chicago and Milwaukee. At Tomah, Wis., 
the cost of operating a locomotive crane unloading and handling 
piles and bridge timber, including four laborers, which are all that' 
are required in addition to the men on the crane, is $13.45 per 
10-hour day. The cost of an ordinary yard crew is $14.25 per 
day. and a locomotive crane is able to accomplish the work of 
two yard crews. 

The following are some comparisons of the cost of handling by 
hand and by crane : 

By locomotive 
By hand crane 

Timber $0.42 per M. $0.12 per M. 

Reinforcing steel 0.24 per ton 0.11 per ton 

Piling 0.004 per ft. 0.002 per ft. 

The cost of operating a 10-ton crane, estimated on a basis of 
300 working days per year, is itemized as follows: 

Coal, 875 lbs. at $7 $3.17 

Valve oil 0.08 

Black oil 0.01 

Hard oil 0.01 

Crude oil 0.01 

Cotton waste 0.01 

Boiler washing 0.22 

General repairs 0.33 

Heating crane shed 0.23 

Interest on investment, 5 per cent." 1.01 

Depreciation, 7 per cent 1.41 

Total $6.49 

The above data do not include labor, concerning which the fol- 
lowing statement was made : 

A saving of 50% in the cost of labor is made by using a crane for 
handling heavy timber, piling and other heavy materials. A sav- 
ing of 50% of switching service is made by using a locomotive crane. 

By the use of such a crane a saving of approximately $15 per 
day is made over and above the expenses of upkeep, interest on in- 
vestment, depreciation, etc. 

Mr. Eggleston of the Erie R. R. states that one of their ordinary 
cranes complete cost $13,300. Interest, depreciation, repairs, fuel 
and supplies cost per year approximately $3,650 (with an average 
of 300 working days). He also states that a crane with a magnet 
will handle as much scrap in a day as 50 laborers ; as much timber, 
piling, etc., as 15 laborers, and as much miscellaneous bridge and 
building material as 10 laborers. It is invaluable in the placing of 
structures and structural material. 

The above machine weighs 170,000 lbs. It has a piledriver at- 
tachment and can operate a drag scraper or a clam shell. Each 



1384 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

movement is independent of all others. In turning the maximum 
speed is three revolutions per minute, while in propelling on 
straight and level track the speed is 300 ft. per minute. It is 
capable of handling, under same conditions, 20 loaded cars. 

Equipped with a No. 2 " Arnott " steam hammer the crane can 
drive piles 34 ft. from center of track at the rate of 130 blows per 
min. Two tons of coal and 2,000 gals, water will operate it con- 
tinuously for 10 hours. It requires 2 men to operate, and 6 men 
will change from boom to piledriver in 3 hours, and the reverse 
in about 4 hours. 

Cost of Handling Lumber in a Railway Shop by a Locomotive 
Crane Compared with Hand Work (Engineering and Contract- 
ing. July 27, 1910) as given by J. F. Slaughter in a paper before 
the Railway Storekeepers' Association. The following comparisons 
were presented : 

First, in unloading and piling lumber from open cars, Mr. 
Slaughter finds it costs $6 per car to handle back and forth and 
properly to assort them on ways of their respective lengths. This 
same work can be done with a crane for $1.40 per car, or a saving 
of $4.60. 

Car and engine bolsters cost to handle by hand $5 per carload 
of seventy-five ; these can be handled by locomotive crane for 75 
cts., or a saving of $4.25. 

One hundred 414 by 8 axles — by hand $5.50, by crane $1.50, 
saving of $4. Mounted wheels to axles — by hand 75 cts. per car, 
by crane 17 cts., saving 58 cts. 

He also found in handling scrap that the cost by hand for an 
average of 100 cars is $7 per car; with the crane it is $2.83, or a 
difference of $4.37 in favor of the latter. 

Mechanical Handling in Storage Yards. There is a general 
tendency to equip yards with labor-saving devices, chief among 
which are the various types of cranes in use for piling, hauling and 
storing bulky materials. There are 4 types of cranes used for 
this purpose, described by R. C. Cram in Electric Railway Journal, 
Dec. 23, 1916, viz., stiff-leg derricks, guy derricks, jib cranes and 
gantry cranes. The stiff-leg type is the one in most general use, 
and one or more of these will be found almost indispensable in 
yards of all but the smallest roads, as the operation is simple, 
the range of use greater and the cost nominal in proportion to its 
serviceability. 

A derrick with a capacity of 10 tons can be made and erected 
complete without motors for about $500. This includes labor and 
all fittings. This is a stiff-leg derrick located in a moderate- 
sized yard, the Summerfield yard of the Connecticut Company at 
Bridgeport, Conn. It is operated by means of a motor car, hence 
no other hoisting machinery is required with the derrick itself. 
The use of the motor car obviates the necessity for the purchase 
and maintenance of hoisting apparatus. 

A 15-ton. wooden stiff-leg derrick with iron fittings is said to 
have cost as follows in 1913: Lumber, $256.23; iron, $213.52; 
paint, $3, and labor $35.25, a total of $508. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1385 

For yard use only it is probable that a derrick car of the boom- 
crane type has the greatest range of use, while for combined yard 
and road use the jib-crane type will be found best. The one 
particular advantage of the latter in road work is the non-inter- 
ference with overhead work. Both types are, of course, designed 
for electrical operation. These equipments cost from $6,000 to 
$7,000 complete, ready to run. 

From Table VIII it is evident that the crane has saved more 
than $2,200 per year, and therefore paid for itself in a little more 
than 3 years. A crane of the boom type has been found to save 
its cost in 1 year as compared with manual labor. 

TABLE VIII. SAVING EFFECTED IN FOUR YEARS BY USE 

OF 3-TON PILLAR CRANE CAR ON ELECTRIC 

RAILWAY SYSTEM 

Cost of handling 

Without With Total 

Number of tons handled crane crane saving 

4000 tons miscellaneous $1.00 $0.25 $3,000 

3324 tons load on cars 75 .20 1.828 

3324 tons to yard 1.00 .25 2.493 

6340 tons unloaded . . .- 50 .20 1.902 

6340 tons to job 75 .25 3.170 

$12,393 
Cost of crane car, ready to run. . . .$7,000 

Depreciation, 5%, 4 years 1,*400 

Interest, 5%. 4 years 1,400 

Upkeep, 2y2%, 4 years 700 

$3,500 

Net saving 4 years, 1 car $8,893 

In conjunction with the use of cranes in yards there is a device 
In use for handling ties with the crane at the Sixty-third Street 
dock of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit system which reduced the cost 
of handling from 1 ct. to 3 mills per tie, incidentally reducing the 
handling force from a crew of 9 men and 1 foreman to 2 men 
and a crane operator. There has al.so been a great reduction in 
accidents and the ties may be piled much higher, thus saving 
ground space. The cost of these tie-bales is between $50 and 
$60 each. 

Another saving effected through the use of machinery has been 
made in the handling of granite paving blocks. It was found 
that handling the blocks entirely by hand cost 22 cts. per ton, 
which has been reduced to 7 cts. per ton with the aid of machinery. 

Installation and Operating Costs of Cranes. Coal received in 
barges is unloaded most economically by a mast-and-gaff rig, or 
some form of hoisting tower, the former when the capacity re- 
quired is small and the latter when a heavy tonnage has to be 
handled. 

Fig. 41 depicts a typical layout of a mast-and-gaff rig for un- 
loading coal barges at a plant of moderate size described by 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Reginald Trautschold in Engineering Magazine, July, 1916. The 
coal is raised from the barge by an ordinary steam-operated mast- 
and-gaff rig equipped with a clamshell bucket, and is discharged 
into an elevated hopper which feeds the automatic dump cars of 
a gravity railway about 500 ft. long. The coal is stored in piles 
along the path of the railway from which it is reclaimed as re- 
quired for the power house. Such an installation has a handling 
capacity of about 50 tons per hr. and if operated a reasonable num- 
ber of days per year will unload barges and store the coal for 
a total cost of less than 4 cts. per ton. This cost is calculated as 
follows: At 50 tons per hr., in an average yearly operating period 



Aufomafic Railwau 
SOOFt.Long 



Mastand'Oaff 
Riq 




Elevation ,'j 
deceiving Hoppei'. 



/Aufomafic 
Railway 

MasfandOaff-'-y 
Rig n 



Plan 



A 

\ 



Coat 
Barge 



Fig. 41. Mast-and-gaff rig and automatic railway. 



of six months, equivalent to 160 ten-hour shifts, there will be 
handled 80,000 tons. The unloading equipment cost $6,000. Fixed 
charges on this at 10% are $600, equivalent to 0.75 cts. per ton. 
The operating charges amount to 2.5 cts. per ton. The storing 
equipment cost $2,000 ; calculated similarly, the fixed charges on 
this are 0.25 cts. per ton, while the operating charges are 0.42 
cts. The total of these four items is 3.92 cts., the total cost per 
ton of handling. 

Fig. 42 illustrates an installation of considerably greater capacity, 
which will unload barges more cheaply and convey the coal nearly 
three times as far to storage. Three traveling hoisting towers, 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1387 

steam operated, are mounted upon an elevated trestle for unloading 
the barges and transferring the coal to a system of industrial cars, 
which convey it to the vicinity of the power house. The cars dis- 
charge to other conveying equipment serving the plant, or the 
coal may be stored in piles along the elevated trestle upon which 
the cars run. The average cost of operating this system, based on 
handling 1,200.000 tons of coal per year, that is 750 tons per hr. 
for 160 ten-hr. days, is less than 3 cts. per ton. The figures used 
to derive this result are a first cost for the unloading equipment 



2 Traveling Towers. Ca pacify. 
2 SO Tons per Hr per Tower 

/O Tor? Automatic 
Electric Car • . 



Traveling RecJaiminq 

Tower- Capacity. 

SCO Tons per Hr 




jffoisting Towers 
[2S0 Tons per Hr 



Plan 

Figs. 42 and 43. 

Fig. 42. Traveling hoisting towers, steam operated, with car trestle. 

Fig. 43. Traveling hoisting towers with traveling bridge and 

reclaiming tower. 

of $160,000, and an unloading operating charge of 0,7 cts. per ton; 
a first cost for the conveying .equipment of $85,000 and a con- 
veying operating charge of 0.25 cts. per ton, the total handling 
cost per ton being 2.91 cts. 

A more elaborate arrangement of equipment of somewhat less 
capacity is shown in Fig. 43. Two hoisting towers mounted on an 
elevated trestle unload the barges and load 10-ton automatic 




HIOH 



MEDIUM 
COMPARATIVE HOISTING SPEEDS 



LOW 



Fig". 44. Lifting capacity of standard overhead electric cranes, 
at high, medium, and low speeds. 



1388 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1389 

electric cars ; the cars discharge their load along a traveling 
stocking bridge or directly to other cars at the further end of the 
bridge. These cars convey the coal to the power house. The 
coal distributed to storage by the traveling bridge is reclaimed by 
a hoisting tower mounted on the bridge and traveling over it. 
The capacity of this latter tower is sufficient to handle all the 
coal that can be unloaded by the two towers on the water front, 
the capacity of the system, both for storing and reclaiming the 
coal, being 500 tons per hr. The average net cost of handling 
coal to and from storage is about 6^^ cts. per ton, a part of which 
can be saved by purchasing coal during depressed markets, since 
the storage capacity of the plant is large. The first cost of this 
installation is $100,000 for the unloading equipment. $105,000 for 
the conveying equipment and $160,000 for the reclaiming equip- 
ment. The operating charges for unloading, conveying, and re- 
claiming are respectively, 0.7 ct., 0.25 ct. and 1.10 cts. The sub- 
aqueous storage virtually doubles the storage capacity without 
detriment to the coal ; in fact, under-water storage is frequently 
to be recommended for soft coals. 

Overhead cranes are customarily rated according to their lifting 
capacity, their chief task, but this is sometimes misleading, since 
the question of speed of hoist bears as much relation to the ca- 
pacity of a crane as does the weight it is capable of lifting. The 
lifting capacity is at the maximum, at the minimum hoisting speed 
and decreases directly as the hoisting speed increases. This fre- 
quently governs the selection of a crane, for it is seldom that a 
crane is called upon to handle its capacity each trip. Most trips 
are made without a full load, permitting, or rather necessitating, a 
corresponding increase in speed in order to realize the true economic 
value of the crane. Customarily an electric crane is equipped with 
three fixed .speeds, low, medium, and high. At low speed, the crane 
is capable of handling its rated load, while at higher speeds the 
normal load of the crane is reduced. Fig, 4 shows the relationship 
between the lifting capacity of usual standard sizes of overhead 
cranes and their three respective .speeds. An ordinary 30-ton 
crane at low .si)eed. for instance, can handle within 5 tons of the 
capacity of an ordinary 60-ton crane when o])erated on middle 
speed. 

The price of a particular crane built by a certain manufacturer 
may be taken as unity and the price of his other cranes expres.sed 
in proportional amounts. The prices of all manufacturers do not, 
of course, agree, nor are all cranes of the same capacity and span 
built by any one manufacturer equally costly, but the comparative 
costs for similar cranes for similar .service should not differ to 
any great extent. Presented in graphic form such a comparative 
cost price list is given in Fig. 45. the basis of comparison being 
the cost of a medium-speed, 5'-ton crane of 25-ft. span, arbitrarily 
taken as unity. 

At the present time, owing to the high price of materials and of 
labor, a 5-ton, medium-speed, overhead electric crane of 25-ft. 
span would cost in the neighborhood of $4,250, so that (from 



1390 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Fig-. 45) a 30-ton crane of the type considered in the example in 
the selection of motors would cost 2.56 X $4,250 = $11,000. Should 
the cost of the 5 -ton crane be but $3,500, a fair figure during normal 




5 10 15 20 25 



75 



40 50 60 
SPAN- FEET 

Fig 45 Comparative prices of standard overhead electric cranes 
based on the cost of a 5-ton medium speed crane as the unit. 

times, the average cost of the 30-ton crane would be about $9,350. 

Depreciation of overhead electric cranes is usually figured at 

5%, a safe figure, since there are many, installations of well cared 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1391 

for cranes which have been in more or less constant operation for 
15 or 20 years, and which are apparently in as good shape as 
the day they were installed. Repairs should not average more 
than 2% per year at the outside ; interest on investment, insurance 
and taxes at the customary rates would bring the total charge 
to 15.5% and the fixed charges per day on a 30 -ton crane costing 
$11,000 would be $5.68, figuring 300 working days per year. 

Almost any overhead electric crane found in a manufacturing 
plant can be operated by one man with some occasional slight 
service from the regular working force of the plant. The crane- 
man would command a wage of about 35 cts. per hr., and in the 
efficiently managed plant his time would be chargeable against 
the crane while it was in actual operation only. The assistance 
rendered by other workmen would not entail an expense of more 
than 15 cts. per hr, on the average, so that a very generous labor 
charge for the crane would be 50 cts. per hr., this charge applying 
with equal fairness to almost any overhead electric crane found 
in a manufacturing plant. The expense for oil, waste and other 
incidental supplies, together with the expense of occasional careful 
overhauling and cleaning, may be taken as varying directly with 
the total power requirements of the crane. A conservative rate 
would be 0.1 ct. per motor h.p.-hr. The average consumption of 
electricity including that required for running the crane without 
load as well as when productively operated is, in kw. per hr., 
usually about one-half the total power requirements of the crane 
expressed in horsepower. 

The average net cost per day for operating a 30 -ton, 60 -ft, span, 
medium-speed, overhead electric crane, assuming an average daily 
operation of 5 hrs. on 300 days per year, would be about $13.92, 
current being valued at 2.5 cts. per kw. This is arrived at as 
follows : 

Cost of crane. $11,000. (Fig. 46, $4,250 base.) Motor horsepowers: 

Hoisting 35] 

Trolley 10 [^ (previously derived) 

Bridge 40 J 

Total 85 h.p. 



I 



Fixed charges per day : 
Operating charges per day : 

11,000 X 0.155 

= $ 5.68 

300 
Labor, 0.50 X 5 = 2.50 

Supplies, 0.001 X 85 X 5 = .43 

Current, 0.5 X 85 X 0.025 X 5 = 5.31 

Net cost per day $13.92 



An average of ten trips per hour with a mean load of 20 tons, 
1,000 tons handled per day, would place the net cost of employing 
the crane for the work at less than 1.5 cts. per ton handled. 

Overhead electric cranes are frequently employed for outdoor 
service, such as unloading coal cars and carrying the coal to ele- 



1392 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

vated hoppers feeding boilers or coal bunkers. A typical installa- 
tion of this character would be one employing a 5 -ton crane of 
50-ft. span mounted on trestles which would necessitate a 50 -ft. 
lift of loaded bucket and a mean bridge travel of 200 ft. between 
the coal car and the receiving hopper. The bucket employed would 
probably be of the clamshell type, of 1^ cu. yds. capacity, capable 
of picking up an average load of about a ton. The bucket and its 
contents would place a load on the crane of somewhat more than 
three tons, so that the hoisting speed of the crane could be higher 
than if it were called upon to handle its full load of five tons. For 
a medium-speed standard crane, the economic speed would be 
about 58 feet per minute. 

Elevating the bucket with its load of coal to a position in which 
it could discharge to the receiving hopper would consume nearly 
a minute, during which time the bridge travel and any necessary 
trolley travel could take place, and although the empty bucket 
could be dropped more rapidly, the coal handling capacity of the 
installation would not average more than 40 tons per hr. Em- 
ploying the crane to handle coal 200 eight-hour days per year, 
equivalent to 64,000 tons of coal per year, would result in a net 
cost of operation per ton handled of less than 4 cts., the supply 
of electricity being valued at 2.5 cts. per kw. This is worked 
out as follows : 

Cost of crane $5,100 (Fig. 46, $4,250 base.) 

Cost of bucket 500 

Total equipment. . .$5,600 
Hoisting speed, 58 ft. per min. 
Hoisting speed at full load, 45 ft. per min. 
Trolley .speed, 150 ft. per min. (arbitrary) 
Bridge speed, 400 ft. per min. (arbitrary) 
Coal handled per year; 40 X 8 X 200 = 64,000 tons. 

Motor horsepowers : 
5X 45 

Hoisting = 14.0 ; say 15 h.p. 

16 
5X 150 

Trolley = 1.88 ; say 2 h.p. 

400 
(5 + 0.03 X 50) 400 

Bridge = 11.06 h.p. ; say 15 h.p. 

235 

Total , 32 h.p. 

Fixed charges per year: 

$5,600X0.155= $ 868.00 

Operating charges per year : 
Labor : 

0.50 X 8 X 200 = $800.00 

Supplies : 

0.001X32X8X200= 51.20 

Current : 

0.5X32X0.025X8X200= 640.00 

Total $1,491.20 

Total net operating cost per year $2,359.20 

(Net operating cost per ton) $ 0.0369 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1393 

Similar analyses of the net operating costs of overhead electric 
cranes can easily be made for any installation in which the average 
amount of work to be performed by the crane and the cost of 
power are known. Failure to know the exact cost of the crane 
itself does not prevent a conservatively accurate estimate of the 
net cost of its operation on known work, for quite an appreciable 
difference in price has really little effect upon the net cost of 
operation provided that the crane is in fairly frequent use, that it 
has been economically selected for the work required, and that the 
expense for power is not unusually low. 

Operating Speed, Cost and Capacity of Electric Traveling Cranes. 
In sleeting the equipment for crane service, the user should con- 
sider other things besides the mechanical construction, cost, speed, 
etc. One important consideration which should not be neglected 
is the amount of material which will have to be handled, the 
weight of which is considerably below the capacity of the crane. 
Thurston Kent in Industrial Engineering, April, 1914, states that 
time studies of machinery operations In a large shop have indi- 
cated that on a majority of the work done, approximately 15 mins. 
was lost on each large machine operation while waiting for the 
crane. 

The prospective user of a crane has a wide range of selection 
before him, both as regards size and construction of his equipment. 
The standards of the various makers are such as to permit him to 
choose a crane of almost any capacity he desires, from 1 ton up to 
150 tons. For instance one crane builder writes the author as 
follows : " The standard capacities of cranes built by us range 
from 1 ton to 100 tons in single trolley designs, and up to 150 
tons in double trolley designs. Their ratings are stepped up about 
as follows: 1, 2, 3, 5, TVs, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 tons. Above 30 tons 
the steps are about 10 tons apart." Another maker offers cranes 
varying by 5 tons up to 25 tons, and then by 10 ton steps up to 
100 tons. Almost any maker will build a special crane, to fit the 
conditions peculiar to a given installation if desired. 

Table IX, prepared by the Alliance Machine Co., Alliance, Ohio, 
is presented as a general guide to the dimensions of standard 
cranes. It must be borne in mind, however, that the figures in 
the table are not to be regarded as final, as local conditions will 
modify them considerably. For instance, a long-span crane of 
a given capacity will of necessity weigh more than a crane of 
the same capacity but of shorter span. This would make a dif- 
ference in the wheel loads, which in extreme cases, might neces- 
sitate a revision of the design of the trucks. The electrical equip- 
ment provided for the crane also will have more or less influence 
on its con.struction. 

Speed of Cranes. The speed of the crane is another point which 
deserves consideration. It has already been pointed out that the 
time lost by productive machines while waiting for the crane 
may be the cause of serious losses to the mill. In a letter to the 
author, the Northern Engineering Works, Detroit, gives the fol- 
lowing notes on crane speeds : A good average speed for moderate 



1394 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE IX. GENERAL DATA FOR STANDARD ELECTRIC 

TRAVELING CRANES. BASED ON 60 FT. SPAN, 25 FT. 

LIFT, WIRE ROPE HOIST 



Be, 


<x> 




O 








8 

'K 
it 




cn'3 o 




©•^ 








1° 


ceo 


Q^^ 


g.o 


^ '^ 




5 


5 ft. 8 ins. 


7 


9 ft. 


ins. 


20,000 


40,000 


$3,600 


10 


6 ft. 6 ins. 


8 


10 ft. 


ins. 


28,000 


53,000 


4,400 


15 


6 ft. 7 ins. 


8 


10 ft. 6 


ins. 


34,000 


56,000 


4,800 


20 


6 ft. 8 ins. 


8 


11 ft. 


ins. 


41,000 


65,000 


5,400 


25 


7 ft. 5 ins. 


10 


11 ft. 6 


ins. 


51,000 


77,000 


6,500 


40 


8 ft. 1 ins. 


11 


12 ft. 


ins. 


82.000 


95,000 


8,200 


50 


9 ft. 4 ins. 


12 


12 ft. 


ins. 


47,500* 


107,500 


10,500 



* Has eight track wheels, 

standard work for the main hoist is 10 ft, per min. full load. For 
some very rapid work, this is doubled. When direct current is 
used, this speed on light loads can be automatically speeded up 
2 to 2^^ times greater, but this is not done with alternating cur- 
rent. The average bridge speed for cab controlled cranes is 250 
to 300 ft. per min. full load, to 300 to 400 ft. light. The usual 
trolley speed is about 100 ft. per min. with full load on cab con- 
trolled cranes. If a crane is floor controlled, it is advisable to 
reduce the travel speeds to about half the above figures. 

The writer, in' 1909, compiled a series of notes on cranes. These 
notes included the following data on speeds, and also Table X 
herewith. The figures there given appear at this date to still 
hold true. The usual range of motor sizes is as follows : Hoist. 
15-50 h.p. ; trolley, 3-15 h.p. ; bridge, 15-50 h.p. The speeds at 
which the various motions are made range as follows, the figures 

TABLE X. STANDARD HOISTING AND TRAVELING 
SPEEDS OF ELECTRIC CRANES 

(Pawling & Harnischf eger. ) 



Capacity, tons 


Hoisting 


Bridge travel 


Capacity 


Speed aux. 


(2000 1b.) 


speed, ft. 


speed, ft. 


aux. hoist 


hoist, ft. 




per min. 


per min. 


tons 


per min. 


5 


25-100 


300-450 






10 


20-75 


300-450 


3 


30-75 




10-40 


250-350 


3 


50-125 


25 






10 
5 


25-60 
40-100 


40 


9-30 


250-350 


10 
5 


26-60 
40-100 


50 


8-30 


200-300 


10 


25-60 


75 


6-25 


200-250 


15 


20-50 


125 


5-15 


200-250 


25 


20-50 


150 


5-15 


200-250 


25 


20-50 



Trolley travel speed from 100-150 ft. per min. in all cases. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1395 

being ft. per min. : Hoist, 8-60 ; trolley traverse, 75-200 ; bridge 
travel, 200-600. These speeds are varied in the same capacity of 
crane to suit each particular installation. In general, the speed 
of the bridge in ft. per min. should not exceed (length of runway 
+ 100). If the runway is long and covered by more than one 
crane, the speed may be made equal to the average distance be- 
tween cranes + 100. Usually 300 ft. per min. is a good speed. 
For small cranes in special cases, the speeds may be increased, but 
for cranes of over 50 tons capacity the speed should be below 300 
ft. per min. unless the building is made especially strong to stand 
the strains incident to starting and stopping heavy cranes geared 
for high speeds. 

For purposes of comparison. Table XI. compiled by the Al- 
liance Machine Co., is also given. 

TABLE XI. STANDARD FULL LOAD SPEEDS OF 
STANDARD TRAVELING CRANES. 



(Alliance Machine Co.) 



Capacity tons 
2000 1b. 
5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
40 
50 



Hoist speed 
ft. per min. 

50 

25 

17 * 

12 Va 

10 

10 



Bridge speed 
ft. per min. 
400 
350 
350 
350 
300 
250 
250 



Trolley speed 
ft. per min. 
150 
125 
125 
125 
125 
100 
100 



TABLE XII 



, 1^ 

^^ 

Relay : 
D.c... 
A.c. . . 

Lifting 
D.c. . 
D.c. . 
A.c. . 
A.c. . 

Brake : 
D.c. . 
D.c. . 

Clutch : 
D.c . . 
D.c . . 






3Vt 
31/1 



5 
11 

14 



51/4 



61/2 

7 






21/8 
21/8 



81/2 

15 



«t-l 5X5 

rt-w ft 



2.9 
2.9 



72 
320 



82 
210 



o 
1-1 



8 1 

80 3 
10 Vs 

90 2V2 



be 
.S 



0.15 
0.10 



20 

7 

50 



160 
1260 



60 
400 



110-500 
" -550 



-220 



<^?^ 



1^1 



1^ 



15 0.39 



50 
210 



52 
115 



u 



$5.10 
6.95 



50 ... 6.40 

-500 210 ... 33.00 

-550 30 0.30 8.15 

- " 400 0.31 32.00 



21.00 
39.00 



19.00 
35.00 



1396 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Costs of Electromagnets. Due to the great variety in the de- 
signs, it is not possible to give unit costs of electromagnets. 
The subject of the most economical magnet design has been dis- 
cussed by Wikander (Trans. A. I. E. E., 1911, Vol. 30, p. 2019), 
but unfortunately the most economical design will usually be found 
not to be suitable for practical purposes, because it results in 
a magnet which is too long compared to its diameter, and which 
usually cannot be incorporated in the machine with which it is 
to be used. Therefore, magnets as they are found in practical 
application deviate greatly from the most economical design. Also 
for the same energy output (usually expressed as inch -pounds or 
foot-pounds) there is as much as a 1 to 3 variation, depending 
upon the service conditions as to speed of operation, stroke, etc., 
which they have to meet. Table XII, of costs, weights and 
dimensions of some typical electromagnets, is given merely as a 
range guide. 

Cost of Handling Locomotive Tires and Heavy Castings by a 
IVlagnet and Crane in a Locomotive Shop according to Mr. Mears 
in a paper before the Railway Storekeepers' Association printed 
in Engineering and Contracting, June 27, 1910, is represented by 
the following figures : 

Loading locomotive tires : . Per ton 

By hand $0.17 

By crane 08 

By crane and magnet 04 

Loading heavy castings : Per ton 

By hand Almost impossible 

By crane 20 

By crane and magnet . . .03 

The principal reason for the efficient work of the magnet in 
handling heavy materials is on account of the difficulty of ob- 
taining a good hold upon the heavy castings when they are handled 
by chains or hooks. 

A Specially Designed Traveling Crane for laying a 48-in. gas 
main on a trestle is described and illustrated in Engineering News, 
Jan. 22. 1914. Two 4 5 -lb. raijroad rails were laid across the caps 
of the trestle throughout its length on a 5-ft. 4-in. gauge. The 
pipe was hauled to one end of the trestle with teams and rolled 
by hand to the other end. where it was lifted and set in place 
with a traveling crane astride of the last set pipe. 

On the average, 29 pipe-lengths a day were laid with this 
device, using a force of 6 men and a foreman. The calking was 
done by the gas company with a calking machine, recently come 
into use. The joints are calked with lead wool, and no special 
expansion joints in the pipe line are provided. None of the lengths 
of pipe are set absolutely home in the bells, there being at least 
i/s-in. space 'left for expansion, which the nature of the lead-wool 
calking permits. 

An Electric Motor Truck Crane made by the General Electric 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1397 

Co. for use in shops and warehouses is described in Engineering 
News, Dec. 7, 1911, and the following data given: 

Five hundred castings aggregating 65,000 lbs. were unloaded 
from a gondola car in 5 hrs., giving an average of 1.2 lifts per 
min. A box car was loaded with 64 800-lb. bbls. of plumbago in 
25 mins., and 4 cars were loaded in 2i/^ hrs., the latter work in- 
cluding spotting the cars. This, averages 2 bbls. per min. hoisted 
nearly 5 ft. and swung well inside the car. 

Sixty 800-lb. bbls. of plumbago were moved 300 ft. in 1 hr., 1 
helper only being required. One hundred and fifty 300-lb. boxes 
of rubber were conveyed 75 ft. and loaded into a box car in 50 
mins., 3 boxes being slung together and a round trip made every 
min. In a store room, boxes of angle and flat iron weighing about 
1,000 lbs. each were carried 30 ft. and stacked in sorted and 
orderly piles at the rate of 40 boxes an hr. One-ton rocks were 




Fig. 46. Details of a specially designed travelling crane for 
placing 4 8 -in. gas main on a narrow pile trestle over a swamp. 



loaded onto trailers from a scattering pile at the rate of 24 an 
hr., being hoisted 2 ft. and carried about 20 ft. in the operation. 
Two 1,200-lb. water meters were lifted from a hole 6 ft. deep and 
carried to the shop bench 1,000 ft. away in 30 mins. 

The truck is not arranged to carry heavy loads itself, but is 
intended for use in towing trailers whenever the distance to be trav- 
eled is such that this method is preferable to that of transferring 
the material in small lots suspended from the crane hook. The 
limiting distance for economical work without trailers is put at 
about 400 ft., that is, where large quantities of freight are in- 
volved. The truck is designed for a high drawbar pull (2,000 
lbs. maximum), to suit it for trailer towing. This pull is about 
equal to that of a five-ton locomotive on rails, and is sufficient, it 
is claimed, to handle loads of from five to eight tons on trailers. 
On account of this high tractive force, the truck can be used for 



1398 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

spotting cars and may prove useful for giving assistance to over- 
loaded wagons or automobiles, 

A special form of trailer has been designed for use with this 
truck, having a capacity of 3 tons. The deck, 12 ft. by 4 ft.,* is 
at a height of 29 ins. above the ground. The wheels are 24 ins. 
in diam., with a 5-in. face and are mounted on roller bearings. 
A heavy towing tongue is provided with arrangements for easy 
coupling to the motor truck or to another trailer. It is claimed 
that the trailers follow truly in the track of the truck, so that no 
difRculy is found in towing a number of them even around ob- 
structions. 

Four trailers is the usual number in a train for long hauls, but 
this can be varied to suit the conditions. When there is a suffi- 
cient amount of work to be done to make it pay, time can be 
saved by using 3 trains of 1 to 4 cars each. One train is then 
being loaded and another unloaded, while the third, either empty 
or loaded, as the case may be, is on the way between. In this 
way, a maximum of 600 sq. ft. of loading deck can be kept working 
to its full capacity. 

Data of the truck's work with trailers are given as follows : 

Six hundred thousand pounds of cotton have been moved one-~ 
half mile in a day (10 hrs. ), taking 24 bales per load and making 
a round trip every twelve mins. This gives an average of two 
bales (600 lbs. each) per min. moved a distance of one-half mile. 
On a hurry order for cotton, 48 bales (12 tons) were delivered 
alongside the lighter within 25 mins. after the order was given. 
One truck using 3 trailer trains of 2 cars each has moved 1,000,000 
lbs. of small package freight (canned salmon) 600 ft. in 9 hrs. 

The following represents an average week's work at towing 
trailers in the Bush Terminal, New York, deduced from the logs 
of a number of these machines operating over a long period : 

Number of packages handled 7,570 

Average weight per package 230 lbs. 

Total weight handled (900 tons) . 1,720,000 lbs. 

Average distance packages were moved 900 ft. 

Per cent, of total time machine was working 80% 

Pacliages delivered per working minute 3 

Number of different jobs worked on 30 

Heaviest single load drawn 12 1/^ tons 

Cost of operator, interest, depreciation, power $24.00 

Cost of moving one package 900 ft % cts. 

Cost of moving one ton (9 packages) 900 ft 3 cts. 

Cost of Hoisting Water in Unwatering IViines. The removal of 
water from mines by hoisting in tanks is in the nature of a reversion 
to the methods of the ancients, but with the plants as now oper- 
ated, with the improvements and changes which experience has 
shown necessary, the method may be efficient and less costly than 
pumping. 

R. V. Norris in a paper before the Institute of Mining Engineers 
In 1904 describes fully all details of apparatus and their arrange- 
ment, including the following costs : 

The costs of the construction of two plants are given in Table 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1399 

XIII. The plants are at the William Penn Mine of the Susquehanna 
Coal Co. and Lytle Coal Co's shaft. The costs of the water hoist- 
ing plants are charged with their proper proportion of the total 
cost of the shaft-sinking, head frames, steam lines and boiler plant. 
The cost of the steam plant is omitted from the lower set of figures 
because it was available in one case only, and in that was based 
upon a division of cost among three other hoists. 

TABLE XIII. COST OF UNWATERING BY HOISTING 

William Penn Lytle 

water-hoist water-hoist 

Depth of shaft, ft 953 1,500 

Capacity of tanks, gals 1,400 2,600 

Size of engines, ins 32 by 48 30 by 60 

Diam. of drums, ft Straight 12 Cone 10 to 16 

Capacity of hoist, gal. per 24 hrs.. 2.100,000 3.750.000 

(280.000 cu. ft.) (500,000 cu. ft.) 

Best record, gals, per 24 hrs 2.291.040 3,772,600 

(307,000 cu. ft.) (505,500 cu. ft.) 
Cost : 

Sinking and timbering $20,673.81 $22,641.63 

Head frame 4,224.13 3,540.58 

Water-hoist engines, foundations 

and house 15,583.64 29,653.17 

Tanks and ropes 2,393.23 3,899.65 

Steam line 3,726.12 4,951.17 

Boiler plant 16,091.76 

$46,600.93 $80,777.96 

Cost, excluding shaft sinking and 

steam plant $22,201.00 $37,093.40 

Cost per J, 000 gal. daily capacity, 

excluding shaft and steam plant 10.57 9.87 

Cost per 1.000 cu. ft. daily capacity. 

excluding shaft and steam plant 88.08 82.25 

The rate at which the plants work is shown in Table XIV. The 
Lytle shaft during a strike was filled to a depth of 860 ft., the 
water, amounting to 274,083,500 gals., was hoisted out in 37 days 
and 4 hrs. Besides the regular water hoist, tanks were used in 
all of four coal compartments ; the plant then consisting of two 
pairs of 2,600-gal. tanks and one pair of 1,500-gal. tanks; the water 
hoisted by each was : 

TABLE XIV. RATE OF UNWATERING 

Average per 
day. gals. 

Water-hoist 2,977,753 

Large coal-hoist 2.803.142 

Small coal-hoist 1,431.819 



7,212,724 



During one month, 236,906,000 gals, were hoisted an average of 
740.6 ft., the boiler plant (12-150 h.p. return tubular boilers and 
one 500 h.p. Babcock and Wilcox boiler) w^as devoted exclusively 
to this work, it burned 4,122 tons of coal and used 6,206,100 gals. 



1400 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of water, which indicates an average evaporation of 5.55 lbs. per 
lb. of coal, and about 44,004,000 lbs. of steam at the engines. This 
gives a duty of 33,260,000 ft. -lbs. per 1,000 lbs. of dry steam; or, 
59.5 lbs. of steam for actual h.p.-hr. in water lifted, and 251 lbs. 
of steam for 1,000 gals, lifted 1,000 ft. 

The cost of steam during this month was : 

Labor % 934.62 

Water 496.49 

4,122 tons coal at $0.50 per ton 2,061.00 

$3,492.11 

Thus 44,004,000 lbs. of dry steam delivered at the engines cost 
$0.0794 per 1,000 lbs.; equivalent to $0.0198 per 1,000 gals, hoisted 
1,000 ft. vertically; or $0.00238 per 1,000,000 ft.-lbs. in water; 
$0.00472 per h.p.-hr. in water; cost steam only, per year, per boiler 
h.p. 24 hrs. per day for labor, supplies and repairs $8.57 ; fuel, 
$12.30; total, $20.87. 

From Oct. 30 to Dec. 5, 1902, the plant of the William Penn No. 
2 shaft, which was flooded to a depth of 250 ft., hoisted 112,468,080 
gals., using a pair of regular water hoist 32 by 48 in. engines, and 
a pair of 28 by 48 in. coal engines with 1,440 gal. and 1,320 gal. 
tanks, the record being given in Table XV. 

Total cost, exclusive of steam, was $987.83, or $0.0088 per 1,000 
gals, hoisted. 

The record for 3 years at the Luke Fiddler shaft is given in 
Table XV — engines 32 by 48 ins. with 1,450-gal. tanks. 

The plant was operated at only i/^ of its capacity ; at full capacity 
the cost is estimated to average about 2.5 cts. per 1,000 gals, for 
9 60 ft. vertical. 



TABLE XV. COST OF HOISTING AT THREE SHAFTS 

Fiddler Wm. Penn Lytle 

Plant 3 years 37 days 1 month 

Depth of shaft 960 ft. 953 ft. 1,500 ft. 

Quantity hoisted, gals. . .918,501.200 112.468,080 236.906,000 

Quantity hoisted, cu. ft. . 123,079.160 15,070,730 31,745,300 

Average height hoisted. . 960 ft. 727.8 ft. 740.6 ft. 
Cost of labor repairs and ' 

supplies per 1.000 gals. $0.0114 $0.0088 $0.0071 
Cost of steam per 1,000 

gals 0.0192 0.0146 0.0148 

Total cost per 1.000 gals. $0.0306 $0.0234 $0.0219 

Total cost per 1,000 cu. ft. 0.2295 0.1755 0.1643 
Estimated cost per 1,000 
gals, and 1,000 cu. ft., 

1,000 ft. vertical 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 

gals. cu. ft. gals. cu. ft. gals. cu. ft. 
Labor supplies and re- 
pairs for hoisting $0,012 $0,090 $0,009 $0,068 $0,008 $0.06 

Steam 0.020 0.150 0.020 0.150 0.020 0.15 

Total $0,032 $0,240 $0,029 $0,218 $0,028 $0.21 

Total cost per 1,000.000 

ft.-lbs. in water. .... . $0.0038 $0.0035 $0.0034 

Total cost per h.p. -year, 

24 hrs. per day in 

water $65.91 $60.71 $58.97 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS UOl 

Table XV also shows a summary of the operating costs of the 
three plants. 

This is about 69% of the average cost of pumping at the collieries 
of the Lykens Valley Coal Co., where it was $0.37 and $0.29 pei* 
1,000 cu. ft. 1,000 ft. vertical, and $98.11 and $81.47 per h.p.-year 
in water for 1901 and 1902. 

The Cost of Hoisting in Small Zinc Mines. George S^ Brooks in 
the Engineering and Mining Journal gives the following cost of 
plant and operation of 2 zinc mines in Wisconsin. Mine A waS 
equipped with cars and a cage, and Mine B had the 1,000'lb. tubs 
customary in that district. 

Equipment: ^^^^^ ^> 

Derrick and foundations, including cable and sheave. $ 400 

Engine housing 50 

7 X 10 Duplex geared hoisting engine 700 

5 mine cars 125 

1 cage 60 

Total $1,335 

Interest and depreciation : 

Interest on $1,335, 6% $ 80 

Depreciation on $1,335, 18% 240 

Total for 300 working days $ 320 

Equipment: (Mine B) 

Derrick inclosed, including cable and sheave $ 480 

7x7 Duplex geared hoisting engine 470 

5 tubs and trucks 110 

Total $1,060 

Interest and depreciation : 

Interest on $1,-060, 6% . $ 63 

Depreciation on $1,060, 18% 190 

Total for 300 working days $ 254 

At A the h£)ist is set up on the ground about 40 ft. back from 
the shaft, and the engine is of the horizontal type. At B the up- 
right 7 X 7-in. engine is stationed near the derrick top about 10 ft. 
below the sheave, and located so that the engineer may handle the 
throttle with one hand, while with the other he can attend to the 
dumping of the tubs. 

Operating Costs : 

The following operating co.sts are the result of monthly averages. 
In both cases, for the sake of comparison, the same charge is made 
per h.p. per hr., although in reality there was some 20% difference 
owing to the excessive line condensation at the B shaft. Neither 
schedule includes cost of administration. The approximate h.p. is 
computed from the following formula, to which an additional 0.25 
h.p. is added for friction and inertia : 

gross weight in lb. 

H.p. = X speed in feet per min. 

33,000 



1402 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It is given as follows: A — Mine run, 1,870 lbs.; cage, 400 lbs.; 
cable, 108 lbs. ; car, 300 lbs. ; total, 2,678 lbs. 
The hoisting speed per min. is 360 ft. Then 

2,678 

H.p. rr X 360 + 0.25 h.p. = 36 h.p. 

33,000 

The same calculation applied to the case at mine B gives mine 
run, 980 lbs.; tubs, 175 lbs.; cable, 102 lbs.; total, 1,257 lbs.; hoist- 
ing speed per min., 295 ft. 

1,257 

H.p. = X 295 + 0.25 h.p. = 14 h.p. 

33,000 

The actual hoisting performance per day of 9 hrs. at A is 120 
tons and at B 100 tons. With forcing, A has handled 600 cu. ft. 
per hr.. while at B 450 cu. ft. is about the best that can be done. 

Hoisting Expense, 9-hr. Shift: 

Mine A. 

One hoisting engineer $2.50 

One lander 2.25 

36 h.p. for 5 hr. at 1 ct. per h.p. per hr 1.80 

Interest and depreciation 1.06 

Repairs 0.70 

Total $8.31 

Ore hoisted 2590 cu. ft. 

Cost per cu. ft : $0.0032 

Cost per ton approximately = 0.06 

Mine B. 

One hoisting engineer $2.50 

14 h.p. for 5 hr. at 1 ct. per h.p. per hr 0.70 

Interest and depreciation 0.85 

Repairs 0.70 

Total $4.75 

Ore hoisted 2140 cu. ft. 

Cost per cu. ft $0.0022 

Cost per ton approximately 0.044 

Both of these cost accounts show what is possible when a steady 
output is made for a month. The average hoisting expense, month 
in and month out, has been a few cents above this. 

It appears from the comparative figures that the tub is con- 
siderably the better on hoisting alone, and until the workings be- 
come extended to such a distance from the shaft as to materially 
increase the tramming costs, it will show a smaller operating ex- 
pense in working flats. The initial investments in reality show only 
a difference of $275, which amount deserves little consideration in 
the matter of a suitable hoisting and tramming equipment. 

Cost of Operating a Mine Hoisting Plant. A hoisting plant in 
operation at the shaft of the Hecla mine had reached its capacity 
hoisting ore from the 300-ft. and the 600-ft. level. When, there- 



CONVE YORS, . HOISTS, . CRANES, . ELEVA TORS 1403 

fore, the 900-ft. level was opened it was necessary to install a 
new hoist or to remodel the old one. Electricity from a new plant 
at Spokane, Wash., made power available at $50 per h.p.-year as 
against $109 per h.p.-year for steam. It was decided to substitute 
for the engines a motor drive of sufficient capacity to operate from 
the 900-ft. level and ultimately to install an entirely new hoist. 
The description of this plant and the permanent plant which fol- 
lowed it 4 years later and the results of power consumption and 
cost are given by E. M. Murphy in a paper before the Transactions 
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers and abstracted in 
Engineering and Contracting, Oct., 1910. 

The motor-generator set of the permanent plant is self-contained, 
having a cast iron sub-base, four bearings and shaft ; the driving 
element consists of a 450-h.p., three-phase, 60-cycle wound secondary 
motor to operate between 2,000 and 2,300 volts. The generator is 
a 450-kw., 525-volt machine with commutation poles to permit its 
handling full load current at any voltage below maximum. A fly- 
wheel is mounted on the shaft. It is 7 ft. 9 ins. in diameter and 
weighs 29,000 lbs. The hoist motor is rated at 375 h.p. at 500 volts, 
60 revolutions per min., and weighs 51 tons. It is directly con- 
nected by a flange coupling to the reel-shaft which carries 1,600 ft. 
of % in. X 4^^ in. flat rope. The skips are 50 cu. ft capacity, 
weigh 3.500 lbs. The double-decked cages hang beneath the skips 
at all times and each cage weighs 2.400 lbs. 

Before entering into the cost of operation of the hoist, an ex- 
planation of the contract will show on what basis a settlement is 
made for power consumed by it. The contract runs for a period 
of five years and is based on a maximum demand as well as a 
kw.-hr. consumption. It will be noted that it penalizes a better 
combined power and load-factor than 61%. A power-factor of 10©% 
and a constant voltage of 2,300 volts is assumed in all the calcula- 
tions of maximum demand. In a contract calling for a maximum 
demand of 100 kws., a minimum sum of $335 ($3.35 per kw.) is 
paid each month ; this sum entitles the consumer to 43,550 kw.-hrs. 
(130 for each dollar). At the same time, the maximum of 100 
kws. must not be exceeded a.t any time during the month. In case 
more than 100 kws. is the maximum, the minimum bill is increased 
by $3.35 for each kw. in excess. For each dollar of this increase, 
the consumer is entitled to use 130 kw.-hrs. If the kw.-hrs. used 
exceed 43.550, the excess is paid for at the rate of $0.0112 per 
kw.-hr. On the basis of 43,550 kw.-hrs. per month at $335 each 
kw.-hr. costs $0.00769. This amounts to $50 per h.p. per year. 
The peak on the hoist never lasts 5 mins., so the power never costs 
more than $50 per h.p. 

As the Hecla mine has but one hoist, the handling of all timbers, 
waste, etc., as well as the shifts, mu.st be performed by it, in addition 
to the ore-hoisting. To give an idea of the work the hoist does. 
Table XVI was compiled for the period of time from Aug. 1, 1911, 
to Jan. 1, 1912: 

In order to determine the cost per ton for power used during 
actual hoisting, a series of tests was taken, with the following 



1404 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XVI. HOISTING PERFORMANCE 

ORB HOISTED 

600-ft. level 900-ft. level 1,200-ft. level 

Skips 2,241.0 9,968.0 9,961.0 

Tons 5.840.0 25,824.0 26,028,0 

Monthly average — 

Skips 448.2 1,993.6 1,992.2 

Tons 1,168.0 5,164.8 5,202.6 

CARS OF WASTE HANDLED 

1,200 to 600 Top to 600 Top to 300 

Cars 3,946.0 7,416.0 826.0 

Average 789.2 1,483.2 165.2 

Timbers, lagging 
Stulls Wedges and chute 

321,677 ft. b.m. 79 cars 475,140 ft. b.m. 

Average 64,335.4 15.8 95,028.0 

Power Consumed: 234,760 kw.-hra, average equals 46,952 kw.- 
hrs., equals $361 per month. Total cost for power for each ton of 
output equals $0.0313. 

results: From the 1,200-ft. level 32 skips (83 tons) were hoisted 
in 33 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption of 142, On the basis of 
$0.00769 per kw.-hr., the cost of hoisting the 83 tons was $1,092, 
or $0.0131 per ton. From the 900-ft. level 14 skips (36.4 tons) 
were hoisted in 11 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption of 50, and a 
cost of $0.3854, or $0.0l1fe per ton. From the 600-ft. level 14 skips 
(36.4 tons) were hoisted in 10 mins., with a kw.-hr. consumption 
of 40, and a cost of $0.3076, or $0.00845 per ton. 

To run the set light for 1 hr. requires 48 kw.-hrs. at a cost of 
$0.'S68. In service the set runs continuously during the 24 hrs., 
with the exception of a period of about 4 hrs. after midnight. After 
the power is cut off, the set will run for 1.25 hrs., unless it is 
slowed down by hoisting, or the band-brake on the flywheel is ap- 
plied. The hoist was guaranteed to maintain one-quarter output 
of the mine working unbalanced from the 2,400-ft. level (its ulti- 
mate depth). In order to test this feature, a load of 1,773 lbs. 
was added to compensate for the extra weight of cable to 2,400 
ft. This weight was obtained by placing a car with the required 
amount of ore in it on a cage deck. The car was allowed to remain 
on the cage during the entire time of hoisting. Unbalanced hoisting 
was maintained at the rate of 11 trips an hr. fi'om 900 ft. for 3 
hrs. All temperatures at the end of this time were well within the 
guarantees. In May, 1911, one of the clutch-arms broke, and the 
hoist operated unbalanced with entire satisfaction for a period of 
20 hrs., part of the hoisting being from the i,200-ft. level. 

The upkeep of the equipment for the 3 years and 8 months it 
has been in service has been extremely low. The hoist-motor has 
needed no repairs, while the exciter has had but one new set of 
brushes. The generator requires about one new set of brushes 
a year. The motor has been the only source of expense, 
and like trouble could occur to any motor. Three times it has 



CONVEYORS. HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1405 

suffered a grounded coil during a lightning storm. The winding 
is a 3-bank concentric winding, and replacement of coils is a tedi- 
ous affair. A new set of collector-rings was also put on this ma- 
chine. 

The hoist requires but 1 man per shift to operate it. Another 
advantage of the. hoist is its ability to operate for a short time, 
even though the power be accidentally interrupted. The running- 
lights in the hoist-room are all lighted from the exciter, which 
enables the oijerator to see avS long as hoisting can be continued. 
Without ore, as in handling men, the hoist is capable of making 
several trips after the jiower is shut off. This installation has 
the disadvantage of consuming power, even though the hoist motor 
is not in actual oiieration. This is more apparent than it would 
be if the hoist were' operating from greater depths, or handling 
greater tonnage. The effect greater depth has on the efficiency is 
shown from the tests. From the 600-ft, level, the cost per 1,000 
ft.-tons is $0,014, from 900 ft. it is $0.0116, and from 1,200 ft. it is 
$0.0109. The effect greater tonnage would have on the cost per 
ton of output is shown by the following : Assuming that the mine 
double its output, the kw.-hr. consumption per month would be in- 
creased by 17,231, at a cost of $132.59. The total cost for power 
for each ton of output would be lowered from $0.0313 to $0.0213. 

Comparison Between Electr'c and Steam Hoisting Systems and 
Between Dir6ct-Current and 3-Phase Systems for Hoisting in 
South African Mines. H. W. Clayden and S. E. T. Ewing in the 
Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers, 
Dec, 1916, also printed in Electrical World, April, 1917, compare 
the Ward-Leonard system and the 3-phase hoisting system with 
respect to the different requirements of mine hoisting, and reach 
the following conclusions : 

For shaft sinking both systems are equally effective on all points 
at approximately equal capital cost. 

For rock hoisting from one level with tail ropes the relative 
economy of the two systems depends on the frequency of hoisting ; 
the lower the frequency of hoisting the greater the gain to the 
alternating-current system, and conversely the higher the frequency 
the greater the gain to the Ward-Leonard system. The alternating- 
current system has the lower capital cost. The systems are of 
equal safety and ea.se of handling. 

For rock hoisting from one level without tail ropes the alter- 
nating-current system has lower capital cost, while the Ward- 
Leonard system has superior over-all economy and is easier to 
handle. 

For rock hoisting from several levels, for raising and lowering 
men, for lowering supplies, and for dead-slow hoisting the alter- 
nating-current system has lower capital cost, while the Ward- 
Leonard system has the superior over-all economy and is easier to 
handle. 

Comparative efficiency and cost figures are given from practice 
for three hoisting plants — a 5-ton Ward-Leonard hoist, a 5-ton 
3-phase hoi.st, and a 4-ton steam hoist at 3 different mines. The 



1406 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

h.p. is 500 for the Ward-Leonard hoist, 550 for the 3 -phase hoist 
and 800 for the steam hoist; the size of drums is 10 ft. by 3 ft. 
6 in., 10 ft. by 3 ft. 6 in., 9 ft. by 3 ft. 3 in. ; the maximum rope 
speed 2,000 ft., 1,500 ft, 1.500 ft. ; the capacity of the skip, 5, 5, 4 
tons; the maximum vertical depth of shaft 2,060 ft., 1,583 ft., 
1.323 ft.; the maximum length of shaft 3,902 ft.,. 2,420 ft, 2,072 ft 
These figures are near enough to give a fair comparison. 

It appears that the Ward-Leonard hoist has a 6.7% higher over-all 
efficiency than the 3 -phase winder ; but in the case of the former 
only 2 shifts are worked and the converter set is shut down for 7 
hrs. each day. This set requires 20 kw.-hr. per hour running light, 
so that comparing the two winders on a 24-hr. service the Ward- 
Leonard efficiency will be only 3.5% better than the 3 -phase hoist. 

For the steam hoist only 3 months' accurate figures as to steam 
consumption are available. For 3 months this hoist required 99 
lbs. of steam per shaft h.p.-hr., but this must not be taken as a 
representative figure for steam hoisting, as owing to the small 
amount of work done by this hoist the standby losses are exception- 
ally high. Only a very rough efficiency comparison can be made, 
and therefore the comparative figures of cost are more important. 

The average monthly cost of each of the three hoists over the 
3 months April, May and June. 1916. is given in the table, and it 
is stated that the figures for the next 3 months are practically the 
same, there being only a difference in the third-place decimal. 

TABLE XVIL AVERAGE MONTHLY COST OF HOISTS (1916) 

Ward- Three- 
Leonard phase Steam 

Average shaft, h.p.-hrs 25.436 26.124 20,425 

Attendance, oil and engine-room 

stores, per useful shaft h.p.. cts. . . 0.316 0.322 0.352 

Repairs, wages and stores per h.p., cts. 0.194 0.584 0.070 
Power, electric and air or steam per 

h.p., cts 1,786 2,076 3,492 

Total cost per h.p., cts 2.296 2.982 3.914 

The first item, attendance and engine-room stores, includes all 
engine-room wages and stores except hoist-engine drivers' wages, 
which are charged direct to hauling and do not come into the 
power account 

The second item, " repairs," includes all electrical and mechan- 
ical supervision, inspection and repairs. 

The third item " power," for the electric hoists, includes the cost 
of electricity and air power. The power required for the brake 
engines is taken from the general mine air supply, the small com- 
pressor in the winding-engine room coming into operation only 
when the mine pressure drops below 60 lbs. per sq. in. " Power " 
for the steam hoist includes coal, oil, water, wages and main- 
tenance of the boiler-house plant and is the cost of steam power 
delivered to the engine house. 

Electric Passenger Elevator Systems. William Ehrlich in Elec- 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1407 

trical Engineering, April, May and June, 1914, gives the following: 
To indicate fully -the extensive use to which the elevator has 
been adopted for passenger traffic in large cities, the instance of 
the Borough of Manhattan in Greater New York is given. There 
are about 10,000 machines in service, being twice the number that 
were in operation- ten years ago, and these are divided among the 
different classes of buildings approximately as follows : 

5000 elevators in office buildings over 10 stories high. 

1500 " " office buildings under 10 stories high. 

500 " " loft buildings. 

700 " " residences. 

800 " " apartment houses. 

500 " " department and other stores. 

1000 " " hotels, clubs, institutions, etc. 

Besides these passenger cars, the building systems requiring 
freight service involve an additional 10,000 machines. 

In modern elevator practice William Ehrlich in Electrical Engi- 
neering, April to June, 1^14, states there are but 2 common 
types of successful machines in use — namely, the hydraulic and 
electric elevators. These may both be classified as to the mode 
of drive or operation and the transmission of power, thereby show- 
ing an apparent variety of elevators. The hydraulic type machine 
may be of the vertical cylinder pattern and also of the plunger 
type, while the electrical apparatus is either of the drum, worm- 
gear or gearless traction type, as illustrated in Fig. 47. 

In summarizing, it might be well to mention that the commercial 
or useful life of an elevator and its combined mechanisms seldom 
exceeds 15 years, and that where remodeling has been resorted to, 
the electric drum and worm-gear traction has usually been sub- 
stituted for the hydraulic type in buildings not exceeding 12 to 16 
stories, and in higher structures the gearless traction or its modifi- 
cation in the form of an electric " two-to-one " traction elevator 
has been resorted to. 

In narrowing down the que.stion as to the merits of the electric 
traction elevator and the hydraulic plunger elevator for passenger 
service in tall office buildings of today, it might be well to note 
that the new elevator installations, almost without exception, have 
favored the electric. Not only is the cost of installing the trac- 
tion 25% to 35% less than the plunger type, but the room occupied 
by the driving machinery is reduced to a minimum, and, as a mat- 
ter of fact, may be placed at the head and directly over the ele- 
vator shaft. If no local supply of electricity is available on the 
premises, the public source may be resorted to. 

The difficulty with the plunger elevator for high-rise high-speed 
work lies in the requirement for moving the mass of water and the 
massive plunger proper, and as this immense weight cannot be 
readily and smoothly stopped, the result is a sluggishness in start- 
ing and stopping. At any rate, it remains an open question as to 
whether the economic values attached to modern buildings would 



1408 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



favor the installation of the plunger elevator, with its accompany- 
ing pumping plant, which necessarily occupies considerable floor 
space. The only open choice, therefore, would tend to favor the 
high-rise high-speed electric traction elevator for passenger service. 
The figures given in Table XVIII may prove of interest in point- 
ing out the relatively higher operating costs of the different elec- 




CeuntXf 



•ftear^css Etectrte Traction' 



-Worm-Gear Elcctrte- 




-Vortlca) Cy)»*iae»-Hy<Jw»u»lc-> 

Fig, 



•Direct- Acting F*)un9e>^ 

Types of elevators. 



trie types over the Vertical cylinder hydraulic and plunger elevators. 
The values given represent only the cost of labor, power, repairs 
and supplies. By a close perusal of the amounts listed, it will 
be confirmed that the economies of the plunger cannot be utilized 
beneficially in tall office buildings on account of the mechanical 
difficulties, and in other types of smaller buildings allowing for a 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1409 

low rise the installation cost becomes exorbitant. If the rela- 
tively high first cost of this type of machine were taken into con- 
sideration, with an addition for ,the extra cost in building con- 
struction necessary for the space occupied by the pump and tank 
equipment, the total expenditure on the whole would show no 
great favor either way. 

TABLE XVIII. RELATIVE OPERATING COST OF ELEVATORS 



Costs 



2-2 

■-2 u 



Per cent, of rentals 8.5 

Cents per car mile 25 

Dollars per car per annum 2,100 

Per cent, of all operating costs.... 14.1 



Costs 



Per cent, of rentals 8.0 

Cents per car mile 23.8 

Dollars per car per annum 1075 

Per cent, of all operating costs. ... 18.0 



Office building 




(^ 


o 




o^o 


,^3 


u 


o'q; 






7.2 


6.8 


6.5 


22 


20 


19 


1,850 


1,680 


1,600 


12.0 


11.3 


11.0 


Loft building 






o 










bn 


3 


u 


£ 


t 


& 


u 


"O 




o 


>> 


3 


^ 


K 


Ph 


6.8 


6.5 


6.2 


20 


19 


18 


900 


860 


810 



15.4 



14.8 



14.0 



Apartment house 



Costs -^ 

o 

Per cent, of rentals 6.8 

Cents per car mile 20 

Dollars per car per annum 560 

Per cent, of all operating costs.... 13.6 



a 


C3 


bx) 


1 






6.0 


5.5 


5.3 


18 


17 


16 


510 


480 


450 



12.0 



11.0 



10. 



In explaining the values given in Table XVIIT, it should be 
under.stood that the figures are computed on a basis of actual rec- 
ords of several buildings that have come to the writer's notice. 
The general method of comparing records in business buildings is 
to relate the costs to the total annual income or rental. The total 
operating costs include the expense in the mechanical, electrical 
and building departments, covering all costs of labor and material 
for the maintenance of the different divisions of service. There- 
fore the annual cost of operating an elevator system is given as a 
percentage of the gross rentals received, and is further stated as 
a percentage of the total operating expenditure of the buildings 



1410 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ^OST DATA 

under consideration. The average cost in cents per car-mile 
traversed is also given, together with the average annual cost in 
dollars to pay for the labor in operating and repairing, the neces- 
sary power, and the material and supplies required per single 
elevator. 

The efficient operation of an elevator system does not rest alto- 
gether on the ,econoinic division and disposition of the cars, as the 
human element becomes one of the main factors. It is self-evident, 
therefore, that the service of an elevator is limited not only by 
the different clas.'^es of passengers entering, riding and leaving the 
conveyance, but by the experience of the hall man or " starter " 
and his ability to understand the demands of the traffic and the 
personal peculiarities of the elevator operators. 

It is now common practice to dispatch the various machines of 
an elevator system on a predetermined time schedule, thus avoid- 
ing to a great extent any confusion or overcrowding that would 
otherwise arise. It has been well established that the consecu- 
tive travel of elevators under schedule operation allows for a 
highly efficient service, not only in the handling of the traffic, but 
in the demand for power, which is thereby reduced to a minimum. 



i 



^m 



3<tcoftJs- ^P Tr-tp 



X 1 


T ± 


_.:. : :::± "":"■: — : 


+ - 


..: — d '" J. ^ 




J , i J.., \ 


-^ .:t:::::i::: :i:::::i±::: 


.z.,...EJ::::s±:±:=±:f:=:: 



Jecont^j OoMn '^ip 





W^ 



m 



V<t 



Jcale o/" Tim a 



td^ par KoijncI Trip 



Fig. 48. Recorded current consumption of gearless traction 
elevators. 



The power diagrams. Fig. 48, point to the effect of poor and 
proper service under different conditions. The upper curve (a) 
was taken under test conditions and represents the operation of 
one elevator. The load in the single car is approximately equal 
to the designed machine balance, both on the up and down trips, 
and the number of stops corresponds to the average per car mile 
under actual service in office buildings. This diagram is given 
mainly to allow for a proper understanding of the combined curve 
(b) showing the actual round trip operation of a bank of ele- 
vators in one of the New York sky-scraper buildings at the early 
morning hour. The full or solid line curve shows an excessive 
power demand due to an inconsistent " schedule," the cars having 
been dispatched by a starter who may be identified by (X), while 
the dotted or broken line curve shows the more expert handling 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1411 

under the consecutive dispatching by starter (Y), the same oper- 
ators running the cars in each case. 

Another important consideration is the division so common in 
high class office buildings, namely, the proper service of " local " 
and " express " elevators. The formulas given below are well 
substantiated, giving economical service conditions as based on 
existing systems in the larger cities of the U. S., and by which 
the number of elevators required, the division of service, and 
their operation may be determined. 

(1) E = A^24000 

(2) f = - + 2 



(3) Te 



/ 25 5 \ / 25 1\ 

/ _ + , n, and Tl = ( h — ) n 

V s 100/ V s 10/ 

(4) Mer= 2n^7Te, and Ml= 2n-^7Tl 

(5) Ce = li5n -^ 100 Te, and CI = 115n -^ 100 Tl. 

The notations in the formulas are : 

E = number of elevators required. 
A = sq. ft. of gross building area served. 
f =: floor at which express run terminates 
n — total number of floors served, 
s — .speed of elevator, in ft. per minute. 
Tl = local round trip time in minutes. 
Te =: express round trip time in minutes. 
Ml = miles traveled per hour by local. 
Me — miles traveled per hour by express. 
CI = current consumed per hour by local in kw.-hrs, 
Ce = current consumed per hour by express, in kw.-hrs. 



TABLE XIX. UN IT- AREA, L( 


DAD AND SPEED COMBIN 


Bldg. ht. 
floors 


Car area 
sq. ft. 


Load 
lbs. 


Speed 
ft. per min. 


8-13 
14-22 
23-30 


25 
30 
40 


1700 
2000 
3000 


250-350 
350-600 
400-600 



The figures in Table XIX represent the average load and speed 
combinations for various heights of buildings, together with the 
usual area of the elevator car as is consistent with the standard 
sizes manufactured, and should be used as a basis for selecting 
the proper unit areas in connection with formula No. 1. The 
many factors entering into the operation of an elevator would 
affect the current consumption to a considerable extent, as may 
be seen by Fig. 48 hereinbefore explained. But formula No. 5 
agrees with modern service under average operating conditions. 

In order to facilitate the ready understanding of the various 
formulas given. Table XX, embodying the computations, is pre- 
sented. The various headings included are numbered in respective 
order from 1 to 12, so that an explanation of the items considered 
will not be confusing. Under column 1 is listed the heights of 
buildings, with the assumed floor areas extending the full height 
of the structure given in column 2. In column 3 is listed the 



1412 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

actual sq. ft. of car area now provided in many buildings of 
similar floor space having an adequate service. This is intended 
as a guide where the considerations. in planning the building have 
included a means of accommodating the standard size elevators 
most suitable for that building and wherein serious attention has 
been given to the disposition of the cars. But on the other hand, 
the values li.sted may also be used to advantage in proportioning 
the number of elevators required under any conditions, and where 
the physical aspect of the building does not allow for an economic 
disposition of the elevators. Any conservative unit-area best suited 
to the conditions may then be allotted for each car, and thereby 
solve for the number of elevators necessary. 

TABLE XX. ELEVATOR INSTALLATION DATA 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 7 


Build 


ing 


Number of elevators 


required , 


Number 


Gross 


Total 


Cars 


Cars 


Cars By 


of 


area in 


sq. ft. of 


at 25 


at 30 


at 40 formula 


floors 


sq.ft. 
80,000 


car area 


sq. ft. 


sq. ft. 


sq. ft. No. 1 


8 


89 


4 




4 


10 


100,000 


111 


4 


* ' 


4 


12 


120.000 


133 


5 




5 


14 


210,000 


262 


11 


*9 


9 


16 


240,000 


300 


12 


10 


10 


18 


270,000 


337 


14 


11 


11 


20 


300,000 


375 


15 


13 


10 13 


25 


375.000 


577 




19 


15 16 


30 


800,000 


1221 




40 


30 33 




8 


9 


10 


11 


12 




Round trip time in minutes 


(f) or 


Number 


Tl at 


Tl at 


Te at 


Teat 


Express 


of 


350 ft. 


500 ft. 


500 ft. 


600 ft. 


run. in 


floors 


per min. 


per min. 


per min. 


per min. 


floors 


8 


1.3 




.... 


.... 


.... 


10 


1.7 










12 


2.0 








.... 


14 


2.4 


'i.i ' 




. . . . 




16 


2.7 


2.4 


v. 6' 


.... 
.... 


'io" 


18 




2.7 


1.8 




11 


20 


.... 


3.0 


2.0 


v. 8* 


12 


25 






2.5 


2.3 


15 


30 


.... 




3.0 


2.7 


17 



It will be noticed that in columns 8 and 9 the time occupied 
in traversing the height of buildings exceeded eighteen stories is 
slightly more than would actually prove economical. It might be 
well therefore to point out that the speeds of local elevators for 
high buildings might be increased to advantage ; but whether the 
service be local or express, it is not advisable to exceed a speed 
rate of 600 ft. per min. 

In order to rectify this condition, under the speeds considered, 
the number of express elevators must then be more than half the 
total .system, and a sub-division of express service proper is also 
necessary. 

It is often helpful to be informed as to the size of motor required 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1413 

for an installation, and the diagram, Fig. 49, may be used for this 
purpose. For sake of illustration in the use of the diagram, a 
speed of 400 ft. per min. is assumed, with a combined load of 
2,500 lbs. Following the line marked with an arrow from the 




/CO /so zoo ^S^o ^oo Joo ^oo 

OpzQd of Machine - feet per M/>? 

Fig. 49. Motor sizes for electric elevators. 



speed of 400 ft. the point of intersection is then at 2,500 lbs. 
From this point follow the line as indicated to the scale of motor 
sizes, and the result is above 40 h.p. 

Table XXI gives the current consumption of motor sizes 



1414 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XXI. CURRENT CONSUMPTION 

Motor size Starting current Running current 
20 h.p. 102 Amp. 74 Amp. 

4 h.p. 202 Amp. 148 Amp. 

60 h.p. 292 Amp. 213 Amp. 

common in elevator practice. The figures are for d.c. motors 
operating at 230 volts, and are based on the results of tests. 

To aid in the selection of well proportioned electric feeders for 
elevator motors. Table XXII is given. The figures are for 230 
volt, d.c. machines. 

TABLE XXIL WIRE AND CONDUIT SIZES FOR ELECTRIC 
ELEVATORS, 2 WIRE, 230 VOLT, D. C. SYSTEMS 

Wire Max- Conduit 

Under- imum Out- 

-lyr^ _ • writers run or Trade Inside side 

Y^\. Size of amp. distance size for diam- diam- 

*^' each wire -carrying in ft. 2 wires, eter, eter, 

capacity for 2% ins. ins. ins. 

drop 

15 No. 3 80 154 li^ 1.38 1.66 

20 No. 1 100 174 11/. 1.61 1.90 

25 No. 125 186 li^ 1.61 1.90 

30 No. 00 150 198 2 2.06 2.37 

35 No. 000 175 212 2 2.06 2.37 

40 No. 0000 225 226 2 2.06 2.37 

45 No. 0000 225 226 2 2.06 2.37 

50 300,000 cir. mils. 275 248 2i^ 2.46 2.87 

50 300,000 cir. mils. 275 248 21/2 2.46 2.87 

60 400,000 cir. mils. 325 272 3 3.06 3.50 

Power Consumption of Electric Elevators. C. D. Wesselhoeff is 
authority for the data in Table XXIII, giving the power con- 
sumption of electric elevators at various loads and stops. Type 
of machine, one to one electric traction. Total weight of car, 
3,956 lbs. Overbalance, 1,060 lbs. Capacity, 2,500 lbs. at a speed 
of 500 ft. per niin. 

Operating Costs of Electric Elevators. Table XXIV was pre- 
pared from a circular of the Cincinnati (Ohio) Gas and Elec- 
tric Co. 

Operating Costs of Electric Elevators. The following is from an 
article by C. W. Naylor, Power, Feb. 5, 1918. The electric passen- 
ger elevator has now been in service for a period long enough to 
enable the engineer to report intelligently on its co.st of operation, 
maintenance and repair. Hitherto, reports on electric-elevator 
costs have been in a great measure based on tests made at the 
time of. or very soon after, installation, and the real cost, such as 
could be shown only by records of years of operation, has in the 
main been a matter of conjecture. The repair or maintenance side 
of the ledger, in which cost records are tabulated, shows a marked 
increase as the machine becomes older, after making due allow- 
ance for the advance in the cost price of repairs, which is now so 
noticeable. 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1415 






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1416 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XXIV. COST OF ELECTRIC ELEVATOR OPERATION 





(Six months' 


average) 






Freight elevato 


rs * 


Passenger elevators f 




Averag-e 






Average 


sTo. H.p. 


monthly 
cost 


No. 


H.p. 


monthly- 
cost 


1 10 


$11.92 


1 


15 


$39.54 


1 10 


10.00 


2 


201/2 


19.05 


5 20 


33.01 


1 


18 


65.83 


1 5 


5.00 


2 


171/2 


17.30 


1 5 


4.00 


1 


221/2 


23.57 


1 5 


5.00 


1 


15 


14.22 


1 5 


4.00 


5 


73 


59.40 


1 5 


7.37 


2 


32 


38.16 


1 5 


4.00 


3 


381/2 


34.55 


1 5 


11.86 


2 


101/2 


19.80 


1 10 


9.50 


1 


8 


9.73 


1 10 


9.50 


1 


8 


14.87 


1 81/2 


9-49 


1 


11 


18.42 


2 25 


23.75 


1 


15 


9.15 


1 5 


3.50 


1 


15 


22.01 


1 10 


9.50 


1 


15 


4.75 


1 5 


4.75 


2 


16 1/2 


17.62 


1 10 


11.30 


1 


121/2 


14.66 


1 8 


7.60 


2 


121/2 


12.33 


1 20 


28.06 


2 


11 


17.74 


1 7% 


7.12 


3 


41 


37.95 


1 5 


4.75 


1 


10 


23.49 


1 5 


4.60 


1 


16 


18.24 


1 5 


5.25 


1 


10 


19.05 


1 71/2 


7.12 


1 


10 


19.50 




.... 


1 


13 


13.30 


. . 


. . . • 


1 


10 


18.98 


• 




1 


26 


35.31 



2211/2 



--.,, $241.95 45 523 $658.58 

* Average cost per elevator per month, $8. Average cost per 
month per h.p., $1.09. 

t Average cost per elevator per month, $14.64. Average cost per 
month per h.p., $1,26. 



This article is based on the records for 10 years, ended Dec. 
31, 1916, for 50 worm-gear, drum-type elevators having a 150- to 
230-ft. lift and running in passenger service at a maximum speed, 
loaded, of 350 ft. per min. The elevators cited are all in one 
building, operated in a similar manner, doing exactly the same 
kind of work for equal numbers of hours per day, and cared for 
by the same set of mechanics, using the same oils, grease, cables, 
ropes, brushes, etc. 

They are all of the overhead drum type, as shown in Fig. 50, 
overbalanced as to counterweight and equipped with all the 
standard accessories that go with this make of elevator. They are 
operated on direct current at about 226 to 230 volts, with magnet 
control of the usual construction and steel guide rails for cars 
and counterweights. There are two sets of counterweights, one for 
the drum and one for the car. All cables are standard, % in. 
diam., running over idler sheaves and drums of approximately 46 
ins. diam. The car-counterweight cables, two in number, pass 
directly over the vibrating or idler sheave A, while the car-hoisting 



-^1 



CAR 
COUNTER II 
WEIGHTS 



Fig. 50. Overhead type elevator machine. 
1417 



1418 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cables wind on the drum B as the drum-counterweight cables un- 
wind, and vice versa. 

There are no equalizing or compensating cables or chains. The 
cars, or cages, of a rather heavy pattern, weigh approximately 
4,000 lbs. each, and the double counterweights about 5,000 lbs. 
The drums are driven by double, or fore-and-aft, bronze worm 
gears meshing with steel worms on an extension of the armature 
shaft, with the magnet brake installed on this shaft between the 
armature and the worm. The armature revolves at 850 r.p.m. 
when on high speed, and the drums make about 30 revolutions 
during the same period. Of the cars listed, 5 have a travel, or 
rise, of 150 ft. 40 have 200 ft. and 5 220 to 230 ft. 

In addition to the overhead type of passenger cars, there are 
5 machines of the '^asement type, the driving mechanism being 
at the lower landing, with traveling idler sheaves over the drum. 
The lift is about 40 ft. For the various items shown in the table 
the operating costs are about the same. The extra cable wear is in 
a measure compensated for by the shorter length, the cables wear- 
ing out in 2 or 3 yrs. as against 6 to 10 yrs. for the longer lifts. 
There are also 11 freight elevators of overhead type, 220 
ft. travel, with a somewhat slower speed and smaller motors. 
These machines cost 10% less for all items shown in the table, 
except for cables, and 50% less for these. Their speed is 250 ft. 
per min., and they. travel about 6 to 8 miles per day as against 12 
to 15 miles each per day for the passenger cars. 

The labor shown is for the wages of the maintenance and repair 
mechanics. Each man cares for 12 cars, oiling, cleaning, adjust- 
ing and ordinary repairs. 2 extra men care for the heavy and 
extraordinary repairs such as installing armatures, greasing guides 
and putting on cables. The increase from year to year is occa- 
sioned by some additional help and wages advanced for the old 
employees. 

The item miscellaneous includes leather for brakes, copper rivets, 
babbitt, bolts, screws, etc. The armature expense is mostly for 
rewinding and includes a few field-coil renewals. The repair item 
includes brushes, controller disks, contact lugs, carbons and such 
material as would naturally be purchased from the manufacturer 
of the machine, used mostly in keeping up the controller boards. 
Oil includes engine oil for bearings and guides and castor or castor- 
machine oil for the worm cases. Cables include the %-in. main 
cables and the l^-in. wire and %-in. manila rope for the governors. 

Each passenger car travels about 13 miles per day, and for the 
year of 310 days, totals 4,030 miles. Dividing the average annual 
cost per car by this mileage gives a maintenance cost of $0.0387 
per car mile, of which about 75% is for labor and 25% for ma- 
terials and supplies. 

In the same plant are 11 worm-gear one-to-one traction ma- 
chines having 230 ft. rise in the hatchway, with compensating 
chains. The cars travel 375 ft. per min., or 1 4 to 16 miles per day. 
Maintenance costs at present are about the same as for the old 
drum types, except for cables, which wear out about twice as 



CONVEYORS, HOISTS, CRANES, ELEVATORS 1419 

TABLE XXV. MAINTENANCE COSTS OVER 10 TEARS FOR 
50 ELECTRIC ELEVATORS * 



Oil 


1907 
93 


1908 

93 

16 

1,105 

1,160 

467 

5,000 

59 

7,900 
158 

1914 

78 

29 

40 

580 

316 

6,450 

84 

7,577 
151 


1909 

93 

16 

618 

461 

188 

5,525 

307 

7,208 
145 

1915 
92 
31 
39 

660 

360 
6,450 

270 

7,902 
158 


1910 

68 

25 

465 

1,148 

323 

5,525 

238 

7,792 
156 

1916 

52 

9 

96 

362 

1,012 

7,650 

92 

9,273 
185 


1911 

68 

26 

467 

935 

140 

5,525 

344 

7,505 
150 

Total 

857 
222 
3,977 
7,824 
3,193 
59,875 
1,943 


1912 
110 




8 


34 


Repairs 


425 


603 


Armatures . . . . 
Cables 


. ... 1,060 


540 

174 




5,000 


6,375 


]y[isc 


110 


170 


Total 


6,696 


8,006 


Per car . . . 
Oil 


134 

1913 
110 

28 


160 

Aver- 
age 
86 

22 


Repairs 


119 


398 


Armatures 

Cables 


918 

213 


782 
319 


Labor 

IMisc 


6,375 

269 


5,988 
194 




8,032 

161 




Total 

Per car . . . 


77,891 
1,558 


7,789 
156 



* For simplicity all amounts given to the nearest dollar. 

fast as they do on the drum machines. These elevators are now 
only 3 yrs. old, and it is too early to pass upon their real cost 
of operation. 

There are also 5 basement worm-gear one-to-one traction ma- 
chines with compensating cables, having 140 ft. lift and a speed 
of 300 ft. per min. The ropes on these machines wear out very 
rapidly. 

In addition to the foregoing there are 8 one-to-one overhead 
traction machines having 280 ft. lift, 450 ft. speed and equipped 
with compensating cables and weights. The cars travel about 
20 miles per day each, and the cables are wearing out three times 
as rapidly as those on the old drum machines. These cars having 
been in use only 3 years, it is wisdom to defer decision on their 
operating cost to a later date. 

In the plant there are 77 passenger and 14 freight elevators 
traveling about 1,500 miles and carrying from 150,000 to 325,000 
passengers per day. The cost per car-mile for current is practically 
the same for all types. 

Economy of the Electric Motor Drive for Contractor's Hoists. 
W. H. Easton in Engineering and Contracting, Jan. 21, 1914, 
compares the costs of hoist operation with coal and electricity 
as follows : 

With a coal hoist in Pittsburg, where a motor was directly 
substituted for a steam engine, all other factors remaining the 
same, the following results were obtained : 

Cost of coal per month $ 60 

Cost of water 15 

"Wages of engineer 125 

Total $200 



1420 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of electric power per month $ 77 

Wages of motor operator 75 

Total . $152 

Thus the electric hoist showed a saving of $48 per month. 
But it also proved itself able to handle more coal. With the 
steam hoist, a bucket containing 42 bushels was lifted every 60 
seconds, whereas the electric hoist required only 50 seconds for 
the trip, because it could be accelerated more rapidly. Hence in 
a 10-hour day the electric hoist can perform 120 more trips, or 
handle over 5,000 bushels more than the steam hoist. 



CHAPTER XIX 

HEATING, COOKING, VENTILATING, REFRIGERATING AND 
ICE MAKING 

Cost of Heating Buildings as given by George W. Martin in a 
paper before the American Society of Heating and Ventilating En- 
gineers is printed in Power, Feb. 15, 1916. In the Tweedy formula, 

W 
tons of coal per year = rrr-i' 2G, where W is the net wall surface 

4.0 

and G is the glass surface in units of 100 sq. ft. 

Mr. Boyden's formula is somewhat complicated, but in the writer's 
opinion it has the advantage that it takes into consideration a 
difference in the operating conditions in the different buildings. Ex- 
perience is necessary in the use of this formula, however, as serious 
errors are likely to affect the variable to such an extent that the 
calculated result will be far from correct. The formula follows : 

Tons of coal per year = 
VXa 

1- (Ci X G) + (Co X W) 

60 34 

X LX d Xh X 



CsX (130 — T) ex 2,000 

in which 

V = Gross volume of the building, including basement, if heated ; 
G = Sq. ft. of glass surface, 10% being added for north and west 

exposures ; 
W = Sq. ft. of wall surface, 10% being added for north and west 

exposures ; 
a = Average air changes per hour during heating period ; 
Ci = Constant for glass — 1 for single glass. 

C2 = Constant for wall — usually 0.2 for brick and 0.3 for stone; 
C3 = Constant for local conditions — 5.4 for Boston, 5.7 for New 

York ; 
T = Factor dependent upon the relation the heating plant bears 

to the premises heated ; 
L rr Factor for portion of building not heated or for building 

heated to 70 deg. F. ; 
e = Average evaporation in lb. of steam per lb. of coal ; 
d = Number of heating days during season ; 
h = Average number of hrs. of heating per day. 

Under normal operating conditions, when steam is on the heating 
system for from 3,200 to 3,500 hrs. during the heating season. of 

1421 



1422 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

seven months, the two formulas agree fairly well with the actual 
results, as shown in the case of three buildings, as follows : 

I Building ^ 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 

Actual coal, net tons 655 486 1,572 

Tweedy formula 625 380 1,500 

Boyden formula 650 469 1,545 

While the three amounts agree closely in the case of buildings 
Nos. 1 and 3, for building No. 2 the result by the Tweedy formula 
is much below the actual, probably owing to the fact that much heat 
was wasted through leaky windows, increasing the amount of air 
change per hr. 

Among those in charge of building operation for the United States 
Government, the practice is followed of assuming the condensation 
of 500 lbs. of steam per sq. ft. of radiating surface per season. The 
writer believes this to be a safe figure, as in the case of the three 
buildings cited, the condensation approximated 400 lbs., 430 lbs., and 
420 lbs., per sq. ft. per season respectively, assuming an evaporation 
of 7 lb. in each case. 



^2- 


































































1''-' 




































\ 












■ 




















^ 


\. 




































'-— , 




































^ 


— 




-^ 






































" 




' 


^ 










t 








£ 




y 1 


9 / 






; / 


<t 1 


r J6 



VOLUME IN MILLION CU^IC FEET 

Fig. 1. Cost of operation of heating system per thousand cu. ft. 
of gross volume. 



The writer's method of estimating the coal requirements for heat- 
ing a building is to employ the Tweedy formula and check with the 
Boyden formula and the Government method. A comparison of 
the results with the known requirements of a similar building com- 
pletes the process. 

While the amount of coal required depends largely on the amount 
of exposed wall and glass surface, yet it has been found that the 
total cost of operation bears a fairly well-defined relation to the 
volume of the building. 

From the results obtained over the last 5 years a curve shown 
in Fig. 1 has been plotted showing the cost of operation in dollars 
per thousand cubic feet of gross volume. The costs include fuel, 
labor, ash removal, make-up water, supplies and repairs. The coal 
used was No. 3 Buckwheat at $2.50 per ton. This curve is not to 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1423 



be used as an absolute method of determining heating costs, but 
is rather intended as an approximation to give the consulting en- 
gineer some idea of the operating cost of a system which he designs. 
The buildings from which the results were obtained are all largely 
on direct systems, the buildings of 6,500,000 and 15,000,000 cubic 
feet having vacuum returns. 

Fig. 2 shows the cost of steam generation for various amounts of 
steam generated, in a certain case where the boiler plant is located 
750 ft. distant from the building heated. The customer is billed on 



^ €000000 

^ a 000 000 

^ ^ OOO 000 



zz 



«^^ 



*-S" *<> as 3o 

COST IN CENTS PCff WOO LBS. 

Pig. 2. Cost of steam generation for various amounts of steam 
generated. 



the basis of the readings of a meter in the building. The full line 
in Fig. 2 shows the cost based on meter readings in the power plant. 
The difference represents the loss due to condensation in the line. 
The plant is operated only when heating is required and is equipped 
with three boilers each operating at 100 lbs. pressure. The boiler- 
feed water comes from a heater at a temperature well above 200 
deg. F. Other operating data follow : 

Coal: No. 3 Buckwheat ($2.50 per ton delivered) burned with 
balanced draft. 



Number of days 227 

Aver, outside temp. ... 40.9 deg. 
Steam generated, lbs. . ^7,401,000 

Cost per 1,000 lb. of steam : 
Coal $0,193 



Tons of coal, gross 3337 

Rate of evaporation.... 6.34 



Labor . 


063 




008 


Make-up water 


001 



Elec. current, blower $0,006 

Supplies 006 

Repairs and misc 002 

Fixed charges on invt 033 

Total cost per 1,000 lb. of steam $0,312 

Coal Required per Season for Steam and Hot Water Heating. 

Fig. 3, taken from the Heating and Ventilation Magazine, Sept., 
1916, readily shows the approximate amount of coal required per 
season for steam and hot water heating. 

To use chart, select point on left-hand vertical line indicating 
square feet of radiation and piping. Connect this point with point 
on right-hand vertical line indicating duration of heating season. 
The point where the line crosses the middle vertical line indicates 




, C MONTHS 

v»^S«lHaTOI*. 

D ETC.) 



Fig. 3. Chart for figuring amount of coal required per season for 
steam and hot water heating. 



1424 



HEATING. COOKING AND VENTILATING 1425 

the approximate amount in tons of anthracite coal required per 
season. 

Figuring the Coal Consumption for Apartment and Office Build- 
ings. H. M. Hart, in Metal Worker, Plumber and Steam Fitter, 
April 14, 1916. 

Apartment House Heating. To find the theoretical coal consump- 
tion, assume a Chicago apartment building which is heated by steam 
to 70 deg. The average outside temperature for the heating season 
of seven months, from Oct. 1 to April 31, is approximately 35 deg., 
and the minimum is 10 deg. below zero. 

The average difference in temperature between the outside and 
inside is 35 to 70 rr 35 deg. and the maximum difference is —10 to 
70 = 80 deg. Therefore, to maintain an average temperature in the 
building of 70 deg. the radiators would have to be hot 35/80ths of 
the time, and this represents the average steam demand. 

Then during the heating season of seven months, or 5040 hrs., the 
radiators would be hot 35/80ths of 5040 = 2205 hrs. The amount of 
heat given off by the average standard height steam radiator in 
a room temperature of 70 deg. is approximately 225 B.t.u. per 
square foot of surface per hour. On a basis of 100 sq. ft. of radia- 
tion, the heat given off per heating season would be as follows : 
100 X 225 X 2205 = 49,612,500 B.t.u. 

It has been found by numerous tests that a good grade of semi- 
bituminous or Pocahontas coal in the average heating boiler will 
give off about 8000 available B.t.u. per pound of coal. Therefore, 
the theoretical coal consumption per 100 sq. ft. of radiation surface 

49,612,500 

per heating season would be ~ 6201, or 3.1 tons. 

8000 

To check this with operating conditions, figures of actual fuel 
consumption in seven modern apartment buildings were obtained. 
These are heated by single-pipe steam systems using Pocahontas 
coal in firebox of return tubular boilers, with the following results ; 

Tons of coal per season 
Sq. ft. _ Per 100 sq. 

Bldg. No. radiation 

1 3,435 

2 6,000 

3 900 

4 7,076 

5 3,900 

6 7,341 

7 2,559 

Buildings Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 5 were erected by speculative builders 
and consequently not much attention was given to the efficiency of 
the heating systems. The result is that the present owners are 
burning about twice the amount of fuel that they should. 

Buildings 3, 6 and 7 were erected as permanent investments and 
the heating system in each building was installed by a reputable 
heating contractor. The systems were properly designed and are 
ample in capacity. The owners might be well satisfied with their 
investment, although they undoubtedly paid more per square foot 



Total used 


ft. radiation 


219 


6.40 


334 


5.56 


36 


4.00 


465 


6.60 


190 


4.88 


215 


2.93 


170 


3.23 



1426 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of radiation for their heating systems than did the owners of build- 
ings 1. 2, 4 and 5. 

The yearly loss to the owners of these four buildings is as follows : 

3435 
Bldg. No. 1 (6.4 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $510.10 

100 

6000 
Bldg. No. 2 (5.56 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $664.20 

100 

7076 
Bldg. No. 4 (6.6 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $1,114,47 

100 

7341 
Bldg. No. 5 (4.88 — 3.1) X X $4.50 = $588.00 

100 

A first-class single-pipe steam heating system can be installed 
for about $1 per square foot of surface, but the builders probably 
paid no more than 75 cents per square foot for these four jobs. 
Therefore, the saving on cost of installation was about as follows : 

Building No. 1 3435 X $0.25 = $ 858.75 

Building No. 2 6000 X 0.25 = 1,500.00 

Building No. 4 7076 X 0.25= 1,769.00 

Building No. 5 7341 X 0.25= 1,835.00 

This appears to be a very extravagant saving. The investment 
of this additional amount in the heating systems would have netted 
the owner from 32 per cent, to 63 per cent, profit. 

The above simply illustrates how true that old saying is, that 
one gets about what one pays for no matter how rigid the specifi- 
cations or the contract may be. 

The Office Building Problem. A slightly different problem is pre- 
sented in considering the cost of operation of the heating and me- 
chanical plants in office buildings. The following interesting com- 
parison is drawn between two modern office buildings — one equipped 
with a heating apparatus only and the other equipped with its own 
power plant. 

In the first building, which has a simple heating apparatus of the 
vacuum type, temperature control, low pressure boilers and smoke- 
less furnaces, the theoretical fuel consumption is as follows : 

Direct radiation, 60,850 sq. ft. 

The average outside temperature for the seven heating months of 
1911 and 1912 was 33.6 deg. ; therefore, the theoretical number of 

36.4 
hours that radiators would be turned on would be 70 — 33.6 = -^77- 

oO 

or 45.5 per cent, of 310 days X 24 hrs., which would be 2293 hrs. 
Therefore, the steam required for heating would be 

60,850X225X2293 

• =32,668,091 

961 

pounds. To this should be added the loss through the covered 
piping, estimated at 3 per cent, of the total, which would make the 
total loss by radiation, 33,648,133 lbs. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1.427 

For ventilation there are the following- units: 1 unit delivering 
32,420 c.f.m. at an average rise of 26.4 deg. for 20 hrs. per day; 
1 unit delivering 18,400 c.f.m. at an average rise of 28.4 deg. for 
20 hrs. per day; 1 unit delivering 33,860 c.f.m. at an average rise of 
51.4 deg. for 10 hrs. per day; 1 unit delivering 19,500 c.f.m. at an 
average rise of 76.4 deg. for 10 hrs. per day. 

Cost of Generating Steam. The steam required for above service 
would be as follows : 

R. M. Hrs. Da. 
32,420 X 26.4 X 60 X 20 X 180 

■ — = 3,497,717 

. 55 X 9 61 lb. of steam 
18,400 X 26.4 X 60 X 20 X 180 

■ . ^ 2 135 521 

55X9 61 lb. of steam 

33.860 X 51.4 X 60 X 10 X 180 

• = 3.556,212 

55X9 61 lb. of steam 
19,500 X 76.4 X 60 X 10 X 180 
= 3,044,147 



55 X 9 61 lb. of steam 

making a total of 12,233,597 lbs. of steam for ventilation, which, 
added to that required for heating, makes a total of 45,881,730 lbs. 
of steam, which, when burning screenings and evaporating 6 lbs. 
of water per pound of coal, would take 45,881,730 -H (6 X 2000) = 
3823 tons. 

The actual fuel consumption per month was as shown in the ac- 
companying table. 

Outside Average 

Theoretical Actual temperature wind 

tons tons degrees velocity, miles 

October 248 301 53.3 12.8 

November 542 573 35.4 16.9 

December 547 468 35.0 14.4 

January . 783 913 11.9 14.2 

February 759 656 21.8 14.4 

March 640 661 28.8 13.5 

April 338 286 48.8 16.5 

It will be noticed from this table that during the months of 
November and December the temperature was about the same, 
but the wind velocity decreased about 15 per cent, and the fuel 
consumption about 18 per cent. The difference between the months 
of April and October, of course, is not consistent, but as the engineer 
had no means of weighing the coal as it was put into the boilers 
the figures given per month might not be absolutely correct. 

The actual cost of operation of this heating plant is as follows : 

Coal, 3,858 tons at $2.37 $ 9,143.46 

Removing ashes 554.00 

Oil, waste and packing 160.00 

Repairs 100.00 

Labor 4,500.00 

Electric current for vacuum and boiler feed pumps 429.00 

Water, approximately 200.00 

Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 2,892.00 

117,978.46 



1428 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1000 X $17,978.46 

Then the actual cost of producing steam is = 38.8 

3858 X 6 X 2000 
cts. per 1000 lbs., and if the fuel for water heating- were added 
in, there would be an additional expense of $2,883 for coal and $174 
for removing ashes, making the total expense per year $21,035.46. 
This would bring the cost of steam per 1000 lbs. down to 

1000 X 21,035.46 

= 34.6 cts. 

5074 X 6 X 2000 

In another building, almost a duplicate, having its own electric 
generating plant and hydraulic elevators, the heating load would be 
about as follows : 68,000 sq. ft. direct radiation, at 

68,000 X 225 X 2293 

=r 36,506,660 lb. of steam 

961 

The pipes were covered with molded asbestos, so loss through same 
may be estimated at 4 per cent., which would bring this load up to 
37,946,926 lbs. 

For heating water the load is about the same as in the previous 
building, which required 14,600,000 lbs. of steam, making a total of 
52,546,926 lbs. 

The cost of operation is as follows : 

6,275 tons No. 4 washed nut at $3.00 $18,825.00 

Removing ashes 890.00 

Oil, waste, and packing 470.00 

Water 2,407.00 

Lamp renewals 486.00 

Labor 9,320.00 

Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 7,000.00 

$39,398.00 

To obtain cost of steam for heating, the following deductions must 
be made : 

For 644,742 kw. generated : 

Fuel (at 49 lb. steam per kw.) $6,551 

Water 249 

Lamps 486 

Ashes 310 

Oil, waste and packing 100 

Labor 1,884 

Interest and depreciation 3,000 

$12,580 $12,580 
For elevators : 

Coal $7,712 

Water . 257 

Ashes 364 

Oil, waste, etc 300 

Labor 2,700 

Interest, etc 1,000 $12,333 $24,913 

Then $14,485 is the additional cost for heating. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1429 

If this were taken at the same cost rate as the previous building, 
the cost of heating would be 52,566,926 lbs. of steam at 34.4 cts. per 
1000 lbs., or $18,083. Therefore, the saving on cost for heating is 
$18,083 — $14,485 = $3,598. 

However, this does not represent the actual saving showing the 
operation of this plant. The saving would be as follows : 

Cost of heating without plant $18,083 

Revenue for kw. sold 25,855 

Revenue for kw. for public lighting 9,928 

Cost of elevator service 12,333 

$66,199 
Less cost of operation 39,398 

Annual saving $26,801 

Figuring Ventilation. The cost of operation of a ventilating ap- 
paratus varies greatly with the installation ; but under normal 
conditions where the system is designed to deliver air at a temper- 
ature of 75 deg., taking outside air at an average of 35 deg., the 
steam required will be 

1000 X 40 

= 0.75 lb. 

55 X 961 

per 1000 cu. ft. The power will be 

C.F.M. X 9 X pressure in oz, 

33,000 X 50 
which for 1 oz. pres. — 0.5454 hp. per 1000 cu. ft. 

The horsepower required varies directly with the pressure. 
For estimating the volume of air required the following formula 
is found to be quite accurate : 

H = total B.t.u to be supplied per hour. 

D = difference in temperature between room and incoming air. 

F = cubic feet of air per pound at the temperature leaving coils. 

V = cubic feet per minute required. 

FH FH 

V = or 

0.2375 DX 60 14.25 D 

Cost of Heating and Power Plant Apparatus. The following 
figures are given by W. J. Downing in Power, Nov. 18, 1913. Prices 
are based on actual installations, most of them in the New England 
States, and allowance should be made for other localities, based on 
the difference in cost of labor and material. 

Radiation. Radiation will be classified under five headings : 

1. Cast-iron direct radiators cost 19 to 27 cts. per sq. ft. of sur- 
face, depending on the height of the radiator. The labor cost will 
be nearly the same for casting and finishing a section containing 1 
sq. ft. of surface as for a section containing 5 sq. ft. 

2. Cast-iron indirect radiators of the pin type for gravity work 
cost 16 to 18 cts. per sq. ft. 

3. Cast-iron radiators for fan systems cost 25 cts. per sq. ft. 



1430 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

4. Pipe coils for direct radiation cost 30 cts. per sq. ft. 

5. Pipe heaters consisting of 1 in, pipes with cast-iron bases for 
fan systems cost 45 to 50 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. For cast-iron 
bases with a damper for direct indirect radiators add $1.25 for each 
10 in. length of base. 

The labor cost for installing direct radiators on a one-pipe system 
can be obtained by allowing one day's time for a steam fitter and 
his helper for each radiator. This covers the time required to run 
the vertical risers and connect and set the radiators. It does not 
include the time required to place the horizontal mains in the base- 
ment and connect up the boilers. This item will be covered unde*r 
another heading. For a two-pipe system allow 1.5 days' time for a 
fitter and helper per radiator. 

Indirect radiators for gravity and fan-blast systems cost about 
0.5 ct. per lb. for the former and 1 ct. per lb. for the latter for 
erection together with the labor cost of a fitter and helper for one 
day for each four connections made to the heater sections. 

Allow 2.5 to 3 cts. per sq. ft. of surface of pipes and radiators for 
bronzing. 

Automatic air valves cost 75 cts. to $1 each in place. 

For temporary setting of direct radiators used to furnish heat 
in the building while under construction, allow $2.25 for each 
radiator. 

Figures based on a large number of installations show that an 
allowance of $50 per thermostat should be made for automatic con- 
trol. This includes the air piping, compressor dampers and ther- 
mostats, set in place and connected. 

Boilers and Auxiliaries. Small cast-iron fire-pot boilers for house 
heating cost $30 to $35 per sq. ft. of grate area. 

Cast-iron sectional boilers for house and public-building heating 
cost $21 to $25 per sq. ft. of grate area. 

Horizontal fire-tube boilers set in place complete with trimmings 
ready for steam and water connections cost $12 per h.p. 

The Manning type of vertical boiler for power-plant work will 
cost $10 per h.p. erected. 

Water-tube boilers set in place with trimmings cost $14 to $16 
per h.p. 

Internally fired boilers of the Morrison type cost $16 to $18 per 
h.p., including trimmings. 

Dutch or extended ovens are often used in power plants for burn- 
ing a low grade of fuel, or utilizing the waste material from manu- 
factured products. These ovens will cost $250 for a 300 h.p. unit. 

Superheaters cost $2.25 to $3 per h.p., depending on the size and 
type. 

Special boiler settings designed to economize heat, similar to the 
Smith setting cost about $150 per boiler. 

All of the above prices are based on boilers with plain grates. 
Shaking grates should be figured at from $5 to $6 per sq. ft. of 
surface. 

Feed-water heaters of the closed type cost from 75 cts. to $1 per 
h.p., depending on the size of the unit. Feed-water heaters and 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1431 

purifiers of the open type cost |2.20 per h.p. for a 100 h.p. unit and 
$1 per h.p. for a 1000 h.p. unit. Intermediate sizes cost a propor- 
tional amount. 

A good damper regulator for controlling the draft in boilers can 
be obtained for $50. 

Boiler-feed pumps cost 50 cts. per h.p. capacity of units of 150 
to 200 h.p. 

Blowoff and return tanks suitable for 100 lbs. pressure cost about 
8 cts. per lb. in weight. 

Copper hot-water tanks good for 100 lbs. pressure complete with 
steam coil cost about $1 per gal. capacity. Add $50 if the tank has 
automatic control. 

Steam traps take a discount of 40% from list prices. 

Pipe Fittings and Valves. While there are several large manu- 
facturers of these products it is usually safe to figure the following 
discounts: Steam pipe, 75%; valves, 50 to 60%; cast-iron fittings, 
70%; spiral-riveted pipe, 70%. 

An accurate list should be made of the actual material required 
for any particular installation, as there are too many variables to 
use a unit price per h.p. capacity of the plant. The labor cost will 
average $1.50 per h.p. for connecting the boilers and installing the 
basement mains in plants of 200 to 400 h.p. 

The special valves necessary for a first-class vacuum system cost 
$6 to $8 per radiator. Another method of figuring vacuum systems 
is to allow 10 cts. per sq. ft. of radiation for the special apparatus 
required. 

Covering. An asbestos covering 4 ins. thick for boilers and heat- 
ers will cost in place 50 to 60 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. Air-cell 
covering 1 in. thick will cost 22 cts. per sq. ft. Eighty-five per cent, 
magnesia 1 in. thick will cost 30 cts. per sq. ft. These prices in- 
clude the labor required to apply and are useful in calculating the 
cost of covering heating ducts and smoke flues. 

Steam-pipe covering made of 85% magnesia will cost one-half of 
the list price, including the labor of applying. If desired the dis- 
counts applying to the various types of covering can be obtained 
and the labor cost based on the fact that one man will cover 100 
ft. of straight pipe per day up to 4 in. diameter or wall cover 40 
fittings per day up to 4 in. size. The above amounts will be more 
for larger sizes due to the increased labor of handling. 

Ventilating A2)parat\is. Centrifugal steel-plate fans for ordinary 
systems in which the total pressure does not exceed .75 oz. will cost 
$10 to $13 per 1000 cu. ft. of air per min. capacity, depending on 
the size. 

Direct-current motors for driving fans will cost $18 to $25 per 
h.p. Regulating rheostats cost 60% of the list prices. 

High-pressure engines for fan driving cost $10 to $16 per h.p. 
Low-pressure engines for fan driving cost $18 to $22 per h.p. 

Air washers are usually based on a velocity of 500 ft. per min, 
and on that basis cost $18 to $26 per 1000 cu. ft. of air per min. 
capacity. Erection of fans, motors and air washers will cost about 
1 ct. per lb. in weight. 



1432 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Galvanized-Iron and Steel-Plate Work. Piping- arrangements em- 
ploying galvanized-iron distributing ducts cost about 15 cts. per lb. 
in place. The ratio of weight of iron to the cubic contents of the 
building varies widely with different types of building. In factory 
work where heating is the primary object the galvanized-iron ducts 
for an overhead system will average 1 lb. of iron to 100 to 125 
cu. ft. of contents. In buildings where ventilation is the main 
object no standard values can be given as the amount of metal will 
depend on the standard of ventilation maintained. In each case 
the actual weight of metal must be calculated from the plans. 

Steel-plate work for smoke flues costs from 6 to 8 cts. per lb. 

Registers and Screens. Cast-iron registers for floors and side 
walls cost one-fourth the list price. Bronze registers cost one-half 
the list price. Plain wire screens with angle- or channel-iron bor- 
ders cost 15 to 25 cts. per sq. ft. Allow 3 cts. per sq. ft. for 
bronzing. 

Filter screens of cheese cloth for removing dust from the air are 
based on a velocity of 30 to 50 ft. per min. through the net area. 
Their cost will be from 50 to 70 cts. per sq. ft., depending on the 
quality of material. Mushroom ventilators cost 65 to 75 cts. each. 

Foundations. Allow 75 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation in ordinary 
soil and $4 per cu. yd. for rock. Brick foundation walls cost 40 
to 50 cts. per cu. ft. in place. Concrete foundations cost $6 to $7 
per cu. yd. for the concrete and 15 cts. per sq. ft. of surface for the 
forms. Water-prooflng will cost 40 cts. per sq. ft. 

Sprinkler Systems. Sprinkler systems cost from $3 to $3.25 per 
head, including pipe, sprinkler heads and erection. Hose racks for 
fire protection in public buildings cost $50 each, including piping and 
erection. 

Gas Piping. In fireproof buildings gas-pipe systems cost $5 to $6 
per outlet for labor and material. For residences of the usual 
frame construction allow $2.50 to $3 per outlet. 

Unit Costs. While the conditions of various installations make 
it impossible to give a unit price for a system that will apply in all 
cases the average of a large number of jobs shows some interesting 
results. The average cost of a heating system for dwelling houses, 
using direct-steam radiation is 80 cts. per sq. ft. of radiation. For 
office and factory work allow $1 per sq. ft. of radiation. For hot- 
water direct radiation allow $1.25 per sq. ft. for radiation. To 
these prices should be added that of the boilers to obtain the cost 
of the entire system. 

Although the size of direct-steam radiators varies over a wide 
range the cost of complete systems, exclusive of boilers, averages 
$37 per radiator. 

All prices stated in this article are the costs to the contractor. 
An allowance for contractors' profit should be added to the total 
cost of the system. Profit is usually figured as a percentage of the 
total cost and will vary from 10 to 15%. It will be noticed that the 
prices stated above give a considerable range and the question 
may arise as to the exact value to be used. It may be helpful to 
not^ that in any case a price should be selected depending on tlj^ 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1433 

size of the apparatus. For instance, a boiler with 5 sq. ft. of grate 
area will cost more per sq. ft. than one with 20 sq. ft. By paying 
attention to the relative size of the unit in question a fair estimate 
can be made of the cost from the values given. 

Mr. Downing's Costs are criticized by A. Robertson, writing from 
Syracuse, N. Y., to Power, Dec. 16, 1913, as follows. "Under the 
heading ' Radiation,' pipe-coil heaters for fan systems are estimated 
at 45 to 50 cts. per .sq. ft. of surface. In my experience this should 
be from 24 to 45 cts. per sq. ft. of surface. This price includes the 
complete casing and fan connections, the low price being for coils 
about 7 by 10 ft. and the higher prices of coils down to 3 by 6 ft. 
Now the designer using Mr. Downing's figures would be justified 
in using cast-iron heaters exclusively at 25 cts per ft., although as 
a matter of fact under certain conditions pipe coils are a better 
proposition. 

" Shaking grates instead of costing $5 to $6 per sq. ft. of surface, 
can be installed for from $3.75 to $4.75 per sq. ft. Open feed-water 
heaters, good for 10-lb. pressure, complete with oil separator and 
grease trap, can be bought for about $1 per h.p. as low as the 400 
h.p. size, and for 75 cts. per h.p. in the 1000 h.p. size. 

" Under the heading ' Ventilating Apparatus,' steel-plate fans are 
estimated at $10 to $13 per 100 cu. ft. at .75 oz. pressure. This 
again is far too liberal, $7 to $10 being quite safe. 

" Galvanized-iron work is estimated at 15 cts. per lb., which is 
excessive for average factory work, as 10 cts. per lb. in place will 
cover a first-class job where local help can be used. Only recently 
we let a 5-ton job at about 6 cts. per lb., but we realize that this 
is an exceptionally low figure." 

Comparative Cost of Heat When Generated by Coal, Gas and 
Electricity. H. O. Swoboda in Electric Journal, July, 1913, says: 

Coal. Develops at an average a heat of 12,000 B.t.u. per lb. 
The efficiency of coal burning heating apparatus averages about 10%. 
Effective heat obtained from 1 lb. of coal = 1,200 B.t.u., from 1 short 
ton of coal — 2,400,000 B.t.u, 

TABLE I. PRICES AT WHICH ELECTRICITY WOULD HAVE 

TO BE SOLD, TO COMPETE WITH COAL AND GAS, IF 

THERE WERE NO OTHER ADVANTAGE IN USING 

ELECTRICALLY GENERATED HEAT 

Coal — Electricity Gas — Electricity 

Cts. per Gas per Cts. per 

Coal per ton kw.-hr. 1000 cu. ft. kw.-hr, 

$1.50 0.17 $0.10 0.2 

2.00 0.23 0.20 0.4 

2.50 0.28 0.30 0.6 

3.00 0.34 0.40 0.8 

3.50 0.39 0.50 1.0 

4.00 0.45 . 0.60 1.2 

4.50 0.51 0.70 1.4 

5.00 0.57 0.80 1.6 

5.50 0.62 0.90 1.8 

6.00 0.68 1.00 2.0 

1.25 2.5 

1.50 3.1 

1.75 3.6 



1434 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Gas. Develops at an average a heat of 660 B.t.u. per cu. ft. 
The efficiency of gas burning heating apparatus averages about 20%. 
Effective heat obtained from 1 cu. ft. of gas = 132 B.t.u. ; from 1,000 
cu. ft. gas = 132,000 B.t.u. 

Electricity. Develops a heat of 3,413 B.t.u. per kw.-hr. The effi- 
ciency of electrically heated apparatus averages about 80%. Effec- 
tive heat obtained from 1 kw.-hr. = 2,730 B.t.u. 

Based on these figures, the same amount of useful or effective heat 
is generated by 1 kw.-hr. or 20 cu. ft. of gas or 2.25 lbs. of coal. 

Operating Costs of Steam and Furnace Heating Plants. Figures 
by R. O. Stoops (Joliet, 111.), in the Heating and Ventilating Maga- 
zine, Jan., 1916, show that taking three modern steam plants and a 
like number of furnace blast systems, the comparison favors the 
furnace blast plants. In both cases the humidity control is taken 
care of. The essential difference is that in the case of the furnace 
system, the moisture is introduced into the hot air and the mixed 
product is conducted throughout the building. In the case of the 
steam plant, the air to be heated, is drawn through coils, entailing 
more power and incidentally more coal, at $2.67 per ton. 

The report shows that the board installed the new type of plant, 
more than a year ago, with heat regulation and humidity control, 
and that the plant has now been in operation for a year, making 
comparisons possible. 

Furnace Blast Heating Cost. Moran Street, power and fuel per 
1,000 cu. ft., $1,563; Broadway, $1,836; Woodland, $1,868. Average 
cost, $1,755. 

Steam Blasts Heating Cost. - Sheridan school, per 1,000 cu. ft., 
$2,343; Eliza Kelly, $1,733; Henderson, $3,266. Average cost per 
1,000 cu. ft, $2,447. 

The report continues : " This shows that the best steam plant 
costs only $0,135 less to operate than the poorest furnace plant. 
Local conditions show that this furnace plant (Woodland school) 
is not doing its best. The above shows that steam costs 39.5% more 
to operate than furnace." 

Interest centers in the report in that Plainfleld and Aurora have 
adopted the Joliet system, which, when first installed in Joliet, was 
untried in this section. 

Cost of Steam Heating Plants. Sheridan, $5,700 ; Henderson, $5,- 
560 ; Eliza Kelly, $6,565. Average per school, $5,941. This does not 
include all the items of installation. 

Cost of Furnace Blast Heating Plants. Woodland, Moran and 
Broadway, $14,725, including heat regulation and humidity con- 
trol. Average per school, $4,925. When this contract was let the 
job was lumped to one concern. 

Cost of Installing Underground Steam Mains. The following in 
Engineering Record, Sept. 14, 1912, by Donald M.. Belcher, gives the 
construction and installing costs of heat-insulated underground 
mains of the Wilkes-Barre (Pa) district heating system. 

The new underground installation comprised the construction of 
10,791 ft. of mains, varying in size from 6 to 24 ins. ; 9982 ft. of 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1435 

this replaced old .mains and 809 ft. consisted of mains into new 
territory. 

Prevention of Heat Loss. The installation, employed to protect 
the steam mains and prevent loss of heat, was the type which has 
given the best results, and is now in general use all over the coun- 
try in district steam heating systems. Tests have shown that the 
loss from condensation in such lines amounts to less than 5% of 
the season's steam output. 

In this construction only the best quality of strictly wrought-iron 
line pipe was used and all joints, not adjacent to special fittings, 




Fig. 4, Cross section of steam mains. 



were made with heavy long pattern couplings. The iron pipe was 
wrapped with a double spiral winding of asbestos paper, secured in 
position with copper wire. The pipe thus covered was encased in 
wood stave casing, the inside diameter of which was from 2 to 3 
ins. greater than the outside diameter of the covered iron pipe, thus 
leaving an annular air space of about 1 in. between the pipe and 
the casing. Guides and rollers, spaced about 8 ft. apart, center the 
pipe in the casing and provide for the movement of the pipe in 
expansion and contraction. The wood casing was made from thor- 
oughly kiln-dried white pine' lumber, cut into radial staves, each 
stave having a tongue and groove running lengthwise. The staves 
were firmly banded with .1875-in. galvanized steel wire, spirally 
wound under heavy tension and embedded into the wood. The 
casing was qoate^ With asphaltum-pitch. 



1436 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE 11. 



COST OF MAINS TO WILKES-BARRE, PA., 
COMPANY 



Size, ins. 



Pavement 



10. 
10. 
12. 
14, 
16. 
20. 
24. 
18 



Brick 

Asphalt 

. .• Asphalt 

Asphalt 

Brick 

, Asphalt 

, Asphalt 

Asphalt 

Asphalt 

Brick 

Brick 

24 brick in station 



Length, ft. 
294 

1,585 
489 
361 

1,053 
851 
585 

2,109 

2,607 
552 
275 



Per lin. ft. 
$6.03 

6.35 

8.01 

9.28 

9.19 

9.36 
11.75 
12.33 
16.35 
22.89 
28.39 




4 6 8 10 12 14 

Hundredths of a Pound of Steam 

J)}fference in Line Loss per Square Foof of 
Underground Main Surface per Hour 
Fig. 5. Value of efficient insulation. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1437 



The costs g-iven in Table II were subdivided as follows : 

Length of main, ft 10,761 

Repaving $16,789.51 

Trenching- 8,406.74 

Laying pipe 108,061.92 

Incidentals . 402.87 



Total $133,661.04 

Reconnecting house services 3,067.27 

Engineering 1.17% 1,600.64 



Total cost of work $138,328.95 

Cost of Underground Steam Heat Mains. Table III gives the 
cost of steam heat mains exclusive of paving, per 100 ft. of main. 
These are estimated costs based upon the experience of a large 
central station on the Pacific Coast. 

Efficiency of Underground Steam IVlains. (Power, June 17, 1913.) 
In a paper read before the annual meeting of the Engineering Society 
of the American District Steam Co., Byron T. Gifford defined the 
efficiency of a pipe covering as the percentage of heat saved by using 
the covering. For example, 90% efficiency would mean that the 
covering saved 90% of the heat lost by the bare pipe. The line loss 
in underground steam mains varies from .04 lb. or less of steam 
per sq. ft. of pipe surface per hr. in the most efficient construction to 
0.14 lb. or more per sq. ft. of surface with insulation of inferior 
quality. 

Saving in Coal Due to Pipe Covering. In Domestic Engineering, 



$ 120 
















































































































































































































































































































110 


























































































































































































































































































































































































«100 




























































^ 






































































E 
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f 90 

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t5 


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5 
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. 60. 80. 100. 150. 200. 250. 300. 350. 

Annual Expenditure for Coal 
(Pipes Covered) 

Fig". 6. Annual expenditure for covered pipes. 



1438 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 






u^ 


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(M5>J0OTti«Ci00O0CJ<£it-iH 
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U5U5COC-JOOOt-COO«00 
lMMCO-^lOU5CCoOOi-llO 

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(MCO-*lO?et-OOOC<irtiOO 



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HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1439 

Feb. 1, 1913, Otto E. Trautmann gives a detailed calculation of the 
saving in coal effected by covering steam pipes in a residence heat- 
ing plant. He assumes a useful radiation surface of 400 sq. ft., 
a coal consumption of 15 tons per annum with the basement pipes 
and boiler covered. Assuming coal to cost $6 per ton he figures that 
$11 more must be spent for coal if the pipes are left uncovered. 
This $11 per year can be saved by $45 worth of covering on boiler 
and basement pipes. 

The additional expenditure required for coal with the basement 
radiating surface uncovered is well shown in Fig. 6. 

Labor Costs of Applying Magnesia Covering to Pipes and Fittings. 

HIGH-PRESSURE COVERING 

Cost per Cost 

lin. ft. each 

4-in. pipe $0.17 1%-in. flange unions $1.03 

8-in. pipe 0.38 4-in. flange unions 1.25 

10-in. pipe 0.79 8-in. flange unions 3.19 

12-in. pipe 1.25 10-in. flange unions 3.40 

8-in. pipe bends 1.03 12-in. flange unions 5.49 

Cost 
each 

li^-in. elbows $1.30 1%-in. valve bodies 1.60 

8-in. elbows 3.30 8-in. valve bodies 3.28 

8-in. elbows 3.58 10-in. valve bodies 3.60 

12-in. elbows 4.90 12-in. valve bodies 4.90 

4-in. expansion joints.... 2.60 8-in. valve bonnets 3.25 

10-in. expansion joints.... 5.63 10-in. valve bonnets 3.60 

12-in. expansion joints .... 6.15 12-in. valve bonnets 3.70- 

LOW-PRESSURE COVERING 

Cost per Cost 

lin. ft. each* 

2%-in. pipe $0.10 2i/^-in. flange unions $1.15 

4-in. pipe 0.12 21/2 -in. tees 1.30 

4-in. tees 1.75 

2%-in. elbows 1.3G 

2 3/^ -in. valve bonnets.... 1.98 

The above table by Rupert K. Stockwell appeared in Engineering 
& Mining Journal, March 22, 1913. It was computed from daily 
records made while covering the high pressure steam heating line 
2,400 ft. long running from the power house to the concentrator, and 
the steam and feed-water lines around two 450-boiler h.p. reverbera- 
tory-furnace waste-heat boilers, at McGill, Nev., in October, 1909. 
The men who did the work were pipe fitters, rated at $.50 per hr., 
and helpers rated at $.375 per hr., each fitter having two helpers. 

The covering was standard magnesia pipe-covering, purchased 
from the H. W. Johns-Manville Co., and put on in strict accordance 
with their specifications, the • high-pressure covering being 1.5 ins. 
thick, held away from the pipe by bands of magnesia 1 in. thick, 
spaced 18 ins. apart. The covering for 10 in. pipe and larger came 
in keystone-.shaped strips ; this was placed on the magnesia bands, 
bound together with wire netting, all cracks plastered with magnesia 
mud and cement, and the whole covered with canvas ; brass bands 



1440 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

were then clamped over the canvas at intervals of 30 ins. and then 
the whole was painted with a mixture of tar and gasoline. The 
high-pressure covering for pipe smaller than 10 ins. came in half- 
cylinders, instead of keystone-shaped strips. 

The low-pressure covering, which in this case was all for pipe 
less than 8 ins. in diameter, came in half-cylinders, 1 in. thick and 
was placed directly on the pipe, without space rings. The finish was 
the same as for the high-pressure covering. 

The magnesia covering for fittings, valves, expansion joints, and 
pipe bends, did not come shaped to fit, but had to be sawed and 
fitted to the work by hand, from magnesia strips and slabs. This 
was slow and expensive work. It is to be understood, that in the 
table, where a fitting covering is listed, the fianges are not included ; 
all flanges are figured separately as part of fiange unions. 

Unit Cost of Steam Heating in Detroit, Michigan. Mr. A. D. 
Spencer in Power and The Engineer, July 5, 1910, gives the follow- 
ing figures for the live steam central station heating system of the 
Central Heating Company : — 

TABLE IV. OPERATING DATA ON STEAM HEATING 

System "A." System " B." Combined 

Lbs. steam sold — heating 167,700.000 141,700,000 309,400,000 

Lbs. steam sold — power, etc 41,300,000 5,250,000 46,550,000 



Lbs. total steam sales 209,000,000 146,950,000 355,950,000 

Electricity sold kw.-hr 4,523,200 4,523,200 

Earnings per M. lb. steam 47.5 48.2 47.8 

Earnings per M. cu. ft., space.. 2.10 3.90 3.0 

Earnings per sq. ft. radiation.. 21.4 23.7 22.6 

Number of customers 274 39 6 670 

Cu. ft. space 37,200,000 17,300,000 54,500,000 

* Sq. ft. radiation 372,400 287,800 660,200 

Ratio radiation to space 1-100 1-60 1-83 

Cost of coal per ton 2.50 2.55 2.53 

Lb. coal per M. lb. steam sold... 220 220 220 

Lb. steam sold per lb. coal 4.6 4.6 4.6 

Lb. steam sold per M. cu. ft. space 4,500 8,200 6,350 
Lb. steam sold per sq. ft. radia- 
tion 450 490 470 

Heating efficiency, per cent 37 37 37 

Steam sold in per cent, of gen- 
erated 55.2 

Steam used in auxiliaries in % of 

generated 19.2 

Line losses in % of generated 9.8 

Total sold or accounted for in % 

of generated 84.2 

Unaccounted for in % of gener- 
ated 15.8 



100.0 

• In these figures no allowance is made for hot water heaters, of 
which there are about 200 on System " B " and 100 on System " A." 

Service Rates. These rates were figured on making the cost to 
the customer about the same as his own cost had been on the 
theory that with equal cost the advantages of the service would 
attract the business. Data on 40 Tesidences indicated the average 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1441 

TABLE V. COST IN CTS. PER 1000 LBS. OF STEAM SOLD 



Plant A Plant B 

Production 32.7 38.0 

Distribution 2.9 3.1 

Sales and collections 0.4 0.4 

General 2.5 3.6 

Injuries and damages 0.1 0.1 

Insurance and taxes 4.2 4.7 

Electricity sold (credit) (15.4) 

Total of above items 42.7 34.5 

Depreciation 6.7 8.9 

Interest 11.6 16.1 

Total cost 61.0 59.5 

Profit to make total returns on in- 
vestment 8% 6.2 8.2 

Total 67.2 67.7 

Earnings (47.5) (48.2) 



Average 
34.9 
3.0 
0.4 
3.0 * 
0.1 
4.4 
(6.4 ) 

39.5 

7.6 

13.1 

eTi 

7.0 

6^2 
(47.8) 



TABLE VL COST IN CTS. PER SQ. FT. IN RADIATION 



A. 

Production 14.7 

Distribution 1.3 

Sales and collections 1.2 

General 1.1 

Injuries and damages 0.0 

Insurance and taxes 1.9 

Electricity sold (credit) 

Total of above items 19.2 

Depreciation 3.0 

Interest 5.2 

Total cost 27.4 

Profit 2.8 

Total 30.2 

Earnings (21.4) 



B. 


Average 


18.7 


16.7 


1.5 


1.4 


1.2 


1.2 


1.8 


1.4 


0.0 


0.0 


2.3 


2.1 


(7.6) 


(3.0) 


17.0 


18.5 


4.4 


3.6 


7.9 


6.3 


29.4 


28.4 


4.0 


3.3 


33.4 


31.7 


(23.7) 


(22.4) 



TABLE VII. SERVICE RATES 



Monthly bills for steam 

consumption aggregating — Gross Net 

1b. to 12,500 1b 58 52.2 

12,500 1b. to 25,000 1b 57 51.3 

25,000 1b. to 37,500 1b 56 50.4 

37,500 1b. to 50,000 1b 55 49.5 

50,000 1b. to 75,000 1b 54 48.6 

75,000 1b. to 100,000 1b 53 , 47.7 

100,000 lb. to 200,000 lb • 52 46.8 

200,000 1b. to 300,000 1b 51 45.9 

300,000 1b. to 400,000 1b 50 45.0 

400,000 lb. to 500,000 lb 49 44.1 

500,000 1b. to 600,000 1b 48 43.2 

600,000 1b. to 800,000 1b 47 42.3 

800.000 1b. to 1,000,000 lb 46 41.4 

Above 1,000,000 lb 45 40.5 

Minimum monthly charge, 5,000 lb. 



1442 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cost of coal heating- in Detroit to be about $4.60 per thousand cu. ft. 
of space heated with anthracite coal at $6.75 per ton. It appears 
that the actual earnings for System B are about 15% under this 
figure. With hard coal at $7.50 per ton, the customer's cost would 
be $5.10 per thousand cu. ft. 

System A. During- the winter of 1909 and 1910 the system served 
400,000 sq. ft. of radiating surface, and furnished steam for power 
and other purposes equal in amount to that required for about 
100,000 sq. ft. of radiation. This system was located in the busi- 
ness section and operated with live steam. 

System B is in the residential section, and uses the exhaust from 
three Mcintosh & Seymour single-cylinder engines direct connected 
to generators capable of developing 1300 kw. against the back 
pressure of the heating- system. Service is furnished for about 
300,000 sq. ft. of radiation, from Babcock & Wilcox boilers equipped 
with Jones stokers. The boiler capacity is 2,465 h.p., and the equip- 
ment includes multi-generator sets of 1,000 kw. capacity. The 
generating equipment is operated whenever there is a demand for 
exhaust steam, some of the direct current generated bein^ used in 
the district and the remainder being converted and delivered to the 
4600-volt transmission system of the Edison Illuminating Company. 
When the district demand for electricity is greater than the equiva- 
lent demand for exhaust steam, the excess current is taken from 
the transmission lines and converted ; and when the demand for 
steam exceeds the capacity of the engines, live steam is used. 

Ordinarily during the winter months it is necessary to furnish 
some live steam and during the lighting peaks, it is generally 
necessary to use some electricity from the transmission lines. 

The plant includes eight 500 h.p. Stirling boilers, Jones stokers, 
forced draft, feed-water heaters and ash-handling apparatus, with 
coal-storage bins of 1500 tons capacity equipped with cranes for 
handling coal from the alley in five-ton hopper wagons. 

Distribution Lines. 15 lbs. per sq. in. was the average pressure 
in the heating mains to handle some old 15 lb. installations and 
to do cooking and miscellaneous service. The customers having 
lower-pressure systems were required to install regulating valves 
to reduce the pressure. To furnish power to operate steam pumps, 
etc., a system of 110-Ibs. per sq. in. pressure was installed in the 
heart of the business district, and this system was designed also 
to use as a feeder for the low-pressure system. The 110-lb. service 
has proved unsatisfactory, principally for lack of a steam meter. 

Steam Loss. The condensation per hr. per sq. ft. of radiation 
was found to be 0.086 lbs. on 20 lb. lines and 0.051 lbs. on 5 lb. lines, 
some of these factors being for log construction, no data having 
been obtained on concrete construction. 

Metered Service vs. Flat- Rates for Steam Heating. The habit 
of establishing flat-rates in the early days of an industry is pretty 
thoroughly ingrained in the American public and dies hard. The 
advantage to the customer is that he knows the amount of his 
monthly bill and consequently feels at liberty to give himself and 
his family carte-blanche to use all of the service that the company 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1443 

will furnish without any worry as to the result to him personally. 
The inevitable consequence is that a great deal of valuable service 
is wasted and, theoretically at least, the unit cost to the company 
of the service actually used is higher and rates are higher. It 
does not always work out exactly in this manner in practice, for 
the reason that it is enormously difficult to establish the right 
combination of flat-rates and meter rates in such a way as to do 
justice to those parties, the consumer and the Company. An illus- 
tration of this is furnished by some interesting figures presented 
in the Electrical World in 1913 for a steam-heating central station 
in a western town of 8000 population having a considerable number 
of customers taking a total of 4,577 sq. ft. of radiation on the 
meter plan and a number of other customers taking 9,843 sq. ft. 
of radiation on the flat-rate. The ratio of the area of radiation 
per cubic contents of buildings heated was almost the same for the 
two classes of customers, being 1 to 86 in one case and 1 to 88 in 
the other. Revenue per sq. ft. of radiation for the metered cus- 
tomers was about % of that for the flat-rate customers. 

But th'e metered customers realizing that they were paying for 
what they actually used consumed rather less than half as much 
steam per sq. ft. of radiation, the respective figures being given in 
Table VIII. The data were taken from a considerable variety of 
industries that received the service. 

TABLE VIII. STEAM USED BY METERED AND UNMETERED 
CUSTOMERS 

Metered Flat rate 

customers customers 

Condensation per 1,000 cu. ft., lbs 4262 8795 

Condensation per sq. ft. of radiation. 368 775 

Ratio of radiation area to cubic contents of 

bldgs 1:86 1:88 

Revenue per 1,000 cu. ft. content of bldgs $2.80 $3.95 

Revenue per sq. ft. of radiation 0.24 0.35 

Prices of Heat from Central Heating Plants. Tables IX to XI 
give prices of heat from central h6ating plants as given by various 
authorities. 

TABLE IX. PRICES OP HEAT FROM CENTRAL HEATING 
PLANTS 

(After tables given in Proceedings of American Society of Heating 
and Ventilating Engineers for 1909.) 

State 

Colorado . 

Illinois 



, Steam , 


Hot water 


Per sq. 


Per 1,000 


Per sq. 


ft., cts. 


lbs., cts. 


ft., cts. 


65 






24 


'45' 





25 






28 






25 




15 


22.5 


.... 


17.5 

15 

20 



1444 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



state 



Indiana 



Per sq. 
ft., cts. 



-Steam- 



Iowa 



Minnesota 
Missouri . 



Montana . , 
New York 



60 



North Dakota 
Ohio 



Pennsylvania 



Rhode Island 
Wisconsin . . 



25 



34 
33.3 



Hot water 
Per 1,000 Per sq. 



lbs 



, cts. 



50 

50 

42.5 

48 

60 

40 



ft., cts. 
20 
18 
15.5 
12.5 
15 
17 
18 
20 
15 



25 





15 




15 




20 




17.5 


50 




■46" 




'66" 






25 


. . . . 


25 



TABLE X. 



PRICES OF HEATING SERVICE FROM CENTRAL 
STEAM PLANTS 



(After table in Bui. 373, U. S. Geological Survey) 



















b.2 


1" 






bom 
— 1 re 




G 

•ad 
1-^ 




G 

s 
Is 


1 


1 


H 


1,100,000 


58,080 


11,000 





55 


$2.23 


50 


2 


P 


200,000 


10,560 


4,200 


4,000 


15 


1.00 


24* 


3 


L 


138,000 


12,000 


2,150 


2,800 


17 


1.70 


50 


4 


L 


124,000 


31,680 


1,600 


705 


4.5 


2.50 


42.5 


5 


P 


88,611 


8,777 


950 


1,050 


4 


2.63 


40 


6 


H 


83,032 


7,920 


750 





5 


1.75 


56 


7 


L 


70,000 


4,000 


1,500 


250 


10 


4.60 


60 


8 


P 


56,000 


13,200 


1,500 


1,200 


2-6 


1.00 


25* 


9 


P 


50.000 


3,000 


1,000 


1,500 


7.5 


4.00 


60 


10 


P 


45,000 


4,000 


600 


800 


55 


1.90 


25* 


11 


P 


38,267 


700 


400 


200 


5.5 


2.10 


25* 


12 


P 


35.000 


2,640 


600 


400 


6-15 


1.30 


25* 


13 


P 


30,000 


3,960 


725 


700 


5 


3.75 


60 



H — Heating only. P — Heat, light and power, 
light. * Per sq. ft. radiating surface. 



L — Heat and 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1445 



TABLE XI. 



PRICES OP HEATING FROM CENTRAL HOT 
WATER PLANTS. 



(After table in Bui. 373, U. S. Geological Survey) 







J< 












tl 






cd- 


43 iJ 






c ,^ 




^■"g 


1 


li 


M 
P 




s ft 


SJiia 


0^ 

il 


m (o 
n, 


£«2 


1 


p 


1180,000* 
1270,000t 


15,840*1 
31,680t| 


2,770 


4,100 


8*-50t 


$0.90 


25* 15t 


2 


p 


400,000 




1,800 




30 


2.50 


20.0 


3 


p 


160,000 


4Y,526 


2,800 


3'666 


45 


2.20 


15.0 


4 


p 


150,000 




2,800 


3,200 


6 


. . . 1 


22.5* 75. 5t 


5 


p 


130,000 


34,006 


1,000 


570 


70 


1.75 


15.5 


6 


L 


120,000 


10,560 


1,720 


2,500 


48 


1.35 


18.0 


7 


P 


115,000 


18,480 


800 


800 


60 


2.20 


17.0 


8 


P 




17,500 


400 


375 


88 


1.47 


20.0 


9 


P 


iVo',666 


21,120 


1,400 


550 


70 


1.30 


15.0 


10 


P 


100,00 


58,080 


1,100 


1,250 


60 


1.20 


15.0 


11 


L 


85,000 




800 


425 


45-60 


1.70 


18.0 


12 


P 


80,000 


I'o'seo 


1,100 


750 


30 


2.25 


20.0 


13 


L 


70,658 


31,680 


600 


800 


60 


2.50 


20.0 


14 


L 


70,000 


12,000 


800 


515 


50 


2.61 


15.0 


15 


L 


61,000 


8,800 


400 


150 


54 3 


1-2.12 


20.0 


16 


P 


60,000 


15,840 


400 




40 


1.12 


12.5 


17 


P 


30,000 


7,000 


950 


1,666 


40 


1.75 


17.5 


18 


P 


20,000 


4,000 


300 


250 


30 


1.95 


15.0 


19 


P 


10,000 


4,000 


600 


800 


55 


1.90 


25.0 



P — Power, light and heat. 
* Steam, f Hot water. 



L — Light and heat. 



Comparison of Metered and Unmetered Service. J. H. Pepper in 
Electrical World states that from Table XII it will be seen that 
customers operating atmospheric systems on a meter basis are by 
far the most profitable to the central station. In comparing the 
steam quantities used Mr. Pepper pointed out the fact that the 



TABLE XII. STEAM-HEATING SERVICE FOR 26 CUSTOMERS 
(SEASON 1914-15) 

k 

m 



* Atmospheric system 

meter 2,940,975 

Other sy .stem meter ..1,557,786 
Flat-rate, one-pipe 

system 9 45,061 



4^ c 

d-2 



©a 



rt C aj 






X! S 



oft 



=^5 



40,265 12,436,000 1 to 73 
20,517 11,156,000 1 to 75 



<i> ctO 

rt C C cS C u 
+^ O • -^ O tij 

4.228 308 
7,161 543 



13,332 13.210,000 1 to 70 13,977 990 



* Mean temperature during heating season 39.30 deg. F, 



1446 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA . 

flat-rate, one pipe customers regulate their room temperatures by 
opening or closing windows, while those with atmospheric systems 
use the radiator valves to regulate the flow of steam to their 
radiators. 

The one-pipe customers and those designated as having " other 
systems " are not receiving the best of service in spite of the fact 
that 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. pressure is being maintained at the services. 
The customers with atmospheric systems require but from 3 oz. to 
6 oz. pressure to ^receive good service. The atmospheric system 
employs no cooling coil, yet the condensate going to the sewer 
varies in temperature between 90 deg. F. and 110 deg. F. Other sys- 
tems with cooling coils deliver the condensate to the services at tem- 
peratures ranging between 160 deg. and 200 deg. F. 

TABLE XIII. COST OF STEAM IN HEATING PLANTS 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 

Number of days 15 4 5 4 46 151 

Steam gen., 1,000 lbs 1611 362 485 124 10,310 36,890 

Tons of coal, gross 117 27.6 30.3 11.3 783 2540 

Rate of evaporation 6.15 5.84 7.13 4.94 5.89 6.31 

Av. outside temp 30.7 34.2 39.6 37.0 34.8 40.9 

Boiler capacity h.p 384 600 600 800 1200 900 

Max. boiler h.p. delivered. 280 300 330 150 600 850 

Av. boiler h.p. delivered.. 100 80 150 50 235 350 

COST PER 1,000 LBS. OF STEAM 

Coal $0,191 $0,201 $0,165 $0,238 $0,203 $0,187 

Labor 049 .085 .079 .251 .052 .056 

Ash removal 010 .011 .009 .021 .008 .007 

Water (makeup) 007 .001 

El. cur. (forced dr.) 014 .005 .007 .021 .008 .006 

El. cur. (b.f. pump) 007 

Supplies 004 .011 .006 .002 .004 .006 

Repairs and misc. 004 .004 .002 .001 .003 .002 

Total $0,272 $0,317 $0,275 $0,535 $0,285 $0,265 

Fixed charge on investment .029 .051 .054 .084 .044 .033 

Total cost per 1,000 lb.$0. 301 $0,368 $0,329 $0,619 $0,329 $0,298 

New York City Heating Costs. A report of the Station Operating 
Committee, National District Heating Association (1915) shows 
operating costs for heating 6 New York City buildings given in 
Table XIII, As all are largely heating plants, the load is subject 
to all the vagaries of the weather. The extremely variable loads 
of the early spring and fall, with the excessive standby losses and 
transient labor force, are in part responsible for the low evapora- 
tion. The high cost of steam per 1000 lbs. does not mean a high 
total cost for the season. Out of the 5040 hrs. (Oct. 1 to Apr. 30) 
making up the nominal New York heating season, steam is actually 
needed from 3,000 to 3,500 hrs., in buildings occupied from 12 to 
18 hrs. daily. This small total consumption results in a low total 
cost for the season in spite of the unit cost. 

In several instances where the results cover a short period, 
the apparatus for weighing coal and water had but recently been 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1447 

installed. Such tests do not, of course, represent the performance 
throughout the year, but do convey an idea of the possible economy. 
In all the plants No. 3 buckwheat coal delivered at $2.50 a ton is 
burned with a balance draft. 

No. 1 is a 25-story office building, covering a plot about 9000 
sq. ft. The boiler plant, consisting of two Heine water-tube boilers 
operated at 70 lbs. pressure, supplies steam for cooking, heating 
and hot-water service. The plant is shut down during the summer 
and the steam for cooking purchased. 

No. 2 is a large, 12-story loft building containing about 4,000,000 
cu. ft. Steam is used for manufacturing in large amounts through- 
out the year, 24 hrs. a day. The boiler plant is made up of three 
fire-tube units. 

No. S is a new office building 25 stories high, with a volume of 
about 6,500,000 cu. ft. The equipment for heating and hot-water 
service consists of two Erie City water-tube boilers, operated at 
30 lbs. pressure. The boiler-feed, vacuum and sump pumps are 
operated by electric motors. The boilers are shut down during 
the nonheating season and hot water is supplied by a small heater. 

No. 4 is a loft building in the old commercial section of New 
York. This building has only recently had supervisory service. 
The figures show extravagance in the labor costs and the use of 
forced draft in burning the coal. This case illustrates the too. 
frequent condition where continuity of service is the only consid- 
eration given the power plant. 

No. 5 is a large department store of about 15,000,000 cu. ft. con- 
tents. Four B. & W. water-tube boilers supply steam for cooking, 
refrigeration, operation of a cash-tube system, hot water and 
heating. 

No. 6 receives steam from a boiler plant 750 ft. distant. The 
load is fairly constant day and night during the heating season. 
The plant is operated (only when heating is required) by three 
B. & W. units at 100 lbs. pressure. The boiler-feed water comes 
from a heater at a temperature well over 200 deg. F. The load 
conditions and the general design for this plant permit fairly 
satisfactory operation, as may be seen from the costs. 

Cost of Making Steam for Building Heat. Some comparative 
data on the cost of operating heating plants taken from the oper- 
ating records of a number of installations in New York City were 
presented by George W. Martin in a paper before the American 
Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers and printed in Elec- 
trical "World, Feb. 26, 1916. A summary of the results of tests 
made during the past summer on a 150 h.p. return-tubular boiler 
using different grades of anthracite coal available in New York 
City is given in Table XIV. These results show the lowest cost 
for generating 1000 lbs. of steam when using No. 3 buckwheat coal. 

All the plants are largely for heating, hence the load is subject 
to the vagaries of the weather. 

In most of the cases discussed the boiler grate?? were originally 
installed for burning No. 1 buckwheat with natural draft. The 
change in the setting for burning No. 3 buckwheat involved the 



1448 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XIV, RESULTS OF COMPARATIVE COAL TESTS 

Soft 
and 

No. 3 No. 2 No. 1 No. 3 
buck- buck- buck- Pea buck- 
wheat wheat wheat coal wheat 
Moisture in coal as received. . 6.9 8.0 4.8 3.4 8.3 

Volatile per lb. dry coal 7.9 9.3 7.2 7.1 12.6 

Fixed carbon 76.9 75.3 75.9 74.2 75.4 

Ash 15.4 15.4 16.9 18.7 12.0 

B.t.u 12,423 12,080 12,140 11,961 12,944 

Length of tests, hours 24 24 24 24 24 

Total dry coal consumed, lbs. 4,800 5,514 5,171 5,531 4,400 

Per cent, ash and refuse 18.6 17.1 17.0 16.8 14.3 

Total water fed to boilers, lbs.42,988 46,275 46,335 51,395 45,045 

Factor of evaporation 1.08 1.074 1.077 1.083 1.076 

Equivalent water from and 

at 212 deg 46.427 49,699 49,903 55,712 48,468 

H.p. developed 56.1 60.0 60.3 67 58.5 

Builders' rating 150 150 150 150 150 

Per cent, of builders' rating 

developed 37.4 40 40 44.8 39 

Efficiency of boiler and grate 75.6 72.3 77.1 84.8 82.5 

Cost of coal per net ton $2.22 $3.15 $3.65 $4.40 $3.15 

Fuel cost of 1000 lbs. steam, 

cts 13.25 20.4 21.4 23.5 16.8 

Fuel cost from and at 212 deg. 12.26 19.0 19.8 21.7 15.6 

building of a hollow bridge wall with a cast-iron air box and 
damper set in the front of the wall at the back of the ash pit. 
A motor-driven blower was set outside the boiler at one end of 
the bridge wall, a hand-controlled rheostat being used to vary 
the speed of the blower-motor. The grates installed were of the 
dumping type and contain about 10 per cent, of air space. The 
cost of the installation of grates, motor-driven blower, rheostat 
and rebuilding the bridge wall averaged $3 per boiler h.p. No. 3 
buckwheat coal, bought in wholesale quantities, costs, delivered in 
the bunker, between $2.35 and $2.50 a net ton. The coal is from 
the Scranton district of the Pennsylvania anthracite region and 
runs from 12,300 to 12,900 B.t.u. and from 16 to 13% ash. A poor 
grade of No. 3 buckwheat, it is stated, has no advantage over a 
better grade of No. 1 or No. 2 buckwheat, so that unless a good 
quality of coal can be assured it is useless to attempt economies 
by burning the smallest size of anthracite, even when it is mixed 
with soft coal. 

Rates for Central-Station Hot-Water Heating Allowed by the 
Public Service Commission of Ohio. The following rates were 
ordered into effect as of Sept. 15, 1913. 

For indirect radiation 40% of these rates are to be added. 

Amount of radiation Cost of radiation per 

Installed season, per sq. ft. 

to 500 $0.20 

500 to 2000 0.1888 

2000 to 5000 0.1777 

5000 or over 0.1666 

Rule of the Commission for Determining the Sq. Ft. Radiation 
Required to Heat a Building: Determine the area of the exposed 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1449 

walls of the building and from this subtract the area of windows 
and door openings (frame measurements). Divide this remainder 
by the wall constant given in Table XV and to the quotient add the 
area of window and door openings (frame measurements). Multi- 
ply this sum by 75 and to the product add the cubic contents of 
the room. Multiply the sum last obtained by the temperature 
constant In Table XV. The result will be the sq. ft. of cast-iron 
radiation required to heat a building of good construction. Any 
room or space having an opening which may communicate with 
the rooms to be heated must be included in the measurement for 
space heated, whether radiation be installed or not. 

TABLE XV. WALL AND TEMPERATURE CONSTANTS 

For % -in. wall 1 

For 2-in. wall 2 

For 4-in. wall 3 

For 6- to 9-in. wall 5 

For 9- to 10-in. wall 7 

For 13- to 27-in. wall 8 

For 65 deg. F 0.0075 

For 70 deg. F 0.0082 

For 75 deg. F 0.009 

The rule is for ideal conditions and to the radiation requirement 
determined by its use, there must be added a percentage to provide 
for exposed locations, bad construction, insufficient or improper 
repairs and other conditions which would make the minimum 
radiation requirement inadequate to keep the building comfortably 
warm. For these conditions which cannot be ascertained by gen- 
eral rule add from 5 to 25% to the minimum for ideal conditions. 

It is specified that the heating company must furnish hot water 
in sufficient quantity to heat the building to a temperature of 70 
deg. F. in the coldest weather, provided that sufficient radiation 
be installed by the consumer to maintain the desired temperature. 
Evidence of the sufficiency of the quantity of water shall be that 
the temperature of the hot water has not dropped more than 
30 deg. F. while passing through the consumer's heating system, 
as shown by not less than four tests taken 15 mins. apart in suc- 
cession, the tests to be made at the point of entrance of service to 
the building. 

Surface area of all hot-water pipes installed in the basement 
or elsewhere not included in the measurement for radiation will 
be charged for as radiation, unless covered with at least 1-in. 
covering. 

This decision prescribing the rules given above was handed down 
in the case with the Toledo Railway and Light Co., and quoted in 
Power, June 17, 1913. 

Comparative Cost of Heating a 25-ft. Car, 45 Ft. Over Ail, by 
Hot Water and by Electricity, Based on Operating Conditions on 
a 32- Mile Interurban Railway. The following figures were con- 
tained in a letter of Daniel W. Smith, president of The Peter Smith 
Heater Co., addressed to the Electric Railway Journal, May 15. 
1909. 



1450 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XVI. COMPARATIVE COST OF HEATING CAR 

Hot Elec- 

Conditions water tricity 

Weight of car with load, tons 28 28 

Schedule speed, miles per hr 20 20 

Car-miles per day per car 240 240 

Cost of heating equipment installed $175 $75 

Weights of heating equipment, installed, lbs 1400 225 

Cost of electric power (at power station) per kw. $.0135 $.0135 

Watt-hours at power station, per ton-mile 125 125 

Heating season, days 180 180 

Hours per day heating 18 18 

Moving car equipment per ton-mile (at power 

station) $0.0017 $0.0017 

Moving heating equipment during heating sea- 
son, per day $0,306 $0.0459 

Weight of heating equipment during summer, lbs. 840 225 
Moving heating equipment during summer day, 

per day $0.18 $0.0459 

Heater coal consumed per day, lbs 55 

Cost heater coal per day at $7.50 per ton $0,206 

Attendance for the season $9 $2.70 

Interest and depreciation at 10% heating equip- 
ment $17.50 $7.50 

Repairs figured at, per cent 3 2 

Cost of repairs $5.25 $1.50 

Increased feeders required 2.70 20 

Yearly cost feeders, interest and depreciation, at 

71/2% $6.06 $37.50 

Maximum current capacity of electric heater, 

amp 18 

Average k.w. at station, electric heater 5 

Cost electricity per day, electric heater $1.21 

Summary : 

Interest and depreciation on heater equipment $17. 5u $7.50 

Repairs of heater equipment 5.25 1.50 

Attendance 9.00 2.70 

Interest and depreciation on extra feeders. . . . 6.06 37.50 

Elec. hauling heating equipment for one year 88.70 16.75 

Cost of coal consumed in one year 37.08 .... 

Cost of electricity used in heater for one year 217.80 

Yearly cost $163.59 $283.75 

Difference in favor of hot-water heaters $120.16 



These tests were made by the Green Bay Traction Company, 
Green Bay, Wis., and are based on a small interurban car running 
at a schedule speed of 20 miles per hr. 

Comparative Costs of Car Heating. The following by Messrs. 
Thorn, Benedict, and Clark was published in Electric Railway 
Journal, Oct. 14, 1911. To bring out clearly the comparison In 
costs of heating a car by the 3 modern systems, the accompanying 
estimate may be of Interest. The figures in each case are based, 
in general, on results obtained in practice and are considered fair 
and reliable. 

Assumptions. 32-ft. ear body; heating season, 145 days; lowest 
temperature, about zero ; municipal requirements, 50 deg. F. ; cost 
of power, 1.4 cts. per kw.-hr. at the trolley; cost of coal, $7.75 
per ton. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1451 

Under the conditions assumed, the relative total economy of 
the 3 principal heating systems is as follows : Hot air system, 
first ; hot water, second ; and electric, third. 

In figuring the power consumption of electric heaters the fol- 
lowing method will probably give the most accurate results. Ob- 
tain from the weather bureau temperature readings for each winter 
for several years. Plot a curve showing variation of temperature 
for each day of heating season. Find what point of heat is carried 
for the different temperatures and then a power curve can be 
plotted from which the average k.w. per day can be readily obtained. 

In the use of hot-water or hot-air heaters there is a tendency 
on the part of the car crew to use less coal than would have to be 
used if the cars were kept at a uniform temperature during the 
time they are in service, where with electric heaters the tendency 
is to put on 3 points Vv^hen 2 points would suffice. This gives rise 
to false ideas of the relative costs of the various heating systems. 

In the installation of electric heaters it is preferable to have a 
comparatively large number of heaters rather than a few, even 
though the power consumption is on the same basis, on account 
of the better distribution of the heat. For localities where the 
temperature reaches zero or lower it is well to have about 4.5 
watts per cu. ft. of car body, otherwise it may be difficult to keep 
the cars comfortable when low temperatures prevail. 

When a practical, low-cost heater regulator is brought out and 
comes into general use the cost of electric heating will be very 
largely reduced. Tests have been made which indicate that the 
saving in power by the use of thermostat regulators will be in 
excess of 50%. 

The cost of car heating would be somewhat reduced and the 
comfort of passengers considerably increased if storm sashes were 
more generally used. The difference in temperature on some cars 
in the Middle West with the same heating equipment — one with 
storm sashes, one without, and running together on the street — 
w^as about 9 deg. F. 

The maintenance of heating systems would be greatly reduced 
if more care were given to the installation of new equipment. This 
is particularly true of electric heaters. 

TABL»E XVII. TOTAL COST FOR ONE YEAR CHARGEABLE 
TO CAR HEATING 

Electric Hot water Hot air 

heater heater heater 

Cost of power $137.03 $8.22 

Repairs and maintenance 1.09 $4.35 2.90 

Interest and depreciation 8.80 18.75 18.60 

Coal 47.76 47.76 

Labor of attendance , . . 8.70 8.70 

Hauling (4 cts. per lb. per year).. 20.00 60.00 20.00 

Insurance charge 12.00 12.00 

Total cost per car $166.92 $151.56 $118.18 

The above figures are based on the following data and assump- 
tions : 



Hot water 
heater 


Hot air 
heater 


$125 


$155 


5% and 10% 
1500 lbs. 


5% and 7% 
500 lbs. 


85 lbs. 


85 lbs. 
0.3 kw. 


3c. per day 

$6,000 


2c. per day 
$6,000 


$1,500 


$1,500 


13 Va 


13 Va 


6c, per day 
145 days 


6c. per day 
145 days 


10c. per $100 


10c. per $100 



1452 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Electric 
heater 

First cost, installed $80 

Interest and depre- 
ciation 5% and 6% 

Weight installed... 500 lbs. 

Coal consumption 

per day 

Power consumption 5.0 kw. aver- 
age for heat- 
ing- season 

♦Repairs and main- 
tenance %c. per day 

Cost of car $6,000 

Investment in barns 

per car $1,500 

Hours per day per 

car 13% 

* Labor of attend- 
ance 

Heating season. ... 145 days 

Extra insurance 
over electric heat- 
ers on barns 

Extra insurance 
over electric heat- 
ers on cars 17%c. per$100 17%c. per$100 

* Per day of heating season. 

Cost of Heating Cars by Electric Heaters Compared with Coa!, 

as determined by tests made by the Cleveland JRailway and the 
City Street Railroad Commission printed in Electric Railway Jour- 
nal, June 8, 1912. 



TABLE XVIII. ESTIMATED COST OF POWER FOR ELECTRIC 

HEATER FOR TRAIL CARS ON BASIS OF ONE CAR 

PER YEAR 

Maximum demand at car from test (500 volts) 11.00 kw. 

Maximum demand at d. c. bus substation (90% efficiency 

of distribution) 12.23 kw. 

Maximum demand at generator bus (89% efficiency of 

transmission and conversion) 13.76 kw. " 

12.23 kw. for 2^^ hrs. requires 8.16 kw. of substation capacity, 50% 
overload allowed. 

Investment in substation, 8.16 X $25 — $204.00. 
($25 per kw. of capacity installed.) 

Fixed charges on substation equipment, $204 X 10% = $20.40". 

(Includes 5% interest, 2.52% amortization, 1.36% taxes — 9.88% or 
10%) used.) 

Investment in distributing system is $41.70 per kw. of maximum 
demand. 

Investment in distributing system per car, $41.70 X 12.23. . . .$510 

Fixed charges per car year, $510 X 10% 51 

Maintenance of distributing system per kw. of maximum de- 
mand per year 2 

Maintenance of distributing system per car 24.46 

Consolidated car heaters require 4661 kw.-hr. at car or at 

generator bus. 4661 ^ .80 =: 5830 at $0.0038 22.15 

Substation operation and maintenance, 5190 X $0.0003 1.56 

Peter Smith forced draft heater required 4172 kw.-hr. at car. 
or 4172 — .80 — 5220 kw.-hr. at generator bus, 5220 X 
$0.0038 19.80 

Substation operations and maintenance, 4640 X $0.0003 1.39 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1453 

Consoli- Peter 

dated Smith 

electric electric 

heater heater 

Summary of power cost. 

Demand charge for power, 13.76 kw. for 6 months $82.50 $82.50 

Energy charge 22.15 19.80 

Substation operation and maintenance 1.56 1.39 

Fixed charge on substation 20.40 20.40 

Fixed charge on distributing system 51.00 51.00 

Maintenance of distributing system 24.46 24.46 

$202.07 $199.55 

Peter Smith coal heater : 

Fixed charge, 182 kw. at $16.22 $2.95 

Substation operation and maintenance, 148-kw.-hr. at $0.0003. .04 
Energy charge, 166 kw.-hr. at $0.0038 63 

Total $3.62 

" Three types of heaters were tested, namely, straight electric 
heaters, the forced ventilation electric heater and the forced ven- 
tilation coal heater. 

" The tests were made upon 3 of the railway company's 900-type 
cars, having an over-all length of 52 ft., the front vestibule being 
inclosed and the rear vestibule open. Each type of heater was 
installed in a separate car. The tests were made with the cars 
end to end on a track in the shops of the railway company. Two 
side ventilator sashes in the front of the car and two in the rear 
were open during the entire test. The straight electric heater sys- 
tem manufactured by the Consolidated Car Heating Company was 
installed on car No. 909 and consisted of 26 heaters, installed 
underneath car seats, 1 main switch cabinet, 1 magnetic .switch, 
1 thermostat and 1 snap switch. The forced ventilation electric 
heater, manufactured by the Peter Smith Heater Company, in- 
stalled on one car, consisted of a compact electric heating unit in a 
sheet steel housing, equipped with a Sturtevant multivane blower, 
size C, direct-connected to a 220 volt, 8 amp. series-wound, ball- 
bearing motor. The cold air taken from underneath the car is 
blown over the heating coils and distributed from a hot-air duct 
extending the length of the car body. This heater in service would 
be installed with an interrupter and thermostat to regulate the 
temperature of the car automatically. The forced ventilation coal 
heater installed on another car was also manufactured by the Peter 
Smith Heater Company and is similar to the heater described above, 
except that the heat is generated by the direct combustion of coal, 
the cold air being blown over the combustion chamber. 

" The tests run on the 2 electric heaters .show that in order to 
maintain a temperature within the car 41.9 deg. F. above the sur- 
rounding air it is necessary to. expend about 10,900 watts, or 267 
watts for each degree rise of temperature. 

"The mean temperature of Cleveland for 40 years for each of 
the winter months was obtained from the L^nited States Weather 
Bureau, and the number of degrees of heating required to main- 
tain a temperature of 55 deg. F. inside the car was determined. 



1454 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It was also assumed that the current must be turned on the 
heaters a sufficient length of time to raise the temperature to 45 
deg, F. before the car goes into service, also that the car remains 
in service 2 hrs. in the morning and 2 hrs. in the evening." 

In the comparison of costs of electric and coal heaters, the con- 
tract under which the Cleveland Railway purchases energy was 
used for determining the cost of the electric heaters. 

In building the fire in the coal heater, the following material 
was used: Kindling, 1.76 lbs.; ash wood, 4.25 lbs.; kerosene oil, 
0.312 lbs. ; shavings, 0.004 lbs. ; coal, 35.29 lbs. 

In the general summary, each heater was charged with interest 
at 5%, taxes at 1.36%, and repairs and maintenance at 1 ct. a day. 
Depreciation was charged at 7% in the case of electric heaters and 
10% in the case of coal heater. The latter was also charged with 
the following special costs per year : 

Coal $21.00 

Fuel and labor of kindling fire thirty times 4.09 

Labor of attendance 8.76 

Removing and reinstalling heater each season 1.00 

Transportation and stoi'age in summer 50 

Value of space occupied by heater 11.16 

The final figures showed the Peter Smith coal heater to be far 
more economical than either electric heater. 

In regard to weight and space occupied and a general summary 
the report says : 

" The weights of the various heaters installed complete are as 
follows: Consolidated, 457 lbs.; Peter Smith electric, 350 lbs.; 
Peter Smith coal heater, 544 lbs. 

" The cost of power for handling the equipment for this trailer 
service amounts to 2.18 cts. per lb. per year. The Consolidated 
electric heating equipment is carried throughout the year, while 
with the Peter Smith forced ventilation heating equipments the 
heating duct alone is carried throughout the year, the heater being 
removed and stored during the summer season. 

" Either of the electric heaters installed in a car would be placed 
under the seats, while the coal heater during 6 months of the 
year occupies the space of one seat in the car ; the value of this 
space is chargeable against this heater. In order to obtain this 
value it was assumed that the standing capacity of the car is 
one-half as valuable as the seating capacity. Thus in this car, 
seating 60 passengers and providing standing room for 60 more, 
the value of one seat space is one-ninetieth of the value of the 
car space. On a basis of 38 miles per day for a trailer 156 days 
per year, the mileage per heating season is 5920, which at 17 cts. 
per car mile operating cost amounts to $1006.40. Therefore $11.16 
is the value of the space occupied by the coal heater during the 
winter season. 

Summary. " Each of the 3 types of heaters has its individual 
advantages. The electric heaters afford the advantage of cleanli- 
ness, convenience and ready means of obtaining automatic regula- 
tion of the car temperature, The Peter Smith electrjc heater hag 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1455 

the important additional advantage of providing a forced ventila- 
tion of about 12,000 cu. ft. of fresh warm air per hour. On the 
Peter Smith electric heater, however, no means were provided for 
automatically cutting of£ the current of the heating unit in case 
of failure of the blower motor, which would probably mean a 
burn-out of the heating unit. Both of the electric heaters have the 
disadvantage of being unable to heat the car properly in extreme 
weather. The curves show that in zero weather it would be im- 
possible to maintain a temperature of more than 40 deg. F. inside 
the car. With the coal heater a rise of over 48 deg. was obtained 
easily without any attempt at crowding the heater. The excep- 
tionally high cost of power for heating the tripper cars electrically 
at rush-hour periods of the day for the climatic conditions existing 
in Cleveland renders the operation of electrical heaters extremely 
uneconomical if not prohibitive." 

Cost of Car Heating by Electricity and by Hot Water in the 
Standard Cars of the Chicago City Railway Company. In a book- 
let issued by the Chicago City Railway Company descriptive of its 
new standard car, the following data concerning the cost of hot- 
water and electric heating of cars are given. These figures were 
used in deciding upon the method of heating to be employed in the 
new cars. The results show 7 cts. per day per car in favor of 
electric heating, and this method was adopted : 

Average hours per car per day, 9. 

Average current per car, 12 amps. 

Weight of electric heaters, 360 lbs. 

Weight of hot-water heaters, 1454 lbs. 

Coal consumed by hot-water heaters, 80 lbs. 

Price of coal, $8 per ton. 

Price of electric heaters, $80 per car. 

Price of hot-water heaters, $140 per car. 

Repairs on electric heaters, 5 cts. per car per day. 

Repairs on hot-water heaters, 10 cts. per car per day. 

Attendance on hot-water heaters, 10 cts. per car per day. 

Average miles per car per day, 100 miles. 

Average heating season, 150 days. 

Upon this assumption, without going .through the calculations in 
detail, the result may be summarized as follows : 

Electric Heaters. Cost per day of heating season using electric 
heaters : 

Cents 

12 amps., 9 hours = 54 kw.-hrs. per day, at .992 cts 53.6 

Interest at 57., plus depreciation at 7%. on $80, cost price of 

heaters 365 days, divided by 150 days heating season.... 6.4 
Hauling dead weight, 360 lbs., 100 miles per day, 365 days per 

year, at 0.95 cts. per day of heating season 4.2 

Repairs at 5 cts. per car per day 5.0 

Interest 57^, plus depreciation Z% on additional copper re- 
quired for electric heaters per day of heating season 3.8 

Total cost per car per day 73.0 

Hot-Water Heaters. Cost per day of heating season using hot- 
water heaters : 



1456 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cents 

80 lbs. coal at $8 per ton 32.0 

Interest at 5%, plus depreciation at 7%, $140 11.2 

Hauling dead weight, 1454 lbs., 100 miles per day, 365 days in 

year, per day of heating season 16.8 

Repairs 10.0 

Attendance , 10.0 

Total cost per car day 80.0 

Cost of Car Heating. Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book, 
Table XIX, compiled by Mr. McElroy from data of the Albany 
Railway Company. 

Average fuel cost on Albany Railway, per amp. hr. = .241 cts. 

Average total cost for fuel, labor, oils, waste, and packings per 
amp.-hr. = .423 cts. 



TABLE -XIX. COST OF FUEL PER HOUR FOR HEATING A 

CAR WITH ELECTRIC HEATERS WITH COAL AT $2 

PER 2,000 LBS. 

Position of switch 

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5 th 

Amperes equal 

2.14 2.88 6.88 8.09 12.0 

cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. 

Simple, high speed condensing 0.43 0.58 1.40 1.62 2.41 

Simple, low speed condensing 40 .54 1.30 1.51 2.24 

Compound, high speed condensing. .39 .52 1.27 1.47 2.20 

Compound, low speed condensing. .36 .48 1.17 1.36 2.03 

AVERAGE COST PER DAY FOR STOVES Cents 

33 lbs. coal at $4.55 per ton $0,075 

Repairs 005 

Dumping and removing coal and ashes, coaling up and kin- 
dling fire, including cost of kindling and part of clean- 
ing car 100 

Removing stoves for summer, installing for winter, repairing 

head linings, repainting, etc., av. per day 0125 

Total $0.1925 

Cost of House Heating by Electricity. Frederick A. Osborn in 
Electrical World, Dec. 23, 1916, states: The house was ordinarily 
heated by an 024 Standard hot-air furnace. For the past 3 years 
a high grade of lump coal had been used, costing for the present 
year $7.75 per ton in the basement bin. The average cost of 
heating the house, including the wood used in the fireplace, had 
been about $75 a year for the last three years. 

All the rooms heated were equipped with the wire-resistance 
convector type of electric heater. There were five American heat- 
ers and two Hot Point heaters. In the dining room a hot-water 
radiator to which was attached an induction-type electric heater, 
was used during a part of the time. 

The living room, with a volume of 2.400 cu. ft., 'had two 3,000- 
watt heaters, with three heat controls. The maximum wattage 
was 2.5 watts per cu. ft. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1457 

The study, a room of 1,300 cu. ft., had one 600-watt heater. 
The power taken per cu. ft. was 0.46 watt. The temperature of the 
study seldom was above 64 deg., and this was by choice. 

The dining- room has a volume of 1410 cu. ft. It was supplied 
with one 2000-watt heater, and for a part of the time a 2500-watt 
water radiator was used. The maximuni demand was 1.4 watts 
per cu. ft. 

The kitchen and pantry, with a volume of 500 cu. ft., had a 
1000-watt heater. This heater was for most of the time on the 
low heat, taking about 300 watts, the gas range when the oven 
was in use furnishing the necessary heat. 

The south bedroom, volume 1320 cu. ft, had one 2000-watt 
heater. This room is used also as a sewing room, and is warmed 
nearly every afternoon. 

The bathroom on the north, with a volume of 350 cu. ft., was 
supplied with one 1000-watt heater, kept on the low heat most of 
the time. 

As the entire test was carried out with one type of heater, the 
question will naturally rise, may not some other type of electric 
heater be more efficient than the type used?. Electric heating 
differs from all other systems of heating in that all electric heaters 
of the same wattage are equally efficient. They will all deliver the 
same number of heat units to the room. In furnace heating the 
amount of heat escaping up the chimney depends upon the furnace, 
the method of firing it and other factors not constant. The heat 
given to the room is that which is not lost in the furnace, the 
flues and the transmitting pipes from furnace to the room. Coal 
furnaces deliver from 40% to 60% of the heat in the coal to the 
rooms. 

Electric heaters, on the other hand, deliver practically 100% of 
the heat to the rooms. For each kw.-hr. of electrical energy put 
into any type of electric heater, the same amount of heat is fur- 
nished. There may be some minor advantages in using one type 
of electric heater in preference to another type, but this advantage 
never consists in getting more or less heat units from a kw.-hr. of 
electrical energy. This fact needs to be kept constantly in mind 
when discussing the advantages of electric heaters. 

Throughout the entire test a recording thermometer giving con- 
tinuous readings of the temperature was kept in the same position 
in the living room. 

The outside temperature was taken from the recording ther- 
mometers at the university after a recording thermometer at the 
house gave evidence that the outside temperature at the house and 
the university did not differ by more than a degree. 

The dining room thermometer as well as the one in the study 
were used in each part of the test to determine the similar heating 
conditions under the two systems, and when this was established 
they were read only occasionally. « 

This test was begun Dec. 1 and continued until Jan. 19. During 
this period Seattle had the coldest weather of the season. The 
coal used was carefully weighed, part of the time daily, and later 



1458 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



TABLE XX. TEST WITH HOT-AIR FURNACE 



Average 
outside 
"Week of tempera- 

ture, deg. 
F. 

December 1-8 49.2 

December 8-15 43.5 

December 15-22 44.0 

December 22-29 39.5 

December 29-January 5 29.4 

January 5-12 33.0 

January 12-19 29.0 



Average living room Coal 
temperature con- 

8 a.m to 10 10 p.m. to 8 sump- 
p.m., deg. a.m., deg. tion, lbs. 



67.7 


62.8 


631 


65.7 


60.0 


667 


65.8 


61.1 


560 


65.8 


61.0 


660 


66.0 


59.0 


780 


65.0 


58.0 


755 


67.0 


58.0 


837 



the coal for two or three days' burning was weighed at one time. 
In Table XX is found the record of the test. 

The average outside temperature for the seven weeks was 38.2 
deg. F., the day room temperature was 66.1 deg. F. and the night 
room temperature was 59.9 deg. F. During the day the room 
was maintained at an average temperature of 27.9 deg. i-. above 
the average outside temperature. The total coal consumption was 
4890 lbs., or an average of 698 lbs. per week. The total cost of 
the coal at $7.75 a ton was $18.95, or an average of $2.42 per week. 

This part of the test began on P^'eb. 1 and continued until March 
14. The detailed record appears in Table XXI. 



TABLE XXI. TEST WITH ELECTRIC HEATING 

"Jinfl^^^ Average living room Kilo- 
Week of temnerl- temperature watt- 
^^^^ ^^ }fi^ H^% 8 a.m. to 10 10 p.m. to 8 hours 

lur^aeg. ^^^ ^^^ p, ^^^ ^^^ p ^^^^ 

February 1-8 36.3 67.0 57.5 1039 

February 8-15 46.7 67.3 60.0 741 

February 15-22 41.9 66.0 58.4 575 

February 22-29 40.5 66.5 56.4 573 

February 29-March 7.. 36.0 64.0 - 56.0 794 

March 7-14 47.6 66.5 57.6 522 

The average outside temperature for the six weeks was 41.5 
deg. F., the day room temperature 66.2 deg. F, the night room tem- 
perature 57.6 deg. F. The living room was maintained at an 
average temperature of 24.7 deg. F. above the outside temperature. 
The total number of kw.-hrs. used was 4274, or an average of 712.3 
per week. The cost for the six weeks at 1 ct. a kw.-hr. was $42.74, 
or an average cost of $7.12 per week. To this cost should be added 
$2.50 for heating by gas the water used for domestic purposes. 
The furnace having a water coil in it furnished the hot water in the 
first test. 

If we assume that the loss of heat from a room is proportional 
to the difference in temperature between the outside and the 
inside, then the fuEinace furnished to the rooms 27^47 = 1.12 or 12% 
more heat, and the consumption of electric energy for the same 
amount of heat would have been 4787 kw.-hr. Taking into con- 
sideration then the cost for water heating and for furnishing the 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1459 

same amount of heat, the cost for electric heating under the same 
conditions as obtained during the furnace heating would have been 
$50.37, or $8.39 per weeli. This makes electric heating cost 3.46 
times that for coal under like conditions. 

From this test, electricity selling at 0.29 cts. per kw.-hr. would 
furnish heat for the same cost as coal at $7.75 a ton. To many 
the advantages of electric heating are worth a 50^7^ increase in the 
cost of heating, and electricity at about one-half a cent per 
kw.-hr. would make this possible. 

A lower rate is usually given by electric companies for " off- 
peak " loads. In the winter the peak load comes on about 4 o'clock 
in the afternoon and lasts for four or five holers. If the cus- 
tomer using electricity for heating is to receive this low off-peak 
rate, some means must be provided for storing up a surplus 
amount of heat to be drawn on during the time the current is 
cut off from the heating system. Storage tanks using water are 
in use, but as far as the writer is informed no entirely satisfactory 
storage system has as yet appeared. The off-peak service 
compels the use of liquid-filled radiators, and makes electric heat- 
ing no more flexible than the hot-water or steam systems. 

Comparative Operating Costs of Gas and Electric Cooking. (Re- 
port of Heating Committee, Association of Edison Illuminating 
Companies, September, 1905, from Foster's Electrical Engineer's 
Pocket Book) 

The comjjarative operating cost of electric and gas cooking de- 
pends upon two (luestions — the relative rates for gas and electric 
heat units, and the relative heat efficiencies of gas and electric 
apparatus. A third quantity — the effect produced by the different 
rates and modes of heat applications in the two classes of utensils 
— may affect the efficiency slightly, but the existence of this effect 
is not yet verified. 

Starting with the heat of coal, which may be fairly estimated 
as 12,000 B.t.u. per pound, we compute the relative efficiency of 
the heat conversion as follows : 

Gas Electricity 

1 lb. coal produces 5 cu. ft. gas 1 lb. coal produces 0.25 k.w. 
5 cu. ft. gas contain 3000 B.t.u. 0.25 k.w. contains 853 B.t.u. 
Efficiency heat conversion is Efficiency heat conversion Is 
^0^12000 = 257o 85.yi.ooo =7.1% 

Efficiency electrical heat conversion 

= 28.4% 

Efficiency gas heat conversion 

With manufacturing processes of equal co.st per pound of coal 
converted, it is appaient, then, that an electric heat unit must 
cost nearly four times as much as a gas heat unit, but with pres- 
ent processes the relative rates are : 

Gas Electricity 

$1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. $0.10 per k.w.-h. 

1 B.t.u. .000167 cents 1 B.t.u. 0.00293 cents 

Electric B.t.u. 0.00293 



Gas B.t.u. 0.000167 



= 17.5 



1460 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It is known that the efficiency of electrical apparatus is about 
four times that of gas, and, consequently, as the gas utensil 
requires four times as many B.t.u. the above figure of 17.5 is 
reduced to 4.4. If, then, the rate for electricity is reduced to one 
quarter of that assumed, or 2.5 cts. per kw.-hr., this figure of 4.4 
is changed to 1.1, and we have practically identical operating costs. 

Comparison Between Gas and Electric Rates. According to 
James I, Ayes (report for National Electric Light Association, 
May, 1904) electric heat at an average efficiency of 70% equals 
0.4197 kw.-hrs. per 1000 effective heat units, and for 105,000 ef- 
fective heat units there would be required 44.065 kw.-hrs. to give 
the same results. To compete with gas at equal rates, electricity 
will have to be sold 

at 5.67 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at $2.50 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
at 4.54 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 2.00 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
at 3.40 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.50 per 1,000 cu. ft.* 
at 2.83 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.25 per 1,000 cu. ft. 
at 2.27 at per kw.-hr. where gas is at 1.00 per 1,000 cu. ft. 

The above is as fair a comparison as can be made where exact 
figures cannot be secured. The results above quoted have been 
checked by records made in the same family alternately using gas 
and electricity each week for considerable periods in a number of 
cases, and from a variety of records obtained otherwise. It is 
assumed that suitable equipments both of electric and gas appli- 
ances are used. 

Cost of Electrical Cooking for an Average Family. (From Fos- 
ter's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book.) 

Cost of Electric Cooking. The American Handbook for Electrical 
Engineers gives the following: The average consumption per per- 
son per meal ranges from about 0.2 to 0.8 kw.-hr., which at 3 cts. 
per kw.-hr., corresponds to a cost per person per meal of from 
0.6 to 2.4 cts. The actual cost in any particular case of course 
depends upon the number of persons served, the food cooked and 
the kw.-hr. cost. 

The Cost of Cooking by Electricity. The National Electric Light 
Association, June, 1912, gives the following: In connection with 
the installation of the electric range in the residence of Mr. Charles 
H. Williams, General Manager Northern Colorado Power Company, 
Denver, the owner recently made a thorough study of the cost of 
electric cooking for a family of six persons for a period of ten 
days. Energy was supplied from the commercial circuits of the 
Denver Gas & Electric Light Company. The range is wound for 
220 volt service and has two 10 amp. and three 20 amp. switches 
controlling corresponding baking and stove circuits. In the table 
are given the character of meal, materials cooked, maximum de- 
manded in kilowatts, consumption of energy in kw.-hrs. and cost 
per meal, the data commencing with the installation of the electric 
range. The cost of electrical energy is figured at 5 cts. per kw.-hr. 
No previous exi)erience has been had with electric cooking. Rec- 
ords were taken by a pen-recording wattmeter which was care- 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1461 



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1462 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

fully calibrated with an instrument of precision. Much care was 
taken to keep the rangre absolutely free from dirt during the prog- 
ress of the cooking tests. 



TABLE XXIII. COST OF ELECTRIC COOKING, FAMILY OF 
SIX. AT 5 CENTS PER K.W.-HOUR 



Meal and materials cooked by electric range S (ss ^ 

Dinner : 

4.5 lbs. roast lamb, baked white and sweet po- 
tatoes, baked rice pudding 2.4 

Breakfast : 

Oatmeal, baked apples, 8 ; coffee. , ■. . . 2.24 

Lunch : 

Stewed prunes, tea and potatoes 0.6 

Dinner 

Breakfast : 

Oatmeal, coffee . 2.46 

Lunch : 

Warming potatoes, flnnin haddie warmed, tea 2.2 
Dinner : 

3.5 lbs. veal roast, baked sweet potatoes, 10 

baked apples, baked Irish potatoes 2.8 

Evening : 

Cooking oatmeal , . 1.0 

Breakfast : 

Warming oatmeal, coffee 0.68 

Testing oven, raising temperature from cold 

to hot 1.4 

Dinner : 

Stewing 4.5 lbs. chicken, boiled potatoes, 

toast 2.08 

Breakfast : 

Baked apples, 8 ; oatmeal, coffee, baking 

bread, stewing prunes 2.6 

Lunch : 

Boiled potatoes, coffee, 3 lbs. pot roast 

Warming coffee, laundress 2 p. m 0.05 

Dinner : 

Boiled sweet potatoes, baked potatoes, baked 

cornbi'ead 2.4 

Breakfast : 

Baked apples, oatmeal 1.0 

Dinner : 

Beef stew, carrots, potatoes, prune stew. 2.0 

Breakfa.st : 

Baked apples, oatmeal 2.48 

Lunch : 

Warming meat and coffee 1.4 

Baking 3 loaves graham bread 1.28 

Dinner : 

Chicken stew, 4.5 lbs. ; cranberries, 1 qt. ; 
potatoes boiled (6 large) 1.00 



O !h 


6- 


2.7 


13.50 


2.5 


12.50 


0.87 


4.35 


1.4 


7.00 


0.65 


3.25 


4.35 


21.75 


0.47 


2.35 


0.55 


2.75 


0.7 


3.50 


2.0 


10.00 


3.20 


16.00 


3.15 
0.1 


15.75 

0.50 


2.75 


13.75 


0.55 


2.75 


2.5 


12.50 


2.55 


12.75 


0.7 
1.35 


3.50 
6.75 


2.15 


10.75 



3.25 


16.25 


0.35 


1.75 


3.5 


17.50 


0.6 


3.00 


0.6 


3.00 


2.5 


12.50 


3.25 


16.25 


49.24 


$2.46 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1463 

Breakfast : 

Baked apples, oatmeal, coffee 2.5 

Lunch : 

Warming meat and coffee 1.6 

Dinner : 

Baked finnin haddie, boiled potatoes, baked 

apple sauce 2.60 

Breakfast : 

Oatmeal, coffee 0.6 

Lunch : 

Warming meat, potatoes for yeast 0.90 

Dinner : 

Meat pie, potatoes boiled 2.2 

Breakfast : 

Baked apple, oatmeal, coffee 2.5 

Total 

Experience showed that some energy was lost by changing from 
one heat to another in order to regulate the temperature properly. 
It was found that after the oven was once heated baking could be 
done at small cost. Roughly the cost of electric cooking varied 
from 3 to 10 cts. per day per person upon the basis of the above 
rate per kw.-hr. 

Heater Capacities of Simple Devices. (H. O. Swoboda in Electric 
Journal, July, 1913.) 

The heater capacities, given below, are used by the leading 
American and European manufacturers and represent a fair aver- 
age of standard practice. The figures indicate the maximum 
amount of energy required to raise the temperature to the desired 
point, less energy, of course, being required to maintain this tem- 
perature. When two figures are given, both are used, one for slow 
and one for quick action. 

Air Heaters : 

Convectors, smallest size, three heats 600 Watts 

Convectors, largest standard size, three heats .... 18,000 
Luminous radiators, smallest size, one bulb, single 

heat 250 

Luminous radiators, largest standard size, four 

bulbs, two heats 2,000 

Quartzalite radiators, smallest size, two heats. . . . 600 " 

Quartzalite radiators, largest standard size, two 

heats 1,600 

Show window convectors, capacity per running 

yard, single heat 300 " 

Street car heaters, smallest unit, three heats 250 " 

Street car heaters, largest standard unit, three 

heats 450 

Air humidifiers (bronchitis kettles) 600 " 

Back rounders, for books, three heats 300 " 

Beer vat driers, three heats 3,000 " 

Boilers, double (cereal cookers), small size 3 pints, 

three heats ' 440 " 

Boilers, double, largest standard size 6 quarts, three 

heats ■ 1,300 

Boilers, hot water, heaters inside, smallest size 3 gal- 
lons, three heats 500 " 

Boilers, hot water, heaters inside, largest standard 

size 100 gals., three heats 14,000 



14G4 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Branding- irons, single heat 150 to 660 Watts 

Broilers, in open stiape, smallest size 16 in, by 14 in., 

two heats 2,500 

Broilers, largest standard size. 32 in. by 30 in., two 

heats 10,000 

Broilers, open plates, smallest size 8 in. by 7% ins., 

single heat 660 

Broilers, open plates, largest standard size 30 ins. by 

19 ins. two heats 6,400 

Cauterizing instruments, without loss in controller 

30 to 75 

Celluloid heaters, three heats 900 " 

Chafing dishes, smallest size 2 pints, three heats.... 250 " 

Chafing dishes, largest standard size 3 pints, three 

heats 500 

Chocolate warmers, for maintaining chocolate in a 

fluid state for dipping, smallest size 12 ins. by 

6 1/2 ins. by 5 ins., three heats 220 

Chocolate warmers, largest standard size, 14^4 ins. by 

7% ins. by 6 ins., three heats 264 " 

Cigar lighters, continuous service, single heat 25 " 

Cigar lighters, intermittent service, single heat.. 75 to 200 " 

Circulation water heaters, used in connection with 

boilers, smallest size, two heats 1,800 " 

Circulation water heaters, largest standard size, two 

heats 3,600 

Coffee percolators, smallest size 1 pint, single 

heat 250 to 400 

Coffee percolators, largest standard size 4 pints, three 

heats 350 to 500 " 

Coffee percolators, restaurant size, 12 quarts, single 

heat 750 " 

Coffee roasters, smallest size 2 to 3 lbs., three heats. . 800 " 

Coffee roasters, largest standard size 8 to 10 lbs., 

three heats 3,600 

Coffee urns, smallest size 2 gals., three heats 1,400 " 

Coffee urns, largest standard size 5 gals., three heats 2,500 

Combs, heated, single heat 50 " 

Corn poppers, 1 quart, single heat 300 " 

Cooking vessels with covers, smallest size 2 pints, 

three heats 600 

"Cooking vessels, largest standard size, 26 gals., three 

heats 7,500 

Corset irons, 8^^ lbs., two heats 500 " 

Cosmetic heaters, single heat 25 " 

Curling irons, self-containing, single heat 20 " 

Curling irons, heater in separate tubing, single heat 

60 to 400 

Dentist's tools, such as root canal driers, guttapercha 

instruments, bleacher i)oints, wax spatulas, hot 

air syringes, without loss in controller 6 to 30 " 

Disc Stoves, smallest diameter 3 ins., single heat 

100 to 400 

Disc stoves, largest standard diameter 20 Ins., three 

heats 2,700 " 

Distilling apparatus for ether, three heats 300 " 

Distilling apparatus for water, smallest size 1 quart 

per hr., single heat 1,000 " 

Distilling apparatus, largest standard size 8 quarts 

per hr., single heat 6,000 " 

Domestic flat irons, smallest size 3 lbs., single 

heat 200 to 250 

Domestic flat irons, largest standard size 9 lbs., sin- 
gle heat 400 to 675 " 

Drag irons, smallest size 30 lbs., single heat 1,400 " 

Drag irons, largest standard size 50 lbs., single heat 1,600 " 
Egg boilers, smallest size 1 QS^, single beat , 200 " 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1465 

Eg-g boilers, largest standard size 6, eggs, three 

heats 360 to 600 Watts 

Finishing (polishing) irons, smallest size 4 lbs., two 

heats 250 to 380 

Finishing (polishing) irons, largest standard size 5V^ 

lbs., two heats 450 " 

^Fireless cookers 150 to 660 " 

Flask heaters, 8i/^ ins. diameter, three heats 500 " 

Flat plates, rectangular or oval, used as food warm- 
ers, griddle plates, laboratory plates, glue plates, 
smallest size 4 by 4 ins., three heats 60 '' 

Flat plates, largest standard size 80 by 40 ins., three 

heats , 4,500 " 

Foot warmers, smallest size 9 ins. by 10 Ins., single 

heat 50 " 

Foot warmers, largest standard size 10 by 12 ins., 

three heats 400 " 

Frying pans, round, smallest diameter 4 ins., single 

heat 300 

Frying pans, largest standard diameter, 12. ins., 

three heats 1,800 to 2,000 

Frying pans, rectangular, with cover, smallest size 

10 by 61/2 by 5 ins., three heats 1,000 

Frying pans, rectangular, with cover, largest stand- 
ard size 24 by 12 by 5 ins., three heats 3,300 " 

Furnaces for dentists, with controller 500 '" 

Furnaces for heat treatment of tool steels and other 
metallurgical work : 

1 ^0° F. maximum, smallest size 450 " 

largest standard size 4,150 " 

2 000° F. maximujn, smallest size 650 " 

largest standard size 15,000 " 

3 6-00° F. maximum, smallest size 10,000 

largest standani size 75,000 " 

Furnace, Heroult 15-ton steel, with controller. . . . 1,500 Kw. 
Furnaces, vacuum type, for laboratory," research 

work — 

5 cu. in. capacity, 5 600° F. maximum 15 Kw. 

125 cu. in. capacity, 3 100° F. maximum 60 Kw. 

Glove form heaters, single heat 50 Watts 

Glue cookers with circulation water heaters, smallest 

size 3 gals., three heats 1,800 " 

Glue cookers, largest standard size 25 gals., three 

heats 7,200 

Glue pots with immersed heaters — 

smallest size % pint, three heats.. 150 to 330 '.' 

largest standard size 5 gals., three heats 2,500 '* 

Gold annealers for dentists with controller 400 " 

Goose irons for tailors, smallest size 12 lbs. ...600 to 770 " 

Goose irons, largest -standard size 25 lbs 825 " 

Hat brim irons, single heat ,^ 50 " 

Hat form heaters, three heats i 500 " 

Hatters' irons, 9 to 15 lbs., two heats 450 " 

Heating pads, smallest size 11 by 15 ins., three heats 50 " 
Heating pads, largest standard size 24 by 60 ins., 

three heats 400 

Hot air blowers, smallei^t size, two heats 500 " 

Hot air blowers, largest standard size, two heats. . 1,400 " 

Hot water cups, smallest svze i/i. pint, single heat. . 150 " 
Hot water cups, largest standard size 2 pints, single 

heat 500 

Hot water (tea kettles), smallest size 1 pint, sin- 
gle heat 250 to 300 

Hot water (tea kettles), largest standard size 2 

quarts, three heats 750 " 

Hot water pitchers, smallest size 1 quart, single heat 600 " 
Hot water jntchers, largest standard size 3 quarts, 

single heat 660 to 10,000 



146G MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Hot water tanks for manufacturing purposes, small- 
est size 26 gals., two heats 4,500 Watts 

Hot water tanks, largest standard size 52 gals., two 

heats 10,000 

Immersion coils, small size Qy^ ins. diameter, three 

heats 440 " 

Immersion coils, largest standard size 11 ins. dia- 
meter, three heats 2,500 " 

Immersion heaters, cylindrical type, smallest size 2% 

ins. diameter, three heats 300 " 

Immersion heaters, cylindrical type, largest standard 

size 20 ins. diameter, three heats 10,000 " 

Immersion disc heaters, smallest size 3 ins. diameter, 

two heats 150 " 

Immersion disc heaters, largest standard size 8 ins. 

diameter, two heats 660 " 

Immersion tube heaters, smallest size, single heat... 170 " 

Immersion tube heaters, largest standard size, single 

heat 660 

Inhaling apparatus, smallest size V2 pint, single heat 100 " 

Inhaling apparatus, largest standard size 2Y2 pints, 

three heats 800 

Instantaneous hot water heaters, smallest size % 

pint per min., temperature increase 68'^ F 600 " . 

Instantaneous hot water heaters, largest standard 
size 10 quarts per minute, temperature increase 
136° F 24,000 

Ironing machine (mangles), smallest size 40 ins. 

long, three heats . 2,400 " 

Ironing machine, largest standard size 80 ins. long, 

three heats 6,400 

Lace iron, single heat 70 " 

Machine irons for tailors, with controllers, smallest 

size 12 lbs 770 

Machine irons for tailors, with controllers, largest 

standard size 18 lbs 770 " 

Melting pots for pitch, smallest size 12 ins. diameter, 

2% ins. deep, three heats 1,300 " 

Melting pots for pitch, largest standard size 15. ins. 

diameter, 21/- ins. dee]), three heats 1,600 " 

Melting pots for sealing wax, paraffine, smallest size 

14 pint, single heat 80 " 

Melting pots for sealing wax, parafflne, largest 

standard size 5 quarts, three heats 550 " 

Melting pots for soft metal (lead alloys)., smallest 

size 4 lbs., three heats ." 200 " 

Melting pots for soft metal (lead alloys), largest 

standard size 50 lbs., three heats 1,500 " 

Milk sterilizers for 8 bottles, three heats 700 " 

Milk testing sets, single heat •. 600 " 

Milk warmers for 8 ounce bottles 400 to 500 " 

Oil tempering baths, smallest size 9 gals., with con- 
troller 600° F. max. temp 6,000 

Oil tempering baths, largest standard size 37 gals. 

with controller 600° F. max. temp 20,000 " 

Ovens for baking, roasting, drying, warming, enamel- 
ing, smallest size 14 by 14 by 18 ins., three heats 200 " 

Ovens for baking, roasting, drying, warming, enamel- 
ing, largest standard size, 42 by 30 by 67 ins., 
three heats 10,000 

Potato cookers, smallest size 5 quarts, three heats.. 750 " 

Potato cookers, largest standard size 10 quarts, three 

heats 1,000 

Potato steamers for hotels, smallest aize 20 quarts, 

six heats 3,000 

Potato steamers for hotels, largest standard size 50 

quarts, six heats 4,500 " 

Puff irons, smallest size 3 by Yi ins., three heats. .. . 155 " 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1467 

Puff irons, largest standard size 6 by 3i/^ ins., three 

heats 400 Watts 

Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 2 to 6 per- 
sons 4,000 

Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 6 to 12 per- 
sons 5,500 

Ranges for domestic and restaurant use, 12 to 20 

persons 7,500 

Sand box lieaters for trolley cars, single heat 100 

Sealing wax heaters, hand tool style, single heat.... 75 

Shoe irons, portable, single handle, six heats 100 " 

Shoe irons, portable, double handle, six heats 210 "^ 

Shoe relasting irons, portable, single heat 50 

Shoe warmers, smallest size 4 ins. by 1% ins. by 

% ins. swingle heat 20 " 

Shoe warmers, largest standard size 8 ins. by 3 ins. 

by 1 in., single heat .30 

Sleeve irons, 3i/^ lbs., two heats 300 " 

Soldering irons, smallest size 10 ounces, single heat 75 " 
Soldering irons, largest standard size 414 lbs., single 

heat 450 

Steam sterilizers, small size 5 quarts, three heats... 3,500 " 
Steam sterilizers, large size 6 quarts, three heats. . . . 4,000 " 
Sterilizers for surgical and dental instruments, small- 
est size 8 ins. by ZV2 ins. by 2 ins., three heats. . 350 " 
Sterilizers for surgical and dental instruments, larg- 
est standard size, 24 ins. by 6 ins. by 4 ins., three 

heats 1 400 to 1,800 

Sweating blankets, 60 ins. by 18 ins., with controller 800 " 
Toaster stoves domestic, portable type, single 

heat 400 to 600 

Toaster stoves, restaurant type, single heat.l 500 to 3,000 " 

Towel dryers, three heats 600 " 

Waffle irons, each section, single heat 385 " 

Welding machines, smallest sizes 1,000 " 

Welding machines, largest sizes 150,000 " 

Electric Current Required for Heating Water: (Engineering 
Magazine, August, 1914.) 

Radiation losses are based on 2 ins. of asbestos or magnesia lag- 
ging. 

No radiation losses from the pipes of the connecting system have 
been included in these calculation.s. 

Computations are made at 100 per cent, efficiency, so that due al- 
lowance should be made to suit the conditions present in each ap- 
plication. 

Electrically Heated Devices in the Printing Shop of P. F. Col- 
lier & Son, New York. From Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket 
Book.) 

' Max. Min. 

Apparatus Type and size amp. amp. Volts Watts 

2 glue pots Simplex, 20 gals 100 22 110 22,000 

23 " '• Hadaway, 1 qt 2 .5 " 5.060 

1 " " Simplex, 1 qt 2.5 " 275 

8 " " Hadaway, 2 qts 10 2.5 " 8,800 

2 " " Hadaway. 2 gals 22.8 220 12,672 

2 wax heaters 100 40 110 22.000 

5 press heads 22 ins. by 24 ins. by 3 78 ins. 35 2.8 ^^-^^X 

-I ^ .< " " '< " '« " " " " 36 4 " 3,960 

t « '< " " " " " " " " 36 3.6 " 3,960 

-I .« <. " " ". " " , " " " 36 3.5 " 3,960 

1 .. «. '< " " " M .< " " 36 4.5 " 3,960 



1468 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Apparatus 
1 " 
1 


Type and size 

19 " " 12 " " 
12 " " " " " 


Max. Min. 

amp. amp. Volts Watts 
30 2.5 " 3,300 
25 2.5 " 2,750 

111,947 



49 

Laboratory Use of Electric Heating Devices. The milk supply of 
New York City is governed by tests made in the Laboratory of the 
Board of Health, by means of electric stoves. Twenty-five 4 -in. 
disc stoves, of 60 watts capacity, are used to boil the ether used 
in the tests. Fourteen times per hour these little stoves cause. the 
ether to vaporize. The germ producer, measuring 22 by 22 by 22 
ins., is heated to 130° C, by means of electricity, a maximum cur- 
rent of 16 amp. being employed for 15 rhins. every hour, while 3 

TABLE XXV. ELECTRIC CURRENT REQUIRED FOR HEAT- 
ING WATER 



be 


01 


B 


i^ 


^ 


0) 








Jo 


^ 


<0 


^ to 


xB 


P 


c fl 


Pi^ 




•g^ 


12 


3 


10 


17 


2.8 


12 


18 


3 


12 


21 


3.5 


12 


24 


4 


12 


28 


3.5 


14 


30 


3 


16 


32 


4 


14 


35 


5 


13 


36 


4.5 


14 


40 


5 


14 


42 


4 


16 


4'8 


6 


14 


53 


4 


18 


63 


6 


15 


66 


5 


18 


79 


6 


18 


82 


5 


20 


85 


5 


20 


100 


5 


22 


120 


5 


24 


140 


6 


24 


150 


4 


30 


168 


7 


24 


180 


5 


30 


192 


8 


24 


220 


6 


30 


250 


7 


30 


295 


8 


30 


315 


6 


36 





§-2 


O fn 


QT-i;3 to supply radiation 


losses 


m 


11- 


*"X^ 


'^-' .2 and raise temperatures of 


jQ 


m 


^^ tank and water from 60 


5 


I^S 


• ng^ deg. to : 


160 deg. in 






u (bt3 


"2 rt"^ 


•Ih ^ 










w ft 


^^"^ 










^a 


ij m c 


■*^ m &0 




1 


2 


3 


5 







ni S OJ 


hour J 


hours 


hours 


hours 


100 


125. 


158. 


2,920. 


3.14 


1.60 


1.08 


.678 


142 


154. 


193. 


4--, 140. 


4.41 


2.24 


1.52 


.944 


150 


161. 


201. 


4,380. 


4.66 


2.37 


1.61 


.996 


175 


183. 


229. 


5,120. 


5.44 


2.77 


1.87 


1.162 


200 


205. 


253. 


5,840. 


6.20 


3.15 


2.13 


1.321 


233 


220. 


285. 


6,820. 


7.22 


3.66 


2.48 


1.531 


250 


227. 


317. 


7,310. 


7.74 


3.93 


2.66 


1.638 


267 


249. 


324. 


7,790. 


8.24 


4.18 


2.83 


1.748 


292 


278. 


348. 


8.520. 


9.00 


4.57 


3.10 


1.913 


300 


271. 


359. 


8,770. 


9.26 


4.70 


3.18 


1.961 


333 


300. 


377. 


9,730. 


10.26 


5.21 


3.52 


2.17 


350 


286. 


412. 


10,220. 


10.77 


5.46 


3.69 


2.27 


400 


352. 


465. 


11,680. 


12.32 


6.25 


4.23 


2.61 


442 


330. 


522. 


12,900. 


13.59 


6.88 


4.64 


2.85 


525 


411. 


705. 


15.330. 


16.24 


8.22 


5.55 


3.41 


550 


39 6. 


• 880. 


16,050. 


17.13 


8.66 


5.84 


3.58 


658 


468. 


915. 


19,210. 


20.36 


10.36 


6.94 


4.26 


684 


447. 


968. 


19.940. 


21.13 


10.65 


7.19 


4.41 


708 


447. 


1,020. 


20,680. 


21.92 


11.07 


7.46 


4.56 


834 


498. 


1,056. 


24,330. 


25.64 


12.94 


8.71 


5.33 


1,000 


557. 


1,232. 


29,200. 


30.71 


15.49 


10.42 


6.36 


1,168 


645. 


1,408. 


34,300. 


36.03 


18.18 


12.22 


7.46 


1,250 


608. 


1,480. 


36,510. 


38.39 


19.30 


12.97 


7.90 


1,100 


740. 


1,654. 


40,880. 


42.90 


21.64 


14.55 


8.88 


1,500 


712. 


1,690. 


43,800. 


45.85 


23.10 


15.52 


9.45 


1,600 


828. 


1,900. 


46,720. 


49.16 


24.79 


16.66 


10.26 


1,835 


835. 


2,025. 


53,290. 


55.61 


28.01 


18.81 


11.46 


2,082 


953. 


2,110. 


60,830. 


63.42 


31.95 


21.46 


13.06 


2,460 


1,062. 


2,325. 


71,780. 


74.64 


37.58 


25.23 


15.35 


2,626 


1,033. 


3,415. 


76,650. 


80.58 


40.55 


27.20 


16.43 



a65 7 36 3,044 1,172. 3,800. 88,8?0. 93.21 46.90 31.46 19.11 

420 8 36 3,500 1,312. 3,170. 102,200. 106.00 52.85 35.12 20.93 

430 6 42 3,588 1,246. 3,134. 105,200. 108.96 54.79 36.74 22.30 

500 7 42 4,172 1,415. 3.520. 122,300. 126.53 62.62 42.65 25.87 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1469 

amps, keep up the desired temperature. The cocoa and coffee 
trade has applied electric heat to its small desiccating or drying 
cabinets. A dryer 3.5 by 5 ft., requiring a temperature of 150 
degrees, requires about 74 watts per cu. ft. when properly jacketed. 
The beans are particularly susceptible to the odors arising from 
combustion, hence the advantage of electric heat. For drying kilns 
40 watts per cu. ft. are recommended. 

Candy Manufacture. "Warming tables and chocolate dipping- 
pots have proved successful. 50 watts produce sufficient heat to 
keep the chocolate in working condition. A 30-gal. tank holding 
caramel paste is supplied with 10 kw.-hrs. to keep the paste at 
285° G., and each melting costs about 65 cts. The service is inter- 
mittent, hence the adaptability of electric heat. 

Soldering and Branding Ir6ns. The canning industry, as well 
as the makers of switchboards, and others, find the electric solder- 
ing iron a useful and economical tool. It has been found more 
economical to operate electric- soldering irons heated by current 
costing 5 cts. per kw.-hr. thdn irons heated in gas furnaces, with 
gas at $1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. Heaters of 110-watt capacity are 
madB, into which a soldering iron is thrust, thereby doing away 
with the connecting handle cord. One thousand hogs per hour are 
stamped " Inspected " by the government meat inspectors in Chi- 
cago, by means of a 400-watt branding tool, which is an electric 
soldering iron with a die inserted instead of the copper tip. 

Thawing Water Pipes. The following figures show the details 
of operation of a 44-cell storage battery outfit, mounted on an 
automobile truck, in comparison with those obtained by the use of 
a rheostat in series with a d.c. 3 wire Edison system with the 
neutral wire grounded. The figures represent the average amounts 
in each case. 

Cost 
Am- K.w, Time, Pipe. Volt- per Revenue 
peres hours mins. inch, age case per case 
Storage battery .. 513 1.39 5.44 %. 31.5 $10.85 $16.40 
Street supply 275 10.4 19.0 % 120.0 14.43 16.93 

The street supply is used until the season has so far advanced 
that the number of cases will warrant the exclusive service of an 
automobile truck. 

Power Required for Electric Thawing of Frozen Mains: 

TABLE XXVI. DATA ON THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT AND 

THE LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO THAW FROZEN 

WATER PIPES BY ELECTRICITY 



Size pipe 






Ti 


ime required 




(iron) * 


Length 






to thaw, 




inches 


feet 


Volts 


Amperes 


min. 


Kw.-hr. 


% 


40 


50 


300 


8 


2 


% 


100 


5.5 


135 


10 


1.24 


% 


250 


50 


400 


20 


6.67 


1 


250 


50 


500 


20 
Hours 


8.33 


1 


700 


55 


175 


5 


48.1 


4 


1,300 


55 


260 


3 


42.9 


10 


800 


62 


400 


2 


49.6 



Add 50% to amperage for thawing lead pipe 



1470 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Cost of Operating Electrically Heated Utensiis. (Prom Foster's 
Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book.) 



Average Period ^ost to- 
watt of ..^".?..^5^l 



Article hour opera- .^^f J^^^ a^. 

eonsump- tion, "^ll^^?®^ 

tion .'min, cts 

Chafing dish 400 20 1.33 

Pint baby milk warmer and food heater 250 ' 6 1.25 

Quart food heater 500 6 0.50 

Coffee percolator 300 20 1.00 

Stove, 6 ins 500 15 1.25 

Stove, 8 ins 800 15 2.00 

Boiler 9 by 12 ins 1200 15 3.00 

Curling ii'on heater 60 15 0.15 

Iron, 3 1/2 lbs 250 30 1.25 

Iron, 6 lbs 500 30 2.50 

Frying pan (7 ins. diameter) 500 30 2.50 

Waffle iron 500 12 1.00 

Teakettle 300 20 1.00 

Glue pot, 1 qt 300 20 1.00 

Soldering iron, 2 lb. . 200 30 1.00 

Doctor's sterilizer 1000 30 5.00 

Bate's room radiator 1000 30 5.00 

Heating pad 50 per hr. 0.50 

The Power Consumption of Domestic Heating Devices Electrically 
Operated and their Cost of Operation per Hour on a Basis of 10c. 
per kw.-hr. for Electricity: 

Watts Cents 

Broilers, 3 ht 300 to 1200 3 to 12 

Chafing dishes, 3 ht 200 to 500 2 to 5 

Cigar lighters 75 0.75 

Coffee percolators for 6 in. stove 100 to 440 1 to 4.4 

Coil heaters 110 to 440 1.1 to 4.4 

Corn popper 300 3 

Curling-iron heaters 60 0.6 

Double boilers, 6 in., 3 ht. stove 100 to 440 1 to 4.4 

Flatiron (domestic size) 3 lbs 275 2.75 

Flatiron (domestic size) 4 lbs 350 3.5 

Flatiron (domestic size) 5 lbs 400 4 

Flatiron (domestic size) 6 lbs 475 4.75 

Flatiron (domestic size) 7.5 lbs 540 5.4 

Flatiron (domestic size) 9 lbs 610 6.1 

Foot warmers 50 to 400 0.5 to 4 

Frying kettles, 8 in. diameter 825 8.25 

Griddle cake cookers, 9 by 12 ins., 3 ht. . 330 to 880 3.3 to 8.8 

Griddle-cake cookers, 12 by 18 ins., 3 ht. . 500 to 1500 5 to 15 

Heating pads 50 0.5 

Instantaneous flow water heaters 2000 20 

Kitchenettes (complete), average 1500 15 

Nursery milk warmers 450 4.5 

Ornamental stoves 250 to 500 2.5 to 5 

Ovens 1200 to 1500 12 to 15 

Plate warmers 300 3 

Radiators 700 to 6000 7 to 60 

Ranges : 3 heats, 4 to 6 people 1000 to 4515 10 to 44 

Ranges: 3 heats, 6 to 1 2 people 1100 to 5250 11 to 52 

Ranges : 3 heats, 12 to 20 people 2000 to 7200 20 to 72 

Shaving mugs 150 to 1.5 

Stoves (plain), 4.5 in., 3 ht 50 to 220 0.5 to 2.2 

Stoves (plain), 6 in., 3 ht 100 to 440 4.4 

Stoves (plain), 7 in., 3 ht 120 to 600 1.2 to 6 



HEATING. COOKING AND VENTILATING 1471 

Watts ' Cents 

Stove (plain), 8 in., 3 ht 165 to 825 1.5 to 8.25 

Stoves (plain), 10 in., 3 ht 275 to 1100 2.6 to 11 

Stoves (plain), 12 in., 3 ht 325 to 1300 3.2 to 13 

Stove, traveler's 200 2 

Toasters, 9 in. by 12 in., 3 ht 330 to 880 3.2 to 8.8 

Toasters, 12 in. by 18 in, 3 ht 500 to 1500 5 to 15 

Urns, 1-gal., 3 ht 110 to 440 1 to 4.4 

Urns, 2-gal., 3 ht 220 to 660 2.2 to 6.6 

Urns, 3-gal., 3 ht. . . . k 330 to 1320 2.6 to 13.2 

Urns, 5-gal., 3 ht ^ 400 to 1700 4 to 17 

Waffle irons, 2 waffles 770 7.5 

Waffle" irons, 3 waffles 1150 11.5 

An Electrie Heater for Thawing Eplosives was used at the Roose- 
velt drainage ftinnel in Cripple Creek, Colo., says the Engineering 
Record, May 15, 1909, It consists "of two 12 in. by 24 in. rec- 
tangular frames made of 1.5 in. by .25 in. iron, held apart 3 ins. 
vertically and sui)ported on legs above the floor. Telephone insu- 
lators spaced on 1.5 in. centers are placed around the sides of each 
frame, and between each corresponding pair of insulators ordinary 
coils of galvanized telephone wire are strung, all the sets of wires 
being connected in series. The coils are heated by the electric 
lighting current, and in about 30 minutes warm the small powder 
house, 4 ft. by 5 ft. in ground plan and 6 ft. high, to a temperature 
of 80 deg. F. The cost of this method of heating is about 10 cts. 
per 24 hrs. and is said to be far more economical than if coal were 
used for fuel. 

Cost of Electric Heating in Shoe Factory. (Electrical World, 
March 31, 1917.) In this establishment thirteen machines are 
provided with electric heat, and in the eight months ended Feb. 28, 
1917, the total energy consumption for this service was 19,600 
kw.-hrs., the number of pairs of shoes manufactured being 118,359. 
The average energy required per 100 pairs of shoes was about 16.55 
kw.-hrs. The energy consumption of the several machines for heat- 
ing service was as follows in the months of maximum and mini- 
mum shoe production : 

August, 1916 November, 1916 

16,998 iiw.-hr. 12,490 kw.-hr. 

Number pairs manufactured Per 100 Per 100 

Total pairs Total pairs 

Two Goodyear stitchers 369 2.2 348 2.8 

Two Goodyear welters 232 1.4 192 1.5 

Two pulling-over machines ... 616 3.6 83 0./ 

Four box toe machines 724 4.3 700 5.b 

One bottom drior 741 4.4 638 &.i 

One bottom filler 211 1.2 178 1.4 

One Gem insole machine .... 72 0.4 43 0-^ 

2965 iTs 2182 17.5 

It will be noticed that while the energy per 100 pairs of shoes 
is apparently a constant, except for the pulling-over machines, the 
energy consumed is much less for quantity production. For manu- 
facturing or other reasons the energy consumption of the pulling- 
over machines was much greater in August than in the following 
November. 



1472 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Proving the Economy of Electric Cootcing. (Electrical World, 
Aug. 19, 1916.) Figures recently secured on the cost of operating 
twenty-nine electric ranges in the Boulevard Court Apartments, 
Detroit, Mich., give 2 kw.-hrs. per day as the average consumption 
for cooking for families of two and three persons. In the same 
apartments the use of electrical energy for purposes other than 
cooking averaged a trifle above 5 kw.-hr. per day during the period 
of observation. In only one instance was it apparent that the 
electric range was not being used regularly, the consumption in 
the other tvcenty-eight cases varying from a minimum daily con- 
sumption of 0.44 kw.-hr. to a maximum of 4.4 kw.-hrs. per day. 



TABLE XXVII. FIGUREIS ON CONSUMPTION AND COST OF 

ELECTRIC COOKING BY TWENTY-NINE ELECTRIC 

RANGE USERS, BOULEVARD APARTMENTS, 

DETROIT 

■K-«r ViT- Monthly 

Apartment No. of n^ZW^^^ cost for 

First floor: 

1 63 167 ^ ii3.18 

2 5^2 23 A .54 

3 59 55 ig^v 1.12 

4 48 107 m 2.86 

5 63 160 '^- 3.05 

8 35 137 4.71 

Second floor : 

1 62 77 1.50 

2 50 108 2.59 

3 62 98 1.90 

4 60 117 2.34 

5 63 119 2.27 

6 30 90 3.60 

7 37 26 .76 

8 62 159 3.08 

Third floor: 

1 59 63 1.28 

3 fiO 265 5.30 

4 

5 45 80 2.27 

6 60 57 1.19 

7 48 44 1.11 

8 ". 45 112 2.99 

Fourth floor: 

1 59 98 2.14 

4 63 ITl 3.26 

5 62 201 3.90 

6 62 168 3.25 

7 63 99 1.89 

8 62 196 3.79 

Bksement : 

5 35 53 1.80 

7 35 2 .06 

Front 50 . 69 1,96 

29 1554 days 3121 $2.40 

Average 53.6 days 2 per day 

60 per month 



HEATING, COOKING AND I'ENTILATING 1473 

The ranges installed are a recent model, the feature of which is 
the compartment (or fireless) cooker. This cooker is set into the 
body of the stove so that its cover when closed is flush with the 
cooking surface and is flanked on either side by a hot plate. The 
oven is of the elevated type with a glass door. An automatic clock 
mechanism operates a master switch and pilot lamp, this feature 
being designed to prevent the circuit being left "on" through for- 
getful ness upon the part of the o])erator. 

A study of the subjoined data will reveal several interesting 
facts. It is not apparent, for example, that more than one of the 
active users of the cooking service was extravagant in that service 
alone. In all cases but one where the total monthly bills were 
above $5, the energy used otherwise than in the range amounts to 
approximately 30% of the total, whereas the average of the entire 
twenty-nine apartments shows that about 25%, in round figures, 
was used for light and purposes other than cooking. 

Another interesting fact is that in 1554 range-days, the consump- 
tion averaged only 2 kw.-hrs. per day, although this record, was 
for the experimental period when it is commonly exT)ected that the 
consumption will be high owing to the housewives' unfamiliarity 
with the electric stoves. 

Power Cost of Ironing in a Domestic Laundry. We have taken 
the following from Foster's Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book. 

An average family of five persons, where the collars and cuffs 
are sent out to be ironed, consumes about 13.2 kw.-hrs per month 
for ironing, which at 10 cts. per kw.-hr. amounts to $1.32 per month, 
which is about the same as if gas were used, costing $1.00 per 1000 
cu. ft. The cost of operation varies with size of iron. For ordinary 
domestic requirements, without a current regulator, the iron most 
commonly used weighs about 6 lbs. and consumes about 500 watts 
per hr. The regulators, whether of the switch in the handle or 
resistance in the stand type, effect a saving of from 15 to 20%. 
The power consumption of the various types of irons follows : 

Watts 

4 ibs. Troy polishing, diamond face 330 

SVa " small seaming (can be connected to lamp socket)..., 20i» 

4 " gentleman's small hat iron 'ZOO 

5 Yq " light domestic 500 

5y2 " light domestic, round wire 500 

7 " domestic 600 

5 1/^ " Morocco bottom 500 

Morocco bottom, round wire 500 

Flatirons. The American Handbook for Electrical Engineers 
gives the following: An internally heated gas flatiron of house- 
hold size burns about 5 cu. ft. of gas per hr. For continuous 
sei'vice with an externally-heated iron three irons are required, 
two heating while one is being used; for such service about 16 
cu. ft. of gas are used per hr. by the burner. An electric flatiron 
of household size takes about 550 watts. Hence, assuming gas to 
cost $1.00 per 1000 cu. ft. and electricity to cost 10 cts. per kw.-hr. 
the energy cost per hr. for each of the three types would be ; 



1474 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Internally-heated gas flatiron 0.5 

Externally-heated gas flatiron 1.6 

Electric flatiron 5.5 

However, the evident advantages of cleanliness, convenience, 
safety and comfort bring about a very extensive use of the electric 
flatiron, even though the actual cost is greater than for coal or 
gas heating. 

In figuring the cost of operation of the electric iron, in the above 
abstract, no allowance has been made for the fact that the better 
grades of irons will hold their heat a remarkably long time. It 
is not necessary to have the current turned on continuously but 
once the iron is hot the current may be turned off and on and a 
considerable saving be effected. 

Cost of Disc and Propeller Fans. Disc Fans are extensively used 
wherever large volumes of air are to be moved at low velocity, 
and where the resistance to be overcome is slight. This type Is 
not suitable for forcing air against pressure, a condition which 
requires a cased fan. The efficiency of the disc type decreases 
rapidly as the resistance increases, but when the removal of air 
from rooms does not require conducting pipes, the low first cost, the 
smooth-running qualities, and the durability of this type of fan 
are readily appreciated. Disc fans are especially adapted to the 
ventilation of kitchens, restaurants, engine rooms, work shops, and 
offices, and the removal of vapors in industrial establishments, and 
in laundries, dye houses, drying rooms, etc. 

In case of wear or accident any part may be immediately re- 
placed, for they are made on the interchangeable plan. The Disc 
Fan consists of a substantial hub, into which are cast radial steel 
arms having steel-plate blades attached thereto. These blades, 
placed at an angle to the direction of flow, force the air in lines 
parallel to the shaft. To obtain movement of air in the opposite 
direction it is only necessary to reverse the angle of the blades 



TABLE XXVIII. DISC AND PROPELLOR FANS 



Diam. of fan 


Minimum 


, Weight in 


lbs., , 


Net price 


in ins. 


r.r.m. 


propeller fan 


disc fan 


* propeller fan 


18 


550 


60 


100 


$24.00 


24 


400 


125 


130 


30.00 


30 


325 


160 


165 


39.00 


36 


275 


225 


190 


48.00 


42 


235 


400 


290 


60.00 


48 


200 


465 


350 


72.00 


54 


175 


600 


425 


90.00 


60 


165 


675 


535 


110.00 


66 


150 


720 


685 


132.00 


72 


135 


950 


875 


150.00 


78 


127 


1050 


1000 


165.00 


84 


120 


1125 


1025 


180.00 


96 


100 


1375 


1175 


210.00 


108 


90 


1700 


1470 


240.00 


120 


80 


2000 


1800 


300.00 



* The above net prices are for propeller fans ; for the disc fans 
subtract 20% from same. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1475 

or change the direction of rotation. The wheel revolves within a 
substantial circular frame, carrying two self-oiling bearings, and 
having a pulley on the shaft. 

TABLE XXIX. STEEL PRESSURE BLOWERS 

FOR FOUNDRY WORK 





Diam. of 










Number of 


outlet 


R.p.m. for 


Weight 




blower 


in ins. 


1/^ lb. pressure 


in lbs. 


Net price 


4/0 


2% 


7,782 




17 


$13.50 


2/0 


31/2 


6,023 




35 


18.00 





4 


5,112 




55 


23.40 


1 


4 78 


4,486 




85 


32.40 


2 


5% 


3,774 




110 


39.60 


3 


6% 


3,233 




155 


49.50 


4 


7% 


2,818 




315 


63.00 


5 


sys 


2,416 




375 


81.00 


6 


10 V4 


2,198 




475 


103.50 


7 


12 


1,773 




840 


162.00 


8 


13% 


1,548 




1125 


202.50 


9 


16 


1,332 




1650 


292.50 


10 


181/2 


1,169 




2650 


405.00 


TABLE XXX. 


BLOWERS 


AND 


EXHACTSTERS 


Outside 
Number of diam. of 


Outside 

diam. of 

outlet 

in ins. 


Weight in lbs. 




blower or 


inlet of 






Net price 


exh'ter 


exh'ter 


Blower Exh'ter 






in ins. 










4/0 


3% 


2% 


15 


20 


$10.80 


2/0 


^% 


41/s 


30 


40 


13.50 





5% 


4% 


52 


58 


18.00 


1 


61/2 


5% 


80 


90 


23.40 


2 


71/2 


71/2 


120 


123 


29.70 


3 


9 


9 


190 


200 


39.60 


4 


101/2 


10% 


265 


300 


49.50 


5 


12% 


1214 


380 


400 


63.00 


6 


15 


14% 


525 


590 


81.00 


7 


16% 


16% 


925 


1030 


135.00 


8 


18% 


18 3/^ 


1340 


1555 


180.00 


9 


211/^ 


21% 


1975 


2100 


225.00 


10 


241/2 


24% 


2550 


2700 


292.00 



The above blowers and exhausters are regularly built with bottom 
horizontal discharge in all sizes, and with up blast discharge in 
sizes 3 to 10, inclusive. Either blowers or exhausters can be made 
down blast or top horizontal discharge when so ordered. The 
weights given do not include packing and are for bottom horizontal 
discharge. 



TABLE XXXI. FOUNDRY TABLE FOR STEEL PRESSURE 
BLOWERS 

Pressure 
Number of Cu. ft. of in wind box 

blower air per min. ozs. per sq. in. 

2 500 7 

4 1,000 7 

5 1,500 8 

6 2,000 9 



1476 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Pressure 

Number of Cu. ft. of in wind box 

blower air per min. ozs. per sq. in. 

7 2,500 9 

7 3,000 10 

7 3,500 10 

8 4,000 11 

8 4,500 11 

8 5,000 12 

9 5,500 12 

9 6,000 13 

9 6,500 12 

9 7,000 13 

9 7,500 14 

10 8,000 12 

10 8,500 13 

10 9,000 14 

10 9,500 12 

10 10.000 13 

10 . 10,500 14 

10 11,000 13 

10 11,500 14 

10 12,000 15 

10 12,500 16 

To find number or size of blower to supply air for the required 
capacity of a cupola, take 500 cu. ft. of air per minute at the given 
pressure to melt one ton of iron per hour. 

Table XXXII gives the number of revolutions necessary to 
produce the given pressure at the fan outlet when its area is within 
the capacity of the blower. Owing to losses due to transmission, 
this pressure cannot be maintained at any more or less distant 
point, such as the wind box of a cupola or the tuyere pipe of a 
forge, unless the speed of the fan is increased sufficiently to pro- 
duce an excess of pressure equal to the transmission loss. 

Cost of Heating and Ventilating Systems. (D. D. Kimball in the 
School Board Journal, abstracted in the Heating and Ventilating 
Magazine, March, 1915.) A study of the cost of installation of 
heating and ventilating plants, made in a number of schools, 
showed that the prevailing custom of apportioning a certain per- 
centage of the total cost of the building for the installation of the 
heating and ventilating plant is of no value, as these percentage 
ratios vary more than 100%, even with similar classes of installa- 
tions. For a given size of building, the cost of the heating and 
ventilating systems will be approximately the same whether the 
building is a monumental stone structure or a plain wooden struc- 
ture, but the percentage of cost of the system will be very different. 

Classification of Systems. As a result of this study, the follow- 
ing scheme of classification has been arrived at : 

Class A. Plants providing for fire-tube boilers, double fan sys- 
tems, air washers and humidifiers, individual or double duct sys- 
tems and modulating control of direct radiators and mixing 
dampers. * 

Class B. Same as Class A, but using automatic stokers and 
water-tube boilers instead of fire-tube boilers. 

Class C. Same as Class A, but eliminating the modulation con- 
trol of radiators and dampers and using the single trunk ducts. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1477 



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1478 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Class D. Same as Class C. except that it eliminates the use of 
air washers and humidification systems. 

Class E3. All other systems. 

Manifestly there are many combinations of equipment which 
render an exact determination of classification difficult, but in 
general this classification has proven satisfactory. 

After a careful study of this method of classification and the 
figures on costs as thus obtained, it was found that the only 
satisfactory basis of determining the cost of the installation of the 
heating and ventilating plant was on the basis of the cubic feet 
of space in the building. The variation in costs within the differ- 
ent classes of systems is rarely over 10% from the average, the 
greatest variation occurring in Class A. The resulting costs are 
as follows : 

Class A, cost of plant per cu. ft., 2.7 cts. to 3.3 cts. — average 
3.1 cts. 

Class B, cost of plant per cu. ft. 3.3 cts. to 3.8 cts. — average 
3.4 cts. 

Class C, cost of plant per cu. ft. 2.2 cts. to 2.5 cts. — average 
2.4 cts. 

Class D, cost of plant per cu. ft. 2.2 cts. to 2.3 cts. — average 
2.25 cts. 

Class E, cost of plant per cu. ft. 1.9 cts. to 2.3 cts. — average 
2.1 cts. 

If classes D and E were but abandoned and a proper amount of 
skill were used in the design, installation and operation of the 
remaining classes, a sufficient appropriation being provided for the 
installation and operation of the ventilating plant, it is believed 
that little basis would be left for complaint as to the success of the 
artificial ventilating system. 

As a matter of information it is interesting to note that the cost 
of plumbing equipment for school buildings ranges from three- 
quarters of a cent to one and one-half cents per cubic foot, the 
average being one and one-tenths cents. The cost of electrical 
equipment, exclusive of electric power plants, ranges from one-half 
to one ct. per cu. ft., the average being seven-tenths per cu. ft. 

In the case of the heating and ventilating, plumbing and elec- 
trical work, the costs seem to be approximately the same in grade 
schools and high schools. 

Operating Cost Heating and Ventilating Plants. (H. M. Hart in 
Domestic Engineering, Nov. 1, 1913.) 

Residence Heating. Method of computing cost of operation. 
For this example we will take a room requiring 100 sq. ft. of 
direct steam radiation to maintain a temperature of 70 deg. when 
the outside temperature is 10 deg, below zero. 

The maximum difference in temperature is — 10 deg. to 70 deg. 
= 80 deg. The average difference in temperature is 35 deg. to 
70 deg = 35 deg., which, theoretically, would mean that the 
radiator would be in use 35/80 or 43,75 per cent, of the time. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1479 

Taking the heating- season as seven months, or 5,040 hours. 43.75 
per cent, of this time would be 2,205 hours, the theoretical number 
of hours that radiation would be in use. The average radiator 
gives off approximately 225 B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hr. Therefore, 
the total B.t.u. per season would be estimated as follows: 

225 X 100 X 2,205 = 49,612,500. 

The average B.t.u. available per pound of anthracite coal is 
estimated at 8,000; therefore, 49,612,500-^-8,000 = 6,201 lbs. of 
coal, or 3.1 tons per sq. ft. of radiation. 

The average indirect steam radiator gives off approximately 450 
B.t.u. per square foot per hour. As it requires approximately 50% 
more radiation for indirect heating than direct heating, this would 
450 X 150 

mean that it would take X 2,205 = 9.3 tons, to heat 

8,000 X 2,000 
the same room with indirect radiation. 

In order to see how this checked up in actual practice, the actual 
fuel consumption in 10 residences was obtained from the owners, 
and the results given in table XXXIII. 

TABLE XXXIII. FUEL, CONSUMPTION IN TEN RESIDENCES 



10 



;g 1^ Auto- 

^^"i" matic 

^l^^ control 

"i^^t boners 



Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

No 



No 
No 

Yes 
No 
Yes 
No 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 



System 



Steam 
Water 
Water 
Water 
Water 
Water 
Water 
Steam 
Steam 
Water 



Sq. ft. 
direct 
steam 
equiv- 
alent 

666 
1,350 
1,720 
1,535 
1,340 
1,050 
1,215 
1,296 

878 
1,335 



Sq. ft. 
indirect 
steam 
equiv- 
alent 

1,080 
1,800 



730 
384 
312 
384 
2,100 
240 



Esti- 
mated 
con- 
sump- 
tion 
in tons 

88 
148 

531/2 

53 

86 

56 

57 

64 
157 

5.6 



Actual 
con- 
sump- 
tion 
in tons 

55 
60 
40 
35 
45 
30 
40 
45 
70 



. School Buildings. The difRculty of securing any exact figures is 
apparent when we take into consideration the hours which these 
plants operate. Again, there are vacations cutting into the period 
of operation. If we assume 172 days of 8 hours each with an 
average temperature of 38 deg. and a temperature of heated air 
in the chambers at 120 deg. the figures agree fairly with actual 
coal burned. The figures given are for an entirely different class 
of buildings, yet it will be seen that the quantity of coal per 
cu. ft. of air heated per season was close. What it would do in 
a large number of buildings we are not prepared to say. 

Spalding School : Air per hr., 1,147,440 cu. ft. ; blower, 72 by 
42 in. ; boiler, firebox, 720 sq. ft. ; amount small egg average 106 
tons, at $7 per ton, per season, 0.18 lb. coal per season per ft. 
of air warmed. 



1480 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Twenty-eight room buildings, 4,162,729 cu. ft. per hr. ; bituminous 
coal, 400 tons at $2.95 per ton; 0.19 lb. coal per season per ft. of 
air warmed. 

Rosehill School — Air per hour, 800,000 cu. ft.; horse-power 
motor, 5; amount small egs, 73 tons at $7 per ton; 0.18 lb. coal 
per season per ft. of air warmed. 

Cost of Manufacture in Distilled-Water Ice Plants. (Peter 
NefC in Power, Nov. 25, 1913.) 

In general the manufacturing cost of ice per ton in any plant 
is the total amount expended during the year in its production 
divided by the number of tons of ice sold. Ideas as to what items 
are a legitimate charge will vary somewhat, but to my mind they 
are : Depreciation, repairs, insurance and taxes, labor, fuel and 
sundries (oil, waste, ammonia, salt, etc.). 

The first three of these items may be termed the fixed charge. 
They are not dependent on the output, run over the entire year, 
and may even be greater when the plant is not producing. They 
are a large factor in the cost of production, and are often par- 
tially or totally omitted when thinking of the cost. The last three 
have a direct relationship to the output, and are the ones usually 
taken into account. 

For the sake of convenience the output for 330 days was taken 
as a year's production, as all plants should have a period of shut- 
down for overhauling. Then three periods, varying by 50 days, 
viz., 280, 230 and 180, were taken as representing productive 
periods. This division is purely arbitrary, and has been used 
simply for convenience, but serves to cover the various productive 
periods as found in ice plants. While the computations herewith 
are based on ammonia-compression plants, in view of the fact 
that all the distilled water comes from the boilers they will apply 
equally well to absorption and to plants where other than ammonia 
is used for the refrigerant. 

The value of the land on which the plant is located is not taken 
into account, but must be considered and added to the figures here 
given to arrive at the total investment. It is further assumed that 
there is no charge for water, but that it is pumped by steam power, 
and this steam is part of that taken from the boilers for distilled 
water. 

Fixed Charges. To obtain the cost of the buildings, dimensions 
as given by two of the manufacturing companies were taken, and 
the cost based on 8 cts. per cu. ft. of space inclosed. Nothing has 
been provided but the necessary equipment, and there will be 
variations in this item, but not sufficient to seriously affect the 
results. These two items give what is termed the investment. 

Depreciation is that ordinarily adopted, viz., 6 per cent., which 
will return the cost of the investment in practically 17 years. 
This has been used both for the buildings and the equipment. 

For repairs the 5% employed has been arrived at from the ex- 
perience of others in various lines of manufacturing, and form a 
study of widely scattered ice plants. The 4% for taxes and in- 
surance seemed to be a fair average. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1481 



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1482 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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■ HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1483 

The three foregoing- items constitute what is termed the fixed 
charge. Table XXXV shows how this affects the cost of the ice 
under the different periods of production, and is obtained by divid- 
ing 15 per cent, of the investment by the tonnage for the period 
indicated, the result being the charge per ton for that period. . 

Operating Cost. 10 per cent, is added to cover nonproductive 
time due to stopping and starting and incidental shutdowns. 






To-lal Tonnage Jn }\\jnind» 



3 S 




• 180 Days 



Operation K - 280 Days Operation 

Operaiion • ~ 330 Days Ooera+ion 



Fig. 7. Manufacturing cost per ton in standard distilled-water ice 

plants. 



The fuel was difficult to decide upon, but here as elsewhere, 
average conditions are taken. The boiler evaporation was taken 
at 6 to 1 and the losses between the boilers and the ice cans as 
207c. For nonproductive periods 10% was also added. The price 
of coal is taken at $3 per ton of 2000 lbs. A change of 50 cts. 
per ton in the cost of fuel makes 11 cts. difference in the cost of 
the ice per ton. 

Sundries is also an uncertain item, but the 8 cts. per ton has 
been found to check with practical results. 



1484 MECHANICAL 'AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Total Cost per Ton of Ice. In Fig. 7 some interesting things 
are to be noticed. In the matter of fixed charges there is a group 
from the 20 to the 50 tons that shows a wide variation. This 
condition is also shown in the grouping of the plant productions 
as brought out at the top of the chart, and clearly indicates that 
there are too many different sizes of plants to cover the range of 
production. If, now the' 25-, 35- and 40-ton plants are eliminated, 
it is seen that the diagram would be more regular, and that the 
20-. 30- and 50 -ton plants cover the range even better than the 
intermediate sizes named. In the labor curve there is a pro- 
nounced rise at the 20-ton plant, but this is due more than any- 
thing else to the drop from the 10- to the 15-ton plant. If the 
15-, 25- and 40-ton plants are omitted, the labor curve from the 
20-ton on is decreasing, until the 80-ton is reached, where it is at 
a minimum, rising again toward the 100-ton plant. The total cost 



122.60 
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2.40 
J2.50 
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'% 1.70 
1 1.60 
3 1. BO 





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no Dciys Operirtlon 
■530 [fays Operation 
.100 Days Output Stored 



Ice Pntidoction in Tons per Year, Hundreds. 



Fig. 8. Total cost of ice per ton. 



curves show that when all is considered the 80-ton plant is the 
most economical. 

In the standard distilled-water plants under consideration, it is 
fair to assume that there is sufficient refrigerating capacity to care 
for an ice-storage house, and that the steam used for this purpose 
will not increase the boiler load. In the event that the house is 
located away from the plant, or has an individual refrigerating 
equipment, it will practically double the cost of storage as here 
given. 

A properly built ice storage will be a substantial affair, and 
the depreciation will not be as heavy as on a manufacturing 
plant ; 5% will cover this as well as the repairs. The initial cost 
may be taken at $5 per ton of storage capacity, and the size will 
be determined by allowing 50 cu. ft. per ton of ice stored. Where 
possible the dimensions sh@uld be such as to give a maximum con- 
tent with a minimum of wall surface. For handling the ice an 
allowance of 15 cts. per ton is made and to cover incidentals an- 
other 10 cts. per ton is added. Table XXXVIII has been derived 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1485 



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1486 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

from the foregoing data in this way : The number of tons stored 
is taken at 50 cts. per ton, and this amount divided by the total 
tonnage for a 330-day period, as shown in Table XXXVII, gives 
the amount that is to be added. 

It will be noticed that -this has been carried only to the point 
where the amount to be added in all cases is substantially 15 cts., 
which represents a storage period of 100 days' output. 

From the cost of production, shown in Table XXXVII, it is 
evident that anyone operating a plant full capacity for 230 days 
can, if they have sale for the ice, increase the capacity 43.5% with 
practically no change in the cost per ton, by using storage for 
100 days' output and operating 330 days. 

This statement, however, may be misleading, for this increased 
tonnage could be got with a larger plant in the 230-day period for 
less per ton. This is brought out in Figs. 8 and 9. This exempli- 



g2.60 
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*|2.40 
|2 2.30 
»2.20 
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•gl.80 
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gl.50 



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250 Dc^s Operation 
-550 Days Opera+ion 
100 Days Output StoreJ 



Ice Produciion in Tons per Year, Hundreds 



3J0 Days Operation 



Fig. 9. Approximate cost of ice per ton deduced from Fig. 8. 



fies what has already been stated that conditions must be studied 
and given due consideration in determining what is best in a 
particular case. 

Often there are considerations such as varying demands at 
particular times of the year that will more than compensate for 
the extra charge of storing. These figures show, however, that the 
storage can be used to advantage in increasing the output where 
the plant is ordinarily shut down part of the time, and that there 
is not a great deal of difference in cost whether storage is used 
with the plant operating longer or a larger plant for a shorter 
period of time. On the other hand, the having of a supply of 
ice on hand may be the means of largely increasing the revenue 
and is therefore desirable. 

Initial and Operating Costs of Refrigeration Plants. (Robert P. 
Kehoe in Power, May 25 and Oct. 19, 1915.) 

The following tables will be found useful by operators and 
owners interested in refrigerating and ice-making plants of com- 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1487 



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1488 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 






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HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1489 

paratively small capacity. No particular application has been 
considered and the data may be used for any of the branches 
of refrigeration, such as general cold storage, markets, hotels, 
apartment houses, water-cooling plants, fur storage, drygoods 
stores, and hospitals. 

The estimated first costs are necessarily approximate. A re- 
frigerating equipment for a hotel will cost more than a refrigerat- 
ing plant used solely for cooling water. Again, the same size 
plant in one hotel may cost more than in another. The figures 
are a good average and the comparison between the costs of plants 
with different drive is quite correct. 

Those who now operate plants and know what their equipment 
cost can use the table to advantage in adding or deducting to the 
same extent as indicated in the table to determine the difference 
in cost of other methods of drive. Then by applying the actual 
costs of labor and fuel, which are known, in the same manner, 
it may be ascertained how economically each plant is performing 
and if improvement is possible. 

Refrigerating plants of from ten to twenty-five tons' daily 
capacity are seldom operated by men engaged to do nothing else, 
but usually by men required for operating other machinery. This 
has been considered in the table. The figures may be easily cor- 
rected to suit local conditions, and the price of fuel also regulated 
to correspond. The table represents a fair average. 

The 60% yearly load factor assumed should be close to actual 
conditions in the majority of plants. It will be noted that the 
labor charge has been carried through the whole year. The 10% 
added for depreciation and repairs can be divided about half and 
half. A 5% yearly depreciation means complete renewal in fifteen 
years if the 5% is calculated as a sinking fund ; 5% yearly for 
repairs and incidentals should be ample. No building has been 
taken into consideration because small refrigerating plants are 
usually located in some part of an existing building. 

The advantage of making calculations of operating costs on a 
yearly basis cannot be doubted. In fact, the daily operating ex- 
pense alone is misleading, particularly when the yearly load factor 
is low and a comparatively short period of operation must bear 
the depreciation and upkeep expense for the year. 

The total cost per ton of refrigeration per day is interesting 
when compared to the cost of using ice for the same purpose. Ice 
is seldom delivered for less than $2.50 to $3 per ton, even- in large 
quantities, and often the price is $3 to $4. The table proves that 
much saving can be accomplished by the refrigerating plant, with- 
out considering greater convenience, elimination of slop from 
melting ice and better preservation of perishable goods under lower 
temperatures. 

The economy of oil engines as compared with ordinary steam 
plants and electric motors using central-station current at average 
rates is quite evident. In the smaller sizes of refrigerating and 
ice-making plants considered in the tables, the cheaper cost of 
operation is even more pronounced because small steam plants are 



1490 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



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HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1491 



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1492 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

not usually economical, while small oil engines pei'form almost as 
well as large units. 

It may not always be advisable to install an oil engine, on 
account of local conditions which may favor a steam engine or 
electric motor. Steam may be required for other purposes. Some- 
times the power iJlant may have to be located in such close quar- 
ters that only an electric motor can be used to preserve sanital-y 
conditions. Sometimes it would be inadvisable to place an oil 
engine or a steam unit in the crowded basement of a hotel, restau- 
rant or hospital where other work is going on and perhaps where 
foodstuffs are handled. But if the location and requirements do 
not favor other power, the oil engine will afford a marked saving 
in the yearly expense. 

The table which refers to ice plants is arranged on a basis 
similar to the table for refrigerating plants. The cost of a special 
building is included, and the labor is calculated to be used for the 
ice plant alone. Only half the labor is included during the balance 
of each year when the plant is shut down or not operated at full 
capacity. Moreover, special tabulations are given for different 
yearly load factors. The importance of this factor is indicated 
by the wide difference in cost of production. For example the 
25-ton oil-engine-driven plant shows a total producing cost of 
$3.27 per ton when the yearly output is equivalent to three months' 
full operation while the same plants producing the equivalent of 
seven months' full operation reduce the cost per ton to $1.82. 

Large Ice Plants. Table XLI offers an opportunity to study the 
relations between the three principal types of plants in five sizes, 
ranging from 100 to 500 tons' capacity per day of 24 hrs. The 
steam engines are compound condensing. 

No consideration is given to cost of property, which of course 
will vary with the location. If desirable, an amount to cover this 
item may be added to the investment in each case in order to 
figure the percentage of possible profit. This will have no effect 
on the operating cost unless interest is added in the estimate of 
yearly expense. In this event the interest on the total amount of 
borrowed money may be figured in. At any rate the comparisons 
are true, and if the cost of labor and that of fuel are adjusted 
to suit a particular locality, the table will be a correct guide in 
the determination of the advantageous kind of plant to install. 

The usual refinements advisable for large distilled-water plants 
have been covered in the first costs of the steam-driven plants. 
These refinements include evaporators and automatic stokers. An 
average economy of nine tons of ice per ton of coal has been 
assumed. This may be increased to ten or more tons per ton of 
coal under ideal conditions, but the usual working basis will prob- 
ably not average more than nine to one. 

In the raw-water plants the standard drop-tube system is the 
basis. This may be either the multiple or double drop-tube type 
according to the latest practice in uptodate successful installations. 
If a fine quality of ice is required, the Beals system may be added, 
in which case the first cost and the depreciation will increase, but 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1493 



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1496 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the labor cost will be reduced. The Beals process requires no 
more labor than the regular distilled-water system, while in drop- 
tube plants the tubes have to be watched and the core water re^ 
placed at the proper time. 

The product of drop-tube systems with properly filtered water 
is always good, unless water of unusual characteristics is used. 
The refilled core water, which is frozen without agitation, pro- 
duces a core similar to distilled-water ice. The slight odor which 
can often be detected in the latter when broken up is rarely found 
in raw-water ice. The Beals system considerably reduces the core, 
which makes almost the entire block transparent. 

Raw-water ice is surely gaining in favor, and operators are also 
perfecting the method for handling these plants to such a degree 
that no trouble is now experienced in turning out a first-class 
marketable product. The installation of plants of 400 and 200 
tons' daily capacity in New York City marks the final stage in the 
universal approval of this process. As both plants are driven by 
oil engines, the success of this type of motive power for ice manu- 
facture is also indicated. There are now many oil-engine-driven 
plants of all sizes. 

The price of oil has been taken as 3.5 cts per gal. In many 
sections a lower price is obtainable. It is advisable to adopt a 
type and make of engine that will burn the heaviest and cheapest 
grades of fuel oil. 

A 1 ct. rate per kw.-hr. for electric current is used because any 
higher price could not be considered. Even this figure does not 
compare favorably with either the oil-engine or steam plant. The 
claim is often made that the power consumption in such plants is 
less than 50 kw.-hr. per ton of ice; but the average electric-driven 
plant will be found to use nearly 60. As all the other figures in 
the table are made conservatively to represent everyday conditions, 
60 kw.-hr. per ton of ice is quite appropriate. 

The yearly load factor of 60% is equivalent to 216 days of full 
operation. This would mean about four months of full operation, 
four months at half capacity and four months at one-quarter capa- 
city. In large plants in cities of considerable size these conditions 
usually exist. 

Reproduction Cost of a 65-Ton Ice Plant. The data in Table XLII 
are taken from one of our appraisals of a public utility property 
(in the South) of which the ice plant was operated as an auxil- 
iary. The compressors for this plant were housed in the buildings 
of the main plant and were run on steam from the main boilers. 

IVIechanical Refrigeration Gives a Timely Load. The cost of 
electric energy for operating a 5-ton plant for a butcher shop at 
special refrigeration rates is given in Electrical World, April 28, 
1917. 

Mechanical refrigeration offers opportunities as a central sta- 
tion load in many different ways, from the small plant of the house- 
holder to the large plants of hotels, and including coldstorage 
plants for provisions and furs and for butcher shops and other 
Stores. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1497 

TABLE XLn. GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ESTIMATED 
COST OF REPRODUCTION 

Reproduction 
cost new 

1. Buildings $13,600 

2. Ice making- machinery 49,483 

3. Miscellaneous equipment 109 

4. Supplies and material on hand 519 

$63,711 

5. Engineering and management, 10% items 1 to 4 inc. 6,371 

$70,082 

6. Legal 11^76 items 1 to 5 inc 1,061 

$71,143 

7. Intei'est during construction 5% items 1 to 6 3,557 

Total $74,700 

TABLE XLIII. DETAILED ESTIMATED COST OF REPRODUC- 
TION OF PROPERTY 

1. BUILiDINGS 

Description Total cost 

Refrigeration plant buildings, freezing room, ice stor- 
age roorn and beer vaults, including foundations of 

tanks and machinery and all insulation $13,200 

Ice chute to dock 400 

$13,600 

2. ICE MAKING MACHINERY 

Ammonia Compressors 

Ammonia compressor 15 by 30 in. driven by 17 by 42 
in. heavy duty Corliss engine, complete including 
high pressure side connections together with steam 
condenser, coolers, coke filter, charcoal filter, cold 
water tank, pump and connections $11,500 

Ammonia compressor 15 by 30 in. driven by 14 by 26 
by 56 in. tandem compound Corliss engine, complete 

including high pressure side connections 8,970 

Freezing Tanks 

40 ton ice tank, flooded system. 26 by 76 by 4 ft., con- 
taining 665-300 lb. cans (11 V2 by 22V2 ins. at top by 
44 ins. deep), freezing coils, liquid gas headers, 
brine propeller driven by 75 h.p. motor; traveling 
ice crane, automatic sprinkler and hose, together 
with all suction and liquid piping and fittings, com- 
pletely installed 11,350 

25 ton ice tank, flooded system, 13 ft. 9 ins. by 76 ft. 
4 ins., containing 350-300 lb. cans (11 M; by 22 V2 ins. 
at top by 44 ins. deep) freezing coils, liquid and gas 
headers, brine propeller driven by 5 h.p. motor, 
traveling ice crane with pneumatic hoist, automatic 
sprinkler and hose ; together with all suction and 
liquid piping and fittings, completely installed; also 
two automatic recording ice chutes, each for two- 

300 lb. cakes 6.235 

Ammonia Condensers 

2 12 coil atmospheric ainmonia condensers with all 

connections at $2,530 5,060 



Miscellaneoiis 

Westinghouse air comprc-^.-^or 8 by 8 by 10 ms., reser- 
voir and connections, together with 1 pneumatic 
hoist 



160 



Ammonia regenerator with connections 300 



1498 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Description Total cost 

Ice Making Machinery 

50 ton vacuum reboiling apparatus with exhaust steam 

separator, pump and connection $ 1,150 

36 by 36 ins. vacuum reboiling apparatus complete 

with float, and 4 by 5 by 5 ins., single high vacuum 

pump 575 

2 in. centrifugal brine circulating pump, driven by 5 

h.p. motor 145 

Motor driven ice saw 375 

Motor driven endless chain ice hoist 400 

Piping installed and lagged 2,963 

$49,483 



TABLE XLIV. COST OF OPERATING 10 H.P. MOTOR FOR 
BUTCHER SHOP REFRIGERATION 

Month Kw.-hr, Cost Month Kw.-hr. Cost 

January 266 $10.64 August . . .■ 984 $29.52 

February 278 11.12 September 922 27.66 

March 294 11.76 October 656 26.04 

April 354 14.16 November 490 19.60 

May 388 11.64 December 338 13.52 

June 514 15.42 

July 616 18.48 Totals 6100 $209.56 

Average rate 3.43 cents 

In this connection an interesting rate is offered to butchers by 
the Public Service Electric Company, which charges them 4 cts. 
per kw.-hr, for the consumption in each month from October to 
April inclusive, and 3 cts. per kw.-hr. for the consumption in each 
of the five remaining months. 

The Economy of Storing Artificial Ice in a Large Plant. Mr, 
R. P. Kehoe has presented some carefully worked-out estimates 
in Power, June 18, 1912, showing the total investment (estimated) 
for a 100-ton ice-making plant under the simple can-system and a 
60-ton ice-making plant of the same system and a 60-ton ice-making 
plant under the plate system, the two latter with provision for 
storing 5000 tons of ice, one refrigerated and the second not re- 
frigerated. The following is a summary of these figures : 

100-TON PLANT 

Complete mechanical equipment $54,000.00 

Building and foundations , 30,000.00 

Total investment $84,000.00 

Daily operating expense 

16 tons of coal at $3.50 $56.00 

One chief engineer , . . 5.00 

One night engineer 3.50 

Two firemen at $2 4.00- 

Four tankmen at $2 8.00 

Two laborers or storehousemen at $2 4.00 

Two oilers at $2 ■ 4.00 

Ammonia, oil. waste and supplies, etc 10.00 

OflEice man 4.00 

$98.50 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1499 



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1500 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Depreciation, etc. 

5% depreciation on machinery ($54,000) $2,700.00 

2% depreciation on building-, etc. ($30.000) 600.00 

Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (57o) 4.200.00 



Summary 



$7,500.00 



180 days' full operation at $98.50 $17,730.00 

Labor for balance of year, leaving out only two laborers 

- 180 days at $28.50 4,845.00 

Depreciation, etc 7,500.00 



$30,075.00 

Income from sale of 18,000 tons of ice at $2.50 45,000.00 

Profit $45,000 — $30,075 = $14,925 - 17.8% 

60-TON PLANT WITH 5,000 TONS STORAGE, REFRIGERATED 

Complete mechanical equipment $40,000 

Building and foundations , 35.000 



Total investment $75,000 

Daily Operating Expense 

(For 60 tons ice production) 

10 tons of coal at $3.50 $35.00 

One chief engineer 5.00 

One night engineer 3.50 

Two firemen at $2 4.00 

Two tankmen at $2 4.00 

Two laborers or storehousemen at $2 4.00 

Ammonia, oil, waste and supplies, etc 7.50 

Office man 4.00 



Ice Storage 



$67.00 



Entire rsfrigerating Work = 40 tons, requiring 3 tons of 

coal at $3.50 $10 50 

Depreciation, etc. 

6% depreciation on machinery ($40,000) $2,400.00 

2% depreciation on building, etc. ($35,000) 700.00 

Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (6%) 4.500.00 

$7,600.00 
Summary 

10 months' full operation, 300 days at $67.00 $20,100.00 

Carrying full ice storage for about 6 months, 180 days at 

$10.50 1,890.00 

All labor during two months' shutdown. 60 days at $24.50 1.470 00 

Depreciation, etc 7.600 00 



$31,060 00 
Income from sale of 18,000 tons of ice at $2.50 45,000.00 



Profit $45,000 — $31,060 = $13,940 - 18.6?;, 

60-TON ICE-MAKING PLANT — PLATE SYSTEM 

(Compound condensing steam engine, 5000 tons ice storage) 

Co7nplete mechanical equipment $60,0 00.00 

Building and foundations 40.000.00 

$100,000.00 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1501 

Daily operating expense 
(For 60 tons ice production) 

5 tons of coal at $3.50 $17.50 

One chief engineer 5.00 

One night engineer 3.50 

Two firemen at $2 4.00 

Two harvesters at $2 4.00 

Ammonia, oil, waste, supplies, etc 7.50 



$41.50 
Depreciation, etc. 

6% depreciation on machinery ($60,000) $3,600.00 

2% depreciation on building ($40,000) 800.00 

Repairs, taxes, water and incidentals (6%) 6,000.00 



$10,400.00 



Summary 

10 months' full operation, 300 days at $41.50 $12,450.00 

All labor during two months' shutdown, 60 days at $16.50 990.00 

Depreciation 10,400.00 



$23,840.00 
Income froin sale of 17,000 tons of ice (assuming loss of 

1000 tons through meltage) at $2.50 42,500.00 



Profit $42,500 — $23,840 = $18,660 = 18.66% 

The calculations are based on a wooden structure for storage 
with the inexpensive insulation and a 50% yearly load-factor, 
allowing space enough for 5000 tons of ice and room for handling 
which he estimates is taken care of by a building 200 ft. long, 
100 ft. wide and 12.5 ft. high; the total wall, floor and ceiling sur- 
faces aggregating 47.500 sq. ft. He allows a heat leakage of 5 
B.t.u. per sq. ft. per degree difference in temperature every 24 hrs. 
The average temperature difference between the outside and the 
interior of the storage has been estimated as 50° P. Calculating 
that each sq. ft. of pipe surface will absorb 50 B.t.u. per degree 
difference in temperature every 24 hours, and assuming a back 
pres.sure of 15 lbs. equivalent to an ammonia temperature of 0° 
F. equals a temperature difference of about 30° P. The refriger- 
47,000 X 5 X 50 

ating work would be = 40 tons, and the amount of 

288,000 
2 in. piping required for the storage would be 47,500 times 5 times 
50 times 1.6 over 30 times 50 equals 12,667 ft. The approximate 
cost of this piping would be $5000 erected in place. Mr. Kehoe has 
figured 6% for depreciation, repairs, etc., in the 60-ton plant and 
5% in the 100-ton plant, considering that the smaller plant will 
have to run 67% more of the time each year. 

He considers that he has favored the 60-ton plant as much as 
possible in his figures. The yearly profit is $1000 less and the per- 
centage of earnings is very little more. 

The original investment of the 60 ton can plant is less than that 
of the 100 ton can plant, and that of the 60-ton plate plant is 
3,3 more than that of the 60 ton can plate. Hence he concludes that 
in the three propositions, as an investment, there is little to choose. 



1502 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the whole question depending upon the local facts and figures 
given in the detailed cost of construction, that must be estimated 
with great care independently of any particular set of cases. 

Cost of Ice Houses. For detail costs of ice houses see Gillette's 
Handbook of Cost Data. 

Cost of Equipment for 10-Ton Refrigerating Plant Using iVIa- 
chines of Different Sizes. (Power, Sept. 19, 1910.) 

Capacity of compressor, gas at 0°F 10 tons 15 tons 20 tons 

Operating temp., gas at 0°F. 12°F. CF. 

Brake h.p. with 185 lb. condenser pressure, 

incl. 25% increase over the compressor 

h.p 21.3 32.4 42.5 

Brake h.p. gas engine bought 25 35 45 

Cost installed, with countershaft and belting, 

dollars 1100 1500 1850 

Cost of horiz. bait-driven ammonia compres- 
sor, with high pressure side, erected, 

dollars 2300 2900 3500 

2-in. wrought iron expansion piping required, 

lineal ft 2332 7212 4663 

Cost of piping, including liquid and suction 

connections, cts. per ft 57 54 55 

Total cost of piping, dollars 1329 3890 2565 

Prime charge of anhydrous ammonia, lb 750 2000 1400 

Cost at 26 cts. per lb 195 520 364 



Total first cost of each plant, dollars $4924 $8810 $8279 

Comparative Data on Three Machines and Cost Figures. 

Sum- Au- Win- Total for 

mer tumn ter Spring year 
Tons refrigeration required per 

season 905.45 656.11 241.15 453.18 2,255.89 

10 ton machine : 

Hours running daily 45 17.3 6.36 11.95 

Hours running per season. . . 2,184 1,574 579 1,088 5,425 
Per cent, of possible running 

time, 364 days x 24 equals 

8,736 hours 62.1 

Brake h.p. hours, 5425x21.3 

equals .... 115,553 

"Water, M. gal. (same for 

all machines) 3,255 

Tons refrigeration required per 

season 905.45 656.11 241.15 453.18 2,255.89 

15 ton machine : 

Hours running, daily 12.4 9 3.3 6.2 



Hours running per season. 1,128 819 300 564 2,811 
Per cent, of possible running 

time 32.2 

Brake h.p. hrs 91,076 

20 ton machine : 

Hours running, daily 12 8.65 3.18 5.! 



Hours running per season.. 1,092 787 290 544 2,713 
Per cent, of possible running 

time 31 

Brake h.p. hrs 115,301 

Costs per Year. 

Size of machine used 10 tons 15 tons 20 tons 

Gas bill $2,888.83 $2,276.90 $2,882.53 

Lubricating oil 69.33 54.65 69.18 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1503 

Water bill $162.75' $162.75 $162.75 

Ammonia loss, 10, 6 and 7%, respec- 
tively 19.50 31.20 25.48 

Wages 1,627.50 843.30 813.60 



Total net operating expenses $4,767.91 $3,368.80 $3,953.54 

Fixed charges 738.60 1,321.50 1,241.85 



31.20 
843.30 


$3,368.80 
1,321.50 



Total yearly cost $5,506.51 $4,690.30 $5,195.39 

Total net operating expenses per ton 

refrigeration 2.12 1.50 1.75 

Total yearly cost per ton refrigeration ' 2.44 2.08 2.30 

Total yearly cost per cu. ft. storage 

space * 9.18c 7.82c 8.66c 

Total yearly cost saved over 10 ton 

machine 816.21 311.12 

Years required to recover excess first 

cost over 10 ton machine 4.76 10.8 



* These costs are about one-third of the rental charged per cu. 
ft. per yr. 

Power Consumption for One Year in Electrically Operated 100 
Ton Ice Plant. (Journal Western Society of Engineers, September, 
1911.) 

, Tons of ice v Max. H.p. 

Average Max. h.p. Total h.p. hrs. 

1910 Per month daily required h.p. -hrs. per ton per ton 

Jan 1768 57.0 123 87,070 2.16 49.24 

Feb 1549 55.3 137 79,450 2.48 51.29 

March 1903 61.4 221 93.760 3.60 49.27 

April 2732 91.1 232 164,558 2.55 60.23 

May 2651 85.5 257 165,488 3.01 62.42 

June 3024 100.8 300 188,666 2.98 62.39 

July 3442 111.0 314 219,265 2.83 63.70 

Aug 3503 113.0 300 208.123 2.65 59.40 

Sept 3514 117.1 291 209,027 2.49 59.48 

Oct 3379 109.0 283 185,177 2.60 54.80 

Nov 982 32.7 137 88,070 4.19 89.68 

Dec 1853 59.8 129 93,914 2.16 50.68 

Total 30300 1,772,568 58.50 

Coal nt $2.50 per ton, consumption was 85.47 lbs. per ton ice for 
evaporation and distillation. 

Cost electric power 23.36 cts. 

Cost fuel 10.68 cts. 

Cost engine and boiler labor 15.51 cts. 

Cost tank and ice labor 12.55 cts. 

Total 62.10 cts. 

NON-DISTILLED WATER. PLATE SYSTEM 

, Tons of ice ^ 

Average Max. h.p. Total 

1910 Per month daily required h.p.-hrs. 

Jan 10,314 

Feb 1420 50.7 145 ^8,214 

March 1400 45.2 153 105,845 

April 1168 38.9 139 78,933 

May 1786 57.6 138 101,798 

June 1037 34.6 278 120.720 



Max. 


H.p. 


h.p. 


hrs. 


per ton 


per ton 








2.86 


69.2 


3.38 


75.6 


3.58 


67.6 


2.40 


57.0 


8.00 


116.4 



1504 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

, Tons of ice , Max. H.p. 

Average Max. h.p. Total h.p. hrs. 

1910 Per month daily required h.p. -hrs. per ton per ton 

July 2294 74.0 280 201,791 3.78 88.0 

Aug 1800 58.1 290 209,200 4.98 116.2 

Sept 2244 74.8 283 198,157 3.78 88.3 

Oct 1115 36.0 149 117.363 4.13 105.3 

Nov 1019 34.0 141 98.320 4.14 96.5 

Dec 1356 43.7 139 104,398 3.19 77.0 

Total 16639 1,145,053 86.8 

Total cost electric power per ton ice 35.56 cts. 
Total cost of labor per ton ice. .. 36.00 cts. 

71.56cts. including- Ltg. and Aux. 

Electric power rate $36.00 h.p. year when month demand was 
100 h.p. 

Electric power rate $32.50 h.p. year when month demand was 
200 h.p. 

Electric power rate $30.00 h.p. year when month demand was 
300 h.p. 

At similar steam plant cost per ton ice was 58.06 cts. ; power was 
a by-product. 

Data from Several Small Ice-Making Plants. (From data in 
Isolated Plant and Electrical World in 1913.) 

A 4-Ton Plant in Conihination with an Electric Light Plant, 
in a Texas town of 1200 population, manufactured 700 tons of 
ice for the local population pei- year while the ice equipment repre- 
sents an investment of about $5,000. There is also a small vault 
about 6 ton capacity for storage. The monthly operating ex- 
penses for 

Fuel $300.00 

Labor (including office help) 100.00 

Supplies and miscellaneous 2.5.00 

Delivery 30.00 

Nothing seems to be allowed for depreciation and repairs in this 
statement. The total plant cost to produce one ton of ice on the 
station platform is estimated at $3.50 and the product is sold 
wholesale for $8.00 per ton. The local domestic price for deliv- 
ered ice being $.50 per 100 lbs. The annual gross income from 
the ice business was $5400.00, annual expenses, including depre- 
ciation, interest, etc., $2520.00, leaving net income on the invest- 
ment of $5,000.00, $2,880.00. 

A Q-Ton By-Product Ice Plant in Combination with a Small 
Electric Central Station in Georgia Marketing 1500 Tons of Ice 
per Year in a Town of 1000 Inhabitants. Steam compression ap- 
paratus was used for handling the ammonia. The total invest- 
ment, including the buildings and refrigeration plant, was about 
$10,000.00. The year's operating expense being as follows: — 

Fuel $750.00 

Labor, including office 400.00 

Miscellaneous 50.00 

Delivery 280.00 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1505 

Total $1,480.00, not including interest, depreciation and repairs. 
The estimated cost of producing 1 ton of ice at the platform was 
$3.60, and the receipts wholesale on the platform were $4.30 per 
ton. Deliveries at retail were made to small customers at $8.00 
per ton, one wagon being found adequate to supply the retail 
trade. The annual receipts and disbursements from the ice busi- 
ness were as follows : — 

The annual gross income from ice business $2250.00 

Annual expenses (including depreciation, int., etc.) 1730.00 

Balance $ 520.00 

A 10-Ton Plant Operated in Conjunction with the Electrical 
Equipment of an Electric Company in Omaha with a population of 
3500 representing an investment of about $10,000.00 and producing 
1200 tons annually at a net cost of $1.28 per ton under full-load 
operating conditions, where the ice-making season lasted four 
months. The plant account was as follows : — 

Compressor plant, freezing tank, etc $9,000.00 

Teams and wagons 500.00 

Miscellaneous equipment 500.00 

The domestic price for ice delivered was $.45 per 100 lbs., while, 
at wholesale, on the platform, the price was $4.00 per ton. The 
plant includes a cold storage room for holding 75 tons of ice under 
artificial refrigeration. The plant expenses chargeable to ice mak- 
ing in 1912 were $1550.00, including depreciation, interest, etc., and 
the gross income from the ice business was $7500.00. 

A lO-Tou Ice Plant Operated hy an Electric-light Company in a 
town in Northern Texas with 2000 population manufactured 2000 
tons of ice per season and the plant costs as a going concern $16,- 
000.00 including a well furnishing cooling water. Distilled water 
was used for making the ice, and the daily operating costs 
amounted to $30.42, including $12.50 for fuel, $13.42 for labor, 
including office help; $3.50 for delivery and $1.00 for miscellaneous 
expenses. The cost per ton of ice to the company was figured 
at $2.74 on the station platform. The wholesale receipts were 
$4.00 per ton and on a retail basis, delivered, the price was $9.50 
per ton. The total gross revenue was $12,000.00 per year, the total 
operating expenses were $9800, leaving a balance of $2200.00 or 
13.75 per cent, on the investment. It does not appear whether 
or not the depreciation and repairs were included in the above state- 
ment, but even if they were not, the figures indicated the cost of 
the business when the ice plant is used in connection with an 
electric light business. 

A Id-Ton Combination Ice Electric Plant in Florida sells 1700 
tons of ice per year in the community of 1700 population. This 
station utilizes the exhaust-steam from its electric-plant engines 
to operate a 10 ton absorption-type " generator," and the distilled 
water from the steam engine is reclaimed for freezing into ice. 
The ice plant, including building, equipment, can tank, two de- 



1506 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

livery wagons, etc., represents an investment of $12,000. The 
wholesale price of ice is from $5.00 to $7.00 per ton and the retail 
domestic i)rice is $.50 per 100 lbs. delivered. The 1912 gross busi- 
ness was $12,000, and the expenses including depreciation, interest 
and all other charges were $7000.00, leaving net profits of $5000.00 
or 42% on the original investment, which is suspiciously high. 

A 15-ron Ice Plant Operated 'by an Electric Compariy in Ken- 
tucky, serving a population of 3000, representing an investment 
of $9500.00 for the local ice business, the equipment comprising 
steam-driven ammonia-compression apparatus, with 36 tons' stor- 
age capacity. The actual plant cost of freezing a ton of ice in- 
cluding fuel, labor, etc., averages about $2.00 and the product is 
sold at wholesale on the platform for $5.00 per ton. The retail 
rate was $8.00 per ton delivered. The gross income from the ice 
business during 1912 was $6100.00. The expenses including fuel, 
labor, depreciation, etc., amounted to '$2500.00, leaving $3600.00 net 
or about 40% on the ice plant investment. 

A 12.5-Ton Ice Plant in Combination With an Electric Plant 
in Central Nebraska involved an investment of about $13,200.00 
and produced for a local population of 3200, 1250 tons of ice in 
1911 and 775 tons in 1912. The ammonia compressor is motor- 
driven, and distilled water is obtained from the electric generating 
department by condensation. To freeze 1 ton of ice at this plant 
58.5 kw.-hr. of energy is required, the ice department being charged 
for this at the rate of 3.5 cts. per kw.-hr., this making the actuaJ 
cost of producing a ton of ice at the station platform about $2.50. 
The cost to deliver locally to retail customers was about $1.20 per 
ton in addition. The retail rate for ice was from $.25 to $.50 
per 100 lbs. and the wholesale price for ice sold locally was $3.00 
to $4.00 per ton. The company's statement of its earnings was for 
annual income from the ice business $7825.00 and the expenses, 
depreciation, interest, etc., $6262.00, net returns $1563.00. The 
plant here included a 30-ton cold-storage house, which, according 
to the statement of company was not sufficient for the best results. 

A 15-Ton Steam-Driven Ice Plant. In a Kansas town of 2300 
inhabitants manufactured 2800 tons of ice per year from dis- 
tilled water obtained by the condensation of the various plant en- 
gines, including the ammonia compressor. The investment in the 
ice business is represented by the following figures : 

Ice-plant addition to building $ 2,000.00 

15-ton steam-driven compressor 13,000.00 

Freezing-tank equipment 1,200.00 

Wagons 500.00 

Total ice-making investment $16,700.00 

In addition to the refrigerating equipment proper, cold-storage 
capacity for 1000 tons of ice was installed, an additional amount 
of $6000.00 making the total outlay for the ice department $22.- 
700.00. The factory cost of making a ton of ice at the station 
platform was $1.35 estimated as follows: — 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1507 

Fuel $0.75 

Labor, including office salaries 0.30 

Water 0.10 

Supplies and miscellaneous 0.15 

Total $1.35 

The wholesale price was $2.75 per ton. The local retail price 
delivered is $.35 per 100 lbs. The cost of delivery averages about 
$1.30 per ton. 

Yearly gross income from ice bu.«iness $12,000.00 

Expenses for year, including depreciation, etc... 9,420.00 

Net earnings from ice business $ 2,580.00 

An IS-Ton Ice Plant in Iowa in a town of 4500 inhabitants 
manufactured 3500 tons of ice during seven months of 1912 with 
the following operating expenses : 

Fuel $1,690.77 

Labor and office help 2.000.00 

Water 200.00 

Supplies, miscellaneous 150.00 

Cost of delivery 1,803.87 

Total (not" including depreciation, int., etc.) . $5,844.64 

The actual plant cost of producing a ton of ice at the platform 
was estimated at $1.32 and the retail rates are on a sliding scale. 
Deliveries are made to groceries, hotels, restaurants and^ similar 
customers who u.se from 1 to 5 tons of ice during the season at 
the rate of $8.00 per ton; between 5 and 20 tons, the rate is $5.00 
per ton and between 20 and 50 tons, the rate is $4.00 per ton, 
all deliverci. Larger customers and those using 50 tons per year 
have special contracts. There is a flat rate of $8.00 per ton for 
ice d'elivered to all residences. The annual receipts were $13,039.74 
and the annual expense, including interest, depreciation, etc., was 
$6,826.68, leaving net income from ice business of $6,213.06, which 
on a total plant investment, inclusive of delivery wagons and stor- 
age facilities is $12,200.00, just over 50%. 

A 20-Ton By-Product Ice Plant in Kansas. Cost as follows for 
the ice department : 

Plant addition to building $10,000.00 

Steam compressor outfit, tank, etc 17,000.00 

Wagons and teams 2,000.00 

Total investment $29,000.00 

Operating expenses were as follows, omitting interest, taxes, de- 
preciation, etc. : 

Fuel $2,500.00 

Labor, including office help 1,200.00 

Water 300.00 

Supplies 500.00 

Delivery 1,300.00 

Total $5,800.00 



1508 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The cost of manufacture Avas figured at $1.50 per ton and the 
average wholesale price was $3.65 per ton, the retail price being 
$.35 per 100 lbs. The yearly income from the ice department was 
$12,860.00, and expenses, including interest and depreciation, were 
$9,400.00, leaving net return of $3460.00, 12% on the investment 

A 20-TO71 By-Product Ice Plant in Tennessee with 5000 popula- 
tion made 3000 tons of ice in 1912. The investment being as fol- 
lows for the ice plant : 

Ice machine; freezing tank, etc $15,000.00 

Addition to building 3,000.00 

Delivery wagons 2,000.00 

200-ton ice storage room 1,000.00 

Total $21,000.00 

191^ was a poor year for the ice business from that location owing 
to a cool summer, but the annual gross income from ice making 
was $15,000.00 and the annual expense, including interest, depre- 
ciation, etc., $13,000.00, giving net returns of $2000.00, or nearly 
10% on the investment. 

A 21-Ton By-Product Ice Plant near Omaha produces 2700 tons 
of ice per year for a community of 8000, The profitable part of 
the business was seven months in the year, but it is operated for 
the remaining five months for the convenience of some of the 
customers. The total ice-plant investment was about $25,000.00 
and the gross income in 1912 from the ice business was $8200.00, 
and the expenses, including interest, etc., were $5200.00, leaving 
net return of $3000.00 or about 12% on the investment. The aver- 
age cost of producing a ton of ice was $2.00 and the wholesale rate 
to a local dealer was $3.00 per ton. The local dealer retailed and 
delivered it at $.40 per 100 lbs. 

A 10-Ton By-Product Plant in a Small Western Town with 'Less 
Than 3000 Inhabitants had an ice-making investment of $11,000.00 
and earned $1,238.00 net, or a little over 11% in 1912. The follow- 
ing tables give the percentage of sales for the different classes of 
customers in quantity of ice and the percentage of gross income 
obtained from these customers : 

% of total % of gross 

Class of customer deliveries income 

Railroad company 62 36 

Wagon and ice book sales 28 48 

Butcher shops 5 7 

Lobby sales 3 6 

Out-of-town customers 2 3 

Total 100 100 

The total output for a season of eight and a half months was 1967 
tons of ice sold in wholesale lots at a figure of between $3.00 and 
$4.00 per ton, the retailed price being from $8.00 to $10.00 a ton 
delivered. The cost of producing and delivering one ton of ice was 
as follows : — 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1509 

Fuel 9-^ 270 

Labor, including clerical work 860 

Water ". ; o'.OSO 



Oil 



0.050 



Ammonia 0.060 

Light 0.150 

Supplies 0.190 

Insurance on plant 0.025 

Interest on investment , ' 320 

Depreciation " ' o 400 

Delivery , 0.525 

Total $3,930 

A ZO-Ton Plant in Missouri Connected with an Electric Light- 
ing Plant. In a commmunity of 5000 manufactured 8000 tons of 
ice per year costing about $1.15 per ton for manufacturing about 
the same amount for delivery. 

A 100-Ton Ice-Making Plant, described by Mr. C. E. Rose in 
Electrical World, was operated by the Arkansas Cold Storage Com- 
pany at Little Rock. It produced a refrigeration for a cold-storage 
warehouse of 100,000 cu. ft. capacity, a street pipe-line of 42,000 
cu. ft. capacity and two freezing tanks, an output of 40 tons of 
raw-water ice per day each. The refrigerating machinery included 
two vertical duplex Frick gas pumps rated at 50 tons per day each 
when running at 77 r.p.m. with standard refrigerator and condenser 
pressures. In addition to this, 100 h.p. was installed in various 
motor units of from 2 to 25 h.p., used to drive the circulating-water, 
brine pumps, air compressors, agitators, etc. For the year ended 
October 1, 1912, there were the following operating figures: 

Tons of refrigeration manufactured . 13,123 

Kilowatt-hours produced 497,608 

Kilowatt-hours per ton of refrigeration 37.9 

Fuel oil for power, per ton of refrigeration $0,124 

Wages for power per ton of refrigeration 0.170 

Lubricating oil and waste per ton of refrigeration 0.074 

Water per ton of refrigeration 0.030 

Electricity purchased per ton of refrigeration 0.012 

Maintenance of oil engines per ton of refrigeration 0.013 

Maintenance of refrigeration plant per ton of refrigeration 0.008 
Maintenance of electric equipment per ton of refrigeration. . 0.013 
Maintenance of auxiliary equipment (pumps, air compres- 
sors, etc.) per ton of refrigeration 0.007 

Total engine-room expense per ton of refrigeration. $0,451 

The above figures were obtained by the use of oil engine drives 
implying two 120 h.p. vertical, three-cylinder Diesel oil engines. 
The following "year, ending Oct. 1, 1913, electric current was pur- 
chased from an electric light company on the basis of the regular 
primary rate of $1.00 per kw. maximum demand plus an energy 
charge of 1 cent net per kw.-hr. for the electricity consumed by the 
motors, with the understanding that the refrigerating plant would 
not run during the electric light company's peakload period. The 
conditions of the following costs were obtained : — 



1510 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Tons of refrigeration manufactured 19.899 

Kilowatt hours 750,401 

Kilowatt-hours per ton of refrigeration 38 

Wages for power per ton of refrigeration $0,106 

Lubricating oil and waste per ton of refrigeration 0.030 

Electricity purchased ijer ton of refrigeration 0.235 

Water per ton of refrigeration 0.005 

Maintenance of electric plant per ton of refrigeration 0.010 

Maintenance of refrigerating plant per ton of refrigeration. . 0.035 
Maintenance of auxiliary equipment per ton of refrigera- 
tion 0.024 

Total engine-room expense per ton of refrigeration $0,445 

On this second year of operation on account of the larger amount 
of ice sold the total costs were figured at $.96 per ton, whereas 
for the previous year with oil-engine drive, the costs were figured 
at $1.22 per ton of refrigeration. The increase in refrigeration 
capacity was obtained by speeding up the ice machines from 77 
r.p.m. to 116 r.p.m. The indicator cards showing that while at 
the high speed the area of the card was slightly reduced, the re- 
duction was trivial in comparison with the larger injcrease in the 
volumetric displacement of the machine per unit of time ; the net 
gain in refrigerating capacity being 24 tons per day, rating the 
plant at 148 tons instead of 100 tons as was the case with the oil- 
lengine equipment. 

Cost of Refrigeration for a Skating and Curling Rink. There 
were two public ice surfaces, one of 22,000 sq. ft. for skat- 
ing, and the other of 5700 sq. ft. for curling. The rink floors being 
covered with 1.25 in. iron pipe laid 4.75 ins. apart, center to center, 
and embedded in gravel to the tops of the pipes, connected to 
headers running along each side of the rink. These pipes are 
divided into sections of eight each for easy connection and repairs. 
They include 55,860 linear ft. of pipe in the larger rink and 13,707 
ft. in the curling rink. The ice surface is built up by spraying the 
pipes with water, the ice being kept at a thickness of from 1.5 in. 
to 2 ins. above the pipe. The refrigerating plant, of the compres- 
sion type, consists of one 400 h.p. boiler with feed pump and 
auxiliaries, two 16 in. by 30 in. by 24 in. single-acting York com- 
pressors driven by Corliss cross-compound steam engines, an am- 
monia condenser, a brine cooler, pumps and tanks. The feed water 
passes through an exhaust-steam heater of 500 h.p. capacity. The 
compressor engines operate at 125 lbs. boiler pressure, exhausting 
into a 22 in. vacuum. The ammonia condenser consists of eighteen 
coils of 1.25 in. and 2 in. pipe, twelve pipes high and 19 ft. long, 
and is supplied from the city mains in* conjunction with the water 
from the surface wells on the premises. This water after leaving 
the condenser passes through the steam condenser and thence to 
the sewer, as no cooling tower is provided. The brine cooler is 
equipped with ten coils of 2 in. and 3 in. pipe 18 ft. long and 
fourteen pipes high, arranged in two banks, the brine being stored 
in a 24 ft. by 10 ft. by 8 ft. tank. It is forced through the cooler 
and floor piping by two Gould triplex double-acting 8.5 in. by 10 
in. pumps driven through gearing from a line shaft run by an 8 in. 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1511 

by 10 in. horizontal engine. The brine for the curling rink is 
supplied by a duplex double-acting pump having a capacity of 
150 gal. per min. The steam for heating the building is taken 
from the boiler through a reducing valve, the indirect system being 
used, in which air is drawn in over steam coils by a fan run by a 

15 h.p. motor. A similar motor and fan are used to exhaust the 
vitiated air from the building. The brine in this plant is com- 
posed of a solution of calcium chloride and water, having a specific 
gravity of 1.185. It passes through the floor piping of the rink at 
a temperature of about 14 deg. F., returning to the tank at about 

16 deg. F., after which it is forced by the pumps into the cooler. 
The cost per day of operating the plant by steam power was as 

follows: Electricity for light and ventilation service, $11.55; 
water, $23.85; coal, $24.54; oil and waste, $.15; attendance, $16.00; 
insurance, $.75; depreciation, $9.05; taxes, $2.47; interest, $6.03; 
total $94.39. The lighting service required 135 kw.-hr. per day 
with 27.3 kw.-hr. motors driving fans, the cost of electricity for 
lighting and ventilation averaging 6.8 cents per kw.-hr. The coal 
consumption was 12,270 lbs. of coal per day, costing $4.00 per ton. 
The water consumption was 18,377 cu. ft. i)er day, 608 cu. ft. per 
hour being used for condensing purposes and wasted into the sewer. 
The investment cost of the plant w^as $55,000.00, the load-factor on a 
twenty-four hour run being 50%, the average peak for one hour 
being 110.8 kw. maximum. Considerable savings could be made 
by converting this plant to electric. 

Electrical Refrigeration at 11.7 Cents a Day. ("Electrical World, 
May 8, 1915.) In the month of July last year R. W. Brown con- 
ducted tests on an electrical refrigerator to obtain authoritative 
data on the average daily energy consumption of the device. The 
refrigerator used for the tests was of the type made by the Me- 
chanical Refrigerator Company of Chicago. It was 16 ins. by 
36 ins. by 50 ins. inside. During the tests the automatic thermostat 
was disconnected and the control was effected by hand so that 
accurate observations of time and temperatures could be made. 
The temperature of the kitchen in which the machine was operat- 
ing was read five times a day, and the coil temperature was read 
each time the room temperature was taken and again each time 
the motor was started or stopped. The temperature maintained 
throughout the test in the warmest part of the refrigerator ranged 
between 40 deg. and 45 deg. F., and in the compartment containing 
the cooling coils the temperature was considerably lower. One 
day during the test ice for table use was made in the refrigerator. 

At a 10 cent rate for electrical energy, such as is in force at 
Spring Valley, its average daily cost amounted to 11.7 cents. The 
data observed by Mr. Brown are given in Table XLVI. 

Comparative Installation and Operating Co^ts of a Combined Ice- 
Manufacturing and Cold-storage Plant. (R. H. Tait and L. C 
Nordmeyer in Power, Oct. 28, 1913.) 

The basis of this comparison is a plant having a capacity of 60 
tons of ice per day of 24 hrs., and a cold-storage capacity of 100,- 
000 cu. ft. The cost of building and machinery equipment is 



1512 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XLVI. OPERATING DATA ON A MOTOR DRIVEN 
REFRIGERATOR 

Average temperature of room 83 deg. 

Average temperature of coils 92 deg. 

Average pressure in Its. per sq. in 57 deg. 

Average time of operation daily 5 hrs., 16 min. 

Average daily consumption, kw.-hrs 1,17 

figured thr^ ways : First, with a simple steam plant ; second, 
with a compound condensing plant ; and, third, with the Diesel 
engine. The cold-storage space will require a refrigerating capa- 
city of 20 tons, which is equivalent to 12 toils of ice-making capa- 
city. The' refrigerating machines and equipment must, therefore, 
be capable of developing the equivalent of 72 tons of ice-making 
capacity for 24 hrs. daily. 

In the latitude of St. Louis it has been found that if the output 
of the month of July is figured at full capacity, then the output in 
July is approximately 15 per cent, of the annual output. In the 
case under consideration, the yearly work is, therefore, Equivalent to 

72 X 31 X 100 

= 14,880 tons of ice 

15 

It is assumed that the plant would be erected in the Southwest, 
and fuel oil is figured at 95 cts. per bbl. of 42 gals. Artesian water 
is available at 87 deg. F, and city water at 90 deg. F. 

Buildings. The cost of the buildings, including boiler and en- 
gine room, freezing-tank room, cold-storage house and all insula- 
tion will be approximately $60,000. The necessary building space 
will be practically the same for all three types of plant. The fixed 
charges against the building are for interest, 6 per cent. ; insur- 
ance and taxes, 1.5 per cent. ; depreciation, 5 per cent., making a 
total of 12.5 per cent, of $60,000, or $7500 per year. Inasmuch as 
14,880 tons of ice represent the year's work, the building charge 
will be 50.4 cts. per ton of ice. 

Simple Steam Plant. In this plant it is contemplated to use air 
lifts to pump the water from the artesian wells to furnish the 
necessary water for the plant in connection with a water-cooling 
tower. The mechanical equipment will include water-tube boilers, 
boiler-feed pumps, feed-water heater, smoke-stack, two 60-ton re- 
frigerating capacity machines, ammonia-compression system, dis- 
tilling system, freezing system, steam and exhaust connections, 
air lifts and air compressor, circulating-water pumps, cooling 
tower, piping for cold-storage rooms, brine pumps, brine cooler, 
all steam, brine and ammonia pipe covering, 60-kw. generator and 
engine, ammonia, calcium and foundations for machinery. It is 
estimated that the complete equipment, delivered and erected, in- 
cluding engineer.?' fees, will be $65,000. The total cost of the 
plant, including building and machinery, will, therefore, be $125,000. 
The auxiliary pumps about the plant will consist of duplicate units, 
one steam-driven and one electrically driven. 

It is estimated that there will be burnt 3.08 bbls. of oil per hour 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1513 

under the boilers when operating at full capacity. With oil cost- 
ing 95 cts. per bbl. and the capacity being 72 tons ice making, the 
fuel cost per ton of ice will be 

3.08 X 95 X 24 
— 97.6 cts. 

72 

The operating cost is estimated as follows : 

Two firemen at $720 per year $1440 

Two engineers at $1230 per year 2460 

Two oilers at $720 per year 1440 

One handy man 900 

Oil waste, etc 300 

Total $6540 

$6540 

= $0,439 per ton of Ice 

14,880 
Ice handling 0.14 per ton of ice 

Total operating expenses $0,579 per ton of ice 

Fixed charges on the mechanical equipment are for interest on 
machinery investment, 6 per cent. ; insurance and taxes, 1.5 per 
cent. ; depreciation and obsolescence, 5 per cent., making a total 
of 12.5 per cent, on $65,000 or $8125. Fixed charges per ton of 
ice are then $8125-M4,880 = $0.546. The total cost per ton of 
ice is given in the following : 

Fixed charges . . .\ $0,546 

Fuel 0.976 

Operating expenses 0.579 

Total $2,101 

Fixed charges on building 0.504 

Total cost $2,605 

Attention is called to the fact that the total cost of ice, as 
given above and in the later deductions, is higher than the actual 
cost of ice at the platform, owing to the fact that the fixed charges 
on the machinery and building include the fixed charges on the 
brine cooler, brine pumps, cold-storage hou.se piping, cold-storage 
house building and insulation which should be properly charged 
against the cold-storage house only. As these are the same in 
each case considered, the costs given in each case will not affect 
the comparison. As the ammonia cost will depend on the care 
given the plant, and .should be the same for each, it has not been 
used in the estimated cost per ton in making the comparison. 

Compound Condensing Steam Plant. In this plant the water will 
be pumped from the artesian wells in the same manner as in the 
simple steam plant. The engines on both of the refrigerating ma- 
chines and on the generator will be compound condensing. The 
boilers will be equipped with economizers, so that the best efficiency 
may be obtained in the complete plant. The complete cost of the 
mechanical equipment including engineers' commission, is esti- 
mated at $76,400. 



1514 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

When operating under full load there will be consumed 2.38 bbls. 
of oil per hour, making the fuel cost $2.26 per hour, or $0,753 per 
ton of ice. The operating expenses for labor, oil, waste, etc., will 
be $0,579 per ton of ice, the same as for the simple steam plant. 
The fixed charges against the investment will be 0.125 X $76,400 — 
$9550 = $0,642 per ton of ice. The total cost per ton of ice is, 
therefore, given in the following: 

Fixed charges $0,642 

Fuel 0.753 

Operating cost 0.579 

Total without building charge $1,974 

Building charge 0.504 

Total cost $2,478 

The complete cost of plant is as follows: 

Cost of machinery $76,400 

Cost of building 60,000 



Total cost $136,400 

Diesel Engine Plant. In this plant city water will be used for 
the making of raw-water ice and for the cooling-tower make-up. 
All auxiliaries around the plant will be driven by electric current. 
Power will consist of two 225-b.h.p. Diesel engines, to each of 
which will be belted one 60-ton refrigerating capacity machine and 
one 40-kw. generator. The complete mechanical equipment will 
consist of two 225-h.p. Diesel engines, two 40-kw. belted gener- 
ators, switchboard, two 60 -ton refrigerating capacity belt-driven 
refrigerating machines, compression system, raw-water ice-freezing 
system, cooling tower, two centrifugal water-circulating pumps, 
cold-storage piping, two triplex brine pumps, brine cooler, brine and 
ammonia pipe covering, ammonia, calcium chloride, two oil tanks, 
foundations for refrigerating machines, Diesel engines, etc. It is 
estimated the complete equipment will cost $83,923, including en- 
gineer's commission. 

The fixed charges against the mechanical equipment will be as 
follows : 

Interest on investment 6 per cent. 

Insurance and taxes 1 1/^ per cent. 



1^2 percent, of $83,923 — $6294 
Depreciation and obsolescence on 

oil engines 10 per cent, of $34,440 =r $3444 

Depreciation and obsolescence on 

remainder of machinery 5 percent, of $49,483 = $2474 



Total $12,212 

The fixed charges per ton of ice equal $12,212 4- 14,880 = $0,821. 

When operating at full capacity the poM^er required by the re- 
frigerating machine is estimated to be 282 b.h.p, at the Diesel 
engine and for the electric units 97 b.h.p., making a total of 379 
b.h.p. at the engine. Assuming an oil consumptioi^ '^f 8 gal. per 



HEATING, COOKING AND VENTILATING 1515 

100 b.h.p.-hr. there would be consumed 30 gals, of oil per hour, 
making the fuel cost $16.30 per day, or 22.6 cts. per ton ice-making 
capacity. The operating expenses will be as follows : 

Two engineers at $1230 per year $2460 

Two oiJers at $720 per year 1440 

One handy man 900 

Oil, waste, etc 800 

Total $5600 

$5600 

= $0,376 per ton ice 

14,880 

Ice handling 0.14 per ton ice 

Total operating cost $0,516 per ton ice 

City water must be supplied for making 60 tons of ice and for 
supplying the losses of the cooling tower. For this purpose there 
will be used 263,500 cu. ft. of water per month. 

70,000 cu. ft. of water costs $64.15 

193,500 cu. ft. of water at 7c. per 100 135.45 

Total water cost per month $199.60 

Water costs per ton of ice $0.09 

From the above the total cost per ton of ice is as follows : 

Fixed charges $0,821 

Fuel 0.226 

Operating expense 0.516 

Water 0.090 

Total without building charge $1,653 

Building charge 0.504 

Total cost per ton of ice $2,157 

The total cost of the plant will be as follows : 

Cost of machinery $83,923 

Co.st of buildings 60,000 

Total cost $143,923 

Resume. The comparative cost of installation and operation 
of the three types of plant is given in the accompanying table. 

From the table the following comparisons can be deduced : 

Simple vs. Compound Steam, Plant: The compound condensing 
steam plant costs $11,400 more than the simple steam plant, but a 
saving of 12.7 cts. per ton of ice is accomplished, which for 14,880 
tons of ice-making capacity per year amounts to $1889.76 per year. 
On this basis the compound condensing steam plant will pay for 
the difference in cost between it and the simple plant in approxi- 
mately six years. 

Simple Steam Plant vs. Diesel Engine Plant: The Diesel engine 
plant will cost $18,923 more than the simple steam plant, but a 
saving is accomplished of 44.8 cts. per ton of ice, or $6666.24 per 
year. On this basis the Diesel engine plant will pay for the dif- 
ference in cost between it and the simple steam plant in less than 
three years. 



1516 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

COMPARATIVE INSTALLATION AND OPERATING COSTS 

Simple Compound Diesel 

steam condensing engine 

plant steam plant plant 

Cost building $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 

Cost machinery 65,000 76,400 83,923 

Total cost $125,000 $136,400 $143,923 

Cost water per ton ice $0.09 

Cost fuel per ton ice $0,976 $0,753 0.226 

Fixed charges machinery . . . 0.546 0.642 0.821 

Operating cost 0.579 0.579 0.516 

Cost per ton ice without build- 
ing charge $2,101 $1,974 $1,653 

Building charge per ton ice.. $0,504 $0,504 $0,504 

Compound Condensing Plant vs. Diesel Plant: The Diesel engine 
plant costs $7523 more than the compound condensing steam plant, 
but a saving of 32.1 cts. per ton of ice is accomplished, which 
amounts to $4776.50 per year. From this the Diesel engine plant 
will pay for the difference in cost between it and the compound 
condensing steam plant in less than two years' time. 

From the comparison given above, it seems apparent that the 
oil-engine plant would be an exceedingly good investment. This 
should especially be apparent on account of the manner in which 
the deductions were made. The steam-driven plants were given 
the benefit of the best efficiency that could be obtained ; namely, a 
boiler efficiency in the case of the simple plant of 65 per cent. ; 
and in the case of the compound condensing steam plant, with the 
use of an economizer, of 71.5 per cent. 

The steam consumption of the simple engine of the refrigerating 
machine was assumed to be 27 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr., while that of the 
electrical generators was assumed to be 30 lbs. of steam per i.h.p.-hr. 

In the case of the compound condensing steam plant, a steam 
consumption of 18 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr. was assumed for the steam 
engines of the refrigerating machine, and 20 lbs. per i.h.p.-hr. for 
the generator engines, including steam for vacuum pumps and other 
auxiliaries. 

In the oil-engine plant,, the engines were credited with a low 
efficiency of 8 gals, per 100 b.h.p.-hr., while it has been found that 
the fuel consumption of engines installed in the Southwest by the 
Busch-Sulzer Bros. -Diesel Engine Co. was approximately 6.5 gals, 
per 100 b.h.p.-hr. under normal working conditions. In addition 
to this, the oil-engine plant is charged with water brought from the 
city, as against artesian-well water used in the steam plant. 

A further advantage is given the steam installations by charging 
them with a depreciation and obsolescence of only 5 per cent, as 
against 10 per cent, charged to the Diesel oil-engine installation. 

The present prices of fuel oil will somewhat change the figures, 
as shown, but cannot help but prove the oil engine a good in- 
vestment. 



CHAPTER XX 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 

Electric railway construction has much in common with steam 
railway construction. The detail cost of steam railroads, including 
grading, ballast, bridges, etc., is very fully covered in the Gillette's 
Handbook of Cost Data ; hence, in order to avoid repetition, this 
chapter on electric railway costs is confined to such data as are 
not given in the book just named. 

The engineer who is going very deeply into the subject of electric 
railway costs, both of construction and operation, will find a mass 
of valuable data in the reports and files of state railway and public 
service commissions. A study of such data discloses the somewhat 
astonishing fact that few interurban electric lines yield even a 
6 per cent, return on their cost. If an adequate depreciation annuity 
were provided, it is probable that not one electric interurban in 
ten would yield more than 5 per cent, on the actual cost of the 
physical plant. Perhaps this note of warning is not so greatly 
needed to-day as it was needed 10 or 15 years ago ; but under- 
estimates of first cost, as well as operating expenses and depre- 
ciation, are still so common that it seems advisable to caution 
engineers in the employ of promoters of electric traction lines. 

Appraisal of the Spokane and inland Empire Electric Railroad. 
The following is condensed from an article by H. L. Gray, Engi- 
neering and Contracting, Dec. 27, 1911. The appraisal was made 
in connection with a rate case. The railway is interstate, but as 
the mileage in the State of Idaho is comparatively small, it was 
decided to establish a precedent and appraise the property lying 
in Idaho, as well as that within the State of Washington, and to 
show a separate estimate for each state. 

Mileage. — This system has a total main track mileage of 234.86 
miles, of which 204.52 miles are within the State of Washington, 
while 30.25 miles are within the state of Idaho. The trackage 
within the State of Washington includes 47.34 miles of street rail- 
way in the City of Spokane. In addition to the above mileage, 
there is a total of 44.83 miles of other tracks, of which 34.25 miles 
are in the State of Washington and 10.58 miles within the State of 
Idaho, making a total track mileage of 279.60. 

Construction Features. — The only particularly noteworthy fea- 
tures of construction found on this system exist on the Inland 
Division. The location of that portion of the line presented unusual 

1517 



1518 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

difficulties, owing to the fact that it runs squarely across the drain- 
age systems of the country, necessitating very expensive grading, 
excessive curvature and heavy grades. The maximum curvature 
is 12 degs., the average amount of curvature per mile being 105 
degs., or almost four times that usually encountered on steam 
roads. The maximum grade of 2% is frequently encountered. 

The single phase, alternating current system of distribution 
is used on this division, which, although much more expensive as 
regards first cost, was adopted with the idea that the economy of 
operation would offset the increased cost of construction. At the 
time this line was built the .single phase system of distribution was 
largely an experiment, only a few such systems existing in the 
world. Even after the line was constructed, continual experiment- 
ing was necessary in order to perfect the operation. The train 
records of the company would indicate that so far as concerns the 
efficiency of operation, this system has been a decided success. On 
account of the high voltage of the power used, the ordinary motor 
cars will force their way through the heavy snows of the Palouse 
country without the aid of a snow plow. The winter of 1910 was 
undoubtedly one of the most severe ever experienced in this locality, 
and the first train running over the line in the morning would 
frequently encounter at least twelve inches of snow on the level, 
and sometimes as much as seven feet of snow in the cuts. No pro- 
vision was made to protect the cars, with the exception of an iron 
sheathing over the pilot, and in spite of such adverse conditions, 
the longest delay due to snow during the entire winter was twenty 
minutes. 

The trolley construction on this division is of the catenary type, 
the messenger wire and trolley being supported by mast arms, the 
messenger wire acting as a conductor. A large portion of the 
power used is supplied by what is known as the Nine Mile Power 
Plant, built at a cost of one and one-quarter millions of dollars, 
being strictly modern and up-to-date in every way. The plant is 
capable of generating 12.000 k.v.a. working under a 58-ft. head. 
Power is generated by four 3.000 k.v.a. Westinghouse alternating 
current generators coupled to four 5,500 hp. Holyoke turbines, under 
control of Lombard governors, with the additional protection of 
emergency controllers. In addition to the power generated by this 
plant, a large amount of power is purchased from the Washington 
Water Power Company. 

Actual Cost. — An investigation of the records showed the present 
company to be an amalgamation of a number of companies built 
during previous years, namely : the Spokane and Coeur d'Alene 
Railway Company, Ltd. ; the Spokane Traction Company ; the 
Spokane and Inland Railway Company ; and the Spokane Terminal 
Company ; all of which were merged into the present company on 
January 1, 1907. The aggregate cost of the entire property owned 
and operated was $15,314,357, although the book cost was some- 
what in excess of this amount, due to the inclusion of discount in 
the plant account. The amount of actual ca.sh invested in the 
property, exclusive of right of way and real estate, was $13,704,960. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1519 

The greater portion of the money invested was obtained from the 
sale of stock, which is rather an unusual condition in the case of 
railroad construction. 

Paving Considered as Part of the Property. — As usual in the 
case of street railways, the franchises granted to the company 
provided that in case any streets occu])ied by tracks should be 
subsequently paved, the company would be required to pay for and 
maintain the paving upon its tracks and for a distance of two feet 
from the extreme outside of the rail. It has been contended in 
various appraisals made of street railway properties that such 
paving should not be considered as an asset of the street railway 
company, but should rather be regarded in the light of a tax 
imposed upon the company by the city. In this instance, however, 
the paving is included as railway property. 

Unit Prices. — The estimated costs of reproducing this system, 
which was made as of January 1, 1911, was based upon the actual 
material known to have been used in its construction, while the 
prices used for such material, and for labor, were the prices that 
would prevail during the assumed construction period. It is ex- 
tremely probable that there would have been but little difference in 
the estimated cost of reproduction, as shown, had the average price 
for the five preceding years been used. 

Quantities. — As no estimate of the cost of reproducing the prop- 
erty had been prepared by the company officials, it was necessary 
for the engineers of the Commission to compile a statement of 
quantities, and to investigate and obtain the prevailing prices. 
The statement of grading quantities was, in the main, obtained 
from the final estimates as allowed the different contractors, and 
such estimates were again checked with vouchers in existence in the 
Accounting Department. The statement of track material was care- 
fully checked in the field, certain portions of the track being 
selected at random and checked by engineers on foot, until it was 
considered that the correctness of the tabulations was established. 
All bridges were examined and measured, poles and guys were 
counted, while structures of all kinds were examined and their 
dimensions ascertained. All electrical machinery and apparatus 
was inspected and listed. The only item which was difficult to 
ascertain was the amount of ballast. Owing to the fact that the 
line was never completely ballasted, the work having been done 
piecemeal, it was an extremely hard matter to ascertain the amount 
of ballast under the ties. 

Labor Costs. — As is usually the case, obtaining representative 
labor costs presented the greatest difficulty. Obtaining prices of 
material involves quite an amount of work, but arriving at proper 
labor charges calls for a great deal more. Owing to the fact that 
this road was but recently constructed, it was felt that the cost of 
reproduction should certainly not depart in any marked degree 
from the actual cost. It was, therefore, decided to obtain the labor 
costs altogether from the records of the company, if possible. To 
this end, hundreds of work records compiled by the Engineering 
Department, and bearing on work recently done, were examined, in 



1520 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

order to ascertain what different classes of work were costing the 
company , so that in the end practically all of the labor costs used 
in connection with the overhead construction were obtained from 
these reports. It should not be inferred that the actual construc- 
tion costs were taken in all cases. For example, the grading on 
the Opportunity Line, which was done by company forces, actually 
cost 50 cts. per cu. yd. for gravel excavation, while for the pur- 
poses of the estimate, 30 cts. per cu. yd. was deemed a fair price. 
The average daily wage of laborers engaged in setting poles on 
the different di\f|^sions during the construction period was $1.75 
per day. In the estimate of reproduction the Union scale of $2.50 
per day was used. 

Comparison of Actual Cost With Appraised Value. — The esti- 
mated cost of reproducing the property (exclusive of real estate 
and right of way), has almost invariably been less than the actual 
cost. In this case, an extensive investigation was conducted con- 
cerning the comparative present and past costs of labor and ma- 
terial, in order to be properly prepared for cross examination. 

Among other things it was found that the price of copper at the 
date of appraisal was much lower than when the road was built. 
In all probability, the copper used by the company was purchased 
on an average base price of at least 20 cts. for ingot copper, while 
the base price used in the estimate of reproduction was only 13 cts. 
The price of car bodies and trucks was found to have advanced 
approximately 10% in the last five years. The price of poles had 
decreased slightly, while there had been no appreciable changes in 
the cost of electrical machinery or in the price of labor. 

Overhead or Loading Charges. — The estimated cost of reproduc- 
tion included an allowance of 10% for Engineering, Supervision and 
Organization Expense ; 5% interest during the construction period ; 
5% for contingencies ; and 3.75% for brokers' fees. In addition to 
this, there was included the sum of $500,000 to cover the item of 
Stores and Working Capital. 

Cars. — It should be noted that the percentage items of En- 
gineering, Supervision and Organization Expense, Interest During 
Construction and Contingencies, do not cover expenditures for equip- 
ment. This was due to the fact that the allowance for Engineering, 
Supervision and Organization Expense was in a manner based upon 
percentages obtained by arriving at the actual ratio borne to the 
cost of construction, exclusive of equipment, by these three items. 
Further, the equipment would probably not be delivered and paid 
for until near the close of the construction period ; hence, no in- 
vestment would be required until that time and the expenditures 
for interest would not be necessary. The cost of reproducing the 
equipment was based upon actual contract prices, which are so 
clean cut and so complete in every detail, that it was considered 
unnecessary to allow contingencies for this item. Brokers' Fees, 
however, cover expenditures for every other item included in the 
estimated cost of reproduction. 

Summary. — The table shows the cost of reproduction by accounts 
and by states. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1521 

TABLE I. COST BY STATES 
(Equipment included.) 

Washington Idaho Total 

Inland division $ 6,550,350 % 466,572 $ 7,016 922 

Coeur d'Alene division 1,278,708 1,094,260 2 372 968 

Traction division 2,027,405 2 027,405 

Joint tracks and terminals 763,930 '763 930 

Nine Mile power plant 1,498,490 1,498*490 

Nine Mile tran. lines 65,404 65404 

Commercial power lines 116,343 60.498 176*841 



$12,300,630 $1,621,330 $13,921,960 

COST OF REPRODUCTION, ENTIRE SYSTEM, BY ACCOUNTS 

Total 

Grading $ 1,768,578 

Ballast 280,475 

Ties 291.925 

Rails, fast, and joints 1,508,413 

Frogs and switches 151,675 

Paving 254,475 

Track laying and surf 326.241 

Roadway tools 6,600 

Tunnels 51.626 

Bridges, trestles and culverts 670,065 

Crossings, etc 117,126 

Interlocking, etc 22,111 

Tel. and tel. lines 30,344 

Poles and fixtures 341,616 

Transmission system 179,727 

Distribution system 465,557 

Dams and power houses 869,500 

Substation buildings 161,249 

General office buildings 125,400 

Shops and car houses 151,472 

Stations, etc 149,691 

Water stations 4,800 

Docks and wharves 32,210 

Power plant equipment 270,000 

Substation equipment 774,309 

Shop equipment 41,000 

Park and resort property 83,167 

Teams and vehicles 4,215 

Eng., supt. and org. exp 913,356 

Interest during construction 502,346 

Contingencies ^^I'lr a 

Stores and working capital 500,000 

Steam locomotives ^^'nn^ 

Electric locomotives ^'''^'caa 

Passenger trnin cars 631,500 

Freight train cars Ir^ocA 

Traction cars ^oJ aaa 

Work equipment i?'Ann 

Floating equipment i occn 

Misc. equipment kao'oaq 

Brokers' fees bii6,zyi6 

Totals $13,921,960 

• 
Valuation of the Puget Sound Electric Railway. The following 
is abstracted from an article by Henry L. Gray in Engineering 
and Contracting, May 25, 1910. 

The Puget Sound Electric owns and operates a line between the 



1522 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

cities of Seattle and Tacoma, and in addition, branch lines extend- 
ing to Renton, a smaller city having extensive coal mining and 
ceramic industries ; the Orting branch extending to Puyallup, the 
center of a large berry and fruit district, and a short feeder serving 
the packing house district of Tacoma, known as the Tide Flats 
line. The company also owns the East P. Street line in the city 
of Tacoma, and what is known as the old Puyallup line, but as 
both of the latter are leased and operated by the Tacoma Railway 
& Power Co., they are not considered part of the system. The com- 
pany also owns several lighting franchises in cities along the line, 
as well as a large tract of timber land, and a saw mill which is 
operated for commercial purposes. This road, as well as the street, 
railway systems of Seattle and Tacoma, is owned by Stone, and 
Webster, with their associates, being managed by the former. 

The main line extends from the city limits of Seattle to the city 
limits of Tacoma, a distance of 32.01 miles, entrance to the busi- 
ness centers of the cities being obtained over the tracks of the 
Tacoma Railway & Power Co. and the Seattle Electric Co. The 
track mileage owned and operated was as follows on June 30, 1909 : 

Main track : Miles 

First track, main line 32.01 

Second track, main line 10.91 

Orting branch 6.94 

Renton branch 2.96 

Tide Flats line 0.58 

Total main track 53 40 

Sidings, etc. : 

On main line 8.24 

On Orting branch 0.60 

On Renton branch 1.38 

On Tide Plats line 0.13 

Total sidings, etc 10.35 

Grand total 63.75 

On the main line, between Seattle and Tacoma, consisting of 42.92 
miles of first and second track, there are 7.30 miles of curved 
track. The total ascent is 356 ft., and the total descent is 409 ft. 
About 7 miles of the line was built on trestles. 

The main line and Renton branch were built in 1902, the Tide 
Flats line in 1904, the Orting branch in 1908, and the second track 
over a period from 1904 to 1909. The population of Seattle is about 
250,000, Tacoma, 150,000, while the country tributary to the line 
contains approximately 15,000 people, many of whom own small 
tracts adjacent to towns, working in Seattle and Tacoma, going to 
and from their work each day. All of the larger towns on this 
road are also served by two steam roads charging 3 cts. per mile, 
while Seattle and Tacoma have boat service at intervals ©of two 
hours, the boat fare being 35 cts. one way or 50 cts. for the round 
trip. 

The land became quite valuable for small fruit raising, truck 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1523 

gardening and dairying, the values ranging from $100 to $1,000 
per acre. Real estate firms acquired large tracts and disposed of 
them in smaller tracts of from one to five acres, selling them on 
monthly payments to clerks and artisans employed in the terminal 
cities, whose intention it was to use their spare time building up 
small vegetable or berry gardens and ultimately devoting their 
entire time to such work. 

As in the case of the valuation of the steam roads, finding the 
actual cost consumed the major portion of the time. It is an aston- 
ishing fact that, with one exception, there has never been a railroad 
under investigation by the Railroad Commission of Washington 
which could readily give the cost of construction, and, in many 
cases, little or no record of such cost existed. Fortunately, how- 
ever, there are other records besides books or company records, 
and this important item has invariably been determined to the 
satisfaction of all concerned. In the present case the property 
account represented only the face value of stocks and bonds which 
had been issued in payment for the construction of the road, the 
records of the original construction being missing from the general 
ofiices in Tacoma and there being some doubt as to their exist- 
ence. Every vault and out of the way place in the Tacoma 
office was carefully explored. Several old letter files, found in a 
dark corner of an unused vault, proved to be mines of information, 
one of them containing a complete itemized statement of the cost 
of the road at the time it was turned over to the operating de- 
partment. The rest was easy, and was made even more so by the 
arrival of a similar statement from the Boston office, checking the 
statement found in Tacoma. 

Similar conditions existed in the engineering departnient. Owing 
to the general scheme of construction, which contemplated payment 
for work with stocks and bonds, no quantities or final estimates 
were available. A thorough examination was made of the entire 
line, cross sections were taken where the profile could not be relied 
upon to indicate the grading quantities ; material in cuts was 
classified, buildings and bridges measured up and examined, and 
in short, all data possble were compiled in the field. The existing 
office records were compared with the field notes and a fairly 
close check resulted. The grading quantities were obtained partly 
from a profile estimate and partly from the cross sections taken 
in the field. The material in 'the cuts was classified according to 
the field inspection and the over-haul computed from the profile. 
The statement of track material was taken from the office records, 
which checked the field notes closely. The bridge and building lists 
were compiled from the field notes, as the office records were not 
comi)lete. Ballast was the subject of much discussion and was a 
source of disagreement. An itemized statement of the transmission 
and distribution systems prepared by the Superintendent of Power 
was of great assistance, checking the field notes closely. The 
Master Mechanic provided a list of equipment which was of great 
aid. Except in the case of grading and ballast, no difference existed 



1524 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

between the statements of quantities compiled by the engineers 
of the railway and those of the Commission, while every disposi- 
tion was shown to aid the latter. 

Pi'oceeding- upon the theory that what a thing cost is at least 
good evidence of what it might cost again, the records of the au- 
ditor's office were closely examined and all improvement requisi- 
tions scrutinized. The purchasing agent was in great demand, for 
while the engineers engaged in this work were, from much experi- 
ence, familiar with the cost of material, yet prices fluctuate and 
it is frequently the case that a small road is compelled to pay more 
for its supplies than a larger one, and these things should be taken 
into consideration, A great deal of information was obtained from 
the old letter files previously referred to ; for instance, they con- 
tained an itemized statement of the cost of track laying. Officers 
of the company were freely consulted, as it' was the desire to com- 
pile a fair statement of quantities involved, and to show the actual 
prices which would prevail should the road be reconstructed. 

The cost of reproducing the right of way and real estate was 
arrived at in exactly the same manner as in a condemnation suit. 
Lists were prepared, with the necessary maps, and furnished to 
real estate experts, who walked over the line valuing each piece 
of right of way on the basis of the value of the contiguous property, 
regardless of the fact that the presence of the railroad lent value 
to such property. These lists, with the allotted value shown 
thereon, were introduced as evidence. Testimony was then taken 
as to the value of such property for railroad purposes, which 
showed clearly that it was necessary to multiply the land value by 
a factor, in order to arrive at the cost of repurchasing the prop- 
erty for railroad purposes. This factor ranged from 1 to 5, de- 
pending altogether upon the location and value, city property re- 
quiring a factor of about 1%, first-class farm property, about. 21/^, 
while land which was practically worthless, required a factor nearer 
5. The smaller the value of the land, the higher the factor. After 
considering the testimony of the experts on both sides, and review- 
ing possible consequential damages, the cost of reproducing the 
right of way and real estate was fixed. As the road owns very 
little city property, practically all of the sum shown as the cost 
of reproduction of right of way and real estate, represents the 
former, so that the average cost of reproduction per acre v/as about 
$1,250. As the average value of the contiguous property was about 
$500, the average factor was approximately 2^2- It is a com- 
mendable fact that the estimate made by the railroad officials was 
smaller than that made by the real estate experts employed by the 
Commission. 

During the appraisal of the steam roads, of the state, it was 
established that 3%% of the total cost of construction was an 
ample allowance for engineering, and that 1 per cent, of such cost 
was sufficient to cover expenditures for legal and general expense. 
But as the construction of this road presented no difficult engineer- 
ing problems, it was considered that, in this case, 3% would be a 
liberal allowance for engineering, but it developed that in addition 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1525 

to the sum expended for local engineering, Stone and Webster had 
received an additional 10 per cent, as an engineering commission. 
The matter of an engineering commission had not presented itself 
before, the steam roads, who were not supposed to over-look any- 
thing, contending for a total allowance of only 5% for engineering. 
It was a well known fact, however, that such a charge was by no 
means unusual, but it was apparent that such a commission was not 
a strictly " engineering commission," but really covered the cost 
incident to purchasing supplies and expenses of management dur- 
ing construction, and was in a way a fee for procuring the funds 
for the construction, so that the only doubt was under which head 
to include such commission, which was finally shown under the 
account "Fiscal and Physical Supervision and Management." In 
accordance with the usual custom, 1% was allowed for " Legal and 
General Expense " and 5 per cent, for " Contingencies." The latter 
item was a source of much contention, the railway claiming that 
10% should be allowed. It was held, however, that, as the quan- 
tities were known, and as prices were very liberal and had been 
fixed after due consideration of the cost, and that as allowance had 
been made for extra work, and for other items of expense which 
could not be estimated, many of the contingencies which 
might be met with had been taken care of in the estimate, so that 
5% was a fair allowance in such a case. 

The amount of cash and the approximate value of the stores on 
hand at the time of the inquiry were allowed under the account 
" Stores and Working Capital," the same being approximately 10% 
of the estimated cost of reproduction, w^hich was the percentage 
recommended by the writer. Interest at 5% per annum was allowed, 
it being considered that 1^/^ yrs. would be required in which to 
construct the road. This item amounted to 7V1>% on the cost of 
reproducing the right of way and one-half of this, or 3%% on the 
remaining construction items, as the sum invested in the> latter 
would only be required for an average of one-half the time. The 
lighting system, both physically and financially, was so closely 
interwoven with the railway, that it was deemed inexpedient to 
attempt to separate them, so it was allowed as representing part 
of the cost of reproducing the system. The locomotives and motor 
car had been purchased second hand, hence the cost of reproducing 
them second hand was allowed, rather than the co.st of reproducing 
them new. 

Probably the most thoroughly contested point was " Discount," 
the railroad engineers contending that 10%, of the total e.stimated 
expenditure should be allowed to cover this item, and should be 
included in the cost of reproduction. It was shown that the bonds 
had sold at 85 while stock was given with the bonds as a bonu.s, 
but the Commission held that when a railroad was built entire 
from the .sale of bonds, it ceased to be an investment, and became a 
speculation; that in such a case it was doubtful if the stock was 
entitled to any retturn. Testimony was introduced showing that if 
25% of the stock of a legitimate enterprise was paid up; that the 
bonds would without question .sell at par, while the entire expense 



1526 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in connection with the sale of such bonds would not exceed 5% ; 
hence 5% of 75% of the total estimated expenditures was allowed 
as " Broker's Fees." 

The depreciated value was arrived at by the combined use of 
mortality tables and by field inspection, and represents the cost of 
reproduction less depreciation. The cost of reproducing the dif- 
ferent items, for example, pile bridges, was determined, and the 
average life and age being known, the depreciation in dollars was 
easily obtained. The possible scrap value of material was taken 
into account, as in the case of rails, which were assigned a life of 
20 yrs., with a scrap value of 40%, or an annual depreciation of 
3%. Trolley wire was assigned a life of 10 yrs., during which time 
it was considered that it would wear 25%, having a scrap value of 
60%, hence the actual scrap value would be only 45%, and the an- 
nual depreciation 5i^%. Substation equipment was carefully in- 
spected, and found to be practically new after seven years' use, but 
as obsolescence and inadequacy are forms of depreciation and may 
be expected to play a part, an annual depreciation of 5% was al- 
lowed for this item. 

The actual original cost of the road was found to be $3,647,018, 
which included $407,234, advanced for working capital and $305,929 
of discount, leaving a net cost of $2,933,855. 

In fixing the cost of reproduction the Railroad Commission re- 
gards its engineer simply in the light of a witness, and is not 
bound by his testimohy, hence it is not uncommon for quantities 
or prices to be increased or decreased after hearing to the tes- 
timony of the defendant's witnesses. Many questions are simply 
matter of opinion and depend upon the point of view. The follow- 
ing table includes all items and shows the total estimated cost of 
reproduction and depreciated value as made by the engineers and 
the sum fixed by the Commission in their findings : 

Engineer Engineer Allowed by 

of the railroad railroad 

commission company commission 

Cost of reproduction $3,943,550 $5,123,173 $4,157,558 

Depreciated value 3,352,463 4,424,395 3,598,232 

COST OF REPRODUCING NEW THE PUGET SOUND 
ELECTRIC RY. 

(June 30, 1909.) 

1. Right of way and real estate $917,733 

2. Engineering and superintendence : 

3% of items 4 to 25 ' 53,336 

3. Fiscal and physical supervision : 

Amount expended ■ 186,955 

4. Grading: 

610,000 cu. yds. common excava., at $t).25 152,500 

47,500 cu. yds. common long haul, at $0.095 4,512 

150,000 cu. yds. hard pan, at $0.45 67,500 

1,150 cu. yds. solid rock, at $1.10 1,265 

700,000 cu. yds. overhaul 100 ft. at $0.01 7,000 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1527 

133 acres clearing- at $60.00 $ 7 ggo 

580 stations grubbing- at $15.00 *.*.'.'.*.'' 8*700 

580 stations g-rubbing at $15.00 ' . ." * 8*700 

200 dangerous trees cut at $2.00 . .\ '400 

Ditching and miscel . . . 2,000 

Total grading .$251,857 

5. Ballast: 

46.35 miles gravel at $1,100.00 $ 50,985 

6. Ties: 

157,877 ties (6 by 8 by 8) at $0.35 $ 55 207 

16,646 ties (6 by 8 by 9) at $0.40 6,'658 

Total ties , $ 61,865 

7. Rails, fastenings and joints : 

5.292.8 tons 30-ft. steel rails at $39.50 $209,066 

1,409.1 tons 60-ft. steel rails at $41.50 58,478 

14.584 Weber joints (60 and 70-ib.) at $2.50 36,460 

1,327 American continuous joints at $2.15 » 2,853 

106,596 lb. angle bars (56 and 60-lb.) at $0.03 3,198 

25,240 lb. fish plates (30, 40 and 42-lb.) at $0.025 631 

10,304 lb. track bolts (% by 3% ) at $0.0325 85 

2,574 lb. track bolts (% by 2 1^ ) at $0.325 85 

369,986 lb. spikes (9/16 by 5 1/^ ) at $0.0225 8,325 

2,000 braces at $0.10 200 

3,010 lin. ft. guard rail at $0.50 1,505 

Total rails, fastenings and joints $321,136 

8. Frogs and switches : 

66 spring frog-s (70-lb.) at $50.00 $ 3,300 

22 rigid frogs (70-lb.) at $30.00 660 

22 rigid frogs (60-lb.) at $30.00 660 

16 rigid frogs (50-lb.) at $25.00 400 

13 rigid frogs (40-lb.) at $20.00 260 

72 split switches complete (70-lb.) at $40.00 2,880 

12 split switches complete (60-lb.) at $35.00 420 

1 split switch complete (50-lb.) at $25.00 25 

6 split switches complete (40-lb.) at $15.00 ,... 90 

8 sets head chairs at $4.00 32 

8 sets tie bars at $10.00 80 

59 high stands at $25.00 1,475 

2 low stands at $18.00 36 

30 ground throws at $10.00 300 

139 pairs guard rails at $10.00 1,390 

47 loose tongue switches at $50.00 2,350 

3 derails at $6.00 ". 18 

59 switch lamps at $5.00 .' . 295 

61 switch locks at $0.50 31 

5 crossing frogs at $300.00 1,500 

Total frogs and switches $ 16,201 

9. Paving : 

1,096,630 ft. B. M. fir planking- at $16.00 $ 17,546 

140 kegs wire spokes at $3.00 420 

40,000 ft. B. M, wood filler at $24.00 960 

600 cu. yd. broken stone at $1.50 900 

Total paving- $ 19,826 

10. Track laying and .surfacing: 

63.75 miles track at $700.00 $ 44.625 

139 frogs and switches placed at $25.00 3,475 

5 crossing frogs placed at $25.00 125 

Total track laying and surfacing- % 48,225 



1528 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



11. Tunnels: 

180 lin. ft. timber lined at $65.00 $ 11,700 

12. Bridges, trestles and culverts : 

210 lin. ft. span bow steel truss (on cylinder piers) 

at $100.00 $ 21.000 

72 lin. ft. span deck girder (pile abuts.) at $50.00. . . 3,600 

60 lin. ft. span I-beam (pile abuts.) at $30.00 1,800 

220 lin. ft. span combination (2 spans of 110 ft. cylin- 
der piers) at $55.00 12,100 

150 lin. ft. span combination (pile abuts.) at $45.00. . 6,750 

150 lin. ft. span combination (cylinder piers) at $47.00 7,050 
200 lin. ft. span Howe truss draw (on pile crib) at 

$65.00 13,000 

190 lin. ft. span Howe truss draw (on pile crib) at 

$65.00 12,350 

100 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 

$30.00 3,000 

80 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 

$25.00 2,000 

87 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 

$27.00 2,349 

60 lin. ft. span Pony Howe truss (pile abuts.) at 

$20.00 1,200 

361,612 lin. ft. piles in place at $0.25 90,403 

39,256 lin. ft. piles cut off at $0.10 3,925 

4,889,386 ft. B. M. timber in trestles at $28.00 136,903 

166,451 lb. wrt. Iron in trestles at $0.035 5,826 

121,515 lb. cast iron in trestles at $0.035 3,645 

150 lin. ft. of 12-in. vitrified pipe at $1.00 150 

272 lin. ft. of 14-in. vitrified pipe at $1.25 340 

659 lin. ft. of 15-in. vitrified pipe at $1.35 889 

802 lin. ft. of 16-in. vitrified pipe at $1.50 1,203 

1,364 lin. ft. of 18-in. vitrified pipe at $1.75 2,387 

42 lin. ft. of 24-in. vitrified pipe at $2.90 122 

8.382 ft. B. M. timber in wooden boxes at $25.00 210 

8,283 lin. ft. logs in culverts at $0.12 994 

River bank protection. Black River, cost 4,857 

Fill and dam, Puyallup River, cost 4.000 

2,000 cu. yd. riprap at $1.25 2,500 

Total bridges, trestles and culverts $344,553 

13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs: 

82,615 ft. B. M. timber in crossings at $20.00 $ 1,652 

146,233 ft, B. M. timber in inclines to grade crossings at 

$27.00 . . . .* 3 948 

1,074 lb. wrt. iron,' in inclines, at $0,035 ......[......[. '38 

210 lb. cast iron, in inclines, at $0.035 6 

30 kegs wire spikes, in inclines, at $3.00 90 

9,650 ft. B. M. timber in farm crossing inclines, at $25.00 241 

3 kegs wire spikes in ditto at $3.00 9 

54 single miles board fence at $450.00 24,300 

8 single miles comb, woven and wire fence at $300.00 2,400 

1.960 lin. ft. tight board fence at $0.56 1,097 

150 board gates at $3.00 450 

82 cattle guards, trackman, at $25.00 2,050 

207 cattle guards, Bartlett, at $20.00 4,140 

13 danger signs at $2.00 26 

196 warning signs at $2.00 392 

28 railroad crossing signs at $5.00 140 

3 station signs, single, at $10.00 30 

35 electric rail signs at $3.00 105 

38 " stop, look, listen " signs at $1.00 28 

4 yard limit signs at $4.00 16 

3 city limit signs at $1.00 3 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1529 

31 whistle posts at $1.00 $ 31 

19 S. posts at $1.00 . 19 

Total crossings, fences, etc $ 41,508 

14. Interlocking and signal apparatus: 

38 platform stop signals at $8.00 $ 304 

3 train order signals at $20.00 60 

2 block light sets at $275.00 550 

Total interlocking and signal $ 914 

15. Telegraph and telephone lines: 

53 cedar poles, 45-ft., at $4.50 $ 238 

66 cedar poles, 40-ft., at $3.80 251 

1,675 cross arms (4 pin) v/ith hardware at $0.80 1,340 

316 cross arms (6 pin) with hardware at $1.00 316 

15,312 lb. telephone wire No. 10 copper at $0.18 2,756 

13,300 lb. telegraph wire No. 9 bare iron at $0.06 798 

1,750 lb. telegraph wire No. 10 W. P. at $0.07 122 

5,886 double petticoat insulators with pins at $0.07 412 

11 telegraph keys at $1.05 12 

10 telegraph sounders at $5.25 52 

14 telegraph relays at $4.20 59 

6 telegraph box relays at $4.25 25 

12 telegraph cut outs at $1.25 15 

Telephone switchboard, cost 275 

Telephone storage battery, cost 25 

Labor 2,500 

Total telegraph and telephone lines $ 9,196 

16. Poles and fixtures: 

1,544 transmission poles, 50-ft, cedar at $5.50 $ 8,492 

28 transmission poles, 70-ft. cedar, at $11.25 315 

603 trolley poles, 30-ft., at $2.55 1,538 

324 trolley poles, 40-ft., at $3.80 1,231 

1,635 transmission cross arms, 2 pin, with hardware, at 

$0.70 1,144 

1,572 feeder cross arms, 4 pin, with hardware, at $0.80.. 1,258 

316 feeder cross arms, 6 pin, with hardware, at $1.00.. 316 

57 guy wire clamps, galv., 3-bolt, at $0.12 7 

14 line anchor clamps, mal. galv., at $0.50 7 

82 anchor rods at $0.50 41 

Labor 14,979 

Total poles and fixtures $ 29,328 

17. Transmission System : 

25 050 lb. transmission line wire, bore 1-0, at $0.18 $ 4,509 

6 516 lb. transmission line wire, bore No. 1, at $0.18.... '^'\1% 

54,534 lb. transmission line wire, bore No. 4, at $0.18 ^'„i„ 

3,425 insulator pine at $0.40 1,370 

1,607 pole brackets at $0.40 „ 643 

5.025 insulators at $1.50 ">538 

Miscel. material , xIIa 



Labor 



4.000 



Total transmission system % 29,548 

18. Distribution System- 
72 cut out switches, 50 ampere Q. B., at $9.00. .......$ 648 

66,598 lb. 3d rail cro.ssing cables W. P. 500 M. C. M. at 

PA -I Q 11,000 

2.353 lb. '3d rail " crossing cables ' W.'P.' 300 M. C. M. at 

$0.18 424 



1530 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

765 lb. 3d rail feed taps W. P. 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . .$ 138 

371 lb. 3d rail feed taps, W. P. 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 67 

300 lb. 3d rail feed taps W. P. 100 M. C. M. at $0.18. . . 54 

74,470 lb. overhead feeders, bare, 500 M. C. M. at $0.18.. 13,405 

137,529 lb. overhead feeders, bare, 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 24,755 

9,119 lb. overhead feeders, W. P., 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . 1,641 

4,787 lb. overhead grounds, W. P., 500 M. C. M. at $0.18. . 862 

900 lb. overhead grounds, W. P., 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 162 
613 lb. cross bars, frogs and switch jumpers, W. P. 

500 M. C. M. at $0.18 110 

1,142 lb. ditto, W. P., 300 M. C. M. at $0.18 206 

335 lb. ditto, W. P.. 4-0 M. C. M. at $0.18 60 

16,900 running rail bonds main line at $0.50 8,450 

1,200 running rail bonds 212 B. B. at $0.44 528 

304 running rail bonds " A " 4-0 at $0.37 112 

6,745 third rail bonds at $1.28 8,634 

16,863 third rail insulators at $0.88 14,839 

2,935 tons third rail (30-ft., 100-lb.) at $39.50 115,933 

252 third rail noses at $2.00 504 

504 nose fish plates at $0.70 352 

12,800 third rail fish plates at $0.24 3,072 

32,000 lb. third rail bolts at $0.03 960 

55,432 lb. trolley wire 4-0 at $0.18 9,978 

11,290 lb. trolley wire 2-0 at $0.18 2,032 

4,880 lb. trolley wire 1-0 at 0.18 878 

38,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, yir.-in., at 0.0315 . . 1,197 

2,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, %-in., at 0.027 54 

3,000 ft. Siemens-Martens steel cable, 14-in., at 0.025 75 

16,000 ft. signal strand, i^-in., at 0.0083 133 

32,650 ft. signal strand, s/jo-in., at 0.011 359 

1,000 ft. signal strand, %in-., at 0.013 13 

1,639 eye bolts at 0.12 197 

1,542 wood strain insulators, G. E., at 0.23 355 

80 wood strain insulators, home made, at 0.25 20 

240 single curve hangers at 0.51 122 

180 double curve hangers at 0.57 85 

588 straight line hangers at 0.51 300 

1,888 cable insulators with pine at 0.23 434 

659 ears, 2-0, at 0.30 198 

165 ears, single 0, at 0.25 41 

171 ears, 4-0, at 0.35 60 

35 trolley frogs at 3.50 123 

339 T bar pole brackets, at 2.50 848 

16 Richmond flexible pole brackets, at 2.50 40 

53 steady bar bracket attachments at 3.40 180 

3,997 messenger clips, %-in.. mal. galv., at 0.06 240 

8,956 Detroit "Form 2 "clamps, %-in., mal. galv., at $0.10 360 

46 Detroit "Form 5" clamps, %-in. mal. galv., at 0.20 9 

46 strain collars, %-in., at 0.038 2 

645 steel hanger rods, galv., % by 131/2 at 0.03 19 

18 steel hanger rods, galv., % by 13 1^ at 0.075 .. 1 

645 hangers, galv., % byp 4, 120 ft. span, 0.032 21 

616 hangers, galv., % by 51/2, 120 ft. span, at 0.038 23 

645 hangers, galv., % by 71/2. 120 ft. span, at 0.045 29 

645 hangers, galv., % by 9%, 120 ft. span, at 0.053 34 

645 hangers, galv., % by 12%, 120 ft. span, at 0.066 ... 43 

29 hangers, galv., % by 51/2. 120 ft. span, at 0.047 ... 1 

31 hangers, galv., % by 71/', 100 ft. span, at 0.053 2 

16 hangers, galv., % by 8%, 100 ft. span, at 0.059 1 

16 hangers, galv., % by 10 1/2, 100 ft. span, at 0.065 ... 1 

16 hangers, galv., % by IS'A, 100 ft. span, at 0.075 ... 1 

18 hangers, galv., % by 11%, 60 ft. span, at 0.07 1 

18 hangers, galv., % by 12%, 60 ft. span, at 0.073 1 

92 wood brake strain insulators, 1^4 by 14,. at 0.18 17 

18 Crosby clips. % in., at 0.08 1 

57 Crosby clips, Vie in., at 0.09 5 

15 trolley wire connections, brass, 2 by %, 4-0 grvd., 

at 1.10 17 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1531 

339 porcelain messenger insulators, 10,000 v., 1% pin 

hole, at 0.15 .:.;..$ 54 

4 overhead switches at 12.50 50 

100,165 ft. B. M. timber, cable boxes, at 10.00 1,002 

Miscellaneous materia.! 500 

Labor 25,000 



Total distribution system $253,065 

19. Substation Buildings: 

122,708 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Kent, at 0.125 $ 15 338 

28,940 cu. ft. frame bldg., at Kent., at 0.10 " 2*894 

87,030 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Milton, at 0.125 10*879 

28,940 cu. ft. frame bldg., at Milton, at 0.10 ' ' 2*894 

84,820 cu. ft. brick bldg., at Puyallop, at 0.125 '. 10^602 

Total substation buildings $ 42,607 

20. Shops and Car Houses : 

'8,568 sq. ft. corrugated iron car sheds, at 0.45 % 3,855 

19,248 sq. ft. frame car sheds, at 0.50 9,624 

2 sets track scales, at 1,300.00 2,600 

Total shops and car houses % 16,080 

21. Stations and Miscellaneous Buildings : 

Brick and frame station, Tacoma $ 4,000 

2,850 sq. ft. frame station, 2 story, at 2.00 5,700 

5,728 sq. ft. frame stations, bungalow type, at 1.25- 7,160 

8,318 sq. ft. frame stations, old standard, at 1.00 8,318 

108 sq. ft. open sheds, at 0.50 54 

2,396 sq. ft. frame freight sheds, at 0.90 2,156 

1,060 sq. ft. corrugated iron freight sheds, at 0.50 530 

478 sq. ft. miscellaneous frame sheds, at 0.50 239 

216 sq. ft. telephone shacks, at 0.50 108 

306 sq. ft. tool sheds, at 0.50 153 

372 sq. ft. section house, at 0.50 186 

64,111 sq. ft. low passenger platforms, at 0.10 6,411 

5,875 sq. ft. high passenger platforms, at 0.15 881 

4,562 sq. ft. freight platforms, at 0.15 684 

3,909 sq. ft. milk platforms, at 0.20 782 

8 water closets, at 50.00 400 

Total stations and miscel. bldgs % 44,211 

22. Substation Equipment : 

3 lightning arresters, 50,000 volt, 3 pole, at 621.00 ...$ 1,863 

5 oil switches, 50,000 volt, type H, at 1,600.00 8,000 

212 Thomas insulators, 50,000 volt, at 1.85 392 

36 disconnecting switches, 50,000 volt, at 41.50 1,494 

494 lb. bare copper wire, at 0.18 89 

7 oil cooled transformers, 200 kw., at 2,300.00 16,100 

4 oil cooled transformers, 180 kw., at 1,000.00 4,000 

4 current transformers, 50.000 volt, at 150.00 600 

3 inducting motor generator sets, 300 kw., with non- 
automatic, double pole oil switches, 2,300 volts 

and 600 volt, generator panels (1 slate and 2 

marble), at 8,500.00 25,500 

2 automatic oil switches, 4 pole st. 300 ampere with 

slate slabs and 2 current transformers, at 140.00 280 

3 H. E. Ind. volt meters, with potential transformers, 

at 85.00 255 

6 railway feeder panels, marble, at 200.00 1,200 

1 lightning panel, marble 16 in 100 

1 lightning panel, marble 24 in 300 

2 C. R. regulators at 315.00 630 

2 boo.ster transformers, 3 kw., at 47.50 95 

2 booster transformers, 5 kw., at 66.50 133 



1532 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1 polyphase recording watt meter, 300 amp,, and two 
200 watt potential transformers, and 2 current 

transformers 300-5 amp $ 200 

1 T. R. watt meter, 800 amp., 600 volt 175 

1 induction motor panel, 2,300 volts 290 

40 ft. lead covered insulated cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.91 36 

400 ft. lead covered insulated cable, No. 2, at 0.90 360 

80 ft. lead covered insulated cable. No. 4, at 0.30 24 

147 ft. weather proof cable, 800 M. C. M., at 0.60 86 

509 ft. weather proof cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.45 229 

540 ft. rubber covered cable, No. 2, at 0.08 40 

26 ft. rubber covered cable, 500 M. C. M., at 0.65 17 

2 50.000 volt, 150 to 50 current transformers, at 300 . . 600 
1 motor panel, 24 in. marble, 2,300 volt, with auto- 
matic oil switch, 300 amp., 4 pole st 290 

1 T. R. watt meter, polyphase, 300 amp., with 2,300 to 

5 current transformers 200 

1 T. R. watt meter, 800 amp., 600 volt 175 

5 oil switches, 3 pole, 30,000 volts, at 400 2,000 

9 disconnecting switches, 30,000 volts, at 20 180 

30 Westinghouse air brake jacks and slabs, at 8 240 

30 marble barriers for same, at 30 900 

3 lightning arresters, 3 pole, 30,000 volts, at 100 300 

3 generator panels, slate 16 in., at 200.00 600 

3 slate slabs and switch handles, at 20.00 60 

6 feeder panels, 16 in. plate, at 50 300 

1 slate slab with synchronizer 55 

2 front connected feeder switches, at 20.00 40 

10 current transformers, 30,000 volt, at 125 1,250 

8 potential transformers, at 150 1,200 

1 compensator for 180 kw. transformers, 17.5 kw 275 

318 lb. bare copper wire, at 0.18 57 

Miscellaneous equipment 500 

3 air compressors and receiving tanks with 4 h.p. 

motors, at 300 900 

Labor of installing transformers and generators in 3 

substations 3,400 

3 storage battery sets consisting of chloride accumu- 
lators (288 cells of 15 plates per cell; 288 cells of 
17 plates per cell; 288 cells of 17 negative plates 
per cell) ; 428 ft. lead covered rubber insulated 
cable, 3 booster sets, 35 kw. ; 6 marble battery 
panels; including freight and installation 106,149 

Total substation equipment $182,159 

23. Shop Equipment: 

1 sharper, 20 in $ 250 

1 radial drill, 24 in 150 

1 metal lathe, 20 in. by 12 ft 570 

Miscellaneous hand tools 30 

Total shop equipment $ 1,000 

24. Water Stations : 

2 box tanks, 6 by 7 by 16 ft., at 100.00 $ 200 

Pumping plant and pipe 200 

Total water stations $ 400 

25. Engineering Instruments and roadway tools $ 1,500 

26. Legal and General Expense: 

1% of items 4 to 25 . $ 17,779 

27. Interest During Construction : 

7.5% of item 1, and 3.75% of items 2 to 26 |145,181 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1533 

28. Contingencies: 

5% of all above items, exclusive of items 1, 3 and part 

of 27 (interest on right of way) % 96,266 

29. Stores and Working Capital : 

Cash and stores on hand June 30, 1909 $300,000 



Total construction $3,495,154 

30. Cars (exclusive of electric equip.) : 

9 combination baggage and coach, at 6,206.00 % 55,860 

5 passenger cars, at 4,160 20,530 

4 motor trailers, at 5,500 21^000 

11 trailers, at 5,025.50 55,280 

4 observation cars, at 10.290 41,160 

4 race track cars, at 2,625 10 500 

22 box cars, freight, at 729.50 16,050 

25 hopper cars, freight, at 675 16,875 

14 gondola cars, freight, at 668 9,350 

97 flat cars, freight, at 558 54,126 

2 freight motor cars, box type, at 3,000 6,000 

3 freight motor cars, cab type, at 2,500 7,500 

1 derrick car 1,200 

1 pile driver 1,500 

1 steam shovel 10,000 

Total cars, etc $326,931 

31. Locomotives: 

1 Baldwin, No. 1 steam, second hand $ 2,500 

1 Manchester, No. 2 steam, second hand 2,500 

1 Hinkley, No. 3 steam, second hand 2,500 

Total locomotives $ 7,500 

32. Electric Equipment of Cars: 

8 General Electric No. 66, 4 motor equipments, at 

7,575 $ 60,600 

4 General Electric No. 66, 2 motor equipments, at 

4,000 16,000 

2 General Electric No. 205, 4 motor equipments, at 

7,000 14,000 

4 General Electric No. 90, 4 motor equipments, at 

3,200 : 12,800 

4 Westinghouse Electric No. 49, 2 motor equipments, 

at 1,200 4,800 

5 General Electric No. 66, freight motor equipment, 

at 7,500 • 37,500 

Total electric equipment of cars $145,700 

33. Miscellaneous Equipment : 

1 Packard touring car, second hand $ 2,000 

Total equipment (items 30 to 33) $ 482,131 

Total construction and equipment $3,977,285 

34. Lighting system $ 30,000 

35. Brokerage Fees: 

5% to 75% of above .• % 150,273 

Grand total $4,157,558 

Item 35 was allowed on the assumption that if bankers had to 
provide only 75% of the cash used in construction and equipment 



1534 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

(the balance being- furnished by the promoters), a reasonable 
brokerage fee would be 5% of the cash thus secured. 

Item 31, "Locomotives," relates to locomotives worth $8,000 new, 
but purchased second hand. 

DEPRECIATED VALUE OF THE PUGET SOUND ELECTRIC RY. 
(June 30, 1909.) 

1. Rig-ht of way and real estate % 917,775 

2. PJngineering and superintendence 53,336 

3. Fiscal and physical supervision and management 186,955 

4. Grading (incl. 10% appreciation of roadbed) 275,135 

5. Ballast (15% depreciation) 43,337 

6. Ties (70% depreciation) 18,559 

7. Rails, fastenings and joints (15% deprec.) 272,966 

8. Frogs and switches ( 20% deprec.) 12.961 

9. Paving- (50% deprec.) 9,913 

10. Track laying and surfacing (30% deprec.) 33,758 

11. Tunnels (5% deprec.) 11,115 

12. Bridges, trestles and culverts (48%. deprec.) 179,168 

13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs (46% de- 

prec. ) ; 22,414 

14. Interlocking and signal apparatus (35% deprec.) ..... 594 

15. Telegraph and telephone lines (30%. dejjrec.) 6,437 

16. Poles and fixtures (43% deprec.) 16,717 

17. Transinission system (no deprec.) 29,548 

18. Distribution system (7% deprec.) 235,350 

19. Substation buildings (10% deprec.) 38,346 

20. Shops and car houses (20% deprec.) 12,864 

21. Stations, waiting room.s, etc. (19%; deprec.) 35,811 

22. Substation equipment ( 27% deprec. ) 132,976 

23. Shop equipment ( 50% deprec. ) 500 

24. Water stations ( 60% deprec. ) 160 

25. Eng. insts. and tools (50% deprec.) , 750 

26. Legal and general expense 17,779 

27. Interest during constr 145,181 

28. Contingencies 96,266 

29. Stores and working capital 300.000 

Total construction $3,106,669 

30. Cars (35% deprec.) $ 212,505 

31. Locomotives (4% deprec.) 7,200 

32. Elec. equip, of cars (35% deprec.) 94.705 

33. Miscel. equip. (16% deprec.) 1.680 

Total equip, (items 30 to 33) $ 316,090 

Total construction and equip $3,422,759 

34. Lighting system (16% deprec.) 25,200 

35. Brokerage fees . 150,273 

Grand total $3,598,232 



COST OP PRODUCTION NEW PER MILE OP TRACKWAY 
(53.4 miles of trackway.) 

1. Right of way and real e.state $17,182 

2. Engineering and superintendence 999 

3. Fiscal and physical supervision 3,502 

4. Grading 4,717 

5. Balla.st '. 955 

6. Ties 1,159 

7. Rails, fastenings and joints 6,015 

8. Frogs and switches 304 

9. Paving 370 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1535 

10. Track laying and surfacing $ 903 

11. Tunnels 219 

12. Bridges, trestles and culverts 6,454 

13. Crossings, fences, cattle guards and signs 777 

14. Interlocking and signal appar 17 

15. Telegraph and telephone lines 171 

16. Poles and fixtures 549 

17. Ti'ansmission system 554 

18. Distribution system 4,741 

19. Substation buildings 797 

20. Shop and car houses 302 

21. Stations and miscel. buildings 828 

22. Substation equipment 3,411 

23. Shop equipment 19 

24. Water stations * 7 

25. Eng. msts. and roadway tools 28 

26. Legal and general expense 331 

27. Interest during construction 2,718 

28. Contingencies 1,805 

29. Stores and working capital 5,618 

Total construction, etc $65,452 

30. Cars 6,123 

31. Locomotives 140 

32. Electric equip, of cars 2,729 

33. Miscel. equipment 37 

Total equipment % 9,029 

Total construction and equipment $74,481 

34. Lighting system 562 

35. Brokerage fees 2,815 

Grand total $77,858 

The above costs are per mile of trackway (53.40 miles), but since 
there are 63.75 miles of all tracks, or 1.194 miles of track per 
mile of trackway, each of the above items must be divided by 
1.194 (nearly 1.2) to ascertain the cost mile of track. 

An analysis of the findings of Railroad Commission indicates the 
following actual cost of this railway property, as taken from 
the accounting records of the company up to June 30, 1909 : 

1. Single track interurban line, up to April 1, 1903 $1,942,658 

2. Subsequent expenditures on the original contract 11,064 

3. Interest during construction 92,289 

Total $2,046,011 

4. Additions and betterments 1,279,562 

5. Working capital 407,489 

Total $3,733,062 

Total $3,713,374 

Deduct construction of " P " street line 19,688 

Total $3,713,374 

Item 1 includes $186,955 paid Stone and Webster for "the en- 
gineering and supervising and acting as purchasing agents and 
managers during construction." , Item 1 embraces the original 32.01 
miles of single track line between Seattle and Tacoma, and the 
2.96 miles of the Renton branch, a total of 34.97 miles of trackway. 

The Commission inferred from the evidence presented, that the 
actual net cost of constructing and equipping the line, up to June 



1536 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

30, 1909, had been $2,933,864, for the Commission refused to in- 
clude Items 2, 3 and 4 of the following- schedule : 

1. Construction and equipment $2,933,864 

2. Discounts on bonds, etc 305,924 

3. Damage due to floods after construction 44,099 

4. Working capital 407,234 

Total , $3,691,126 

The total of this record schedule does not check exactly with the 
total of the first schedule just given, doubtless due to the elimina- 
tion of some other items* than those embraced in the " P Street 
line." It would appear that in the first schedule. Item 4, *• Addi- 
tions and Betterments," includes Item 2 of the second schedule, 
namely " Discounts on Bonds." 

It will be noted that in the first schedule Item 3, " Interest Dur- 
ing Construction," was not quite 5% of the construction cost. 

The Commission appraised the right of way and real estate at 
$917,733, as of June 30, 1909. The Commission states, however, 
that this is $770,000 in excess of what it actually cost the railway 
company. 

It will be observed that no power plant is included in the ap- 
praisal. The railway company purchases its power, for which It 
" pays $2.23 per kws. i;er month for the full amount of 4,750 kws. de- 
livered on the right of way." This, we take it, is based on a 24-hr. 
service, and is therefore equivalent to 3.05 cts. per kw.-hr. ; for 
$2.23 X 12 = $26.76 per yr. and $26.76 ^ 8,760 hrs. = 3.05 cts. If the 
railway operates on a "load factor" of 50% (12 hr.s. out of the 
24), it follows that a power plant of 2 X 4,750 — 8.500 kws, would 
be required. 

The Commission states that on June 30, 1909, the railway re- 
ported $103,367 cash on hand, and $171,257 worth of materials and 
supplies and bond; hence its allowance of $300,000 as a reasonable 
sum. 

Cost of Chautauqua Interurban Railway. This interurban line. 
Lakewood to Mayville. N. Y., was chartered in 1903 and com- 
pleted in 1904. The tra-ck mileage in 1905 was: 

Miles 

Main line, first track 16.940 

Branch line, " " 0.428 

Total trackway *.'. . . . 17.368 

Sidings and turnouts 1.082 

Total track "." 18.450 

The cost was $494,541, distributed as follows per mile of track- 
way (17.368 mi.) : 

Per mile 

Engineering and superintendence $ 247 

Right of way 230 

Real estate 3 

Track and roadway construction 13,028 

Electric line construction 3,428 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1537 

Per mile 

Buildings $1,825 

Power plant equipment (?80,000) 4,492 

Total construction $23,253 

Cars ($38,548) 2,218 

Electric equipment of cars ($41,644) 2,395 

Miscellaneous equipment 305 

Total construction and equipment $28,171 

Organization 115 

Interest and discount 192 

Grand total $28,478 

The equipment was : 

7 closed motor cars, 27 ton, 48 ft. at $7,500 

1 combination passenger and express, 24 ton, at 7,200 

2 mail, express and freight motor cars, 20 ton, at 5,800 

1 rotary snow plow, 20 ton, at 6,000 

1 sweeper, 15 ton, at 1,150 

The total annual car mileage was 305,874. Hence the first cost 
of the equipped cars was 26 cts. per annual car mile, and the first 
cost of the power plant equipment was 22 cts. per annual car mile. 
The average speed of cars was 10 miles per hr. 

Comparative Cost of Various Electrical Railway Constructions 
and Operation. Table II, abstracted from Electrical Review, Jan. 
28, 1911, was compiled by L. H. Parker, and shows the cc):Tii)arative 
cost of equipment and operation of an interurban road having a 
practically level track with a few easy curves, with the 6600-volt 
a.c, system, the 1200-volt d.c. system and the 600-volt d.c. system. 

TABLE II. COSTS OP CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 

Cost per mile of road, typical single-track interurban railway. 
Single 50-ft. cars, hourly headway, normal service, half-hourly head- 
way, maximum. Catenary trolley, 80-lb. rail ; schedule speed, 30 
m.p.h. ; maximum speed, 45 m.p.h. ; stops, one in 2 miles ; seating 
capacity of car.«, 54 ; no baggage compartment, separate baggage 
and express cars. 

6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 
a.c. d.c. d.c. 

Temporary construction $250 $250 $250 

Power station 2,900 2,700 2,700 

Transmission line 1,000 1,000 1,000 

Telephone line 100 100 100 

Substations 270 1,300 1,800 

Catenary trolley 2,800 2,800 2,800 

Track and roadbed 17,500 17,500 17,500 

Copper feeder 575 l."l 00 

Rolling stock 4,300 2,800 2.400 

Car house and office 1,000 1.000 1,000 

Organization, eng'g., etc 7,530 7,506 7,662 

Total .$37,650 $37,531 $38,312 

Cost of operation, maintenance, general expense per mile per 
year; total mileage of all rolling stock, 16,800 ; power cost, 1.5 cents 
per kw.-hour, including maintenance of power station : 

6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 

a.c. d.c. d.c. 

Wages, trainmen $400 $400 $400 

Car house expense 50 50 5U 

Co.st of power 700 620 620 

Attendance substations 1^0 ^^^ 



1538 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

6600-volt 1200-volt 600-volt 

a.c. d.c. d.c. 

Maintenance of cars 335 250 245 

Maintenance, substations 5 20 40 

Maintenance, track and roadway . . 320 300 300 

Maintenance, electric lines . 60 60 60 

General expense 1,000 1,000 1,000 

Total $2,870 $2,820 $2,955 

Per car mile 17c 16.8c 17.6c 

With 2-car train operation the initial costs were $47,219 for the 
6600-volt a.c. system per mile, $46,962 for the 1200-volt d.c. system, 
and $48,200 for the 600-volt d.c. system. The costs of operation, 
maintenance and general expense were respectively figured at $3,990, 
$3,800 and $3,950, or 23.7 cents, 22.6 cents and 23.5 cents per 
train mile. 

Valuation of the Chicago Consolidated Traction Co. Condensed 
from an article by P, J. Kealy, Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
28, 1910. The Traction Valuation Commission of Chicago, B. J. 
Arnold and G. W. Weston, commissioners, has recently completed 
an appraisal of the physical property of the above named com- 
pany. 

The Consolidated Traction Co. comprises seven underlying com- 
panies and operates on the north and west sides of the city ; about 
one-third of its track mileage is outside the city limits, extending- 
to Evanston on the north and to the various suburbs on the west. 
This valuation, however, covers only that portion of the system 
within the city limits. Of the various routes operated, but two 
enter the loop district, the others serving in most cases as feeder 
lines to the Chicago Railways Co. 

The first table, which covers the physical property on 123,302 
miles of track, gives the cost new. Prices are f.o.b. Chicago market 
prices as of Feb. 1. 1910. 

For the purpose of making inventory " Track " was sub-divided 
into tangent track, track special work, track on bridges, tangent 
track in car houses and yards, track special work in car houses 
and yards ; and similar sub-divisions were made for the other 
general divisions, or exhibits. 

APPRAISED COST NEW — GENERAL SUMMARY 

Track, 124 miles $2,091,214.13 

Electric power distribution 855,966.20 

Rolling stock 707.170.80 

Power plant equipment 703,084.92 

Tools, supplies, furniture, etc 88,177.91 

Buildings 338,626.20 

Real estate 84,228.00 

Paving . 1,014.519.24 

$5,882,987.40 
Legal expenses, carrying charges and contingencies, 

5% $ 294,149.37 

$6,177,136.77 
Conducting work, furnishing equipment and broker- 
age, 15% $ 926.570.52 

Total > . , . $7,103,707.29 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1539 

Tangent track. The track in this section was divided into 
classes, these classes being determined by the varying weights and 
types of rails, and by the styles of construction. Under each class 
an estimate was made of the cost of material and labor required to 
reproduce the track new at the time of this valuation Nov. 1, 1909, 
under the original specifications ; and to this amount has been added 
15% for organization, engineering incidentals, etc., giving the total 
cost. Data were obtained from detailed examination of the track 
in the field, in which the length of rail, kind of joint, type of 
rail and substructure was determined. Additional information was 
obtained from the track map in the office of the Chicago Consol- 
idated Co. and from representatives of the Consolidated Company. 
All distances shown are actual field measurements. The lengths 
of the various pieces of special work were excluded in determining 
tangent track distances. 

Track ISpecial Work. Each piece of special work was meas- 
ured, listed and sketched. In order to determine the cost new of 
the special work complete there was added to the cost of the 
layout the cost of ties, ballast, excavation, labor and miscellaneous 
items necessary to install same. 

Tracjp on Bridges. The cost of track on bridges includes the cost 
of rail laid together with that of miscellaneoiis track material used 
in bridge construction. 

Track in Car House and Yards. The track was measured in de- 
tail, and unit estimates were made of the cost to construct new. 

Track Special Work in Car Houses and Yards. Each house lay- 
out was measured and listed and a sketch of the layout was made. 

Valuation. The total mileage of track appraised was 123,302 
miles. The several classes of trade construction found are de- 
scribed in the following schedule and the valuation of each class 
is given below : 

SCHEDULE I.— CLASSES OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION 

Class De.scripfion 

A 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, concrete foundation, 

welded joints, 10 ft. 2 in. centers, type 2-A. Board of Super- 
vising Kngineers. 
A-1 9-in. 129-ib. Lorain rail. 58-ft. lengths, crushed stone balla.st, 

welded jf)ints. 10 ft. 2 in. center.s, type 3. Board of Super- 
vising Engineers. 
B 7.1875-in. 85-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 3 ft. tie 

spacing, tie i)lates on every other tie, bonded joints, 9 ft. 6 in. 

centers, 7.5 ft. tie rod spacing. 
B-1 7 3-16-in. 85-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 3-ft. 

tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, 11 ft. 6-in. centers, 

bond joints, 1 1/2 ft. tie rod spacing. 
B-2 7 3-16-in. 85-lb. girder rail. 60-ft. lengths, no ballast. 2 1/2 -ft. 

tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7V^-ft. 

tie rod spacing. 
B-3 7 3-16-in., 85-lb. girder rail. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 

spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7Vi-ft. tie 

rod .s])acing. 
B-4 7 3-16-in., 85-lb. girder rail, 60-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 2-ft. 

tie spacing, no tie plates, welded joints, 7^/4 -ft. tie rod spacing. 
C 7-in., 96-lb. Trilby (L357). 30-ft'. length.s, no ballast. 2-ft. tie 

sparing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints, 7i^-ft. tie 

rod spacing. 



1540 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Class Description 

D 6-in., 78-lb. girder (L-225), 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 
spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded fish-plate joints, 
7 1/2 -ft- tie rod spacing. 

D-1 6-in.. 78-lb. girder (L-225). 60-ft. lengths, no ballast, 2-ft. tie 
spacing, tie plates on every other tie, welded joints, 7^^ ft. tie 
rod spacing. 

E 4 ¥2 -in., approx. 70 -lb. girder rail. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
rail on chairs, 2-ft. tie spacing, 71/2 -ft. tie rod spacing. 

P 8% -in., 96-lb. girder rail, 30-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 2i^-ft. 
tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, bonded fish-plate 
joints, 7V>-ft. tie rod spacing. 
Total cost per mile $12,153.62 

F-1 8 25-32-in. girder rail, 96 lb., 30-ft. lengths, stone ballast, 2-ft. 
tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7% ft. tie rod spac- 
ing, bonded fish-plate joints. 

F-2 8 25-32 in., 96-lb. girder (L-206), 60-ft. lengths, cinder bal- 
last. 2-ft. tie spacing, braced tie plate on every tie, 7% -ft. tie 
rod spacing, welded points. 

Class A. — 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, concrete foun- 
dation, welded joints. Type 2A, Board of Supervising Engineers ; 
6.209 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 10-ft. 2-in. 
centers. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 202.71 ton at $39.00 $ 7,905.69 

Tie rods, 910 ton at $0.25 227.50 

Joints, 195 ton at $5!00 975.00 

Ties, 6-in. by 8-in. by 8 ft., 1.820 ton at $0.70 1,274.00 

Tie plates, 3,640 ton at $0.09 327.60 

Screw spilies, 7,280 ton at $0,022 156.52 

Lag screws (Fetter drive). 7.280 ton at $0.004 29.12 

Cement. 2.034 bbl. at $1.60 3.254.40 

Sand, torpedo, 969 cu. yds. at $1.00 969.00 

Stone, 1.831 cu. yds. at $1.50 2,746.50 

Track labor (.see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.79. . . . 4,171.20 

Teaming (see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.99 5.227.20 

$27,263.73 
Organization, engineering and incidentals. 15% 4,089.56 

Total cost per mile $31,353.29 

Class A-1. — 9-in. 129-lb. Lorain rail, 58-ft. lengths, cru.shed stone 
ballast, welded joint§. Type No. 3, Board of Supervising Engineers ; 
9.065 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 10-ft. 2-in. 
centers. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 202.71 ton at $39.00 $7,905.69 

Tie rods, 910 ton at $0.25 227.50 

Joints. 195 at $5.00 975.00 

Ties. 2.640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie plates. 5,280 at $0.09 il^X^. 

Screw spikes, 10,560 at $0,022 227.04 

Lag screws (fetter drive). 10,560 at $0.004 Sl^i 

Cement, 1.203 bbl. at $1.60 2.020.80 

Sand, torpedo. 600 cu. yds. at $1.00 „ ^*^2 x2 

Stone, cru.shed. 2.162 cu. yds. at $1.50 ^-^i^O^ 

Track labor (see details attached). 5,280 ft. at $0.79 4.171.20 

Track teaming (see details attached), 5,280 ft. at $0.99. . 5,227.20 

$26,962.87 
Organizing, engineering and incidentals, 15% 4.044.43 

Total cost per mile $31,007.30 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1541 

Class B. — 7 3-16-in. girder rail, 85-Ib. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
3-ft. tie spacing-, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints; 1.006 
miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 9 -ft. 6-in. 
centers. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 

Hauling to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 

Excavation (9 ft. 6-in. centers), 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50. . 1,205.00 

Ties delivered, 1,760 at $0.70 1,232.00 

Tie rods, 700, at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates (braced), 1.760, at $0.18 316.80 

Rail chair joints, complete, 352 at $1.10 387.20 

Spikes, 30 kegs at $4.00 120.00 

Labor — Track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

$10,468.37 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,570.25 

Total cost per mile $12,038.62 

Class B-1. — 7 3-16 in. girder rail, 85-lb. 30-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
3-ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded joints; 6.893 
miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track, 11-ft. 6-in. 
centers. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00.... $5,342.80 

Hauling to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 

Excavation (11-ft. 6-in. centers), 2,610 cu. yds. at $0.50. 1,305.00 

Ties delivered, 1,760 at $0.70 1,232.00 

Tie rods, 700, at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates (braced), 1,760 at $0.18 316.80 

Rail chair joints, complete, 352 at $1.10 387.20 

Spikes, 30 kegs at $4.00 120.00 

Labor — Track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

$10,568.37 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,585.25 

Total cost per mile $12,153.62 

Class B-2.— 7-3/16 in. girder rail, 85 lb. 60 ft. lengths, no ballast, 
2.5 ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, bonded fish joints; 
16.196 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 85 lb. per yd. (delivered), 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 

Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 

Excavation, 2.410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 

Ties delivered, 2,112 at $0.70 1,478.40 

Tie rod.s, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates, 2,112 at $0.18 380.16 

Spikes, 35 kegs at $4.00 140.00 

Fi.sh plates (complete) 176 at 60 lb. each, 4.72 ton at $42 198.24 

Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1.584.00 

$10,609.17 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,591.38 

Total cost per mile $12,200.55 

Class B-3. — 7 3/16 in., girder rail, 85 lb.. 30 ft. lengths, no ballast, 
2 ft. tie spacing, tie-plates on every other tie, bonded fish-plate 
joints, 7 1/2 -ft, tie-rod spacing: 60,667 miles. Estimate of cost to 
produce one mile of single track, 



1542 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 85 lb. per yd. 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 

Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 

Excavation, 2.500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 

Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Spikes, 40 keg $4.00 160.00 

Fish plates (complete) : 352 at 60 lb. each, 9.44 ton at $42 396.48 

Labor — track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 



$11,292.05 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,693.81 



Total cost per mile $12,985.86 

Class B-4. — 7 3/16 in. girder rail, 85 lb. 60 ft. lengths, cinder bal- 
last, 2 ft. tie spacing, no tie-plates, welded joints, 7^^ ft. tie-rod 
spacing; 1.909 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 85 lb. per yd., 133.57 ton at $40.00 $5,342.80 

Hauling rail to street, 133.57 ton at $1.00 133.57 

Excavation, 2,500 cu. yd.s. at $0.50 1,250.00 

Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Ballast, cinder, 1,400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 

Welded joints (cast), 176 at $4.25 748.00 

Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

Labor, handling ballast, 5,280 ft. at $0.05 . . . : 264.00 

$12,737.37 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,910.61 

Total cost per mile $14,647.98 

Class C. — 7-in. 96 lb. Trilby (L-357) 30 ft. lengths. No ballast; 
2 ft. tie spacing ; tie-plates every other tie ; bonded fish-plate joints ; 
tie-rod spacing 7^ ft.; 1.488 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail. 96 lb. trilby, 150.86 ton at $40.00 $6,034.40 

Hauling rail to street. 150.86 ton at $1.00 150.86 

Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 

Ties, delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Fish plates, complete, 352 at 60 lb. each, 9.44 tons 

at $42.00 396.48 

Labor at 30 ct. per ft., 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

$12,000.94 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,800.14 

Total cost per mile $13,801.08 

Class D. — 6 in. 78-lb. girder (L-225) 30 ft. length. No ballast; 
2 ft. tie spacing ; tie-plates every other tie ; bonded fish-plate joints ; 
tie-rod spacing 7.5 ft. ; 0.529 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1543 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 78-lb. girder, 122.57 tons at $40.00 $4,902.80 

Hauling to street, 122.57 tons at $1.00 122.57 

Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 

Ties, delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Fish plates, complete, 352 at 60 lbs., 9.44 tons at $42.00 . 396.48 

Labor, at 30 ct. per ft, 5.280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 



$10,841.05 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,626.16 



Total cost per mile $12,467.21 

Class D-1. — 6-in., 78-lb. girder (L-225). 60-ft. lengths, no ballast, 
2-ft. tie spacing, tie plates on every other tie, welded joints, 7.5 ft. 
tie rod spacing; 3.448 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail — 78-lb. girder, 122.57 tons at $40.00 $4,902.80 

Hauling to street, 122.57 tons at $1.00 . 122.57 

Excavation, 2,410 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,205.00 

Ties delivered, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Tie plates, 2,640 at $0.18 475.20 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Welded joints — cast, 176 at $4.25 748.00 

Labor — track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 



$11,192.57 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,678.89 



Total cost per mile $12,871.46 

Class F. — 8.75-in. girder rail, 96-lb., 30-ft. lengths, cinder ballast, 
2-ft. 6-in. tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7.5 ft. tie rod 
spacing, bonded fish-plate joints; 7.712 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Raii, 8.75-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206), 150.86 tons at $40.00 $6,034.40 

Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 

Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 

Ties, 2.112 at $0.70 1.478.40 

Tie-plates, 4,224 at $0.18 760.32 

Tie-rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Cinder ballast, 1,400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 

Fish-plates complete, 352 at 126 lb., 19.8 tons at $42.00 831.60 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Labor, track laying, 5,280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

$13,656.58 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 2,048.49 

Total cost per mile $15,705.07 

Class F-1. — 8.78125-in. girder rail, 96-lb. 30-ft. lengths, stone 
ballast, 2 ft. tie spacing, braced tie-plates on every tie ; 7.5 ft. tie- 
rod .'jpacing, bonded fish-plate joints; 0.995 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 



1544 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail, 8.78125-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206), 150.86 tons at 

$40.00 $6,034.40 

Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 

Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 

Ties, 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie plates, 5,280 at $0.18 950.44 

Tie rods. 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Fish plates, complete, 356 at 126 lbs. 19.8 tons at $42.00 831.60 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Ballast — stone, 1,400 cu. yds. at $1.50 2,100.00 

Labor, track laying and ballasting, 5,280 ft. at $.35 1,848.00 

$15,320.30 
Organization, engineering and incidentals 15% 2,298.05 

Total cost per mile $17,618.35 

Class F-2. — 8.78125-in. 96-lb. girder (L-206) 60 -ft. lengths, cinder 
ballast, 2-ft. tie spacing, braced tie plates on every tie, 7.5 ft. tie 
rod spacing, welded joints; 0.936 miles. 

Estimate of cost to produce one mile of single track. 

UNIT COST ESTIMATE 

Rail — 8.78125-in. 96-lb. CL-206), 150.86 tons at $40.00 $6,034.40 

Hauling to street, 150.86 tons at $1.00 150.86 

Excavation, 2,500 cu. yds. at $0.50 1,250.00 

Ties delivered. 2,640 at $0.70 1,848.00 

Tie plates, 5,280 at $0.18 950.40 

Tie rods, 700 at $0.21 147.00 

Spikes, 40 kegs at $4.00 160.00 

Ballast, cinder, 1.400 cu. yds. at $0.90 1,260.00 

Welded joints, cast, 176 at $4.25 748.00 

Labor, track laying, 5.280 ft. at $0.30 1,584.00 

Labor, handling ballast, 5,280 ft. at $0.05 264.00 

$14,396.66 
Organization, engineering, incidentals, etc., 15% 2,159.50 

Total $16,556.16 

CROSS-OVERS (BUILT UP) 

Cross-over delivered. 1 at $600 $600.00 

Excavation (70 ft. by 9 ft. by 1.25 ft.) 30 cu. yds. at $0.50 15.00 

Ballast, 25 cu. yds. at $1.65 41.25 

Ties, 1,700 b. m. at $30 51.00 

Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 

Labor, 400 hrs. at $0.18 72.00 

Total $783.25 

CROSS-OVERS: 9 IN. MANGANESE — 10 PT. 2 IN. CENTERS. 
BOARD OP SUPERVISING ENGINEERS' TYPE 

Cross-over complete, 1 at $1,100 $1,100.00 

Ballast, 17 cu. yds. at $1.50 25.50 

Ties (7 in. by 9 in. oak switch ties), 1,700 b. m. at $30 51.00 

Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 

Tie plates, 70 at $0.09 6.30 

Stone for concrete, 14 cu. yds. at $1.50 21.00 

Sand, Torpedo, 7 cu. yds. at $1 7.00 

Cement, 15 bbls. at $1.65 24.75 

Total material $1,239.55 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1545 

Labor, 600 hrs. at $0.18 , $ 108.00 

Teaming, liO hrs. at $0.55 11.00 

Total cost $1,358.55 

Excavation Included in labor and teaming. 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING: ELECTRIC OVER STEAM 

Layout, delivered, $200 a crossing, 4 at $200 , $800.00 

Excavation. 20 cu. yds. at $0.50 10.00 

Ballast, 17 cu. yds. at $1.50 25.50 

Ties, delivered. 30 at $0.70 21.00 

Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 

Wire nails, 40 lbs. at $0.03 1.20 

Hemlock plank, 960 b. m. at $25 24.00 

Labor, 100.00 

Total $985.70 

SINGLE TRACK BRANCH OFF; 45 TO 90 DEGREES 

Layout : 

1 switch and mate $125 00 

1 frog 45.00 

Tangent rail included, 50 ft, at $0.75 37 50 

Curved track included, 75 ft. at $3.00 225.00 

Joints, 16 pair complete at $1.10 17 60 

Tie plates, 150 at $0.09 13.50 

$463.60 

Excavation, 43 cu. yds. at $0.50 21.50 

Ballast, 40 cu. yds. at $1.50 60.00 

Ties, 1,200 b. m. at $30.00 = 36.00 

Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4.00 

Labor 100.00 

Total material and labor $685.10 

DOUBLE TRACK BRANCH OFF; 4 5 to 90 DEGREES 

Layout complete (tie plates and joints Included), 1 at 

$1,000 $1,000,00 

Excavation, 80 cu. yds. at $0.50 40.00 

Ballast 72 cu. yds. at $1.50 108.00 

Tie.«. 2,500 b. m. at $30 75.00 

Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 8.00 

Labor 200,00 

Total material and labor $1,431.00 

DOUBLE TRACK OVER SINGLE TRACK CROSSING. 
SINGLE CONNECTING CURVE 

Layout complete (tie plates and joints included) 1 at 

$1,044.16 $1,044.16 

Excavation, 78 cu. yds. at $0,50 39,00 

Ballast, 64 cu. yds. at $1.50 96.00 

Ties, 2,200 b. m. at $30 66 00 

Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 • 8.00 

Labor 200,00 

Total material and labor $1,453.16 



1546 MEtHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. ONE CONNECTING CURVE. 
45 DEGREES 

Layout complete (tie-plates and joints included) 1 at 

$1,397.00 $1,397.00 

Excavation, 90 cu. ydrs at $0.50 45.00 

Ballast, 74 cu. yds. at $1.50 111.00 

Ties, 2,660 b. m. at $30 ;..... . 79.80 

Spikes, 2 kegs at $4 8.00 

Labor 250.00 

Total material and labor $1,890.80 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. SINGLE TRACK CURVES IN 
TWO QUADRANTS 

Layout complete delivered (tie plates and joints included), 

1 at $2,088.32 , $2,088.32 

Excavation. 156 cu. yds. at $0.50 78.00 

Ballast, 129 cu. yds. at $1.50 193.50 

Ties, 4,460 b. m. at $30 133.80 

Spikes, 4 kegs at $4 16.00 

Labor 350.00 

Total material and labor $2,859.62 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING WITH DOUBLE TRACK 
CONNECTING CURVES 

Price of double track crossing with single connecting curve. $1,890.80 

Additional : 

Switch and mate, 2 at $125 250.00 

Jump frogs, 1 at 

50 ft. curved track at $4.45 222.50 

Total cost of crossing $2,363.30 

DOUBLE TRACK — THREE PART WYE 

Curved track 376.4 

Straight track included 206.6 

Total length 583.0 ft. 

Rail layout delivered $2,500.00 

Excavation. 210 cu. yd.s. at $0.50 105.00 

Ballast, 200 cu. yds. at $1.50 300.00 

Ties, 2,500 b. m. at $30 75.00 

Spikes, 5 kegs at $4 20.00 

Labor 583 ft. at $0.75 437.25 

Total cost $3,437.25 

SINGLE TRACK RAILWAY CROSSING. DOUBLE TRACK 

ELECTRIC OVER SINGLE TRACK STEAM. 45 TO 90 

DEGREES 

Layout delivered (tie plates and joints included), 2 at $200 $400.00 

Excavation, 11.5 cu. yds. at $0.50 5.75 

Ballast, 10 cu. yds. at $1.50 15.00 

Ties, delivered, 16 at $0.70 11.20 

Spikes, 5 keg at $4 2.00 

Hemlock planking — 12 pieces, 3 ins. by 10 ins. by 16 ft., 

480 b. m. at $25 12.00 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1547 

Nails ; $ .60 

Labor 65.00 

Total cost $511.55 

For cost of jump crossing, deduct $261.00 

Net cost of jump crossing $250.55 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. ELECTRIC OVER STEAM 

Layout, delivered, $200 a crossing, 4 at $200 $800.00 

Excavation, 20 cu. yds. at $0.50 10 00" 

Ballast, 17 cu. yds at. $1.50 25 50 

Ties, delivered. 30 at $0.70 31 00 

Spikes, 1 keg at $4.00 4 00 

Wire nails, 40 lbs. at $0.03 1.20 

Hemlock plank, 960 b. m. at $25 24.00 

Labor 100.00 

Total , $985.70 

PLAIN CURVES. PER FT. OF SINGLE TRACK. 7-IN. RAIL 

Rail — delivery and shop bending included $3.00 

Excavation 0.25 

Ballast 0.41 

Ties delivered 0.30 

Tie plates 0.06 

Tie rods 0.03 

Fish-plates and bolts 0.08 

Spikes 0.02 

Labor laying track 0.30 

$4.45 

Estimated Cost of One Mile of Single Track. The following data 
are abstracted from " Detailed Exhibits of the Physical Property 
and Intangible Values of the Calumet Electric Street Railway Com- 
pany and the South Chicago City Railway Company as of Febru- 
ary 1, 1908, accompanying the valuation report submitted to the 
committee on local transportation of the Chicago City Council, by 
B. J. Arnold and George We.ston." An estimate was made of the 
cost of materials and labor required to reproduce -the property 
new, to which was added 15% for organization, engineering and 
incidentals. 

ESTIMATE OF COST OF 1 MILE OF SINGLE TRACK 

6-IN. GIRDER RAIL, 75-LB., 30-FT. LENGTHS, BONDED, ON STONE BALLAST 

117.86 tons rail, delivered, at $41.00 $4,832.26 

117.86 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 117.86 

2,640 cu. yds. excavation, at $0.50 1.320.00 

1,500 cu. yds. slag ballast, at $1.65 2,475.00 

2,640 ties, delivered, at $0.75 . . . ; 1,980 00 

1,056 tie rods, at $0.30 316.80 

2,640 tie i)lates, at $0.22 580.80 

9.44 tons fish plates and bolts, 60 lbs. each, at $42.25 398.84 

30 kegs spikes for rail.s at $4.10 123.00 

10 kegs spikes for tie plates, at $4.10 41.00 

18 cross bonds, at $2.00 36.00 



1548 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

352 bonds at $1.25 ($0.80, material; $0.45, labor) % 440.00 

5,280 ft. track laying, at $0.35 1,848.00 

, $14,509.56 
15%, organization, engineering, incidentals 2,176.43 

$16,685.99 

If Atlas joints are used the estimate of cost is $17,461.97 per 
mile of single track, the difference being due to the increased cost 
of Atlas joints over fish plates, $113.72 per ton as against $42.25 
per ton. 

If the track is on cinder ballast with no excavation the estimated 
cost per mile is $13,874.23 where fish plates are used and $14,650.21 
for track with Atlas joints. Cinder ballast is taken as 1,500 cu. 
yd. at $0.90. 

For welded joints on stone ballast the estimated cost is $17,441.72- 
per mile of single track. There would be 352 welded joints at 
$4.25 each, but fish plates and bonds are not required. 

6-IN. GIRDER RAIL, 78-LB,, 30-FT. LENGTHS, SPLICE PLATES, BONDED ON 
•SLAG OR STONE BALLAST 

122.57 tons rail, delivered, at $41.00 $5,025.37 

122.57 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 122.57 

All other items same as 75-lb. rail, total 9,559.44 



$14,707.38 
15%, organization, engineering, incidentals , 2,206.12 

$16,913.50 

In similar manner the following costs per mile of single track 
are figured: $17,149.06 for 7-in. girder, 80 lb., 30 ft. lengths, bonded, 
on stone ballast; $17,046.40 for 7yif5-in. girder, 85 lb., 60-ft. lengths, 
bonded, on stone ballast ; $23,687.66 for this last if it has a rein- 
forced concrete base instead of a stone base ; the price of concrete 
being taken. 1500 cu. yd. at $5.50. 

45-LB. T RAIL, SLAG BALLAST, BONDED JOINTS 

70.71 tons rail, delivered, at $31.00 $2,192.00 

70.71 tons rail, hauling to street, at $1.00 70.71 

1760 cu. yds.- slag balla.st, at $1.65 2,904.00 

2,640 ties, delivered, at $0.75 1,980.00 

4 tons splice bars, bolts, nut locks, at $46.50 186.00 

30 kegs .'^pikes for rails, at $4.10 123 00 

18 cross bonds, at $2.00 36 00 

352 bonds, at $1.25 440.00 

5,280 ft. track laying, at $0.30 1,584.00 

$9,515.71 
15% organization, engineering, incidentals 1,4 27.35 

$10,943.06 

In like manner the estimate of cost to produce one mile of single 
track is $11,846.54 for 60-lb. trail, slag ballast, bonded joints and 
$13,117.93 for 80-lb. trail, slag ballast, bonded joints. 

Straight Track in Car Houses and Yards. The following are the 
estimated costs of one foot of track of various kinds and weights. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1549 

used by B. J. Arnold and George "Weston in their valuation of the 
South Chicago City Railway. 

Strap Rail. Steel, $0.02 per lb. delivered; screws, $0.41 per 
gross; labor. $0.08 per ft. 

T-Rail, 2% -in., $0.02 per lb., delivered; 56, 60 and 75 lb., $31.00 
per long ton; splice bars, $41.00 per long ton; spikes, for 2%-in. 
rail, $4.10 per keg of 600; for other rail, $4.10 per keg of 375; 
bolts and nuts, $0.05 per lb.; ties, hemlock, $0.50 each, 2 ft. centers; 
bonding, $0.75 per joint; excavation, $0.10 per ft. of track; labor, 
$0.10 per ft. of track. 

Girder Rail. Steel and fittings, $41.00 per long ton; bonding, 
$0.75 per joint; ties, hemlock, $0.50 each; spikes, $4.10 per keg. 

TABLE III. ESTIMATED COST OP ONE FOOT OF TRACK 

Strap T T T T Girder 

rail rail rail rail rail rail 

Height of rail, ins 3.875 5 4.25 4.625 2.75 7 

Wt. per yd., lbs 27 75 60 56 25 85 

Wt. of 2 splice plates per 

ft. of track, lbs 2.26 2.13 2.00 0.48 0.60 

Wt. of nuts and bolts per 

ft. of track, lbs 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.524 

Cost, per ft. of track : 

Rails $0.37 $0.69 $0.59 $0.52 $0.34 $1.04 

2 splice plates .04 0.03 0.03 0.01) r. c\'7 

Nuts and bolts 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 I "•"' 

Bonding 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 

Spikes 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 

Ties 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 

Excavation 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 

Labor 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 

Incidentals 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 



Total $0.45 $1.42 $1.30 $1.23 $1.02 $1.78 

Track Special Work. These costs are from the Detailed Exhibits 
of the Physical Property and Intangible Values of the Calumet 
Electric Street Railway Co., and the South Chicago City Railway 
Co., as of February 1, 1908, accompanying the Valuation Report 
submitted to the Committee on Local Transportation of the Chicago 
City Council by B. J. Arnold and George Weston. Each piece of 
special work was measured and the determination of its cost new 
was made by adding to the estimated cost of the material required 
for the special work, the cost of the ties, joints, ballast, excavation 
and labor required to install the various types of special work. 

ESTIMATE OF COST TO PRODUCE TRACK SPECIAL WORK 

SINGLE TRACK CROSSING. ELECTRIC OVER ELECTRIC. 90 DEGREES 

1 single crossing complete, with joints $170.00 

10 ties, 6 ins. by 8 in.s. by 8 ft., delivered, at $0.75 7.50 

10 tie plates, at $0.22 2.20 

.25 keg spikes, at $4.10 1.03 

5.9 cu. yds. excavation (10 by 10 by 1.6 ft.) at $0.50 2.95 

2.7 cu. yd. cru.'=hed rock (10 by 10 by 1.0 ft., minus tie 

space) at $1.65 4.45 



1550 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

8 joints, bonded, at $1.25 $ 10 00 

Labor, 20 ft. at $1.25 25'.00 



$223.13 
15% organization, engineering-, incidentals 33,47 

$256.60 

For hard center work or for a crossing at 45 degs. add $50.00 to 
the $223.13. 

Estimated weight, 3,000 lbs. 

SINGLE TRACK CROSSING SINGLE TRACK. ELECTRIC OVER STEAM. 
90 DEGREES 

Crossing complete with joints $300.00 

11 ties, at $0.75 f 8.25 

0.15 keg spikes, at $4.10 0.61 

6 joints, bonding, at $1.25 7.50 

2 cross bonds, at $2.00 4.00 

6.8 cu. yds. crush rock (12 by 12 by 1.5 ft. minus space 

occupied by 6 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. ties), at $1.65 11.27 

12 pieces oak plank, 2 ins. by 12 ins. by 16 ft. = 384 ft. 
12 pieces oak plant, 3 ins. by 12 ins. by 16 ft. = 576 ft. 

960 f. b. m. at $30.00 per M 28.80 

Wire nails 1.25 

Labor 50.00 

$411.68 
Add for crossing at 45 degs 50.00 

$461.68 

Estimated weight 5,500 lbs. 

Adding 15% to the above costs for organization, engineering and 
incidentals gives $473.43 for the 90 deg. crossing and $530.93 for 
the 45 degs. 

SINGLE TRACK CROSSING SINGLE TRACK. ELECTRIC OVER STiilAM. BOTH 
80-LB. T-RAIL SECTIONS. 90 DEGREES 

One track guarded and reinforced ; one track guarded only. 

Layout complete (Ajax Forge Co.'s quotation) $210.00 

12 ties, at $0.75 9.00 

All other material, and labor, same as above 103.68 

$322.68 
Add for crossing, 45 degs 50.00 

$372.68 
Estimated weight, 6,500 lbs. 

Adding 15% as above the costs would be $371.08 and $428.58 for 
the 90 deg. and 45 deg. crossings respectively. 

SINGLE TRACK BRANCH-OFF CURVES 

1 curve, 90 ft. long 90 ft. 

Straight track included 24 ft. 

Total 114 ft. 

Special work, including fish plates $530.00 

57 ties, at $0.75 42.75 

57 tie plates, at $0.22 12.54 

1 keg spikes, at $4.10 4.10 

38.5 cu. yd. crushed rock (114 by 10 by 1 ft. minus space 
occupied by ties, 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ft.) at $.165 63.52 

67.6 cu. yds. excavation (114 by 10 by 1.6 ft.), at $0.50 . . . 33.78 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1561 

12 joints, bonded, at $1.25 $ 15 00 

Labor, 114 ft., at $1.25 142!50 

$844.19 
Add for hard center work 130.00 

$974.19 
Adding 15% the above costs are $970.82 and $1,120.32 respectively. 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. 90 DEGREES 

Special layout, including fish plates $700.00 

40 ties, at $0.75 30.00 

40 tie plates, at $0.22 8 80 

1 keg spikes, at $4.10 .■ 4.10 

24 joints, bonded, at $1.25 30.00 

23.7 cu. yds. excavation 20 by 20 by 1.6 ft.), at $0.50 11.85 

10.9 cu. yds. crushed rock (20 by 20 by 1 ft., minus space 

occupied by 40 ties, 2.6 cu. ft. per tie), at $1.65 17.98 

Labor, 80 ft. at $1.25 100.00 



$902.73 



Add to this cost $180.00 for hard center work, and $100.00 for a 
45 deg. crossing. 

Estimated weight, 12,000 lbs. 

With 15% added for organization, engineering and incidentals 
the costs are $1,038.14 for a 90 deg. crossing; $1,245.14 for same 
with hard center work; $1,153.14 for a 45 deg. crossing. 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. CURVES IN ONE QUADRANT. 90 DEGREES 

Single track, 260 ft. : curves. 2 each at 90 ft, 180 ft. ; total 440 ft. 

Special layout, including fish plates $2,740.00 

220 ties, at $0.75 165.00 

220 tie plates, at $0.22 48.40 

4 kegs spikes, at $4.10 16.40 

43 joints, bonded, at $1.25 53.75 

234.5 cu. yds. excavation (440 ft. X 0.533 cu. yd. per run- 
ning ft.), at $0.50 117.25 

125.4 cu. yds. crushed rock (440 X 0.285), at $1.65 206.91 

Labor, 440 ft., at $1.25 550.00 

$3,897.71 
Add for 45 deg. angle 100.00 

.$3,997.71 

Estimated weight, 50,000 lb. 

Adding 15% as before the cost is $4,482.37 for a 90 deg. and 
$4,597.37 for a 45 deg. crossing. 

DOUBLE TRACK CROSSING. CONNECTING CURVES IN TWO QUADRANTS 

Such a crossing requires 350 ft. of straight track and 360 ft. 
of curved track. The special work is estimated at $4,700.00 and 
figuring the other materials and labor as before the total is 
$6,667.27, and with 15% added, $7,667.36. Add to the former 
$1,670.00 for hard center work. 

Estimated weight, 85,000 lbs. 

DOUBLE TRACK THREE PART " T " 

Curved track, 360 ft.; straight track included, 170 ft.; total, 530 ft. 

Special layout complete, including joints ^^•7^2*29 

265 ties, at $0.75 '. 198.75 

265 tie plates, at $0.22 58.30 

5 kegs spikes, at $4.10 ^ 20.50 

282.5 cu. yds. excavation (530 X 0.533), at $0.50 141.25 



1552 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

151 cu. yds. crushed rock (530X0.285), at $1.65 $ 249.15 

100 joints, bonded, at $1.25 125.00 

Labor, 530 ft., at $1.25 662.00 

$4,235.45 
Add for hard center work 1,020.00 

$5,255.45 

Estimated weight, 50,000 lbs. 

Adding 15% these costs are $4,870.77 and $6,043.77. 

DOUBLE TRACK BRANCH-OFF 

2 curves at 90 ft.. 180 f t. ; straight track included, 65 ft. ; total, 
245 ft. 

Layout, complete, with fish plates $1,220.00 

123 ties, at $0.75 92.25 

123 tie plates, at $0.22 27.06 

2 kegs spikes, at $4.10 8.20 

36 joints, bonded, at $1.25 45.00 

130.6 cu. yds. excavation (245 X 0.533) at $0.50 65.30 

69.8 cu. yds. crui5hed rock (245 X 0.285), at $1.65 115.17 

Labor, 245 ft. at $1.25 306.25 



$1,879.23 
Add for hard center work 405.00 



$2,284.23 
Estimated weight, 23,000 lbs. 
Adding 15% these costs are $2,161.11 and $2,626.86. 

CROSS-OVER 

Cross-over, over all, 57 ft., straight track included, 50 ft. ; total, 
107 ft. 

Cross-over, complete $600.00 

54 ties, at $0.75 40.50 

1 keg spikes, at $4.10 4.10 

20 joints, bonded, at $1.25 25.00 

6 cross bonds, at 1.00 6.00 

57 cu. yds. excavation (107 X 0.533), at $0.50 28.50 

30.5 cu. yds. crushed rock (107 X 0.285), at $1.65 50.32 

Labor, 107 ft. at $1.25 133.75 

$888.17 

Add for hard center work 375.00 

$1,263.17 
Estimated weight, 11,000 lbs. 
Adding 15% these costs are $1,021.40 and $1,452.65. 

SINGLE TRACK TURN-OUT 

Turn-out, over all, 82 ft.; straight track, 25 ft.; total, 107 ft. 

Point and mate '. $113.00 

Curve cross 45.00 

60 ft. curved track, at $4.90 294.00 

33 ft. straight track 82.00 

Turn-out, complete, special work (estimated wt. 8,500 lbs.) 536.00 

54 ties, ,at $0.75 ' 40.50 

1 keg spikes, at $4.10 -. .* 4.10 

15 joints, bonded, at $1.25 18.75 

3 cross bonds, at $1.00 3.00 

57 cu. yds. excavation (107 X 0.533), at $0.50 28.50 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1553 

30.5 cu. yd. crushed rock (107 X 0.285). at $1.65 $ 50 32 

Labor, 107 ft., at $1.25 133.75 

$814.92 
Add for hard center work 250.00 

$1,064.92 
Adding 15% these costs are $937.16 and $1,224.66. 

PLAIN CURVE TRACK 

Cost of curve per ft. of track $3.00 

Cost per ft. of substructure and labor 1.90 

$4.90 
Estimated w^eight, 72 lbs. per ft. of track. 

CURVED T-RAIL TRACK 

4.25 in. T-rail, 60-lb., per ft $2.25 

Extra for curving, per ft 0.25 

$2.50 

2 strap guards, 0.625 by 4 ins., at 8.5 lbs. per ft 17 lbs. 

0.5 of separator per ft., at 4 lb. each 2 lbs. 

19 lbs. at 5 cts. per ft, extra 0.95 

$3.45 
Estimated weight, 65 lbs. per ft. 

5 in. T-rail, 80-lb., per ft $2.50 

Extra for curving 0.25 

Extra for strap guards 0.95 

$3.70 
Estimated weight, 79 lbs. per ft. of track. 

Value of 665 Miles of Chicago Street Railways. The value of the 
properties of the street railways of Chicago, which are under the 
supervision of Boards of Supervising Engineers, is summarized in 
the statistical report of the Board for the year ending Jan. 31, 1910. 

Original valuation $55,775,000 

Additions to Jan. 31, 1910 42,754,978 



Total $98,529,978 

The items making up this summary are given in the following 
table showing the value per mile of track. 

Organization $5,760 

Engineering and superintendence 6,272 

Track (exclusive of paving) 35,317 

Paving 7,440 

Electric line constructing 11,656 

Real estate (u.sed in operation) 6,332 

Buildings and fixtures 12,898 

Investment real estate 1,629 

Power plant equipment 7,360 

Shop tools and machinery ' 1,177 

Car.s, revenue 17,323 

Electric equipment of cars 9,165 

Miscellaneous equipment 876 

Interest and discount 2,553 

Miscellaneous 16,993 

Tunnels 2,013 



1554 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Horses % 87 

Materials and supplies 3,246 

Fill 152 

Subways 7 

Renewals 80 

Total per mile of track $148,336 

Appraised Values of the Street Railways of Detroit, Mich. Engi- 
neering and Contracting, July 6-13, 1910. 

The Detroit United Railway controls all the street railways in 
the city of Detroit. The franchises on many miles of its track 
will soon expire. This fact led the mayor, Mr. Philip Breitmeyer, 
to appoint a committee of 50 citizens to make an investigation and 
report on the street railway question, one of the duties of the com- 
mittee being to appraise the value of the physical property of the 
railways. Frederick T. Barcroft was appointed director of ap- 
praisal. His report of the results of the appraisal was dated Oct. 
1, 1909. 

The first street railway franchise was granted to the Detroit City 
Ry. Co. in 1862. Since that time 50 corporations have received 
franchises, but their stock was eventually absorbed by the Detroit 
United Rys. Co. 

The appraisal, which includes 170.4 mi. of main track and 1,000 
revenue cars, gives not only the cost of reproduction new, but the 
depreciated, or second-hand value of the property. We shall first 
give a summary, followed by costs in great detail. The cost of re- 
production new was as follows : 

Cost of Reproduction, New. 

Real estate % 513,548 

Buildings, except power houses and battery stations .... 654,884 

Power plants, including buildings 1,481,328 

Battery stations, including buildings 228,252 

Power distribution, including overhead feed wires and 

telephone system 1,211,897 

Track 3,601,336 

Rolling stock, including equipments 3,676,098 

Shops 390,968 

Tools, materials, supplies, furniture, etc 751,016 

Overhead charges 1,268,000 

Total $13,777,327 

The last item was not given in the report, and we have estimated 
it as explained below. 

The depreciated or present value was as follows : 

Depreciated Value 

Real estate $ 513.548 

Buildings 578.763 

Power plants 1,219,051 

Battery stations 200,488 

Power distribution 1,088,063 

Track 2,599,222 

Rolling stock 2,861,403 

Shops 308,719 

Tools, supplies, etc 728,158 

Overhead charges 1,024,310 

Total $11,121,725 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1555 

Attention should be called to the fact that the item, Track, in- 
cludes grading-, as well as rails, ties, etc., and it includes broken 
stone, gravel and concrete foundations, but does not include wearing 
coat of the pavement. 

The report says : 

" Paving has not been considered an asset of the company in the 
preparation of this appraisal. * * * Distributing and replacing the 
pavement adds no value to it. Neither can the company obtain 
credits, as it requested, for theoretical items. If there is any value 
to the pavement to which the company is entitled, it must be upon 
some different theory than that it is an asset, for so far as the 
company is concerned it is an obligation foreign to its needs as a 
transportation proposition, and is in lieu of other taxes. When 
certain taxes and municipal charges are remitted by the authorities, 
and the company assumes the obligation of paving, there can.be no 
question that the paving thereby becomes a tax. 

" The paving can have a value to the company when it was all 
new and laid at one time, and then only in the sense that they 
have prepaid their taxes up to the point of the first renewal. 
Thereafter the repairs and renewal become an annual maintenance 
charge or tax. 

" If the company has charged the maintenance of this paving to 
capital account, it is not justified in so doing, and has done so be- 
cause it has not provided for the renewal of any physical property 
by a depreciation reserve, and if it has charged this to operation 
or maintenance under those circumstances, the result is a tax, by 
whatever name it has labeled it. 

" The company should have been compelled to charge the cost 
of original paving to ' cost of initial paving account,' which 
would be automatically wiped out in eight years, assuming, for 
example, that this is the life of the paving, by being credited with 
one-eighth of the cost of the paving annually. The maintenance and 
repairs after the above date should be charged to operating ac- 
count ' paving.' " 

While there can be no doubt that pavement maintenance should 
never be charged to capital account, we can not subscribe to the 
proposition that a street railway company should not charge the 
entire first cost of a pavement to capital account, unless it is 
clearly established that city taxes have been remitted to the full 
extent of the money expended for pavement construction. Nor can 
we subscribe to the statement that " Disturbing and replacing the 
pavement adds no value to it," when this viewpoint is used as a rea- 
son for not charging paving work to the construction account. The 
same line of reasoning would lead to rejecting also the item of 
grading, for " disturbing and replacing " the earth can add no 
value to the earth, yet it is a necessary part of the labor of con- 
struction. However just may have been the reason for excluding 
an allowance for paving work from the appraised values, it could 
be proven just only on the ground that the city of Detroit had it- 
self paid for the pavement by remitting taxes equal to its first cost. 
We should explain that Mr. Barcroft's omission to include the cost 



1556 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

of paving- rested upon the opinion of the City Corporation Counsel 
and a majority of the legal committee to the effect that " the legal 
title to the pavement is in the city of Detroit and not in the com- 
pany." This reason is fallacious, for " legal title " does not deter- 
mine costs nor values in the case of a public service corporation. 
" Legal title " to the earth beneath the pavement also rests in the 
city of Detroit. Shall the cost of grading be excluded from the 
appraisal for that reason? Clearly not, and it is equally clear, 
therefore, that the cost of paving should be viewed in the same 
light. 

Aside from this one point, the appraised values appear to have 
been very liberal, taken as a whole, as will be better appreciated 
from a study of the cost of reproduction new per mile of trackway, 
given below. 

Regarding overhead charges, the report says : 

" Overhead charges should be depreciated in the same proportion 
as the present condition of the physical property bears to its cost, 
and this charge, when added to the physical elements depreciated, 
represents the net depreciated physical and overhead value of the 
property. * * * The sum total of this analysis, therefore, leads 
to the conclusion that $1,024,310 is ample to cover such overhead 
charges as are necessary to reproduce this property." 

Deducting this $1,024,310 from the total present value leaves 
$10,097,415, which is 80.74% of the cost of reproduction new of the 
total physical property. Hence we have divided the $1,024,310 by" 
80.74% to obtain the undepreciated overhead charges, which are 
$1,268,000 as thus found. If the real estate is not included, the 
ratio is 79.89%, instead of 80.74%, and we get $1,282,000 as the 
undepreciated overhead charges. 

Apparently the undepreciated overhead charges were estimated 
at a little more than 10% of the cost of the property. The over- 
head charges include : Organization, finance, interest and taxes 
during construction, legal expense, insurance, contingencies, tech- 
nical assistance employed in the various engineering branches, and 
other miscellaneous expenses. 

The track mileage was as follows : 

Miles 

Single track 170.41 

Car stations, yards, etc 12.93 

Total 183.34 

Dividing each of the ten items of cost of reproduction new by the 
170.41 miles of trackway, we have the following cost per mile of 
trackway : 

Cost of Reproduction, New. 

Per mile 

1. ' Real estate $ 3,013 

2. Buildings (other than power) 3,843 

3. Power plants (including buildings) 8,694 

4. Battery stations (including buildings) 1,339 

5. Power distribution 7,112 

6. Track (including grading, but excluding paving) 21,135 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1557 

Per mile 

7. Rolling stock ( 6 cars per mile) $21,572 

8. Shops 2,294 

9. Tools, supplies, etc 4,407 

10. Overhead charges 7,441 

Total $80,850 

Since there are 1.076 miles of all track to each mile of trackway, 
each of these 10 items must be divided by 1.076 to get the cost per 
mile of track. 

The annual number of car miles per mile of track is evidently 
large, for there are 6 revenue cars per mile of trackway. This ac- 
counts for the high cost of power plants per mile of trackway. 
Items 8 and 9 are inordinately high, but the shops and tools are 
used not only for the street railways within the city but for inter- 
urban lines. 

We pass now to the detailed estimates of cost of reproduction 
new and present value. 

1. Real Estate. — There are 50.021 acres used for railway pur- 
poses, valued at $513,548, or an average of $10,265 per acre. In 
addition there are 18.374 acres valued at $121,772, but not used for 
railway purposes. The following is a summary of the real estate, 
not including buildings : 

Land for : 

1. General offices $ 27,750 

2. Power houses 185,169 

3. Emergency station 9,375 

4. Mechanical shops 50,000 

5. Track shops 24,832 

6. Battery stations (two) 18,514 

7. Car stations (ten) 186,664 

8. Air changing stations (two) 2,600 

8a. Car clearances (two) 1,944 

8b. Switching yards (two) 6,200 

8c. Loop property 500 

9. Freight depot (interurban traffic) 50,000 

Total $563,548 

2. Buildings. — The following is the estimated cost of reproduction 
new : 

1. General office, 5-story brick, trimmed with cut stone, 

pile foundation, 37 by 100 ft $ 42,000 

2. Power houses (see Power Plants) : 

Pipe house, 1-story brick, 44 by 142 7,500 

Stable, 1-story brick, 52 by 111 3.500 

Two frame buildings 600 

Miscellaneous : Sheds, paving, walks, etc 10,000 

3. Emergencj- station, 2 and 3 stories, 75 by 200 42,459 

4. Car repair shops: 

2-story brick, 72 by 463 ft 44,000 

1 to 3-story brick, 85 by 538 ft 89,000 

Sprinkler system in buildings 21,000 

Scrap yard buildings 2,600 

6. Machine .shops, 1-story frame, 79 by 145 ft 8,500 

Stock room ^'aa^ 

Carpenter shop §'"21! 

Cement shed 3,000 



1558 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

stone crusher building $ 3,300 

Miscellaneous 500 

6. Battery stations (see Battery Stations). 

7. Car stations : 

1 and 2-story brick, 41 by 166 ft 10,900 

1-story brick, 94 by 215 ft 14,000 

1-story frame office, 30 by 39 ft 2,000 

1-story brick, 158 by 353 ft 38,000 

11/^ -story brick (65 by 254) and 1-story office and barn 

(69 by 254) 30,000 

2-story brick, 43 by 151 and 43 by 35 ft 13,500 

Brick storage shed, 80 by 750 40,500 

Coal and tool sheds 800 

1-story brick, 94 by 228 ft. 15,500 

Office and air charging station 2,800 

1-story brick, 100 by 243 ft 17,000 

1 and 2-story brick, 80 by 389 ft 36,000 

1-story brick, 64 by 470 ft 20,000 

Frame office, 41 by 52 ft 2,600 

1-story brick, 73 by 366 ft 30,500 

2-story frame office, 28 by 46 2,500 

Shed, 16 by 68 ft 725 

Brick, steel trussed roof, 82 by 141 ft 23,500 

2-story brick, wood trussed roof, 58 by 150 ft 12,300 

1-story frame office 1,650 

1-story brick, steel trussed roof, 73 by 158 13,600 

8. Air charging stations : 

Frame, 10 by 40 ft 200 

Frame, 32 by 70 ft 2,600 

Total $617,884 

9. Freight depot : 

Masonry building, 43 by 200 ft 13,500 

Masonry building, 38 by 250 ft 12,600 

Milk depot 3,200 

Platform, ret wall, paving and grading 7,70tf 

Grand total .$654,881 

Item 9, freight depot, is owned by the Electric Depot Co., and is 
used in handling interurban freight. These buildings having a cost 
of reproduction new of $654,884, are given a present value of $578,- 
763. 

In addition there were buildings not used for railway purposes to 
which were assigned a cost of reproduction of $64,084 and a present 
value of $20,045. 

Item 4, car repair shops, is not pro rated to city use only, but in- 
cludes all the shops. Since these shops are also used for cars on 
suburban and interurban lines, it is probable that their cost is 
somewhat greater than necessary for the urban traffic only. 

Buildings for housing power plants are not given under this 
heading but under Power Plants. 

3. Power Plants. — There are two power plant stations built in 
1894-5. The power buildings are of brick and stone with con- 
crete bases. The combined capacity of the two stations is 13,500 
kw., but the railway company secures 3,500 kw. additional by pur- 
chase from the Edison Co. 

The cost of reproduction new of Station A, which has 5,500 kw. 
capacity, is as follows : 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1559 

1. Machinery, foundations, stone, brick and concrete $ 26 250 

2. Boilers and settings: ' 

12 Babcock & Wilcox, 250 hp. each, 4 Sterling boilers, 

354 h.p. each. Total 44,384 

3. Coal and handling ai)paratus 6!917 

4. Coal storage bins and chutes ,', 6!588 

5. Grates and stokers : 

16 Murphy furnaces and stokers 13,176 

6. Breeching connections 2 965 

7. Stack: 

Self-supporting steel, fire brick lined to top. 11 ^^ 
ft. diam. of flue, 183 ft. high above brick founda- 
tion, 205 ft. above ground level, rests on 168 piles. . 11,550 

8. Feed water heaters : 

1 Cochran open heater (2,000 h.p.) 
1 Worthington duplex. 

Total 1,500 

9. Purifiers : 6 Hoppe, 750 h.p. each 3,150 

10. Intake tunnels 19,050 

11. Condensing equipment : 

4 Worthington duplex air pumps and condensers. 

1 Tomlinson barometric condenser. 

1 Lawrence centrifugal (10-in. ) pump and engine. 

Total 16,500 

12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps : 

3 Worthington feed pumps. 

Total 3.294 

13. Piping, valves and covering 44,000 

14. Engines : 

4 Allis-Chalmers, 1,500 h.p. each, tandem compound, 
condensing. 

1 Allis-Chalmers, 2,500 h.p. cross-compound, con- 
densing. 

Total 129,977 

15. Generators: 

2 Genera] Electric, 1,000 kw. each. 
2 Westinghouse, 1,000 kw. each. 

1 Westinghouse, 1,500 kw. each. 

Total 87,000 

16. Boosters: 

1 Westinghou.se generator, 250 kw. 

1 Westinghouse generator, 350 kw. 

1 Westinghouse motor, 272 kw. 

1 Cutler-Hammer, 272 kw. 

1 Westinghouse motor, 388 kw. 

1 Westinghouse starting box, 388 kw. 

Total 10,617 

17. Crane, Brown Hoisting Co., hand operated, 60-ft. span, 

25-ton cap 4,400 

18. Generator and switchboard cables 9,900 

19. Switchboard and accessories 42,380 

20. Miscellaneous 13.900 

21. Contingencies, incidentals and engineering 20,600 

22. Buildings: 

One brick and stone, 59 by 233 ft. (about). 

One brick and stone. 75 by 194 ft. (about). 

Total, about 29,295 sq. ft 108,150 

Grand total $626,248 

The land on which this power station stands is 200 by 300 ft. = 
60,000 sq. ft., or about twice the area actually occupied by the 
buildings. This land was appraised at $37,500, or about 62 ct. per 
sq. ft., which is included under Real Estate. 

Since the capacity of this plant is 5,500 kw., we obtain the cost 
per kw. by dividing each of the foregoing 26 items by 5,500. 



1560 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1. Machinery foundations $ 4.77 

2. Boilers and settings 8.07 

3. Coal and ash building appar 1.26 

4. Coal storage bins and chutes 1.20 

5. Grates and stokers 2.40 

6. Breeching connections 0.54 

7. Stack 2.10 

8. Feed water heaters 0.27 

9. Purifiers 0.57 

10. Intake tunnels 3.46 

11. Condensing equipment 3.00 

12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps 0.60 

13. Piping, valves and covering 8.00 

14. Engines 23.64 

15. Generators 15.82 

16. Boosters 1.93 

17. Crane 0.80 

18. Generator and switchboard cables 1.82 

19. Switchboard and accessories 7.71 

20. Miscellaneous 2.53 

21. Contingencies and engineering 3.75 

22. Building 19.66 

Total $113.90 

Land 6.82 

Total $120.72 

If we take % of the foregoing, we have the approximate cost per 
horsepower. 

The depreciated or present value assigned to this power plant, 
Station A, was as follows : 

1. Machinery foundation $ 26,250 

2. Boilers and settings 30,907 

3. Coal and ash appar 3,890 

4. Coal storage bins 4,650 

5. Grates and stokers 9,345 

6. Breeching connections 1,656 

7. Stack 8,464 

8. Feed water heaters , 941 

9. Purifiers 1,170 

10. Intake tunnels 19,050 

11. Condensing equipment 9,116 

12. Circulating and feed pumps 1,971 

13; Piping, valves and covering 35,144 

14. Engines 94,452 

15. Generators 73,871 

16. Boosters 7,963 

17. Crane 2,370 

18. Generator and switchboard cables 8,290 

19. Switchboard and accessories 35,634 

20. Miscellaneous 6,917 

21. Contingencies and engineering 12,480 

22. Building 108,150 

Total $502,681 

The plant was about 14 yr. old, with the exception of the 4 Sterl- 
ing boilers (total 1,416 hp.), the 2,500 hp. engine, and the 2,000 hp. 
Cochran heater, which were about 4 yr. old ; also the 3 generators, 
which were about 6 yr. old. A comparison of the above de- 
preciated values with the cost of reproduction new will indicate 
the rates of depreciation allowed. Including buildings and ma- 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1561 

chinery foundations (Items 1 and 22), it will be seen that the aver- 
age depreciated value is 80.3% of the cost of reproduction; but, de- 
ducting items 1 and 2, the percentage is 74.8%. This last would 
indicate an average depreciation of nearly 2% per annum. 

We pass now to the power plant equipment of Station B, having 
a rated capacity of 8,400 kw. and an estimated cost per kw. slightly 
less than for Station A. The cost of reproduction new was as fol- 
lows : 

1. Machinery foundations $ 32,619 

2. Boilers and settings : 

8 Stirling boilers, 250 h.p. each 
8 Stirling boilers, 300 h.p. each. 
8 Stirling boilers, 350 h.p. each. 

Total 65,652 

3. Coal and ash building apparatus 11,489 

4. Coal storage bins and chutes 10,942 

5. Grates and stokers : 

20 Murphy furnaces and stokers. 
4 Detroit furnaces and stokers. 

Total 21,884 

6. Breeching and connections 4,924 

7 Stacks : 

Two brick stacks, 195 ft. above ground, 10 -ft. flue. ... 24,884 

8. Feed water heaters : 

2 Cochran, each 2,500 h.p 4,500 

9. Economizers : 

Green fuel economizers, connection with 16 Stirling 

boilers (4,400 h.p.) 22,377 

10. Intake tunnels 18,900 

11. Condensing equipment : 

1 G. F. Blake condenser. 

1 Baragwanath condenser. 

4 M. T. Davis condensers (style 6). 

Total 16,200 

12. Circulating and boiler feed pumps: 

4 Davidson feed pumps, No.7%. 

1 Worthington duplex. 

Total 5,471 

13. Piping, valves and covering 43,150 

14. Engines : 

2 Filer & Stowell, cross compound, condensing, 2,250 
h.p. each. 

2 E. P. Allis Co., ditto. 1.200 h.p. ea. 
2 E. P. Allis Co., ditto, 600 h.p. ea. 

Total 129,150 

15. Generators : 

2 Westinghouse, 1,500 kw. each. 
2 Walker Mfg. Co., 800 kw. each. 
2 Walker Mfg. Co., 400 kw. each. 

Total 86,050 

16. Turbo-generator plant : 

1 We.stinghouse. 3,000 kw. generator. 
1 Parson's steam turbine, 4,500 h.]). 
1 Baragwanath jet condenser (42-in.) 

1 Baragwanath centrifugal pump (18-in.) 
Exciter, induction motor, engine, etc. 

Total ' 146,500 

17. Boosters : 

2 General Electric generators. 

1 Westinghouse motor, 250 kw. 

4 Westinghouse generators, 500 each. 

4 Westinghouse motors, 540 each. 

1 Westinghouse exciter generator, 12 14 kw. 

Total 5,784 



1562 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

18. Orane: 

Hand operated, 51-ft. span, 15-ton capacity $ 4,320 

19. Generator and switchboard cables 13,542 

20. Switchboard and accessories 9,898 

21. Miscel. apparatus and tools 17,315 

22. Contingencies, incidentals and engineering 21,450 

23. Building: 

About 54,800 sq. ft , 138.080 

Grand total $855,080 

The land assigned to this power plant covers about 168,000,000 
sq. ft. (or about three times the area occupied by the buildings), 
and its appraised value is $147,669, 

Dividing each of the above 23 items by 8,400 we have the follow- 
ing cost of the plant per kw. : 

Per kw. 

1. Machinery foundations $ 3.88 

2. Boilers and settings 7.81 

3. Coal and ash handling appar 1.37 

4. Coal storage bins and chutes 1.30 

5. Grates and stokers 2.60 

6. Breeching and connections 0!59 

7. Stacks (brick) 2.96 

8. Feed water heaters 0.54 

9. Economizers (for 2-3 of the boilers) 2.66 

10. Intake tunnels 2.25 

11. Condensing equipment 1.93 

12. Circulating and feed pumps 0.60 

13. Piping, valves and covering 5.14 

14. Engines 15.38 

15. Generators 10.25 

16. Turbo-generator plant 17.44 

17. Boosters 0.69 

18. Crane 0.51 

19. Generator and switchboard cables 1.61 

20. Switchboard and accessories 1.18 

21. Miscel. apparatus 2.06 

22. Contingencies and engineering 2.55 

23. Buildings , 16.44 

Total $101 79 

Land 1 7.58 

Grand total $119.37 

The depreciated or present value of this Station B is as follows: 

1. Machinery and foundations $ 32,619 

2. Boiler.^! and settings , 43.743 

3. Coal and a.sh handling ai)par 7.003 

4. Coal .storage bins and chutes 8,754 

5. Grates and stokers 15.098 

6. Breeching and connections 3,774 

7. Stacks 19.547 

8. Feed water heater 3,575 

9. Economizers 1 1.750 

10. Intake tunnels 18.900 

11. Condensing equipment 10.5.'?0 

12. Circulating and feed pumps 3,421 

13. Piping, valves and covering 32.832 

14. Engines 95.720 

15. Generators 71 292 

16. Turbo -generator plant 146,500 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1563 

17. Boosters $ 3,1 45 

1 8. Crane 2,350 

19. Generator and switchboard cables 11.340 

20. Switchboard and accessories 7.563 

21. Mi.«ceIlaneous appar 1 4.5S9 

22. Conting^encies, incidentals and engrg- 11,2 40 

23. Buildings 1 38.080 

Total $716,370 

This is 83.5% of the cost of reproduction new. But if we deduct 
items 1, 10 and 23. the corresponding percentage is 79 1%. 

The equipment of Station B was about 14 yr. old, with the fol- 
lowing exceptions: 8 Sterling, 350 hp. boilers, about 2 yr. old; 2 
Cochran heaters, about Wi yr. old; 2 Filer & Stowell engines, 2,250 
hp. ea., about 10 yr. old; 3 condensers, about 3 yr. old; 2 Westing- 
house generator;?, 1,500 kw. ea., about 10 yr. old; brick stack, about 
2 yr. old; turbo-generator plant, about 1^2 yr. old. If we deduct 
'the turbo-generator plant (item 16), as well as items 1, 10 and 23, 
the present value is 73.2% of the cost of reproduction new% which 
corresponds closely with the per cent, of depreciation assigned to 
Station A. 

4. Battery Stations. — There are 2 battery stations, designated as 
K and L. Part of the machinery in Station K is owned by the 
Edison Illuminating Co. and is not included in the following ap- 
praisal of the cost of reproduction new : 

Station K. 
1 Electric Storage Battery Co.'s storage battery, 2,500 am- 
pere-hour capacity, 260 cells of 67 plates ("G" type) 

per cell $ 89,300 

1 Western Electric booster, type " P-6," connected to a 300 

h.p. motor 11.000 

Switchboard and accessories 2,959 

Battery and equalization station accessories 3,542 

Tools 187 

Furniture and fixtures 315 

Heating 200 

Stock 3.517 

Buildings (53 by 113 ft.), lighting, etc • 15,000 

Total •n26,021 

The depreciated or present value is appraised at $110,575. 
The cost of reproduction new of Station L is as follows : 

Station L. 
1 Electric Storage Co.'s storage battery, 2,000 ampere-hour, 

250 cells of 53 plates ("G" type), per cell $ ^^.250 

1 Western Electric booster, type " T-6," and a 200 h.p. motor fi.400 

Switchboard connections o'oqi 

Battery and equalizing sta. accessories 'i.l 

Tools -^^^ 

Furniture and fixtures ^^i' 

Heating . , ^^ ' 

Stock 'til 

Stationary testing in.sts _ r^^ 

Buildings (39 by 158 ft.) and lighting ^'^"" 

Total $102,231 



1564 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The depreciated value is $89,912. 

5. Power Distribution. — The cost of reproduction new of the 
power distribution system is as follows : 

1. Iron Poles : 

7,498 iron poles, various sizes, 4,395,946 lbs. at $2.75 per 

C. lbs $120,888.52 

Labor erecting at $9.78 73,330.44 

Total, iron poles $194,218.96 

2. Cedar Poles: 

2,198 cedar poles, 30-ft., at $5.50 $12,089.00 

201 cedar poles, 35-ft., at $7.25 1,457.25 

9 cedar poles, 40-ft., at $10.25 92.25 

I cedar pole, 45-ft., at $12.50 12.50 

2,409 cedar poles, labor at $4.00 9,636.00 

Total, cedar poles $23,287.00 

3. Idaho Poles: 

92 Idaho poles, 50-ft., at $14.25 $1,311.00 

1 Idaho pole, 55-ft., at $16.00 16.00 

20 Idaho poles, 60-ft., at $21.00 420.00 

113 Idaho poles, labor at $5.35 604.55 

Total, Idaho poles $2,351.55 

4. Northern Pine Poles : 

73 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 28-ft., at $7.50 $ 547.50 

112 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 30-ft., at $10.25 1,148.00 

16 Octagon Northern Pine poles, 35-ft., at $12.50 200.00 

201 poles, labor at $4.00 804.00 

Total, Northern Pine poles $2,699.50 

5. Pole Tops and Guy Stubs : 

2,540 Eye bolts, washers and fittings, various prices . . $ 303.44 

76 Eye bolts, various prices 7.59 

12,053 Iron and wood pins 373.64 

580 (3-pin) iron pole tops, at $3.65 2,117.00 

2,804 Wood pole tops, at 50 cts 1,402.00 

68 Wood pole tops, with iron caps, at 75 cts 51.00 

II Wood pole tops, with iron caps, at 85 cts 9.35 

2,437 Wood pole tops, with 1.5-in. iron pins, at 90 cts. . 2,193.30 

224 Iron pole tops, at 90 cts 201.60 

12 Iron pole tops, at 50 cts 6.00 

878 Iron pole tops, at 95 cts 834.10 

15 Iron pole tops, at $1.10 16.50 

10 pole top extensions, at $2.80 28.00 

14 Special insulated lamp pole tops, at $1.50 21.00 

21 Cedar guy stubs, at $2.00 42.00 

15.605 lbs. iron cut stubs, at $2.75 429.14 

1,102 Locust pins, at 2 cts 22.04 

75 Maple pins, at 3 cts 2.25 

80 Iron pins, at 17 cts 13.60 

Total pole tops and stubs $8,073.55 

6. Iron Pole Strap Bands : 

Various sizes and values $6,067.77 

7. Iron Crossarms : 

342 No. 10 iron crossarms, at $3.50 $1,197.00 

234 No. 20 iron crossarms, at $2.75 643.50 

549 No. 20 iron crossarms, at $2.75 1,509.75 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1565 

119 Ft. Wayne iron crossarms, at $2.20 $ 261.80 

Labor erecting 1,244 iron crossarms, at $1.00 1,244.00 

Total, iron crossarms $4,856.05 

8. Wood Crossarms : 

378 2-pin maple crossarms, at 30 cts $ 113.40 

1,806 4-pin maple crossarms, at 35 cts 632.10 

28 6-pin maple crossarms, at 60 cts 16.80 

Labor erecting 2,212 wood crossarms, at 50 cts 1,106.00 

Total, wood crossarms $1,868.30 

9. Insulators : 

2,387 (500,000 cir. mils) shell top feeder insulators, at 

70 cts $1,670.90 

1.825 (1,000,000) shell top feeder insulators, at 50 cts. . 1,460.00 

474 (500,000) shell top corner insulators, at 90 cts. .. 426.60 

210 (1,000,000) shell top corner insulators, at $1.00 .. 210.00 

1,932 Ohio brass clinch corner insulators, at 40 cts 772.80 

5,177 Feeder glass insulators, at 66 cts 341.68 

3,734 Wood strain insulators, at 20 cts 746.80 

875 Small Brooklyn strain insulators, at 60 cts 525.00 

5 Small double Brooklyn strain insulators, at 60 cts. 3.00 

507 Large Brooklyn strain insulators, at 90 cts 456.30 

10 Large double Brooklyn strain insulators, at $2.00 20.00 

214 (2/0) sectional insulators, at $3.75 802.50 

97 Clinch top insulator.s, at 40 cts 38.80 

190 Ohio brass clinch top insulators, at 40 cts 76.00 

242 Top groove glass insulators, at 66 cts 15.97 

9 Mica Medbury insulators, at 50 cts 4.50 

802 No. 1 Giant strain insulators, at 35 cts 280.70 

6,972 No. 2 Giant strain insulators, at 25 cts 1,743.00 

2,470 Medbury spool insulators, at 20 cts 494.00 

676 Medbury feeder insulators, at 63 cts 425.88 

20 Special tower clamp insulators, at $2.20 44.00 

Total, insulators $9,758.43 

10. Ears: 

155 Double ears, 2/0, at 60 cts $ 93.00 

4 Feed-in ears, at 60 cts 2.40 

297 Strain ears, at 61 cts 181.17 

Total, ears $ 276.57 

11. Anchor Rods, Turnbuckles : 

253 Turnbuckles and rods, various sizes and prices $ 154.90 

167 Anchor rods, various sizes and prices 53.70 

Total, anchor rods, etc $ 208.60 

12. Arresters: 

357 Lightning arresters, various prices $2,295.51 

48 Lightning arresters, various prices 208.15 

Labor ... 680.40 

Total, arresters $3,184.06 

13. Circuit Breakers: 

lO* (450-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit break- ,' „ ^^ 

ers. 600-volt, slate base, special box, at $40 .... $ 400.00 

1 (800-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit or aa 

breaker, 600-volt, slate ba.se, special boxes 85.00 

1 (1,200-ampere) hard automatic oil circuit "breaker, -^^aa 

600-volt, special box, lamps, etc 115.00 



1566 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



1 (450-ampere) Westinghouse automatic circuit 

breaker, slate base, special boxes $ 40.00 

Labor on circuit breakers 115.50 

Total, circuit breakers $ 755.50 

14. Bolts, Screws, Washers, Chairs: 

26,196 Machine bolts, various sizes and prices $ 261.96 

2,503 Carriage bolts, various sizes and prices 21.28 

6,9 75 Lag screws, various sizes and prices 121.37 

166 Pounds of washers, various sizes and prices .... 10.00 

1,358 Chairs, various sizes and prices 1,874.30 

Total, bolts, etc $2,288.91 

15. Switches: 

14 (400-ampere) 600-volt, G. B. switches, slate base, 

at $4 $ 56.00 

2 (400-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., S. P. D. T., 

at $10 20.00 

7 (1,200-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., S. P. D. T., 

at $16.88 118.16 

11 (1,200-ampere) 600-volt switches, Anderson, at $16 176.00 

21 (600-ampere) 600-volt switches, G. E., at $10 210.00 

22 (600-ampere) 600-volt switches, Anderson, at $9.50 . 209.00 
1 (600-ampere) 600-volt switch, G. E., S. P. D. T., 

at $14 14.00 

1 Perkins 600-volt switch .90 

2 Westinghouse cut-out switches, at $7.50 15.00 

16 No. 2 steel motor cut-out switches, at $6.25 100.00 

21 cut-out switches, at $7.50 157.50 

1 (600-ampere) G. E. switch, at $10.00 10.00 

Labor 623.56 

Total, switches $1,710.12 

16. Switch Boxes and Puses: 

14 Pine record boxes, at $1.85 $ 25.90 

2 Feeder dividing blocks, at 50 cts 1.00 

2 (30-ampere) 600-volt fuse boxes, leather cover, at 

$2.25 4.50 

20 Switch boxes, average $5.50 110.00 

16 15-ampere Noark fuses, at 57 cts 9.12 

15 Switch boxes, 6 by 6 by 18-ins., at $4.25 63.75 

3 Switch boxes, 6 by 6 by 18-ins., at $3.50 10.50 

1 Switch box, 8 by 12 by 30-ins 6.65 

49 Switch boxes, 9 by 10 by 30-ins., at $5.50 269.50 

2 Switch boxes, 40 by 24 by 10-ins., at $5.50 11.00 

1 Brass switch lock, at 75 cts .75 

Labor 22.10 

Total, switch boxes $ 534.77 

17. Miscellaneous Iron Fittings: 

40 0.5-in. by 7-ft. lightning arrester rods $ 26.00 

25 Trolley rods. 0.625-in. by 9-ft. 9 ins 25.00 

1 Truss rod, 0.75-in. by 24 ft 6.00 

2 Truss rods, 0.5-in. by 1-ft 1.00 

188 ft. iron truss rods, 0.75-in 5.65 

26 ft. iron truss rods, 0.5-in .35 

1 0.5-in. by 5-ft. iron rod 1.07 

iS Iron rods and braces, various sizes 13.45 

1 0.75-in. by 10-ft. special truss rod 1-80 

3 Trolley sign rods, 0.625-in. by 9.75-ins 3.00 

Miscellaneous labor /.a"?o 

1,002 Crossarm braces ?o H 

805 1.25-in. by 24-in. galvanized crossarm braces .... 48.30 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1567 

78 Corner iron " U " clamps $ 113.10 

6 0.5 by 3 by 8-in. claiaps 6. GO 

6 0.5 by 3 by 6-in. clamps li.OO 

162 0.5 by 4 by 5-in. '• U " bands 81. lu 

52 ft. 0.375 by S-in. band iron 10.61 

4 8 by 30-in. " U " bands 14.00 

6 0.5 by 3 by S-in. double bands 4.50 

6 0.5 by 3 by 6-in. double bands 3.90 

45 5-in. iron pole bands 42.75 

4 0.375 by 1.75-in. by 3 ft. strap bands 6.00 

2 0.5 by 8-in. by 3-ft. strap bands 3.50 

2 0.5 by 3 by 24-in. iron plates 4.80 

22 0.5 by 4 by 4-in. iron plates 4.40 

52 0.375 by 8 by 10-in. iron plates 18.20 

214 5625 by f^-in. iron pole steps 6.42 

5 0.25 by 4-in. by 3-ft. y-in. iron straps 3.75 

2 Wrought iron straps, 0.5 by 0.5-in.s., 15 ins. square 2.50 

Total, miscellaneous fittings % 527.87 

18. Wood Braces : 

154 Pieces wood brace.s, various sizes and prices $ 219 20 

101 ft. b. ra. Norway pine, various sizes, at $36 per M. 3 64 

Total, wood braces $ 222.84 

19. Trolley Signs: 

138 Trolley signs. 9 by ]8-in. sheet iron $ 138.00 

16 •' F " signs, 0.625 by 8-in. sheet iron 8.00 

1 lUuminatmg sign 26.00 

Labor 234.05 

Total, trolley signs $ 406.05 

20. Trolley Brackets : 

34 Flexible pole trolley brackets $ 66.30 

195 Straight line trolley brackets 487.50 

7 Single pin side brackets 1.05 

Total, trolley brackets % 554.85 

21. Brackets : 

7 Single arm trolley brackets I 13.65 

5 Tower feeder brackets 25.00 

13 Special iron exti'a feeder brackets 45.50 

96 Single pin side brackets, at 15 cts 14.40 

26 Double pin side brackets, at 75 cts.. 19.50 

72 Wooden side brackets 101 

449 Lag brackets, at 21 cts 94.29 

Total, brackets $ 213.35 

22. Hangers : 

6,720 Straight line hangers, at 45 cts $3,024.00 

1,105 Feed in hangers, at 67 cts l\^.ib 

Total, hangers $3,764.35 

23. Wooden Trolley Troughs: 

Materials I "^^11^ 

Labor 1.486.75 

Total, wooden trolley troughs $2,240.10 

24. Special Feeder and Trestle Constr. : 

Total at 35 places $6,012.00 



Miles 


Pounds 


50.42 


978,164 


6.09 


96,163 


10.47 


156,000 


2.95 


34,766 


88.35 


883,549 


7.60 


62,342 


1.34 


9,496 


42.98 


266,441 


0.11 


303 


3.24 


16,875 


44.16 


178,839 


1.68 


5.679 


4.30 


14,292 


.99 


2,617 


1.61 


3,427 


0.70 


1,506 



15G8 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

25. Overhead Positive Feeder System: 
T. B. Cable 
1,000,000 

800.000 .• 

750,000 

600,000 

500,000 88.35 

400.000 

350,000 

300.000 

300,000 — Aluminum 

250,000 

4/0 T. B. cable 

4/0 Bare cable 

3/0 T. B. cable 

2/0 T, B. cable 

2/0 Bare cable 

1/0 T. B. cable 

Total 266.99 ■ 2,710,459 

2,710,459 lbs. copper $486,313.62 

26. Miscellaneous Articles: 

1,101 hexagon head cup screws at $0.51 $ 56.15 

5 wood rollers at $0.75 3.75 

42 pounds lock washers 5.51 

20 span wire take-ups at $0.25 7.50 

4 3-in. porcelain knobs at $0.02 .08 

136 No. 4 porcelain knobs at $0.01 1.36 

154 No. 1 porcelain knobs at $0.015 2.31 

15 ft. 1 in. gas pipe at $0.05 .75 

30 feet 0.5-in. circular loom at $0.05 1.50 

1 16-in. b.v 3-in. C. I. pole guard 7.00 

1 25-in. by 2-in. by 3 ft. angle iron, per lb., $0,035 .25 

12 Pieces 0. 25-in. by 1.125-in. by 7-in. copper, per lb., 

$0.35 4.20 

27 Pieces C. I. lining blocks, per lb., $0.04 50.63 

2,690 ft. 4-ply 10-in. rubber belting at $0.48 1,291.20 

154 1-in. by 18-in. wood screws, per gr., $0.31 .33 

2 0.5-in. by 6-in. iron devices, at $0.45 .90 

109 wooden feed rollers at $0.75 81.75 

1 0.5-in. by 4-ft. eye bolt, per C. $9.80 .10 

115 assorted eye bolts, 12-ins. to 16-ins. long, per 100 

lbs., at $4.41 5.07 

1 14-in. insulated eye bolt .37 

13 14-in. insulated eye bolts at $0.37 4.81 

1,201 assorted eye bolts, 0.625-in. by 16-in., per 100 lbs., 

at $6.45 79.15 

1 special made wall plate, 0.5-in. by 4-in. by 30-in. . 3.50 

1 special made wall plate, 1-in. by 6-in. by 36-in. . , . 4.25 

63 ft. 4-ply 10-in. rubber belting at $0.59 37.17 






Total, miscellaneous $1,649.59 

27 Span Wire : 
290 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0. 25-in.. at $0.75 

per 100 ft % 2.18 

240,530 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.3125-in., at 

$1.00 per 100 ft. . 2,405.30 

915 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.375-in., at 

$1.20 per lOO ft 10.98 

300 ft. double galvanized span wire, 0.5-in., at $1.80 

per 100 ft 5.40 

37,287 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0. 25-in., at $0.75 

per 100 ft 279.65 

70,790 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.3125-in., at 

$1.00 per 100 ft 707.90 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1569 

50,172 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.375-in. at $1 20 

per 100 ft I 602 06 

34,627 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.5-in., at $1.80 

per 100 ft 623 29 

92 ft. double galvanized guy wire, 0.75-in., at $5.66 

per 100 ft 4 60 

267 ft. wire cable, 1-in., at $0.19 per ft 50'73 

625 ft. iron wire. No. 6, at $0.04 per lb 2 39 

75 ft. iron wire. No. 10, at $0.04 per lb [' 13 

5,068 ft. barbed wire, per roll of 80 rods, at $1.25 . . ' 4*89 

Labor erecting 9,010 spans at $1.00 each 9,01 o!oo 

Total, Span Wire $13,709.41 

28. Miscellaneous Copper : 

63,620 lbs. (about), at 17 cts. per lb $10,815.40 

29. Track and Pipe Negatives : 

78,050 lbs. (about) copper for track, at 17 cts $13,266.68 

l^abor on same 769.40 

66,800 lbs. (about) copper for pipe neg., at 17 cts 11,353.91 

Labor on same 823.63 

Total, Track and Pipe Negatives $26,173.62 

30. Overhead Special Work : 

88,990 lin. ft. 0.25-in. galvanized iron span wire at $0.75 

per 100 ft - $ 667.43 

69,400 lin. ft. 0.3125-in galvanized iron span wire at 

$1.00 per 100 ft 694.00 

1,695 lin. ft. 0.375-in. galvanized iron span wire at $1.20 

per 100 ft 20.34 

4,151 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 1,673 lbs., at $0.18 per lb. 301.14 

467 overhead trolley switches, at $7.50 3,502.50 

37 inisulated overhead trolley cross-overs, at $4.38.. 162.06 

222 metallic overhead trolley cross-overs, at $4.00 . . . 888.00 

1.851 single wire pull-overs, at $0.40 740.40 

9 4 single, double wire pull-overs, at $0.58 54.52 

1.493 double, .single wire pull-overs, at $0.60 895.80 

66 double, double wire pull-overs, at $0.93 61.38 

377 hangers at $0.45 169.65 

114 No. 1 strain insulators at $0.35 39.90 

1,894 No. 2 strain in.'^ulators at $0.25 473.50 

34 large Brooklyn strain insulators at $0.90 30.60 

317 small Brooklyn strain in.sulators at $0.60 190.20 

107 strain ears at $0.61 65.27 

697 wood breaks at $0.20 139.40 

480 collars at $0.15 72.00 

104 Meadbury composition at $0.20 20.80 

158 eye bolts at $0.08 12.64 

117 iron rings at $0,025 2.92 

31 turnbuckles at $0.50 15.50 

120 " V " guards at $0.50 60.00 

2 double and single trolley metallic crossings at 

$5.50 ll'^^J 

9 double and single trolley in.sulator crossings at 

$7.27 65.43 

Labor erecting 293 layouts 22,277.09 

Total, Overhead Special Work $31,633.47 

31. Underground Return System: 

Various negative connections $47,009.11 

Positive feeder lines 6,388.30 

Total, Underground System $53,397.41 



1570 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

32. Underground Pipe Connections: 

85 connections $ 7,122.86 

33. Trolley Wire (2/0) : 

201.91 miles plus 1% for sag- := 1,075,640 lin. ft, at 0.403 

lbs. = 433,481 lbs. copper $78,026.58 

Labor 7,023.42 



Total, Trolley Wire $85,050.00 

34. Overhead Line Material in Car Stations, Shops 

and Yards : 

Material $ 6,826.78 

Labor . . 9,948.00 

Total $16,776.78 

35. Telephone System : 

Materials, No. 10 iron wire, 546,023 ft $ 4,231.85 

Labor, 51.706 miles circuit (or 103.412 miles single 

wire) at $15 775.59 

Total, Telephone System $ 5,007.44 

36. Potential Lines: 

Potential wires and material from power station " A " 
to Adams avenue. 

Total for material and labor . $ 110.06 

Total for material and labor from battery 270.48 

Total, Potential Lines $ 380.54 

37. Cross Bonding-: 

347 Sing-le track cross bonds at $4.19 $ 1,453.93 

343 Double track cross bonds at $9.06 3,107.58 

Total, Cross Bonding $ 4,561.51 

38. Straight Track Bonding: 

490 lin. ft. 500,000 c. m. T. B. W. P. copper cable ... $ 157.76 

31,520 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 12,932 lbs 2,286.15 

27,098 42-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 21,678.40 

1,995 36-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 1,396.50 

2,136 31-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds 1,324.32 

27,035 10-in. form 8 flexible copper bonds 20,276.25 

10,769 " U " copper bonds 7,538.30 

110 21-in. 4/0 copper stubs 55.00 

75 lbs. No. 14 copper wrapping wire 18.75 

62 lbs. solder 11.47 

4,302 4/0 solid copper bonds 3,441.60 

40 36-in. 4/0 solid copper bonds 28.00 

80 36-in. riveted copper bonds 37.60 

5,256 42-in. riveted copper bonds 2,890.80 

1,028 36-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds 246.72 

170 miles track, 352 joints per mile (2 rails), 59,840 

rail joints 22,405.78 

Total, Straight Track Bonding $83,793.40 

39. Special Work Bonding: 

166,052 lin. ft. 2/0 copper wire, 68,321.4 lbs., at $0.18 . . $12,043.75 

13,472 42-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.80 10,777.60 

3,840 36-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.70 2,688.00 

347 32-in. 4/0 flexible copper bonds at $0 62 215.14 

352 36-in. 3/0 flexible copper bonds at $0.65 228.80 

554 10-in. 4/0 flq-ure " S " copper bonds at $0.37 205.08 

3,327 21-in. 4/0 cooper stubs at $0.50 1,663.50 

1,047 18-in. 4/0 copper stubs at $0.45 471.15 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1571 

70 16-in. 4/0 flexible copper .stubs at $0.40 $ 28.00 

1,807 lin. ft. No, 14 copper wrapping- wire, 22.5 lbs., 

at $0.25 5.63 

2,434 lbs. .solder at $0,185 450 29 

105 42-in. 4/0 solid copper bonds at $0.80 84.00 

220 4 2-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 

at $0.87 , 191.40 

761 36-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 

at $078 , 593.58 

89 30-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 

at $0.67 59.63 

55 24-in. 2/0 channel pin copper bonds with 2 pins 

at $0 61 , 33.55 

63 2/0 channel pin copper plug-.s at $0.10 6.30 

58 2/0 copper " U " bonds at $0.70 40.60 

30 4/0 flexible copper soldered bonds at $0.52 15.60 

258 lin. ft. 1,000,000 c. m. T. B. W. P. copper cable, 

948 lbs., at $0.17 161.16 

158 lin. ft. 4/0 insulated cable, 126.4 lbs, at $0 17 . . 21.49 

Total, special Bonding $29,984.25 

40. l<]qua]iz!ng Stations: 

11 .stations $ 21,737.0^ 

Total of Items 1 to 40 $1,154,187.43 

41. Contingencies 57,709.37 

Grand total '. $1,211,896.80 

Dividing each of the above 41 items by 183.34, we have the fol- 
lowing costs per mile of all track. 

Per mile 
of track 

1. Tron poles (40 9 poles) $1,059.30 

2. Cedar poles (13.1 poles) 127.00 

3. Idaho poles (0.6 poles) 12.80 

4. Northern jjine poles ( 12 poles) 14,50 

5. Pole tops and guy stubs 44.00 

6. Tron pole strap bands 33.10 

7. Iron cross arms 26.50 

8. Wood cross arms 10.20 

9. In.sulators 53.20 

10. Ears 1.50 

11. Anchor rods, turnbuckles 1.10 

12. Lightning arresters 17.40 

13. Circuit breakers 4.10 

14. Bolts, screw.s, washers, chairs 12.50 

15. Switches 9-30 

16. Switch boxes and fuses 2.90 

17. Miscellaneous iron fittings 2.90 

18. Wood braces 1-20 

19. Trolley .signs 2.20 

20. Trolley brackets f 00 

21. Brackets , „l-20 

22. Hangers , . . • 20.50 

23. Wooden trolley troughs , ,oa 

24. Special feeder and trestle construction cronn 

25. Overhead ixjsitive feeder system . . , , ' a nn 

26. Mi.scellaneous n/n^ 

27. Span wire • 74.70 

28. Miscellaneous copper Tonn 

29. Negative tracks and pipe feeders ivocA 

30. Overhead si)ecial work oQi'on 

31. Underground return system oosn 

32. Underground pipe connections .18. »u 



1572 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

33. Trolley wire $463.80 

34. Overhead material in car station.s, etc. 91.50 

35. Telephone lines 27.30 

36. Potential lines 2.10 

37. Cross bondings 24.90 

38. Straight track bonding 457.00 

39. Special work bonding 163.50 

40. Equalizing stations 118.60 

Total $6,295.00 

41. Contingencies 314.70 

Grand total $6,609.70 

The depreciated or present value of the power distribution sys- 
tem is as follows : 

1. Iron poles $ 174,797.06 

2. Cedar poles 11,643.50 

3. Idaho poles 1,175.78 

4. Northern pine poles . 674.88 

5. Pole tops and guy stubs 7,260.96 

6. Iron pole strap bands 5,764.32 

7. Iron cross arms 4,370.45 

8. Wood cross arms 1,494.64 

9. In.sulators 8,309.01 

10. Ears 248.91 

11. Anchor rods, turnbuckles 198.17 

12. Lightning arresters 2,865.66 

13. Circuit breakers 679.95 

14. Bolt.s, screws, washers, chairs 2,174.47 

15. Switches 1.539.11 

16. Switch boxes and fuses . 481.29 

17. Miscellaneous iron fittings 482.20 

18. Wood braces 189.44 

19. Trolley signs 365.45 

20. Trolley brackets 499.36 

21. Brackets 192.02 

22. Hangers 3,387.92 

23. Wooden trolley troughs 1,904.08 

24. Special feeder and trestle construction 6,012.00 

25. Overhead positive feeder system 461,997.93 

26. Miscellaneous articles . 1,495.31 

27. Span wire 10,973.34 

28. Miscellaneous copper 10,274.63 

29. Negative tracks and pipe feeders 24,864.94 

30. Overhead .special work 26,989.23 

31. Underground return .system 53,397.41 

32. Underground pipe connections 6,410.57 

33. Overhead line material, 2/0 trolley wire 68,040.00 

34. Overhead line material in car-.stations, etc 14,260.24 

35. Private telephone lines 4.256.32 

36. Potential lines 323.46 

37. Cross bondings 3,877.28 

38. Straight track bonding 71,224.39 

39. Special work bonding 25,486,61 

40. Equalizing stations 16,696.42 

Total of items $1,037,278.71 

41. Contingencies . , 50,784.25 

Total $1,088,062.96 

This is 89.7% of the cost of reproduction new. 

In determining the depreciation, from 10 to 15 poles per mile were 
uncovered at the ground line. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1573 

Calibrations (horizontal and vertical) were made of the trolley 
wire, and the feed wire was inspected in different locations. 
The trolley wire system is as follows : 

Miles 

Single trolley span wire constr., double track 117.28 

Single trolley span wire constr., single track 43.22 

Double trolley span wire constr 26.21 

Single trolley span wire constr., three tracks 0.41 

Smgle trolley center pole bracket constr., double track 1.29 

Single trolley span wire constr. in car yards 13.54 



Total 201.95 

6. Track. — There are 21 different types of rail and 95 different 
forms of track construction. The following is a summary of the 
21 types of rail used, not including special track work : 

Miles 

278 ins. 25 -lb., T ^-^l^A 

4i2ins. 56 -lb.,T 13986 

iVi ins. 60 -lb., T 1-5320 

41/2 ins. 66i/i,-lb., TG 3831 

41/2 ins. 67 -lb., T 0.0437 

4% ins. 70 -lb., T 1-36 

6 ins. 72 -lb, T ^ ^A^.ll 

6 ins. 77 -lb., GG ^i'^AV 

6 ins. 78 -lb., TG 0.446 

6 ins. 82 -lb.,TG 032 

7 ins. 70 -lb.,T 2.893 

7 ins. 72 -lb..GG 967 

7 ins. 85 -lb., GG V^\^'>K 

7 ins. 86 -lb, GG H'll^ 

7 ins, 91 -lb.,T 8.63 

7 ins. 91 -lb,GG 4.554 

7 ins. 95 -lb., GG 1-J,f22 

8 ins. 95 -lb., GG 3.048 

9 ins. 90 -lb., GG 4.^74 

9 ins. 94 -lb.. GG ^^Al^ 



ins. 98 -lb., GG 



58.49 



Total 160.8814 

T = " T " rail. 

TG = Tram girder rail. 

GG - Girder grooved rail. 

The total mileage of single track is as follows : 

Miles 

Single track • • • '^^lill 

Special Y's, turnouts, etc ^■^■'- 

Total trackway ■^?S Un 

Car stations, yards, etc i^.y^y} 

Total track 183.341 

Most of the rails were laid in 1895-1896. 

Including the dilTerences in paving, there are 204 different types 
of track construction. A detailed estimate was made for each 
type, based on the following unit prices : 



1574 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Excavation : p^j, ^.^ y^j 

Earth and sand trench work $0.50 

Earth and sand 0.35 

Drain tile 0.35 

Haul : 

Earth and sand , $0.80 

Grading : 

Earth and sand on street $0 25 

Track Foundation : 

Earth filling $0.22 

Gravel 1.80 

Crushed stone 1.95 

Concrete 4 50 

Cushion : 

Sand $1.50 

Ties : Each 

White oak 6 ins. by 7 ft $0.75 

White oak 5 ins. by 11 ins. by 9 ft. 10 ins 1.44 

White oak 6 ins. by 10 ins. by 6 ft. 8 ins 1.18 

Cedar and pine 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ft. ins 0.65 

Cedar and pine 6 ins. by 8 ins. by 6 ft. 10 ins 0.60 

Angle iron %-ins. by 'IV2 ins. by 6 ft. ins 1.09 

Channel iron 7 ins. by 7 ft. ins , 2.52 

Bar iron Y2 in, by W2 in. by 6 ft. in 0.42 

Tie clips . 0.22 

Drain : Per lin. ft. 

Soft tile •. . $0.04y2 

Rail : Per ton 

"T" .. $31.75 

" T " 33.75 

Girder groove 40.00 

Plain girder . 40.00 

Tram 40.00 

Spikes : Per keg 

Standard spikes $4.00 

Bolts : Per keg 

Bolts and nuts $4.75 

Tie Rods : Each 

% in. by 5 ft. 2 ins. round $0.25 

% in. by 11/2 in. flat 67 

Joints : Per pair 

4 hole strap plates $0.07^/^ 

4 splice plates 20 ins IfiVz 

4 hole splice plates 20 ins. , 341,^ 

4 hole splice plates 20 ins, 57 

4 hole splice plates 20 ins 22% 

4 hole splice plates 24 ins .551/^ 

4 hole splice plates 27 ins. 68% 

4 hole splice plates 44 ins. 1.34 

6 hole splice plates 28 ins ■ 1. 07 

6 hole splice plates 26 ins 65 

10 hole splice plates 36 ins 94 

10 hole splice T)lates 86 ins. , ' 907 

6 hole .splice plates 36 ins 835 

12 hole splice plates 32 ins 1.31 

4 hole continuous plates 1-6214 

4 hole continuous plates = 1.36% 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1575 

4 hole continuous plates 24 ins. $1.71%o 

4 hole continuous plates 20 ins 1.42 1/^ 

4 hole continuous plates 20 ins, 1.38 

4 hole continuous plates 20 ins 1.54 Va 

4 hole continuous plates 26 ins 2.53% 

6 hole continuous plates 26 ins 2.53% 

8 hole continuous plates 30 ins 4.65 

8 hole continuous plates 22 ins 4.08 

American rail joint 2.50 

Cast weld joint, each 3.00 

Rail straps 0.51 % 

Retaining wall : Per cu. yd. 

Concrete $6.50 

The unit prices used for the special track work are as follows : 
Nine-inch : Cost in place 

Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $390.90 

Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) 467.70 

Hard center diamond switch ends 807.05 

Plain street crossing 243.70 

Hard center street crossing 333.30 

Plain frog 96.25 

Hard center frog 126.33 

2-point hard center frog 246.06 

3-point hard center frog 307.70 

Hard center mate 166.65 

Plain tongue switch 160 50 

Hard center tongue switch 185.85 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 2.18 

Switch lock boxes 32.00 

Switch spring boxes 8.96 

Seven-inch : 

Plain layout (switch, mate anod frog) $358.90 

Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) 435.70 

Plain diamond switch ends 410.25 

Hard center diamond switch ends 551.05 

Plain street crossings 224.50 

Hard center street crossings 314.10 

Plain frog 86.01 

Hard center frog 11.55 

2-point hard center frog 224.30 

3-point hard center frog 281.90 

Plam mate 130.81 

Hard center mate 156.41 

Plain tongue switch 147.45 

Hard center tongue switch 173.05 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 2.02 

Six-inch : 

Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $320 50 

Hard center layout (switch, mate and frog) ■^n^-^J! 

Hard center street crossing ^ lie 

Plain frog 77.05 

Hard center frogs • • • |^f ^| 

2-point plain frog . . . oco 7^ 

3-point hard center frog one in 

2-point hard center frog ^ Vr le 

Plain mate WlW 

Hard center mate i oook 

Plain tongue switch Ha or 

Hard curved switch ^^o\ 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) ^-^^ 

100-lb. "T" Rail: 

Combined steam and electric railway crossing $499.00 



1576 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

80-lb. "T" Rail: 

Combined steam and electric railway crossing 

straight $410.60 

Combined steam and electric railway crossing 

curved 442.60 

70-lb. "T" Rail: 

Plain frog $ 57.85 

Plain split switch 61.69 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.61 

60-lb. " T " Rail : 

Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $237.30 

Plain street crossing 173.30 

Plain frog 46.33 

2-point frog 102.65 

Plain switch 47.61 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.45 

4% -in. 56-lb. "T" Rail: 

Combined steam and electric railway crossing, 

curved $278.50 

Plain frog 43.77 

Split switch '. 47.61 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.45 

4-in., 50-lb. " T " Rail : 

Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $182.26 

2-point plain frog 102.65 

Plain mate 64.25 

Plain switch 77.05 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.42 

3% -in., 45-lb. "T" Rail: 

Plain layout (switch, mate and frog) $182.26 

Curved or guard rail (per lin. ft.) 1.42 

The following are estimates of a few typical sections of track, 
per mile of single track : 
4 14 -in., 60-lb. "T" Rail on Cedar Ties, Dirt Construction: 

1.776 cu. yds. earth excavation $ 621.60 

822 cu. yds. earth spread over street 205.50 

954 cu. yds. earth replaced for track foundation and filling 

between ties 209.88 

729 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 7 ft.) white oak ties laid 15 to rail. . 546.75 

1,911 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 8 ins.) cedar ties, 15 to rail 1.242.15 

94,286 tons 414 ins. 60-lb. "T" rail in 30-ft. lengths 3,182.15 

31Vi kegs 9/16 ins. by 5l^ ins. standard railroad spikes. . . . 125.00 
255 pairs 20 ins. 4-hole spliced joint plates, 18 lbs. per pair 87.55 

97 pairs 20 ins. 4-hole continuous joint plates 138.23 

5% kegs % ins. by 3% ins. joint bolts with nuts 27.91 

1 mile track laying 1,375.00 

Total $7,761.72 

Contingencies 776.17 

Cost per mile $8,537.89 

6-in., 72-lb. plain girder rail on white oak ties, 6-in. Con- 
crete Constuction : 

977 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation , $ 341.95 

977 cu. yds. earth and sand removed from street 781.60 

818 cu. yds. broken concrete removed from street 818.08 

818 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 3,681.00 

38 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing 

ties 57.00 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1577 

2,640 (6 ins. by 8 ins, by 7 ins.) white oal< ties, 15 to rail.S 1,980 00 
113,143 tons 6 ins. 72-lb. " T " rails in 30-ft. lengtlis, joints 

laid even and suspended between ties 4 525 72 

ZlVi kegs 9/16 ins. by 5Vi ins. standard railroad spikes. . . '12500 
352 pairs 28 ins. 6-hoIe splice joint plates, 56 lbs, per 

pair 37g 54 

1114 kegs % ins. by 31^ ins. joint bolts with nuts 54 63 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $14,141.62 

Contingencies 1,414.16 

Cost per mile $15,555.78 

6-in., 77-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on White Oak Ties, 6-in. 
Concrete Construction : 

1.304 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 456.40 

1,304 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,043.20 

1,104 cu. yds. 6 ins. concrete for track foundation 4,968.00 

28 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing. 42.00 

528 (6 in. by 10 in. by 6 ft. 8 in.) white oak ties, 3 to rail 623.04 

1,408 (6 ins. by 8 ins. by 7 ft.) white oak ties, 8 to rail, . . . 1,056.00 
121 tons 6 ins. 77-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 

joints laid even and suspended between ties 4,840.00 

23 kegs 9/16 ins. by 514 ins. standard railroad spikes. . . . 92.00 
1,232 % ins. by 5 ft. 2 ins. round tie rods, 6 to rail, four 

% -in. nuts per rod 308.00 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

352 cast welded joints 1.056.00 

Total $15,884.64 

Contingencies 1.588.46 

Cost per mile $17,473.10 

7-in. 85-lb. Girder Grooved Rails on White Oak Ties, 6-in. 
Concrete Construction : 

1,200 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 427.70 

1,222 cu. yds. earth removed from street 977,60 

978 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 4,401.00 

41 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and sur- 
facing ties 61.50 

2,816 (6-in by 8-in. by 7-ft.) white oak ties, 16 to rail .... 2,112.00 
133,571 tons 7-in 85-lb. girder grooved rails in 30-ft. 

lengths, joints laid broken and supported on ties . . . 5,342.84 

ZZVz kegs 0.5625-in by 5.5-in. .standard railroad spikes .... 133.33 

352 cast welded joints 1,056.00 

704 0.75-in. by 5-ft 2-in. tie rods, four 0.75-in nuts per rod 176.00 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $16,087.97 

Contingencies 1,608. 79 

Cost per mile $17,696.76 

7-in.. 85-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on White Oak and Cedar 
Ties, 6-in. Crushed Stone Construction : 

1,338 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 468.30 

1,338 cu. yds. earth removed frpm street 1,070.40 

1,070 cu. yd.s. 6-in. cru.shed stone for track foundation. ., . 2,086.50 

880 ( 6-in. by 8-in. by 8-ft) cedar ties laid 5 to rail 572.00 

880 (6-in. by 8-in. by 7-ft.) white oak ties, 5 to rail 660.00 

133,571 tons 7-in. 85-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. 
lengths, joints laid broken and suspended between 

ties 5,342.84 

20.875 kegs ().'5625-in.' by 5.'5-"in.' standard railroad spikes , . 83.50 



1578 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

352 pairs 36-in 10-hole splice joint plates 54.5 lbs. per pair $ 330.88 

25.125 kegs 1-in by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 118.75 

1 mile of track laying 1.400.00 

Total $12,133,17 

Contingencies 1,213.31 

Cost per mile , $13,346.48 

7-ln. 85-lb. girder grooved rail on angle. 

Iron Ties, 6-in. Concrete Construction : 

318 cu, yd.s. earth and sand excavation $ 111.30 

318 cu. yds. earth removed from street 254.40 

212 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 954.00 

1.232 (0.375-in. by 2.5-in. by 6-in.) angle iron ties, 7 to rail 1,349.04 
133,571 tons 7-in. 85-lb. girder grooved" rail in 30-ft. 

length.s, joints laid broken and suspended between 

ties 5,342.84 

2,464 pairs cast iron tile clips, 2 pair per tie with two 

0.75-in. by 2.25-in. bolts, per pair 550.09 

352 pairs 36-in 10-hole .splice joint plates, 54 5 lbs. per pair 330.88 

25 125 kegs 1-in. by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 129.34 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $10,164.35 

Contingencies 1,01 6.44 

Cost per mile $11,180.79 

8-in. 95-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Pressed Steel Channel 

Ties, Concrete Construction : 

301 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 105.35 

301 cu. yds. earth removed from street 240.80 

160 cu. yds, 6-in. concrete for track foundation 720.00 

1,232 (7-in. by 7-in.) pressed steel channel ties, bracket 

fastening, 7 to rail 3,113.88 

149,286 tons 8-in. 95-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. 

lengths, joints laid even and suspended between ties 5,971.44 

352 pairs 22-in. 8-hole continuous plates 971.52 

23 kegs 1-in. by 4%-in. joint bolts with nuts 109.25 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $12 632.24 

Contingencies 1,263.22 

Cost per mile $13,895.46 

9-in., 98-lb Girder Grooved Rail on Oak Ties, 8-in. Crushed 

Stone Construction : 

1,761 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 616.35 

82 cu. yds. earth excavation for 4-in. drain tile 28.70 

1,8 43 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,474.40 

5.280 lin. ft. 4-in. drain tile 237.60 

68 cu. yds. crushed stone for covering 4-in. tile 132.60 

1,092 cu. yds. 8-in. crushed stone for track foundation ... 2,129.40 

301 cu. yds. concrete for track foundation 1,354.50 

1,760 fO-in. by 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in.) white oak ties, 20 to 

rail 2,076.80 

154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 60-ft. lengths, 

joints laid broken and suspended between ties 6,160.00 

20.875 kegs 5625-in. by 5.5-in. standard railroad spikes . . 83.50 
352 0.75-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. tie rods, 4 to rail, four 0.75-in. 

nuts per rod 88.00 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

176 cast welded joints 528.00 

Total $16,309.85 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1579 

Contingencies $ 1,630.98 

Cost per mile $17,940.83 

9-in., 98-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Pressed Steel Channel 

Ties, Concrete Construction : 

345 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation % 120.75 

345 cu. yds. earth removed from street 276.00 

223 cu. yds. concrete for track foundation 1,003.50 

1,232 (7-in. by 7-ft.) pressed steel channel ties. 7 to rail . . 3,113.88 
154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 

joints laid even and suspended between ties 6,160.00 

352 pairs 32-in. 12-hole splice joint plates, 68.5 lbs. per pair 461.12 

30.25 kegs 1-in by 3.5-in. joint bolts with nuts 143.69 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $12,678 94 

Contingencies 1,267.89 

Cost per mile $13,946.83 

9-in., 98-lb. Girder Grooved Rail on Oak Ties, 6-in. Con- 
crete Construction : 

1,401 cu. yds. earth and sand excavation $ 490.35 

1,401 cu. yds. earth removed from street 1,120.80 

1,119 cu. yds. 6-in. concrete for track foundation 5,035.50 

30 cu. yds. sand cushion for tamping, lining and surfacing 

ties 45.00 

1,936 (6-in. by 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in.) white oak ties, 11 to 

rail 2,284.48 

154 tons 9-in. 98-lb. girder grooved rail in 30-ft. lengths, 

joints laid even and suspended between ties 6,160.00 

22.875 kegs 0.5625-in. by 5.5-in. standard railroad spikes . . 91.50 

352 pairs 22-in. 8-hole continuous joint plates 1,436.16 

23 kegs 1-in. by 4.375-in. joint bolts with nuts 109.25 

1,056 0.75-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. round tie rods, 6 to rail, four 

0.75-in. nuts per rod 264.00 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

Total $18,437.04 

Contingencies 1,843.70 

Cost per mile $20,280.74 

The following is a summary of reproduction new of the track : 

1. Straight track ( 156 72 miles) $2,534,505 

2. Track in car stations and yards (12.93 miles) 11G,68G 

3. Special and curved track (13.7 miles) "^8, 894 

Total track ^^'^fiMI^, 

4. Interlocking i}Aii 

5. Catc-hbasins (1,395) 22,725 

6. Manholes (568) ^^'Jnn 

7. Water hydrants (8) -.on Pec 

8. Machinery, tools, track, stock, etc oo occ 

9. Division foremen's outfit 6j,6hXi 

Total track, etc $3,601,336 

Item 3 includes curved track and guard rails (for which there 
were 9 4,000 lin. ft. or 17.8 miles of rail), frogs, switches, crossings, 
and the necessary excavation, concrete and broken stone founda- 
tion.s. The unit prices used for curved track (previously given) ap- 
pear to cover the cost of ties, track fastenings, etc. While, as pre- 



1580 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

viously stated, the " Special Y's, turnouts, etc.," occupied 2.922 
miles of track, there is no definite statement as to the total mileage 
of curved and special track; but, if we subtract the 156.72 miles 
of straight track and the 12.93 miles of track in car stations and 
yards from the 183.34 miles of all track, we have 13.7 miles, which 
is probably the entire mileage of curved and special track. 

Dividing each of the above 9 items by 183.34, we have the follow- 
ing cost per mile of track: 

Per mile 

1. Straight track, 0.855 mile $13,823 

2. Track in car stations and yards, 0.070 mile 636 

3. Special and curved, 075 mile 3,866 

Total track $18,325 

4. Interlocking 171 

5. Catchbasins 124 

6. Manholes = 90 

7. Water hydrants 3 

8. Tools, stock, etc 712 

9. 'Division foremen's outfits 215 

Total $19,640 

It will be noticed that the straight track cost $16,170 per mile of 
straight track, and that the special track cost $51,750 per mile of 
special track. The amount of track stock, etc. (Item 8), is ob- 
viously more than normal. 

The present value of track, etc., is $2,599,222, or 72.2% of the cost 
of reproduction new $3,601,336). It is stated by Mr. Barcroft that 
no very accurate determination of the condition of the ties was pos- 
sible, and that no rail renewal records had been kept by the rail- 
way company. By consultation with the companies' trackmen an 
approximation to the condition of invisible parts of the track was 
arrived at. 

"The company requested that $12,000 be added for rail inspec- 
tion at the mills. No inspection of rails has ever been made, al- 
though contemplated in the future, and consequently the item has 
not been included." 

Most of the rails had been laid 14 years prior to the appraisal, 
" and are generally in a run down condition." 

7. Rolling Stock. There are 1,000 passenger cars, of which 250 
are open cars and the rest closed. The average cost of reproduction 
new is : 

Car body and truck $2,278 

Electrical equipment 1,187 

Total $3,465 

We shall give the cost of several typical cars in detail, which are 
based upon the following unit prices. Closed double end car bodies 
for single trucks : 

f.o.b. 
factory 

16 ft. length of body $1,100 

18 ft. length of body 1,200 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1581 

f.o.b. 

factory 

20 ft. length of body $1,300 

21 ft. length of body " ' 1*350 

22 ft. length of body ' ' i'400 

23 ft. length of body \ 1*450 

24 ft. length of body 1^500 

25 ft. length of body l|550 

To these prices of car bodies |30 to $32 is added for freight to 
Detroit. The above prices include the following and all other 
minor items installed : 

Monitor Roof Switch Iron 

Hood Curtains 

Platform Ceiling 

Steps Trimming 

Hangers Headlight 

Glass Hand Bells 

Gongs Finishing 

Bells Cords and hangers 

Straps Lighting equipment 

Sanders Register fixtures 

Signs 

Closed cars (body only) double truck — 

f.o.b. 
factory 

28 ft. closed single end $1,910 

29 ft. closed single end 2,085 

Open cars (body only) single truck, double end, reversible. 

f.o.b. 
factory 
10 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads $1,000 

9 bench, 2 stationary against bulkheads, all inside 1,000 

10 bench, 2 stationary against bulkheads, all inside 1,100 

11 bench, 3 stationary against bulkheads, 8 inside 1,150 

Open car (body only), double truck, single end. 

14 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads, 10 reversible, f.o.b. 

factory $1,450 

14 bench, 4 stationary against bulkheads, 10 reversible, f.o.b. 

Detroit 1,490 

The above prices include the following and all other minor items 
installed : 

Switch iron 

Bells 

Veneer ceiling 

Chipped glass, D. S. A. 

Push buttons 

Drop guard on grab handles each side 

Bulkhead with sashes at each end 

Folding running board on each side 

Incandescent headlights 

Open platforms with dashers 

Chain guard on each side 

Lighting equipment 

Printed duck curtains to floor 

Cherry and ash seats with slat or spindle backs 

Gongs 

Ash finish 

Bronze trimmings 

Vestibule signs 

Bulkhead seats 



1582 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Additional equipment — 

Stove $25.00 

Hot air heater 40.00 

Electric heater 30.00 

Truck, Brill IJl-E 275.00 

Truck, JDupont, 7,000 lbs 350.00 

Storage air brake trucks, complete $180 to 205.00 

Fenders, Detroit 30.00 

Fenders, Eclipse 25.00 

Track scrapers, per pair 15.00 

Platform gates $4 to 5.00 

Installation of electrical equipment 40.00 

Trolley retrievers 12.00 

Push buttons and bells 10.00 

Sterling registers, Nos. 1 and 15 23.50 

Sterling registers, No. 8 30.00 

Motors : 

Westinghouse 12-A $418 

Westinghouse 38 and 38-B . 562 

Westinghouse 49 444 

Westinghouse 68 and 68-C 483 

Westinghouse 56 710 

Westinghouse 93, 93-A and 93-A-2 735 

Steel D 485 

Steel type 29 485 

Steel type 34 637 

Controllers — 

Westinghouse K- 6 $155 

Westinghouse K-10 95 

Westinghouse K-11 . 105 

Westinghouse K-12 110 

Westinghouse K-14 120 

Westinghouse K-28 155 

Westinghouse. K-34-B 275 

Steel D to replace with K-12 drums 32 

Steel 34 to replace with K-12 drums 34 

Steel D and steel 34, in first-class condition without replacement 75 

Steel D and steel 34 replaced with K-12 drums 85 

Automotoneers : 

Style J and a $ 12 

Overhead Switches : 

Westinghouse $ 6.75 

Steel 6.75 

Circuit Breakers : 

Westinghouse 44,884-B, 44,885-B, 44,886-B and 44,887-B $ 25 

Westinghouse 11,303-B, 11,304-B 45 

General Electric form M. Q. with box 20 

Grid Resistances : 

Two grids, per set $21.00 

Three grids, per set 24.50 

Four grids, per set 32.50 

Five grids, per set 38.00 

Two grids, per set strap 21.25 

Car Fuses : 

D. U. R r $ 4.00 

D. U. R. group 14 4.50 

Lightning Arresters : 

Average .......$ 2.75 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1583 

Choke Coils : 

300 ampere , g qq 

Car Wiring : 
1 set cables — 

50 ft. No. 1 cable 
175 ft. No. 6 cable 
200 ft. No. 4 cable 
90 ft. of 2-in. cotton hose 
Total 5 81.00 

1 set cables — 

50 ft. No. 1 cable 
245 ft. No. 6 cable 
385 ft. No. 4 cable 
100 ft. of 2.5-in. cotton hose 

Total $ 94 00 

1 set cables — 

50 ft. No. 1 

300 ft. No. 6 

185 ft. No. 4 

100 ft. of 2-in. cotton hose 

Total $105.00 

1 set cables — 
50 ft. No. 1 
900 ft. No. 6 
120 ft. of 2.5-in. cotton hose 

Total $128.00 

1 set cables — 

50 ft. No. 2 

450 ft. No. 4 

325 ft. No. 6 

150 ft. of 3 -in. cotton hose 

Total $151.00 

Trolleys : 

Harp, wheel, stand and pole $22.50 

The following are costs of reproduction new of typical cars : 
Group A: Jones 16 ft. closed car body, 26 ft. over all (seating 

capacity 21), single truck, double end, single door, cherry finish, 

veneer ceiling, carpet seats, Dupont truck. 

Car body ($1,130 less $35 for carpet seats) $1,095 

Fittings and assembling: 

Double end storage air brake 205 

Drop fenders, 2 at $30 60 

Track scrapers, 2 at $15 30 

Fare registers 20 

Stove in box 25 

Signs, hangers, racks, etc 37 

Handling, assembling, installing, including electrical work ... 152 

Total car body $1,624 

Trucks, single, Dupont 350 

Total car body and truck $1,974 

Motors, 2 steel D at $485 970 

Controllers, 2 at $85 170 

Automotoneers, 2 at $12 24 

Overhead switches, 2 at $7 14 

Grid resistances, 2 ^1 

Car fuse, 1 • * 



1584 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Lightning- arrester, 1 $ 3 

Choke coil, 1 9 

Car wiring and hose 105 

Trolley 23 



Total $3,277 

Group B: Lewis & Fowler 21 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
25), 32 ft. over all, single truck, single end, single door, cherry 
finish, carpet seats. 

Car body $1,332 

Fittings and assembling 442 

Trucks, storage air brake 191 

Total body and trucks _. . $1,965 

Electrical equip, (as in Group 1, deducting 1 controller, 1 

auto and 1 overhead switch) 1,216 

Total $3,181 

Group C: Cincinnati 23 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
30), 34% ft. over all, single truck, single end, single door, oak finish, 
hot air heaters, veneer ceiling, one register rod, cross-seats with 
stationary backs and spring rattan cushions, side aisle, Dupont 
trucks. 

Car body $1,442 

Air heater 15 

Fittings and assembling 442 

Truck, single 350 

Total body and trucks $2,249 

Motors, two 93-A at $735 . 1,470 

Controller, 1 steel 85 

Auto, 1 12 

Westinghouse circuit breaker, 1 25 

Grid resistances, 3 25 

Car fuse. 1 4 

Lightning arrester, 1 3 

Choke coil, 1 9 

Wiring and hose 105 

Trolley 23 

Grand total $4,010 

Group D: Cincinnati 29 ft. closed car body (seating capacity 
40), 41 ft. over all, double truck, single end, double door, oak 
finish, veneer ceiling, spring rattan seats. 

Car body $2,125 

Fittings and assembling: 

Single end storage air brake 183 

Drop fender 30 

Hot air heater 40 

Signs 10 

Hangers, racks, etc 37 

Fare register 29 

Rear end snow scraper 18 

One track scraper 15 

Incandescent headlight 4 

Lamps, resistance, switch bars, crushing bars, trolley 

rope, folder boxes, coal box, etc "IS 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1685 

Handling, assembling, installing, incl. electrical work 

($40) and material % 173 

Total fittings and assembling $ 555 

Double trucks, standard 0-50 550 

Total body and trucks $3,230 

Electrical equipment: 

Motors, 2 Westinghouse (93-A-2), at $735 $1,470 

Controller, one K-12 110 

Auto, 1 12 

Circuit breaker, 1 Westinghouse 25 

Grids, 2 21 

Lightning arrester, 1 3 

Choke coil. 1 9 

Wiring and hose 94 

Trolley 23 

Total $4,997 

Group E: Stephenson 10 bench open car (seating capacity 50), 
25 ft. body, 32 1/^ ft. over all, single truck, single end, painted in- 
terior, painted slat seats with spindle backs, bronze trimmings, 
duck curtains, Dupont trucks. 

Car body $1,132 

Fittings and assembling: 

Fender 30 

Fare register backs , 7 

Signs, hanger and racks 5 

Handling, assembling, installing, incl. electrical work.... 109 

Total fittings and assembling $ 153 

Trucks 350 

Total body, fittings and truck $1,635 

Electric Equipment : 

Motors. 2 steel D at $485 970 

Controller, 1 steel 75 

Auto. 1 12 

Overhead switch, 1 . 7 

Resistances, 2 strap , 21 

Car fuse, 1 4 

Lightning arrester, 1 3 

Choke coil. 1 9 

Wiring and hose , 94 

Trolley 23 

Grand total $2,853 

Group F: Stephenson 14 bench open car (seating capacity 70), 
34 ft. body, 42 ft. over all, double truck, single end, St. Louis 
No. 47 and Brill 27-F truck, 4 Westinghouse 12-A motors. 

Car body '. $1,490 

Fittings and assembling 373 

Trucks 558 

Total body, fittings and trucks ^o'nc''^ 

Electrical equipment 2,052 

Grand total $4,473 



1586 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Summarizing the cost of reproduction new of the revenue cars, we 
have: 

Car bodies, fltting-s and trucks : 

518 closed single truck cars $1,095,603 

230 closed double truck cars 745,705 

230 open single truck cars 374,569 

20 open double truck cars 48,420 

3 miscel, revenue cars 14.046 



1,001 car bodies, etc $2,278,343 

Electrical equipment for same 1,186,427 

Grand total, 1,001 cars complete $3,464,770 

The average cost of reproductiong new of each car was: 

Car body, fittings and truck $2,278 

Electrical Equipment : 

Motors , 977 

Controllers 39 

Automatoneer 8 

Overhead switches 4 

Resistance grids 22 

Circuit breakers 11 

Car fuse boxes 3 

Lightning arrester 3 

Choke coil 9 

Car wiring 90 

Trolley stand 21 

Total electrical equipment $1,187 

Grand total . . $3,465 

The depreciated or present value of these revenue cars is : 

Car bodies, fittings and trucks : 

518 closed single truck cars $ 765,768 

230 closed double truck cars 662,071 

230 open single truck cars 188,800 

20 open double truck cars 43,234 

3 miscel. revenue cars 13,456 

1,001 car bodies, etc $1,673,329 

Electric equipment 998,747 

Grand total $2,672,076 

It will be noted that this depreciated value is 77.1% of the cost of 
reproduction new. An idea of the age of the cars may be gained 
from the following tabulation : 

Closed single truck cars (518) : 

Year purchased 

99 in 1895 

339 prior to 1900 

12 in 1905 

68 in 4 1906 

518 

Closed double truck cars (230) : 

60 in 1903 

46 in 1904 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1587 

49 in 1905 

50 in 1907 

25 in 1908 

230 
Open single truck cars (230) : 

230 prior to 1900 

There are 104 non-revenue work or service cars and 2 non- 
revenue special cars whose cost of reproduction new is as follows : 
Gar bodies, fittings and trucks : 

104 work cars $ 97,692 

2 special cars 3,703 



Total car bodies, etc $101,395 

Electrical equipment 95,808 



Total $197,203 

The depreciated value is : 

Car bodies, fittings and trucks $100,670 

Electrical equipment 74,532 



Total $175,202 

This is 88.8% of the cost of reproduction new. 
The work car equipment comprised the following : 

Cost 
of each 
22 snow plows $2,300 to $5,550 

1 sprinkler (3,700 gals.) 2,733 

2 wreckers 2,9 25 

3 derrick cars 3,028 

3 air compressor cars . , 2,000 to 3,224 

8 locomotives, electric 2,000 to 2,300 

1 concrete breaker (pile driver) 2,091 

2 concrete mixer cars 3,755 to 7,596 

12 ballast dump cars 900 

26 fiat cars, elec. ry 450 to 700 

16 flat cars, steam ry 700 to 800 

2 dry sand cars 800 to 2,770 

1 rail grinder car 3,470 

5 miscel. cars. 

104 total. 

The grand total cost of reproduction of the 1,001 revenue cars 
and the 104 work cars and 2 specials is $3,676,098; and the depre- 
ciated value is $2,861,403. 

8. Shojis — The valuation of the shop buildings has already been 
given under Buildings. There are two car shops whose cost 
of reproduction is as follows : 

Monroe Shops : 

Machinery and tools $ 93,464 

Patterns 4,737 

Furniture and fixtures 11,586 

Total $109,787 

Stock 121,688 

Total Monroe Shops $231,475 



1588 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Harper Shops: 

Machinery and tools $ 24,591 

Furniture and fixtures 405 



Total $ 24,996 

Stock 4,189 



Total Harper Shops $ 29,185 

Grand total both shops $260,660 

It should be noted that nearly half this amount is not shop ma- 
chinery, but stock, and the amount of stock on hand appears to be 
excessive, A considerable part of the stock is scrap and second- 
hand material. 

About $34,000 worth of patterns were not included in the ap- 
praisal. The report says : " Patterns are not an asset, as their 
cost is lost in the articles to which they are necessary as a matter 
of manufacturing. To have given the company the so-called cost 
of making patterns would have made it necessary to have eliminated 
the cost from the manufactured articles." 

In the shops and at the various stations there are 14 air com- 
pressors having a total cost of reproduction of $18,552. There 
are 5 air charging plants having a total cost of reproduction of 
$2,931. The following is a fairly typical cost of reproduction of 
the air compressor outfits : 

1 (9 ins. by 4% ins. by 14 ins.) Hall Steam Pump Com- 
pany's 2-stage water jacketed air compressor, ca- 
pacity 125 cu. ft. free air at 125 r.p.m., operated 
with silent chain, not including Rochester auto- 
matic oil pump. This includes 50 h.p. Westinghouse 
motor and starter, automatic .$2,000.00 

1 (9 ins. by 4% ins. by 14 ins.) Hall Steam Pump Com- 
pany's 2-stage water jacketed air compressor, ca- 
pacity 125 cu. ft. free air at 125 r.p.m. operated with 
belt 1,050.00 

1 75 h.p., type 75, series wound, Walker motor 500.00 

2 Steel D controllers for hand starting, at $75 150.00 

3 (3-ft. diam. by 15 ft. by 7-16 ins.) steel air storage tanks, 

lap jointed and double riveted, at $190 570.00 

2 air gages, at $3.90 7.80 

1 Rochester automatic oil pump, lubricators, tubing, etc.. . . 141. S i 

Pipe, valves and fittings 118.31 

Hose, shafting and charging boxes 152.39 

Belting and pulleys 140.06 

Lumber 33.79 

Foundations 84.00 

Chain falls and track 45.46 

Electric switch board and wiring 250.79 

Tools 50.00 

Furniture and fixtures 67.85 

Labor 773.60 

Total $6,135.87 

The cost of a typical air charging plant is as follows : 

2 air tanks at $190 $380.00 

1 air gage 5.40 

Valves, pipe and fittings 46.90 

Hose and fittings 30.65 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1589 

Charging boxes $ 12.50 

Labor 136.70 

Total $612.15 

The cost of reproduction of car inspectors' stock and outfits at 
the 11 car stations is: 

Tools $ 6,168.88 

Furniture 2,829.65 

Stock 39,826.24 

Total $48,824.77 

Summarizing, the following is the cost of reproduction and pres- 
ent value : 

Cost Present 

Reprod. Value 

Monroe Shops $231,475 $174,074 

Harper Shops 29,185 24,578 

Air compressors, etc 81,483 71,298 

Inspectors' outfits 48,425 38,769 

Totals $390,968 $308,719 

9. Tools, Materials, Sxipplies, Furniture, Etc. — The cost of re- 
production new is appraised as follows : 

Emergency station outfit $ 76,144 

Car station furniture 30,736 

Office furniture, etc 14,137 

Total $121,017 

Stock for shop 237,541 

Stock for track dept 357,9 80 

Stationary 34,478 

Grand total $751,016 

The present value is estimated at $728,158. 

The items of stock and stationary were inserted as given by the 
railway company, and the report states that the items were not 
checked by the appraisers as it was impossible a,t the time to dis- 
tinguish what part of the stock was needed for the city lines and 
what for the interurban lines. The sub-committee on appraisal rec- 
ommends a reduction of about $600,000 in this item. 

In the fore part of this article it has been shown that this item 
9, "Tools, materials, supplies, etc.," amounts to $4,407 per mile of 
trackway, which clearly shows that it includes a great amount of 
stock not needed for ordinary operation. 

Another Appraisal of Detroit Street Railways. The following is 
abstracted from the Electric Railway Journal, May 17, 1913. In 
connection with a suit against a 3 ct. fare ordinance, the follow- 
ing appraisal data were submitted by Robert B. Rifenberick, con- 
sulting engineer of the Detroit United Railway Co. The costs 
relate only to the city lines of the company. The cost of repro- 
duction was estimated to be : 



1590 Mechanical and electrical cost data 

(i) Power department, labor and materials $ 3,257,558 

(2) Track department, labor and materials 8.447,980 

(3) Mechanical department, labor and materials 5,051,781 

(4) General department, labor and materials 1,906,216 

(5) Total labor and materials '. $18,663,536 

(6) Contingencies, 10% 1,050,294 

(7) Contractor's profit, 10% 1,148,777 

(8) Liability insurance, 2i/2% of wages 114,264 

(9) Builder's risk, ly, to 2% of wages 17,243 

(10) Architects' fees, 5% 62,551 

(11) Cost of acquiring land, 10% 79,463 

(12) Engineering, 4% 720,955 

(13) Organization and administration, 5% 1,092,122 

(14) Carrying charges (interest), 9% 2.064,111 

(15) Financing, 8% 1,999,894 

Total $27,013,210 

The prices were those of Mar. 1, 1909, excepting for copper and 
cement which were averages of the preceding five years. 

The following was a typical estimate of the cost of labor and 
materials in a mile of straight track. 

DETAIL. OF TRACK VALUATION, STRAIGHT TRACK 
CONSTRUCTION 

Specification for 1 Mile of 7-in. 91-lb. Plain Girder Rail on 
Oak Ties in Ashphalt-Paved Street ; 8-in. Concrete Construction 

47,520 sq. ft. of 3y.-in. asphalt top course and binder re- 
moved and hauled to dump, at 3 1-6 cts % 1,504.80 

829 cu. yd. of paving concrete removed and hauled to 

dump, at $5.21 4,319.09 

1,515 cu. yd. of earth and sand excavation, at 35 ct 530.05 

1,515 cu. yd. of excavation removed to dump, at $1.43.. 2,166.45 
1,222 cu. yd. of 8-in. concrete for track foundation, at 

$7.13 8,712.86 

29 cu. yd. of sand cushion for tamping, lining and sur- 
facing ties, at $2.01 14 58.43 

1,672 6-in. bv 10-in. by 6-ft. 8-in. white oak ties laid 19 

to 60 ft. rail length, at $1.18 1,972.96 

143 tons of 7-in. 91-lb. plain girder open-hearth rail, 
in 60 -ft. lengths, joints laid even and suspended 

between ties, at $43.44 6,211.92 

19% kegs 9/1 6-in. by 5i^-in. standard railroad spikes, at 

$5,051/0 99.84 

880 %-in. by 5-ft. 2-in. round tie rods, ten to rail, with 

4% -in. nuts per rod, at 3914 cts 347.60 

1 mile of track laying 1,400.00 

176 7-in. cast welded joints, at $4.25 748.00 

10,560 lin. ft. of rail plastering, at 4 VL> ct 475.20 

715 cu. yd. of paving concrete laid, at $7.13 5,097.95 

138 cu. yd. of sand cushion for paving, at $2.01% 278.07 

4,974 sq. yd. brick paving, at $1.381/2 6,888.99 

306 sq. yd. of 31/. -in. asphalt top and binder laid at 

$1.50 459.00 

Total cost per mile $41,271.41 

Of this total the labor cost per mile is 20,063.29 

Location of this construction, Jefferson Avenue from Bates Street 
to Mount Elliott Avenue. 20.740 lin. ft.. 3,928 miles. 

Note. — These are reproduction values as of March 1, 1909, and 
are based on hand labor and team haul, the average haul being 3 
miles, and the assumption being that a team will average 2 tons 
per load and travel 18 miles per day. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1591 

Cost of Overhead -Trolley Systems. A. D. Williams, Jr., Engi- 
neering News, Dec. 23, 1909, gives the following cost data, ob- 
tained in the construction of a short interurban line in the north- 
western portion of Ohio, running along country highways. The 
work was done in the summer time, and there were very few inter- 
ruptions from the weather. The data are arranged, in all cases, 
to show costs per mile of a double-track road. 

COST PER MILE (DOUBLE TRACK) OF OVERHEAD 
MATERIALS 

4,254 lb. (2 miles) No. 00 trolley wire at $0,175 $754.45 

104 trolley ears, No. 00, 15 in. long at 0.23 23.92 

104 caj) and cone hanger.s, nut lock at 0.30 31.20 

500 ft. 5/16 in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 6.00 

500 ft. 14 in. galv. strand wire at 0.009 4.50 

10 feeder clips at 0.09 0.90 

8 anchor ears at 0.38 3.04 

8 Lieb strain insulators, anchor at 0.11 0.88 

4 bridle clamps at 0.19 0.76 

2 Garton lightning arresters at 3.10 6.20 

8 wood screws at 0.005 0.04 

1 lb. friction tape at 32 0.32 

2 pins, bond of arresters to track at 0.02 0.04 

20 lb. ground wire at 0.06 1.20 

20 lb. No. copper strand insul. wire at 0.18 3.60 

25 galv. iron .staples 0.05 

2 trolley wire splicing sleeves at 0.65 1.30 

6 lb. solder 1/2 and 1/2 at 0.24 1.44 

1 Brooklyn strain insulator at 0.96 0.96 

Total cost of overhead material $840.80 

BRACKET-ARM CONSTRUCTION 

With 37-ft. Poles Placed in Center. 
Material : 

Total cost overhead line material $840.80 

52 pine octagon poles, 12 in. by 8 in. by 37 ft. at $8.75 . 455.00 

35 gal. graphite paint at 1.15 40.25 

4 cu. yd. concrete (1-3-5) at 7.50 30.00 

104 bracket arms complete at 3.60 374.40 

52 mach. bolts, 13 by %-in. nut, wa.sher . . . .at 0.06 3.12 

104 lag screws, '/s-in. by 4-in at 0.025 2.60 

104 lag .screws, %-in. by 3i/>-in at 0.025 2.60 

400 ft. 5/16-in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 4.80 

10 feeder clamps at 0.18 1.80 

5 porcelain feeder insulators at 0.04 0.20 

5 galv. lag screws, i/a-in. by 4-in. at 0.02 0.10 

12 drop forged eye-bolts, %-in by 16-in at 0.09 1.08 

7 gal. black paint at 0.75 5.25 

5 guy anchors at 1.30 6.50 

Total materials $1,768.50 

Labor : 

52 poles, hauled and erected at $2.65 $137.80 

52 poles, painting ' at 0.30 15.60 

Erecting 2 miles of trolley wire at 35.00 70.00 

Erecting bracket arms 30.00 

Hauling material 18.00 

Clearing foreign wires and poles 93.40 

Trimming trees 2.75 

Total labor $367.55 



1592 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Total materials per mile $1,768.50 

Total labor per mile 367.55 

Total cost per mile of bracket-arm construction 

(with 37-ft. poles) $2,136.05 

WITH 30-FT. POLES PLACED IN CENTER 

Cost of 37-ft. pole construction $2,136.05 

Cost of 37-ft. poles, each $8.75 

Cost of 30-ft. poles, each . 5.75 

Difference on 52 poles at $3.00 156.00 

Total cost per mile of bracket-arm construction 

(with 30-ft. poles) $1,980.05 

CROSS-SPAN CONSTRUCTION 

With 37 and 30-ft. Poles. 
Material : 

Total cost overhead line material $840.80 

52 pine octagon poles, 12 in. by 8 in. by 37 ft. at $8.75 455.00 

52 pine octagon poles, 10 in. by 8 in. by 30 ft.at 5.75 299.00 

8 cu. yd. concrete (1-3-5) at 7.50 60.00 

2,300 ft. 5/16 in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 27.60 

116 eye-bolts, %-in. by 16-in at 0.09 10.44 

70 gal. graphite paint at 1.15 80.50 

14 gal. black paint at 0.75 10.50 

5 guy anchors at 1.30 6.50 

400 ft. 5/16-in. galv. strand wire 0.012 4.80 

Total materials $1,795.14 

Labor : 

104 poles, hauled and erected at $2.65 $275.60 

104 poles, painting 0.30 31.20 

52 span wires, erected at 1.50 78.00 

Erecting 2 miles of trolley wire at 35.00 70.00 

Hauling materials 18.00 

Clearing foreign wires and poles 138.40 

Trimming trees 14.65 

Total labor $625.85 

Total materials per mile $1,795.14 

Total labor per mile 625.85 

Total cost per mile of cross-span construction 

(with 37 and 30-ft. poles) $2,420.99 

WITH ALL 30-FT. POLES 

Cost of 37 and 30-ft. pole construction $2,420.99 

Cost of 37-ft. poles, each $8.75 

Cost of 30-ft. poles, each 5.75 

Difference on 52 poles at $3.00 156.00 



Total cost per mile of cross-span construction 

(with 30-ft. poles), dbl, track, . , , $2,264.99 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1593 

TRANSMISSION LINE 

Provision was made for two lines of wires, but only one line was 
fully equipped. 

Material, per mile : 

52 cross arms. 4-in. by 5-in. by 6-ft., for two 

2-in. pins at $0.39 $20.28 

52 cross arms, 4-in. by 5-in. by 8-ft., for four 2- 

in. pins at 0.53 27.56 

312 2-in. locust pins at 0.025 7.80 

52 pairs gal. iron braces, 30-in. \ at 0.038 22.73 
52 pairs gal. iron braces, 24-in. J598 lb. 

208 carriage bolts, %-in. by 4%-in at 0.014 2.91 

104 gal. iron lag screws, 1/2-in. by 4-ft at 0.018 1.87 

208 gal. iron lag screws, i^-in. by 7-in at 0.025 5.20 

156 6-in. porcelain in.sulators at 0.46 71.76 

2,100 lb. No. 4 bare copper wire at 0.175 367.50 

52 cable-top glass insulators at 0.06 3.12 

52 special locust pins at 0.03 1.56 

65 lb. No. 4 copper ground wire at 0.175 11.38 

3 No. 4 Mclntire splices at 0.15 0.45 

7 gal. carbolized paint at 0.65 4.55 

900 lb. barbed wire, galv at 0.038 34.20 

220 ft. %-in. galv. strand wire ties at 0.015 3.30 

Total material for one mile $586.17 

Labor, per mile : 

3 miles transmission line erected $103.50 

1 mile of ground wire erected 21.45 

1 mile of barbed wire erected 21.45 

Total materials per mile $586.17 

Total labor per mile 146.40 

Total cost 1 mile of transmission line $732.57 

FEEDJER LINE 
Material, per mile : 

3,500 lb. 0000 feed wire at $0,075 $612.50 

52 feeder pins at 0.20 • 10.52 

52 cable-top insulators at 0.06 3.12 

550 ft. 5/lG-in. galv. strand wire at 0.012 6.60 

5 eye-bolts, %-in by 16-in at 0.09 0.45 

20 lb. No. 4 copper tie wire at 0.175 3.50 

2 lb. 1/2 and 1/2 solder at 0.28 0.56 

2 splices, 0000 at 0.22 0.44 

Total for material $637.69 

Labor, erection of feeder wire $45.00 

Total material per mile $637.69 

Total labor per mile 45.00 

Total feeder line i^er mile $682.69 

COMPARISON OF COSTS. PER MILE, DOUBLE TRACK 

Cross span Cross span 
Bracket 37 and 30-ft. 30 and 30-ft. 

arm poles poles 

Trolley wire and poles $2,136.05 $2,420.99 $2,264.99 

Transmission line 732.57 732.57 732.57 

Feeder line 682.69 682.69 682.69 



Total $3,551.31 $3,836.25 $3,680.25 



1594 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Overhead Line Construction. The following data, by E. P. 
Roberts and J. C. Gillette are from Engineering and Contracting, 
Dec. 11, 1907, taken from Electric Traction Weekly: 

The following data on overhead line construction for interurban 
electric railways are based on actual practice and on the average 
costs of a large number of lines in different sections of the United 
States. The elements of interurban electric railway overhead line 
construction are: (1) A conductor from which the cars take elec- 
trical energy, and (2) the supporting of this conductor, which may 
be directly by brackets or by cross pans, which in turn are sup- 
ported by poles. These two methods of construction are termed 
respectively bracket suspension and cross-suspension. The trolley 
wire may be supported either directly from insulators carried by the 
brackets or spans, or by steel cable, which in turn is supported by 
the brackets or spans. The former is the old and standard method 
of trolley construction so long used on direct current lines, while the 
latter is the new " catenary " type of construction. The work for 
a 600-volt direct current line will be considered first and then the 
work for a line for higher voltage alternating or direct current 
motors. 

600-volt Direct Ctirrent Line. The general character of construc- 
tion will be wooden poles with either bracket or cross suspension, 
probably the former, the poles being spaced 90 to 100 ft. For most 
interurban electric railways, even for light traffic, it is advisable 
to install two trolley wires, each of which is not less than No. 3/0 
for heavy service, and in many cases No. 4/0 is preferable. 
In cases of very light traffic No. 2/0 may be advisable, as the 
necessity for reliability of service is lessened. In most cases 
there must be such amount of copper, either as trolley or as 
trolley and feeder wire, as will equal the cross section and 
weight of two No. 3/0 wires. It costs about as much to place 
such copper as feeder and trolley wire as it does if all is in 
the form of trolley wire, if the saving on siding construction 
is considered, and it is preferable to place two trolley wires, as 
this does away with overhead frogs, and in case of the breaking 
of a, trolley wire avoids a tieup of the road. Trolley wire is hard 
drawn copper and is generally either figure 8 or grooved. Round 
wire is somewhat preferable for carshop yards and for sharp 
curves, such as turning corners on city streets, but the forms above 
stated are preferable for high speed runs because they give a 
smoother running surface. 

The trolley wire is suspended from the bracket, or cross sus- 
pension, by. means of a hanger, and such hangers are of several 
types. The hanger ear, or clip, which holds the trolley wire, should 
be of ample length, and. for figure 8 or grooved wire, usually con- 
sists of two jaws clamped together by screws. The stud which sup- 
ports such jaws passes into, and is supported by, the insulating 
material of the hanger, which insulating material is in turn sup- 
ported by a cast iron or brass hanger body, which latter is se- 
cured to the bracket or to the cross suspension cable. In the 
past, troubles have been caused both by the mechanical weakness 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1595 

of the structure, and also by the electrical weakness of the insulat- 
ing material, especially after exposure to varying temperatures and 
climatic conditions, but hangers and clips of satisfactory design are 
now obtainable. 

The trolley hanger may be supported by a bracket, or by a cross 
suspension cable. Steel cable should be not only of sufficient initial 
strength for the purpose, but also the galvanizing should be care- 
fully inspected in order to assure long life. The bracket consists 
of steel tubing, angle iron or T-iron, generally painted in order to 
increase life, as well as to improve the appearance. An over sup- 
port gives the maximum strength at least cost. In some cases an 
under support may be preferable, because of allowing less height of 
pole. 

A telephone line is usually provided, and a metallic circuit is nec- 
essary. The wires are placed on cross arms or brackets, and 
with frequent transpositions. The wire for the telephone line is 
usually No. 10 B. & S. gage copper, if telephone line is more than 
50 to 60 miles in length, but on shorter lines it may be high grade 
iron wire. 

The costs submitted are probable costs between limits, but even 
though a maximum limit is given, the actual cost may sometimes 
exceed these figures, depending on local conditions. 

Starting from the standpoint of the cheapest practicable construc- 
tion, we have 30 ft. poles, 90 to 100 ft. spacing, and bracket sup- 
ports, and with double overhead No. 000 trolley. The cost of such 
construction will approximate the figures given by Table IV. 

TABLE IV. COST PER MILE OF BRACKET CONSTRUCTION 

SINGLE TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY 

WIRES. POLES SPACED 100 FT. 

From To 
53 30-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
livered on cars $4.00-$6.00 $ 325 $ 475 

53 brackets in place with fittings 180 210 

Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 

2 miles No. 3/0 trolley with splicers, at 20 

ct.-26 ct 1,100 1,400 

Erecting same 100 150 

Siding construction pro rated 75 100 

Curve construction 1,500 ft. additional cost 50 75 

5 anchors 8.50 15 

200 ft. strand for guys 2.25 2.50 

2 half anchorages 5 10 

Lags, clamps, etc 5 8 

Per cent, on material for handling 75 100 

$1,975.75 $2,620.50 

Add for lightning arrester 10 20 

Add for telephone system pro rated 75 100 

$2,060.75 $2,740.50 

If all poles are anchored add 160 265 

If 35-ft. poles are used add (poles $6.00 to 

$8.50) 130 160 

Total $2,350.75 $3,165.50 



1596 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

If for any reason it is decided to use suspension instead of 
bracket construction with the same pole spacing and size of trolley, 
then the approximate cost will be as given by Table V. 

TABLE V. COST PER MILE OF SPAN CONSTRUCTION SINGLE 

TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY WIRES, 

POLES SPACED 100 FT. 

From To 
106 30-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
livered on cars $4-$6 $ 650 $ 950 

Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 

Span wire erected 60 85 

2 miles No. 3/0 trolley at 20 ct.-26 ct 1,100 1,400 

Erecting same 100 150 

Siding construction, pro rated 75 100 

Curve construction, additional cost 35 60 

5 anchors 8.50 15 

200 ft. strand for anchor guys 2.25 2.50 

2 half anchorages 5 10 

Lags, champs, etc 5 8 

Per cent, on material for handling 100 150 

$2,190.75 $3,005.50 

Lightning arresters 10 20 

Telephone system pro rated 75 100 

If all 35-ft. poles are used (poles at $6.00 to 

$8.50) 260 320 

If poles are anchored add 320 530 

Total ..$2,856.75 $3,975.50 

In case transmission wires are required for transmission of elec- 
tric energy from the power house to substations, such transmission 
wires may be placed entirely on cross arms, or in the case of three 
phase transmission, t\vo of such wires may be on one two-pin arm 
and the third wire on a pin on the top of the pole or on a bracket 
on the side of the pole. Of course the pole top cannot be used if a 
ground wire is located at such point. The cost of construction on 
a three-phase transmission line will approximate the figures given 
by Table VI. 

TABLE VI. COST PER MILE OF BRACKET CONSTRUCTION 
SINGLE TRACK 600 VOLT TWO NO. 000 TROLLEY WIRES, 
POLES SPACED 100 FT. WITH THREE PHASE 33,000 VOLT 
TRANSMISSION LINE ON TROLLEY LINE POLES, 2-PIN 
CROSS-ARM AND POLE TOP PIN CONSTRUCTION, 

From To 
53 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles de- 
livered on cars at $6.00-$8.50 $ 455 $ 635 

Ears, hangers, etc., in place 50 75 \ 

53 brackets in place with fittings . 180 210 

2 miles No. 3/0 trolley with splicer at 20 ct.- 

26 ct 1,100 1,400 

Erecting same 100 150 

Siding construction pro rated 75 100 

Curve construction 1,500 ft. additional cost 65 100 

5 anchors 8.50 15 

200 ft. strand for guys 2.25 2.50 

2 half anchorages 5 10 

Lags, clamps, etc 5 8 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1597 

From To 

53 4 by 5 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. cross-arms $ 16 $22 

159 2 by 13 in. oak pins paraffined 9 11 

159 33,000 volt porcelain insulators 90 120 

106 20 by 1^4 by ^4 in. cross-arm braces galv. 5 6.50 

106 % by 5 cge. bolts 1 1.25 

53 1^ by 4 lag bolts 0.60 0.75 

53 % by 13 mch. bolts 3 3.75 

Erecting arms, pins and insulators 25 35 

3 miles No. 2 copper wire with splicers at 20 

ct.-26ct 638.40 829.92 

Erecting same 125 170 

Per cent, on material for handling 140 190 

Total $3,098.75 $4,095.67 

Add for trolley lightning protection 10 20 

Add for transmission lightning protection..,. 50 250 

Add for telephone system pro rated 75 100 

Total $3,233.75 $4,465.67 

If all poles are anchored add 160 265 

Total $3,393.75 $4,730.67 

From the above the principal unit costs of the cheapest practicable 
character of line work can be ascertained, and such additions must 
be made as are necessary for special overhead work around car 
shops, and in connection with bridges, city work or other special 
conditions ; also the cost of copper for feeders or for transmission 
must be added in accordance with the plan decided upon. 

The next consideration is as to whether or not there should be 
additional expenditures in order to increase reliability, or possibly 
to decrease maintenance or depreciation, or both. Some of the mat- 
ters considered may be as follows: (1) Reduction of pole spacing; 
(2) increasing size of poles; (3) anchoring all poles. 

Instead of using wooden poles the substitution for same of iron 
poles or possibly reinforced concrete poles, or, in extreme cases, 
which at present are not likely to be considered in connection with 
interurban electric railways, the use of steel bridges may be con- 
sidered. 

The matter of making stronger the supporting structure must 
necessarily be considered in connection with what it is to support, 
and frequently, also, in connection with the character of the 
ground. 

Relative to the first, it is evident that the heavier the trolley wire 
the greater will be its strength, and therefore the greater the pos- 
sible spacing of the supports, and also the greater the strength re- 
quired at such supports. If catenary construction is used, usually 
the advisable spacing distance will be materially increased. 

As to the second proposition, the less the first and maintenance 
cost per pole, then the nearer together the poles should be placed, 
but if the ground is rock, marsh, etc., it may be preferable to use 
structures allowing greater spacing and having increased unit 
cost, and possibly less cost per mile. 

For standard trolley construction, the limit is usually 90 to 100 
ft. spacing. These distances are determined, first, by the strains 



1598 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

in the trolley wire when it is pulled tight enough to give a steady- 
running trolley wheel, not having too great a kink at the point 
where the trolley wire is supported from the bracket ; and second, 
by the mechanical strength of the ear and the trolley wire where 
it is attached to the ear ; consequently, if it is desired to increase 
the spacing of the supporting structures in order to reduce first cost 
and also maintenance charges, some form of support for the trolley 
wire other than the ordinary ears and hangers must be used. 

Wooden pole construction for single or double track can be made 
amply strong up to a spacing of 150 ft. by using poles of com- 
mercial size, if same are properly set and proper consideration is 
given to the nature of the ground, the necessity of guying, etc. 
This refers to pole strength and not to the supporting of the wire. 

The catenary supported trolley has been developed during the last 
two or three years. This method of suspension provides a safe 
means of supporting the trolley wire with spans up to 300 ft. in 
length. In this class of construction the trolley wire is suspended 
from a steel messenger wire supported by insulators carried on 
brackets, cross suspension cables or bridges. The trolley is sup- 
ported from the messenger wire by hangers spaced from 10 to 50 ft. 
apart, depending upon the design. The physical limit of span in this 
class of construction is determined by the strength of the mes- 
senger cable, and also to a slight extent by the lateral movement 
of the trolley caused by wind pressure. It is evident that the 
tighter the messenger wire, the less will be the lateral movement in 
the trolley, but as the stresses in the messenger on spans of the 
same length and loading increase approximately inversely as the 
sag, care must be taken not to run above the safe loading of the 
messenger, especially under conditions of sleet and high wind. 

There are two general classes of catenary construction, the sin- 
gle catenary, and the double catenary. In the single catenary con- 
struction the trolley wire is supported from a single steel cable car- 
ried by insulators upon the brackets or spans, while in the double 
catenary the trolley wire is carried by two steel cables. 

In either type of construction the messenger cables may be car- 
ried either by brackets, span wires, or bridges. In ordinary inter- 
urban trolley construction, we usually find the messenger carried 
by a bracket, while in city streets we frequently find span wire 
construction. The bridge construction consisting of towers on 
each side of the track and a bridge spanning the tracks is seldom 
used for anything but the heaviest class of work, such as electrified 
steam railroads. 

The bracket construction is the cheapest in nearly all cases, and 
is usually satisfactory for the purposes of the ordinary interurban 
road. The span wire construction is only used where conditions are 
such as to require it, as the span construction is rather expensive 
and not particularly satisfactory. It requires longer poles and pro- 
duces a more severe loading of the poles than is the case with the 
bracket construction. 

The double catenary construction produces a structure which is 
very rigid as regards wind pressure and yet is flexible as regards 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1599 

vertical pressures. This type is the highest development of the art 
at this time, but because of its great cost is only used in the elec- 
trification of trunk lines of the heaviest class. It is not proposed 
in this article to discuss this phase of electric railroading, but to 
confine it to simpler and less expensive forms that are applicable 
to ordinary interurban roads. 

As ordinarily constructed the single catenary trolley has a pole 
spacing of from 100 to 150 ft. and the trolley is attached to the 
messenger cable either by means of three hangers placed at inter- 
vals of 40 to 50 ft., or by means of nine or more hangers placed at 
intervals of 10 to 17 ft. The spacing referred to is, of course, the 
normal spacing and a larger or smaller number of hangers with 
longer or shorter spacing is used where local conditions require. 

For convenience, we will hereinafter refer to the three hanger 
type of construction as the long spaced type, and that using nine 
or more suspension hangers as the short spaced type. 

Messenger Cable. — In the single catenary construction the mes- 
senger or cable which supports the trolley consists of a steel cable 
ranging from perhaps 5-16 in., as a minimum, to ^-in. as a maxi- 
mum, diameter, and usually made up of a seven wire strand, either 
of the grade known as " Siemens-Martin " steel or that designated 
" high strength steel." The cable is supported by porcelain in- 
sulators, such insulators being usually mounted on iron brackets. 
The following table gives the ultimate strength of the ordinary sizes 
of steel strand of the various grades : 







Siemens- 


High 


Extra 


Diam. in. 


Reg. 


Martin 


Strength 


H.S. 


y4 




3,050 


5,100 


7,600 


9-32 


.... 


4.380 


7,300 


10,900 


5-16 




4.860 


8,100 


12,100 


% 


s'.ioo 


6,800 


11,000 


17,250 


7-16 


7,500 


9,000 


15,000 


22,500 


Vz 


9,800 


11,000 


18,000 


27,000 


% 




19,000 


25,000 


42,000 



The prices of cable bear such relation to the strength that the 
cost of cable necessary to carry the given load is approximately 
independent of the grade of cable used. However, the lower grades 
of cable suffer most from corrosion, while the better grades are 
hardest to manipulate. It is practically impossible to " splice " the 
high strength or extra high strength steel cable, and all joints in 
such cables are made by means of clamps. 

Brackets. — As there is considerable difficulty in keeping insula- 
tors in an upright position on pipe brackets, brackets are now gen- 
erally made of 2^4 by 214 by % or 5-16 in. T bar, or 2 by 2% by 
14 -in. angle bars supported by a rod or strut. The insulators are 
attached to a suitable pin casting by means of Portland cement, 
such pin casting being held tp the brackets by set screws. 

Insulators. — The insulator is the vital point in high voltage trol- 
ley line construction, and as this insulator is subject to severe ser- 
vice, care should be taken in its selection. Insulators for 600 volt- 
age work are generally 3 by 3i/4 ins., one piece, double petticoat por- 



1600 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

celain insulators, and tested for 5,000 volts. Of course with higher 
voltages, larger insulators are used; for example, with 6,600 volt 
current, insulators as large as 8 ins. in diam. by 5 ins. high are in 
use. 

Hangers. — The hangers used to support the trolley from the mes- 
senger, in general consists of a mechanical clamp for the trolley, 
usually consisting of two sections drawn together by screws and re- 
sembling the so-called " Detroit " type of ear used in direct current 
practice. The attachment to the messenger is made by means of a 
clamp or metal loop, bolted around the messenger, or by means of 
a pair of sister hooks which are slipped over the messenger and 
driven down so as to tightly grip the wire. The connection be- 
tween these two clamping ends is made by means of a round or a 
flat bar, or a pipe, attached to the above-mentioned parts by means 
of rivets, screws, or pipe threads. 

All bolts and screws used in hanger construction should be thor- 
oughly locked, as otherwise the vibration is certain to result in 
their working loose. The hanger should preferably expose as small 
an area as possible to wind at right angles to the trolley. 

Catenary Construction on Curves. — On straight line construction 
and curve construction up to 5 deg., it is possible to maintain the 
150 ft. pole spacing, but at 4 deg. and 5 deg. it is advisable to in- 
stall a brail guy with two pull-offs per span. In installing pull-offs 
for catenary work, especially if pantograph trolley is to be used, 
great care must be taken to see that proper clearances are given 
for the end of the pantograph trolley, which on curve work will 
rise higher than the trolley wire itself, owing to the super-eleva- 
tion of the rail at this point. The pull-ofC hangers, as they are 
.called, for curve work are similar to the regular hangers except 
that they have an eye placed about 2 ins. above the trolley wire and 
another one about 2 ins. below the messenger. A short bridle is 
attached to these eyes and a strain insulator is cut in on the pull- 
off wire. 

On curves up to 3 deg. the curves are held to position by means 
of steady braces, the brace being an insulated stiff rod attached 
to each bracket or pole and to the trolley wire in such manner as 
will resist any movement in a horizontal direction. There are sev- 
eral types in use at present. The earlier type consisted of a treated 
hickory rod attached to the pole by means of suitable clamps, and to 
the trolley wire by means of an ear similar to the regular hanger 
ear ; this ear in turn being fastened to the rod by a gooseneck by 
means of a long threaded section for adjusting the position of the 
trolley wire. The more recent types are attached to the bracket 
arm, and do not depend upon the wooden rod for insulation but on 
porcelain insulators of the skirt type, similar in general construc- 
tion to those supporting the messenger wire. There are two types 
in use, one having a long arm, which is attached to the bracket 
close to the pole, and the other having a short arm, which is at- 
tached to the outer extremity of the bracket ; the arms in both 
cases being so hinged as to allow vertical but not horizontal mo- 
tion. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1601 

It is advisable to install half anchorages at each end of curves 
of over 2 deg. in order to take care of the strains resulting from 
contraction in the line each side of the curve. 

There is practically no tendency for the trolley to move sidewise, 
due to the passage of the trolley wheel or pantograph, as the 
messenger acts in effect like a large spring, and as soon as the 
trolley wheel or pantograph relieves it of some of the tension due 
to the weight of the trolley, the messenger will rise and thus keep 
directly over the trolley wire. 

Sidings. — On siding construction, if the wheel trolley is used, 
the construction is similar to that used on high speed d. c. inter- 
urban roads ; that is, the siding trolley is brought out to the main 
line at the switch, and then carried down the main line, parallel 
to and about 12 ins. distant from the main line trolley for a dis- 
tance of 150 or 200 ft. 

If the pantograph trolley is used, the deflector set, as it is 
called, consists of a number of trolley wires or steel rods of similar 
cross section. These are held to place by ordinary trolley ears, 
which in turn are bolted to cross bars spaced about 3 ft. apart, 
these cross bars being supported by the main line and siding trolley 
wires. The ends of these rods are raised 4 or 5 ins. above the siding 
and main line trolley so that there is no possible chance for the 
end of the pantographs to catch them. The siding trolley wire is 
passed over the top of the main line trolley wire and carried to an 
anchorage on the farther side. A deflector set should be installed 
on both sides of the main line trolley to avoid any danger of the 
pantograph catching trolley or guy wires. Care must be taken in 
this construction to see that the siding trolley is pulled up so that 
the raising of the main line trolley, owing to the passage of trolley 
wheel or pantograph, raises the siding trolley as well. It must 
also be designed so that the effects of lateral travel in the main 
line trolley, due to expansion and contraction, will not affect the 
height of the siding trolley. 

A number of different types of section insulators are in use for 
this class of work. It is now recognized that the early forms, 
which depended on long breaks for insulation, are not practical. 
While at first they give fairly satisfactory results, climatic condi- 
tions soon produce leakage and make it unsafe to work on a section 
protected by such insulators. There are two or three different types 
of section insulators which have either a long air break or a 
series of short air breaks in their construction, and these give 
promise of proving satisfactory. 

Overhead Crossings. — Probably the points which have given the 
most trouble to designers of catenary supported trolley work are 
those points on the line where the line is crossed by overhead 
bridges, used to eliminate grade crossings, as every foot these 
bridges are raised means an increased cost for the approaches and 
the structure, and the same is true if the clearance height between 
the bridge and track is increased by lowering the track grade. 
Consequently at these points the trolley is usually depressed to the 
lowest possible working limits. 



1602 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Both the tension of the trolley and messenger and the upward 
pressure of the collecting device tend to lift these wires into contact 
with the bridge structure and they must be so secured as to resist 
these forces. In the case of ordinary d. c. construction, the trolley 
is rigidly supported by hangers closely spaced under the bridge, 
and the d. c. type of hanger is well adapted to resist such upward 
pressure. But with catenary construction the trolley and messen- 
ger must be flexibly supported and held securely against lateral 
and vertical motion, and this must be done in extremely limited 
space, and at the same time maintain clearances suitable for the 
voltages used. Catenary trolley construction requires approxi- 
mately 18 ins. more clearance, or head room under bridge crossings 
than the ordinary d. c. trolley ; this, of course, is based on trolley 
voltages of from 3,300 to 6,600 volts, where an air space of at least 
5 ins. must be maintained between the messenger and trolley and 
the adjoining frame work of the bridge. 

Two general types of bridge construction are in use, one known 
as the sleeve type and the other as the skirt type. The sleeve type 
consists essentially of a corrugated porcelain tube of proper length 
and thickness for the voltage used, which is supported on a bracket 
attached to the bridge ; the messenger is tied to this, and the con- 
struction in other ways is similar to the ordinary bracket construc- 
tion excepting that at this point a steady brace is installed which 
is anchored in such a manner as to prevent the trolley rising. 

In the skirt type, the construction is similar to the ordinary 
bracket construction except that the insulator pin, instead of being 
supported by a bracket arm, is supported by either a wooden or 
steel bracket bolted to the bridge, and the messenger is suspended 
from a lien insulator as usual in bracket construction. In addition 
to this, extra hangers are placed between the two bridge supports 
in order to prevent the trolley wire rising at the center, because of 
the upward pressure of the pantograph or trolley wheel. On each 
side of the bridge at a distance of 20 to 25 ft., is placed what is 
called a " hold down span " consisting of two heavy poles securely 
anchored, with a cross span drawn tightly between them, the design 
of the span being such as to limit any rise of the trolley and 
messenger either because of contraction in the main line, or from 
lifting action of the trolley wheel. 

With either construction the trolley and messenger wires must 
be protected from bridge drippings by means of a suitable metal 
shield attached to the bridge structure and thoroughly grounded. 
At points each side of the bridge where the trolley wire reaches its 
normal height half anchorages are installed in such manner as to 
pull slack towards the bridge. 

Messenger Tension. — In erecting catenary trolley work care must 
be taken to see that the messenger wire is so pulled up that there 
will be exactly the same amount of deflection in spans of the same 
length. If this deflection is secured for the standard length spans, 
the shortened spans will take care of themselves, and the strains in 
all spans, due to loading, etc., will be the same. Unless the deflec- 
tion is the same in spans of the same length the strains arising 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS i60S 

from the loading of the trolley and also the vibration which is met 
in service will cause the messenger wire to " travel." This travel 
manifests itself by unequal strains on the messenger insulators and 
unless the tie is made very securely, the messenger wire will slip 
through and in this manner tend to equalize the tension, but the 
hangers will no longer stand vertically but will lay at an angle 
producing an uneven trolley surface, as well as an unsightly appear- 
ance of the whole construction. If the messenger wire does not slip 
through the tie, it will sooner or later twist the bracket around until 
the tension is equalized. 

The strains in the messenger for any length of span and loading 
can be calculated by means of the following formula, which is 
expressed in simple arithmetic: 

S W = horizontal strain on wire at center of span. 
S = strain coefficient. 
W = weight per foot of span, 
Y2 X 

S = + — 

2X 6 
In which Y =: i^ the span in feet. 

X = deflection at center of span in feet. 

For example, with 150-ft. span of % in. messenger, weighing 45 
lbs. and a deflection of 1.5 ft. we will have by substituting the 
values for the symbols : 

(75)2 1.5 5625 1.5 

S = 1 =: 1 = 1875.25. 

2 X 1.5 6 6 6 

W= 0.3. 
S W = 0.3 X 1875.25 = 562.575 lb. strain at center of wire. 

If this wire be used to support a trolley wire and hangers weigh- 
ing 105 lbs. making the total weight supported by the messenger 
150 lbs. or 1 lb. per ft. of span, we will have S W =: 1875.25 lbs. 

If the strains, due to sleet on the wire, are to be considered, the 
weight of the sleet is added to the weight per ft. of wire, and 
such sleet loading is usually taken as a layer of ice % in. thick, 
on all parts of the structure, the weight of ice being figured at 0.033 
lb. per cu. in. 

In determining the necessary strength of messenger, it is also 
usual to allow for the loading due to wind pressure, and this is 
commonly taken on wires or other cylindrical surface as 15 lbs. per 
sq. ft. of projected area, such area being taken at the increased 
figure due to % in. thickness of ice, and on flat surfaces at 27 lbs. 
per sq. ft. In order to obtain the strain on the messenger wire, due 
to wind pressure, we must calculate the area of the messenger wire, 
trolley, hangers, etc., which, mliltiplied by the pressure per square 
foot gives the strain due to wind. 

The strain due to wind pressure does not add directly to that 
due to weight, but the total strain in the wire is proportional to 
the diagonal of a right triangle, of which the load due to weight 
forms one side, and the load due to wind forms the other side. 

In deciding on the size of the messenger wire, it is necessary to 



1604 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

allow an ample factor of safety under the most severe conditions. 
The wire selected should be such as to give a factor of safety of 
not less than three under such conditions. 

Care must be taken in the erection of the wire to allow for con- 
traction of the wire in cold weather and the consequent flattening 
of the catenary which produces additional strains. 

As a matter of fact the strains actually produced are usually 
materially less than those calculated because the entire structure 
is elastic and gives more or less, especially at the curves. 

Costs. — Tables VII to IX show the average between limits of 
different types of catenary construction. Table VII shows the cost 
of single-track catenary 9 point suspension, 150 ft. pole spacing, 
bracket construction, and designed for 6,600 volt work. Table VIII 
shows cost of double-track catenary 9 point suspension, center pole 
construction, 150-ft. pole spacing for 6,600 volts. Table IX shows 
cost of double-track catenary 9 point double-pole bracket construc- 
tion, 150-ft. spacing for 6,600 volts. 

TABLE VII. COST PER MILE SINGLE-TRACK 9 POINT 
CATENARY 150-FT. POLE SPACING, 6,600 VOLT 

From To 
36 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 

taken at $6 to $8 delivered $ 310 $ 430 

36 brackets with fittings, in place 120 150 

5,280 ft. No. 4/0 trolley. 3,382 lb. at 20 ct. to 

26 ct. per lb 676 879 

5,300 ft. %-in. high strength steel messen- 
ger cable 110 130 

36 messenger insulators 15 30 

36 spans catenary hangers 40 72 

5 anchors 8.50 15 

200 ft. %-in. high strength strand for guys. . 2.25 2.50 

10 steady braces for curves 30 40 

10 strain insulators 11 15 

Per cent, on material for handling, etc 100 130 

Labor erecting catenary trolley 160 200 

Labor erecting curve trolley 1,500 ft. additional 50 75 

2 half anchorages 20 30 

Siding construction — pro rated 100 150 

Lags, clamps, etc 10 15 

$1,762.75 $2,363.50 

Add for lightning arresters 10 60 

Add for gd. wire Itg. protection 150 200 

Add for telephone system — pro rated 100 150 

$2,022.75 $2,773.50 

If all poles are anchored add 108 180 

If brackets are insulated 40 60 

Total $2,170.75 $3,013.50 

TABLE VIII. COST PER MILE OF DOUBLE-TRACK 9 POINT 

CATENARY, CENTER POLE, 150-FT. POLE SPACING, 

6,600 VOLT 

From To 

36 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 

delivered on cars $6 to $8 each $ 310 $ 430 

72 brackets with fittings in place 240 300 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1605 

From To 
10,560 ft. trolley, 6,764 lb. at 20 ct. to 26 ct. 

per lb $1,352 $1,758 

10,800 ft. %-in. high strength steel messenger 

cable 220 260 

72 messenger insulators 30 60 

72 spans catenary hangers 80 144 

10 anchors 17 30 

300 ft. %-in. strand for guy 3.50 4 

20 steady braces for curves 60 80 

20 strain insulators 22 30 

10 30 -ft. pull-oft poles in place and framed 100 130 

Per cent, for handling material, etc 110 140 

Labor erecting catenary trolley 320 400 

Labor erecting curve trolley, 3,000 ft. add.... 100 150 

2 half anchorages 40 60 

Siding construction — pro rated 200 300 

Lags, clamps, etc 10 15 



$3,214.50 $4,291 

Add for lightning arresters 10 120 

Add for gd. wire Igt. protection 150 400 

Add for telephone line 100 150 



Total $3,374.50 $4,961 

TABLE IX. COST PER MILE OF DOUBLE TRACK 9 POINT 

CATENARY, DOUBLE POLE LINE, 150-FT. SPACING, 

6,600 VOLT 

From To 
72 35-ft. poles in place and framed, poles 

at $6 to $8.50 each delivered on cars. . $ 620 $ 860 

72 brackets with fittings in place 240- 300 

10,560 ft. No. 4/0 trolley, 6,764 lb. at 20 ct. to 

26 ct. per lb 1,352 1,758 

10,600 ft. %-in. high strength steel messenger 

cable 220 260 

72 messenger insulators 30 60 

72 spans cat. hangers 80 144 

10 anchors 17 30 

300 ft. %-in. strand for guy 3.50 4 

20 steady braces for curves 60 80 

20 strain insulators 22 33 

Per cent, for handling material 130 160 

Labor erecting 2 mi. catenary construction. . . 320 400 

Labor erecting 3,000 ft. curve construction add 100 150 

2 double track half anchorages 40 60 

Siding construction pro rated 200 300 

Lags, clamps, etc 10 20 

$3,444.50 $4,616 

Add for lightning protection 20 240 

Add for gd. wire Igt. protection 150 400 

Add for telephone line 100 150 

$3,714.50 $5,406 

If all poles are anchored 216 360 

If all brackets are insulated 80 120 

Total $4,010.50 $5,886 

In deciding whether the pole line for double-track shall be a 
double-pole line or a center-pole line, the character of the grading 
on the right-of-way will have to be taken into consideration. If, 



1606 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

as in the middle west, the country is practically level and no ex- 
pensive cuts or fills are required, possibly the single-pole construc- 
tion will show a saving- over the double-pole ; however, where there 
are expensive fills and cuts, the double-pole construction will show 
a saving over the single-pole, not in itself, but in the fact that the 
roadbed will not have to be as wide as for the single-pole con- 
struction. 

Cost of Overhead Construction. The following costs, from Data, 
April, 1911, are averages on a road built in Illinois in 1909. 

Cost per mile 

Poles, 35 ft., 55 at $6.45 each $354.75 

Poles, 30 ft., 55 at $4.20 each 231.00 

Galv. strand, 5-16-in., 3,000 ft. at $0.87 per 100 ft 26.10 

Galv. strand, %-in., 2,000 ft. at $0.68 per 100 ft 13.60 

St. line hangers, 55 at $31.50 per 100 ft 17.33 

D curve hangers, 10 at $67.00 per 100 ft 6.70 

S curve hangers, 12 at $40.00 per 100 ft 4.80 

Wood strains, 9-in., 150 at $14.50 per 100 ft 21.75 

Strain plates, 2 at $32.00 per 100 ft 0.64 

Connectors, 20-in., 2 at $1.25 each 2.50 

Ears (clip), 8-in., 55 at $14.00 per 100 7.70 

Solder ears, 15-in., 25 at $32.00 per 100 8.00 

Insulated crossings, 2 at $9.00 each 18.00 

Solder, 25 lb. at $0.23 per lb 5.75 

Lightning arresters, 5 at $4.00 each 20.00 

Feed-in yokes, 5 at $28.00 per 100 .' 1.40 

Section insulators, 1 at $5.60 each 5.60 

Pony insulators, 190 at $1.51 per 100 2,87 

Transposition insulators. 30 at $6.90 per 100 2.07 

Wire, 3-0 trolley, 2700 lb. at $0.16 per lb 432.00 

Wire, 4-0 feeder, 3400 lb. at $0.16 per lb 544.00 

Wire, No. 10 tel., 2 mi. at $12.00 per mile 24.00 

Wire, signal, 2 mi. at $15.30 per mile 30.60 

Feeder insulators, 55 at $5.00 per 100 2.75 

Pins, malleable iron, 5 at $16.20 per 100 0.81 

Cross arms, 4 pin, 110 at $15.14 per 100 16.66 

Locust pins, 440 at $13.80 per 1000 6.08 

Eye bolts, %- by 12-in., galv., 110 at $8.30 per 100 9.13 

Eye bolts, %- by 12-in. galv., 110 at $5.70 per 100 6.27 

Lag screws, %-by 4 in., 110 at $1.15 per 100 1.27 

Braces, 24-in., galv., 220 at $53.00 per 1000 11.66 

Bolts, carriage, %- by 4-in., 220 at $6.50 per 1000 1.43 

O washers, 2-in., 220 at $6.00 per 1000 1.32 

Cut washers, %-in., 220 at $0.85 per 1000 0.19 

Switch pins, 3 at $4.00 each 12.00 

Block signal, 1 at $250.00 each 250.00 

Tools and incidentals 300.00 

Labor, digging holes, 110 at $5.50 each 605.00 

Labor, hauling, dressing and framing poles, 110 at $0.50 each 55.00 

Labor, setting poles 110.00 

Labor, line 300.00 

Total $3,470.73 

Cost of Overhead Construction. We have taken the following 
from Pender's American Handbook for Electrical Engineers. The 
costs given in Tables X to XIII will serve as a guide in making 
preliminary estimates. 

Extras for Curves. — Under ordinary conditions curves add about 
10% to the cost of direct-suspension construction and about 159^ 
to the cost of catenary construction. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 



1607 



Extras for 120(i-volt construction. — The following amounts should 
be added to the total in the following table to give proper values 
for 1200-volt construction: 

Direct suspension : Per mile 

Bracket construction $40 

Span construction 40 

Catenary suspension: 

Bracket construction $10 

Span construction 10 

TABLE X. COST PER MILE OF SPAN-WIRE TROLLEY 

CONSTRUCTION (600 VOLTS) (EXCLUSIVE OF 

TRACK WORK AND BONDING) 



Item U^^^ 

^^^^ price 

Material (incl. 2 double 

curves) 
Yellow pine poles, oc- 
tagon $6.00 

Iron poles, No. 2 19.00 

Iron poles, No. 4 36.00 

Cement 2.35 & 2.15 

Broken stone 0.95 

Black paint 0.90 

Span wire 0.012 

Pull-off wire 0.006 

No. 000 cu. wire, per 

lb 0.18 

Straight line susp. . . . 0.285 

Side feed susp 0.57 

Deep groove ears .... 0.235 

Frogs 3.25 

Diagonals 3.60 

Brooklyn strains 0.71 

Frog pull-ofCs 0.36 

Pole clamps 0.12 

Globe strains 0.31 

Side-feed wire, No. 0, 

ins 0.102 

Double bodies 0.93 

Single " 0.53 

Miscellaneous ... 

Total mat'l 

Labor (incl. 2 double curves) 

Setting poles 

Trucking 

Painting (1 coat) .... 
Running trolley wire . 
Building 2 double 

curves 

Putting up span wire . 

Total labor 

Grand total per mile 



Single 


track 


Double track 


Quan- 


Total 


Quan- 


Total 


tity 


cost 


tity 


cost 


88 


$528 











88 


$1672 






4 


144 


22 bbl. 


52 


33 bbl. 


71 


14 cu. yd. 


13 


14 cu. yd. 


13 


20 gal. 


18 


11 gal. 


10 


1250 ft. 


15 


2500 ft. 


30 


1250 ft. 


8 


2500 ft. 


15 


Imi. 


483 


2 mi. 


966 


36 


10 


72 


21 


8 


5 


16 


9 


56 


13 


112 


26 


2 


7 


4 


13 






2 


7 






110 


78 


6 


2 


12 


4 


9 


1 


18 


2 


15 


5 


30 


9 


120 ft. 


12 


240 ft. 


24 


6 


6 


12 


11 


6 


3 


12 


6 




1 




7 




$1182 


$3138 




$156 




$138 




25 




25 




9 




12 




50 




75 




34 




50 




20 




20 




$294 


$320 



$1476 



$3458 



Cost of llM^-volt catenary construction. — Under favorable con- 
ditions, an 11,000-volt catenary construction, such as that of the 
Denver & Interurban Ry., with sufficient conductors for a half- 



1608 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

hourly operation of two-car trains, including track bonding, costs 
from $3,500 to $5,000 per mile of single track. (O. S. Lyford, Proc. 
A. S. C. E., Aug., 1908, p. 540.) 

For heavy catenary construction, such as used on trunk line 
railways, the cost depends entirely upon the standards selected, 
which are inclusive of the consideration of importance of track, in 
turn bringing into consideration the advisability of wood and steel 
post constructon, cross-catenary and bridge-span construction, single 
or compound catenaries, etc. The cost of overhead yard construc- 
tion can vary from $1,500 to $3,000 a mile of single track, depending 
upon number of tracks spanned and type of construction selected. 



TABLE XI. COST PER MILE OP SINGLE TRACK DIRECT 
SUSPENSION AND CATENARY CONSTRUCTION 

Adapted from (G. E. Review, 1910, Vol. 13, p. 516) 

600-VOLT LINE, TANGENT TRACK 

Direct Catenary, 

suspension three-point 

Item Bracket Span Bracket Span 
Material : 

Poles, 8 in. by 30 ft $265 $530 $180 $360 

Anchor, guy and span cables ... 45 150 21 100 

Messenger cable . . . . 92 92 

No. 0000 trolley wire 540 540 540 540 

Other line mat'l 145 99 144 101 



Total 995 1,319 977 1,193 

Labor : 

Erecting poles 185 371 126 252 

Mounting brackets 13 .. 9 

Installing span wire and guys , . . , 212 . . 144 

Stringing and clamping wire .... 75 75 200 200 

Installing anchors 75 100 50 60 

Total 373 758 385 656 

Miscellaneous extras 150 150 150 150 

Grand total $1,518 $2,227 $1,512 $1,999 

The following figures are representative of modern 11,000-volt 
trunk-line catenary construction, using steel bents similar to the 
recent construction on the N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. 

Cost of construction per mile 
Number of tracks Of right of way Of single track 

1 $ 4,000- 7,000 $4,000- 7.000 

2 8,000-15,000 4,000- 7.500 
4 25,000-40,000 6,250-10,000 

Sidings, with wooden pole construction, cost from $2,500 to $3,500 
per mile, and yard construction from $1,500 to $3,000 per mile of 
track. 

Double Track Overhead Trolley Construction. The following is 
from a Chicago appraisal made in 1902, by. B. J. Arnold. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 



1609 



TABLE XII. ESTIMATED COST OF TRIANGULAR CATENARY 

CONSTRUCTION FOR 11,000-VOLTS, ORIGINAL 

N. Y. N. H. & H. TYPE 

(Elec. Age, Apr., 1908, p. 96) 

CONTACT LINE & SUPPORTS 

Ouantitv ^^^ milePer mile 

Item ^ ,f;^t ^ Price single four 

""" track tracks 

Steel bridges, intermediate, 

every 300 ft., wt. 13,000 lbs. 115 tons $100.00 $11,500 

Steel bridges, anchor ; every 2 

mi., wt. 23,000 lbs 5% " 100.00 575 

Foundations for intermediate 

bridge, 9 cu. yds. each 

side, 34 per mile 306 yds. 10.00 3,060 

Foundations for anchor bridge, 

12 cu. yds., 1 per mile .... 12 " 10.00 120 

Foundations, special .... 775 

Trolley wire, No. 0000 B. & S., 

5280 ft 3,380 lbs. 0.18 $608 

Messenger wires, 2-% in. steel, 

10,900 ft 9,150 " 0.08 732 

Hangers, 10 ft. apart 528 0.75 395 

Insulators, two every 300 ft. ... 34 0.50 17 

Pins and yokes for above 34 0.75 26 

Strain insulator and acces- 
sories, 16 every two miles . 8 6.00 48 
Trolley strain insul. & section 

breaks, 4 every two miles . 2 16.00 32 

Circuit breakers, 8 per section . . 4 500.00 2,000 

Linemen's materials 20 

Labor on trolley, messenger and 

supports 1,200 20,308 

Total for contact system $5,078 $36,338 

TABLE XIIL FEEDER SYSTEM 



Item C'S 

a 

Feeder wires, No. B. & S. (two) 10,900 

ft 3,380 lbs. 

Insulators 35 

Pins 35 

Circuit breakers 1 

Control wire and pipe 500 ft. 

" transformers, 5 kw., 2 per section 1 

Lightning arresters 

Miscellaneous material 

Labor on feeders 10,900 ft. 

Total for feeder system 





«^ 




■fig 


T, 


r^-t-> 


^ 


%u 




f^Fi 






; 0.18 


$ 608 


0.50 


18 


0.50 


17 


500.00 


500 


0.50 


250 


100.00 


100 




50 




20 


0.03 


327 



$1,890 



ESTIMATE OF COST TO PRODUCE ONE MILE OF DOUBLE 

TRACK OVERHEAD TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 

FOR CITY STREETS 

100 Iron poles, set in concrete, at $28 $2,800.00 

50 4-pin iron cross arms, with pins and ins., at $3.95 . 197.50 

100 Small Brooklyn insulators for spans at 50 cts 50.00 

100 Globe strain " 22 cts 22.00 



1610 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

90 Straight line hangers at 32% ets $ 29.25 

10 Feed-in " " 50 cts 5.00 

140 Soldered 9-in. ears at 16 cts 22,40 

12 Live cross-overs (estimated) at $3 36.00 

8 Insulated cross-overs (estimated) at $6 48.00 

8 2-way frogs (estimated) at $3 24.00 

3,000 ft. 5/i6-in. galv. strand wire for spans at $10 per M 30.00 

6 Strain plates (strain layout) at 32 cts 1.92 

12 Small Brooklyn ( " " ) " 50 cts 6.00 

12 Globe insulators ( " " ) " 22 cts 2.64 

1,500 ft. %-in. galv. strand wire (strain layout) at $7.25 

per M 10.88 

20 Double hangers (2 double curve layouts) at 44 cts. 8.80 

20 Single " (" " " " ) " 35 cts. 7.00 
1,000 ft. i^-in. strand (" " " " ) " $7.25 

per M 7.25 

4 Heavy Brooklyn (2 double curve layouts) at 70 cts. 2.80 

10,560ft. 2-0 trolley wire, 4,246 lbs. at 13% cts 562.59 

2 00 splicing ears at 50 cts 1.00 

Labor, placing spans, trolleys, etc 225.00 

Total, exclusive of feeder wire $4,100.03 

Feeder wire, average per mile 4,000.00 

$8,100.03 

Cost of Trolley Pole Line in Washington. The following 
actual costs are from a report by H. P. Gillette on his appraisal 
of an interurban traction company in Washington in 1912. Poles 
(cedar) were spaced 120 ft. apart on tangents and closer on curves. 
They were placed on one side of the track and 10 ft. from center 
line. They were of such length that the top of the pole was 37.5 
ft, above the rail. They were framed for two cross arms, but the 
lower arm only was put on ; it was a 6-pin arm 4 ins. by 5 ins. by 
7 ft. The two pins at end of arm nearest track carry the #10 
copper telephone wires. The feeder is carried on the first pin 
beyond pole from track. There were 637 poles (28,017 lin. ft.). 

Labor: Total Per mile 

Pay roll, construction (detail below) $ 5,200.11 $437.02 

Pay roll, other than construction crew 920.00 77.32 

Total labor $ 6,120.11 $514.34 

Material: 

Poles (637) $ 2,689.66 $226.04 

Cross arms (750) 202.50 17.02 

Pins (1,150) 65.09 5.47 

Eye bolts 43.86 3.69 

Cross arm braces 71.06 5.97 

Machine bolts 250.60 21.06 

Lag screws 38.70 3.25 

Cut washers 69.47 5.84 

Guy wire 52.39 4.40 

Tools 0.85 0.07 

Manilla rope 10.04 0.84 

Freight and cartage 73.31 6.16 

Personal expense 18.07 1.52 

Blue prints 1.18 0.10 

Temporary construction prorated 338.00 28.40 

Total, material '. $ 3,924.78 $329.83 

Total, labor and material $10,044.89 $844.17 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1611 

Lahor details follow: Total Per pole 

670 hrs. foreman at $0.362 $ 240.24 $ 0.377 

335 " time-keeper at $0.272 91.16 0.143 

904 " framing poles at $0.260 234.75 0.369 

5,811 " digging holes at $0,258 1,500.86 2.356 

1,802 " putting on X-arms at $0,306 55L.70 0.866 

3,328 " setting poles at $0,284 946.51 1.489 

2,272 " guying and anchoring at $0.289 655.90 1.030 

475 " putting on brackets at $0.305 144.85 0.228 

53 " blacksmithing at $0,301 . 15.95 0.025 

1,038 " making and hauling some of the 

poles at $0.292 303.55 0.477 

136 " miscellaneous hauling at $0.473 64.35 0.101 

1,327 " distributing poles at $0.287 380.34 0.597 

254 " " other material at $0,275 69.95 0.110 

18,405 " total at $0,232 $5,200.11 $8,168 

Pay roll other than construction 920.00 1.444 

$ 9.612 
637 poles purchased or cut, as below 4.220 

$13,832 
Pole and fittings details: 

545 main line poles 25,111 lin. ft. 

24 brace-poles 690 " " 

68 bridle poles 2,216 " " 

637 poles, average 44 ft 28,017 " " 

Poles cut on right of way: 

4,018 lin. ft. at 1^^ cts $ 50.20 

9,070 " " at 14 ct 73.28 

11,488 " " credit to r. of way at 7 cts •. 804.16 

1,657 " " at 2 % cts 41.42 

3,150 " " at Sets.... 94.50 

Total right of way poles $1,063.56 

Poles purchased: 

2,028 lin. ft. at 8 cts $ 162.24 

146,386 " " at 10 cts 1,463.86 

Grand total poles (637 poles) at $4.22 $2,689.66 

Cross Arms: 

750 6-pin at $0.27 $202.50 

Pins : 

300 1 1/2 by 9 in. locust $ 5.39 

100 steel 14.70 

750 No. 3 pins 45.00 

Total pins $ 65.09 

Epe Bolts: 

42 % in. by 7 ins. with 6 in. thread and nuts $ 43.86 

Cross Arm Braces: 

560 Vi by IVi by 28 ins. galv $ 51.03 

330 ^ by 114 by 20 ins. " 20.03 

Total cross arms $ 71.06 

Machine Bolts: 

3,260 % by 5 ins. galv $ 57.37 

400 % by 5 ins. black 5.63 

444 % by 16 ins. galv 36.01 



1612 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1,250 % by 18 ins. galv $110.88 

220 % by 18 ins. black 24.09 

100 % by 22 ins. galv 16.62 

5,674 Total machine bolts $250^60 

Lag Screws: 

1,730 1/2 by 4 ins. galv $ 36.11 

60 % by 5 ins. " 2.59 

Total lag screws $ 38.70 

Cut Washers: 

3,260 % in., 68 lbs $ 6.12 

3,790 % in., 1,050 lbs 63.35 

Total cut washers, 1,118 lbs $ 69.47 

Guy Wire: 

4,000 ft. % in. single galv. strand, 1,195 lbs $ 52.39 

Labor Costs on Trolley Line in Washington. The following data 
were prepared by Henry L. Gray for an appraisal on the Pacific 
Coast in 1912. An economical method of constructing a trolley 
system involves the use of one or more gangs made up as follows, 
per day of 8 hrs. 

1 foreman at $5.00 $ 5.00 

2 linemen at $4.40 8.80 

1 helper at $2.75 2.75 

1 auto truck with helper-driver at $1.25 per hr. for 8 hrs. ... 10.00 

Total for 8-hr. day $26.55 

Average cost of crew per hr $ 3.32 

On straight span construction this crew could average 2 spans 
per hour, at a labor cost of $1.66 per span. This figure covers the 
placing of pole collars on metal poles and the boring for eye bolts 
in wooden poles, but does not include the drilling, etc., for building 
contacts. 

The locating of the frog and pullovers at the point where two 
tracks merge into one (end of double track) can be done by the 
above crew in approximately an hour, a labor cost of $3.35. 

The adjustment of the 2 frogs, the 2 pullovers and the stringing 
of the wire at a standard crossover has been found by experience 
to be about 4 hrs., which gives a labor cost of $13.30. 

The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a 
single track curve of 90 degs., would require approximately 8 hrs., 
a labor cost of $26.60. 

The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a 
double track curve of 90 degs. would require approximately 12 hrs., 
a labor cost of $40. 

The stringing of the guys and adjusting the alignment of a double 
track of 45 degs. would require approximately 10 hrs., a labor cost 
of $33.20. 

The stringing of the guys, location of 3 frogs and alignment of 
the 2 curves of a single track wye would require approximately 
12 hrs., a labor cost of $40. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1613 

The stringing- of the guys, location and 3 frogs and 1 crossover, 
together with the alignment of the 2 curves of a wye located on a 
double track would require approximately 12 hrs., a labor cost of 
$40. 

The stringing of the guys, location of 4 frogs, and a crossover 
with the adjusting of the alignment of the 3 curves of a double 
track branchoff from double track with a single track curve forming 
a wye, would require approximately 12 hrs., a labor cost of $40. 

The stringing of the guys, location of 2 frogs and adjustment of 
the alignment of the 2 curves of a simple double track branchoff 
from the double track would require approximately 8 hrs., a labor 
cost of $26.60. 

The stringing of the guys, the location of 12 frogs and 12 cross- 
overs, and the extensive adjustments to maintain the alignments of 
all the curves in a layout comprising a double track crossing at 90 
degs. with 3 pairs of connecting curves would require approximately 
32 hrs.. a labor cost of $106.25. 

The stringing of the guys, the location of 8 frogs and 8 cross- 
overs, and the adjustment of the alignment of the curves of a double 
track crossing at 90 degs. with 2 pairs of connecting curves located 
diagonally to each other, would require approximately 16 hrs., a 
labor cost of $53.20. 

The stringing of the guys, the location of 6 frogs and 3 cross- 
overs, and the adjustment of the alignment of the curves of a double 
track with 2 double track curves leading into a double track at 
90 degs. would require approximately 16 hrs., a labor cost of $53.10. 

In stringing trolley wire it would be economical to add an auto 
truck with driver, a lineman and 2 helpers to the standard crew, 
at an additional cost of $19.90 per day, based on the same rates. 
This would make the total crew cost $46.45 per day. It is estimated 
that this crew can hang up 1^^ miles of trolley per day, the adjust- 
ment of alignment on curves and special layouts being covered in 
the cost of the layouts. This would make the average cost of 
stringing $31 per mile. 

Overhead Trolley Construction in Chicago. The following data 
are abstracted from Detailed Exhibits of the Physical Property and 
Intangible Values of the South Chicago City Railway Co., and the 
Calumet-Electric Street Railway Co., as of February 1, 1908, ac- 
companying the Valuation Report by B. J, Arnold and George Wes- 
ton. 

TABLE XIV. UNIT POLE COSTS 

WOOD POLES, CEDAR 

Length, ft., and diam. top, ^^ ^ 

ins 30-7 35-7 40-8 45-8 50-8 50-8 

Pole ' $5.20 $8.10 $11.45 $15.10 $15.40 $17.60 

Labor 2.80 2.90 3.05 3.25 3.60 4.00 

Tots.! cost 

Heeled 'and breasted 8.75 11.75 15.20 19.10 19.75 22.35 

Set in barrels 9.50 12.00 15.50 19.35 20.00 22.60 

Set in rock 10.00 13.00 16.50 20.35 21.00 23.60 

Set in 1 yd. concrete 11.50 14.50 18.00 21.85 22.50 25.10 

With S. P. brace 9.00 12.50 16.00 19.85 20.50 22.10 



1614 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 
The scrap value of each of the above was estimated to be $1.00. 

IRON POLES 

Length, ft 25 30 30 30 35 35 

Size, in 4-5-6 4-5-6 5-6-7 6-7-8 5-6-7 6-7-8 

Weight, lb 450 525 1100 1322 1220 1479 

Cost, pole only,* dol 15.75 18.37 38.50 46.27 42.70 51.76 

Cost, set in 1 yd. concrete. 

dol. 22.37 25.18 46.75 55.00 51.25 61.00 

Scrap value, dol 1.69 1.97 4.15 4.95 4.55 5.55 

* Based upon a price of $0,035 per lb. 

WOOD POLE CROSS SPAN CONSTRUCTION 

1 TROLLEY, 1 TRACK 

2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 

48 ft. span wire 0.55 

2 wood strain insulators 0.40 

1 Ohio brass, or equal, hanger 0.45 

1 trolley ear, 12-in.* 0.35 

Labor 2.00 

$3.99 

* For 15-in. ears add $0.20 for each ear to prices given. 

1 TROLLEY, 1 TRACK, FEED SPAN 

2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 

36 ft. No. 1/0 solid copper wire 1.47 

19 ft. span wire 0.21 

2 wood strain insulators 0.40 

2 trolley ears, feeder 0.70 

1 stud bolt 0.15 

Labor 2.00 

$5.17 
Scrap value $1.25 

2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 

The cost of this will be the same as that of 1 trolley, 1 track, 
plus 1 hanger, $0.45, and 1 ear, $0.35, a total of $4.79. If no wood 
strains or only one wood strain is used the costs will be $4.39 and 
$4.59 respectively. If 2 Anderson solid hangers, $0.76, are used 
instead of O. B. hangers the cost is $4.65, instead of $4.79. 

2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS, FEED SPAN 

The cost of this is $5.87, being that of 1 trolley, 1 track, feed 
span, $5.17, plus 2 trolley ears, $0.70. The scrap value is $1.45. 
Another type is as follows : 

2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts $0.24 

48 ft. span wire 0.55 

51 ft. No. 1/0 solid copper wire 2.65 

2 O. B.. or equal, hangers 0.90 

2 trolley feed ears 0.70 

2 wood strains 0.40 

Labor 2.00 

$7.44 
Scrap value $1.75 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1615 

4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 

2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts SO 24 

82 ft. span wire '. ] ' q 92 

3 wood strains ■ 60 

4 O. B., or equal, hangers . . 180 

4 ears, 12-in " 1*40 

Labor '...'.'. 2^00 

$6.96 
IRON POLE CROSS SPAN CONSTRUCTION 

2 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 

2 pole collars $0.18 

2 globe strain insulators '.\ o!60 

48 ft. span wire 0.55 

2 wood strain insulators \ . 0^40 

2 O. B., or equal, hangers 90 

2 trolley ears, 12-in 0.70 

Labor 2.50 

$5.83 

3 TROLLEYS, 3 TRACKS 

2 pole collars $0.18 

6 globe strains 1^80 

48 ft. span wire ' 0.55 

3 O. B., or equal, hangers 1.35 

3 trolley ears, 12-in 1.05 

Labor 2.50 

$7.43 
IRON CENTER POLE CONSTRUCTION 

4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS 

1 O. B. bracket for iron poles, type " D " $ 7.92 

4 Anderson solid hangers 1.52 

4 trolley ears, 12-in 1.40 

Labor 4.00 

$14.84 

4 TROLLEYS, 2 TRACKS, FEED TAP 

In addition to the above the feeder tap has 18 ft. No. 1/0 copper 
wire R. C, $1.41, and 5 ft. 1 in. loons, $0.50, making a total of 
$16.75. The scrap value is $1.00. 

Labor Cost of Overhead Trolley Work. The unit costs of re- 
building a trolley line 7.68 miles long in Washington follows: 

Distributing 401 poles, each $0.70 

Digging 401 holes, each 4.00 

Shaving 25 poles, each 116 

Setting and tamping 401 poles, each 2.70 

Framing 401 poles, each ' 0.70 

Double arming and bracing, 7.68 miles, per mile 55.04 

Guying, 7.68 miles, per mile 21.75 

Distributing material, 7.68 miles, per mile 8.35 

Putting up 95 spans, each 1-25 

Trolley work, 9,5 miles, per mile 91.90 

Putting up 115.000 ft. feeders, per ft 0.0057 

Taking down old trolleys, 9.5 miles, per mile 8.88 



1616 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The wag-es of linemen were 30 cts, per hour ; and of helpers, 
25 cts. per hour. 

The following- actual labor costs are for 4.12 miles of new trolley 
line work, totaling $3,188 or $775 per mile, including $212 per mi. 
for trainmen : 

Dig-ging 215 holes, each $ 1.04 

Raising 215 poles, each 1.39 

Framing 215 poles, each 0.93 

Hauling 215 poles, incl. loading and distributing, each 0.60 

Guying and bracing 75 poles, each 3.98 

Stringing 4.12 miles of trolley, incl. building curves, per mile 108.00 

Putting up 180 brackets, each 0.54 

Miscellaneous, 4.12 miles 33.61 

Telephone and telegraph, 12.36 miles of wire, per mile 14.20 

Stringing feeder, 4.12 miles, per mile 63.50 

The cost of setting 57 3 5 -ft. trolley poles, same place, was as 
follows, per pole : 

Digging holes $1.49 

Raising poles 1.25 

Framing poles '. 0.97 

Hauling poles 0.49 

Miscellaneous labor 0.30 

Total per pole $4.50 

The cost of putting up 48 trolley wire spans was $1.45 each. 

Valuation of Distribution System of the Chicago Consolidated 
Traction Co. From an article by P. J. Kealy, Engineering and Con- 
tracting, Oct. 5, 1910. 

The electric power distribution system has been divided into : 
Overhead Trolley Construction ; Feeder System ; Electrical Track 
Bonding ; Conduit System. 

The report on the valuation by B. J. Arnold includes a de- 
tailed estimate of all poles, cross span construction, fittings, 
trolley wire, feeder wire (positive and negative), feeder attach- 
ments and supports, track bonding cable, wire, etc., together with 
special work construction at the curves and in car houses. 

In arriving at the cost new of the poles, wire attachments, and 
all equipment whatsoever, the actual cost of the material and labor 
was estimated at the present time (Nov. 1, 1909), and to this was 
added 15% for organization, engineering, and incidentals. The de- 
tailed inventory of the entire system was made by inspection, and 
all quantities, kinds, conditions, and character whatsoever were 
fully noted in detail, from which the cost has been estimated. 

Overhead Trolleys. — There are 129.623 miles of overhead trolley 
construction, the valuation of which is summarized as follows : 

Cost new 

Owned by companies $207,339 

Outside interests '. 8,460 

Net total $198,879 

Org., eng. and inc., 15% 29,832 

Grand total $228,711 

Per mile 1,759 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 



1617 



The unit costs used in figuring transmission line values are shown 
by Tables XV. XVI. XVII and XVIII. 

TABLE XV. TROLLEY AND FEEDER COST DATA 



■^-M 



Kind 



Trolley 

Trolley 

Trolley 

Trolley , 

W. P 

Scrap , 

W. P 

Scrap , 

W. P 

Scrap 

W. P 

Scrap 

W. P 

Bare 

Scrap 

Lead 

Covered .... 
5/32 Rubber. 
1/8 Lead . . . 



1/0 
1/0 
2/0 
2/0 
2/0 
2/0 
4/0 
4/0 
350 
350 
500 
500 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

350 

500 



Size. 



New 

(18/64 scrap) 

New 

(20/64 scrap) 



M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils. 

M. cir. mils, 

M. cir. mils. 



'O —i 



-MO 

^t 
01 CD 

^a 

319.5 
239.0 
402.8 
296.0 
522 
410 
800 
653 
1,345 
1,076 
1,894 
1,540 
3,674 
3,100 
3,100 

3,495 

4,254 



-M u 

ga 

$0,047 
0.027 
0.059 
0.033 
0.077 
0.045 
0.118 
0.073 
0.202 
0.119 
0.284 
0.171 
0.551 
0.468 
0.344 



1^ 

^a 

$0.01 

o'.oi 
o'.oi 
o'.oi 

6.015 

o'.6i5 
o'.64 

0.04 



$0,057 

0.069 

0.087 

0".i28 

6.217 

0.299 

0'.59i 
0.508 



0.506 0.04 0.546 
0.63 0.04 0.67 



In arriving at the above prices, quotations of November 1, 1909, 
were used, namely : 

Bar Copper at mill 0.1325 per lb. 

Solid Wire (either bare or weather 

proof) 0.1460 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 

Stranded Bare Cable 0.1510 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 

Stranded W. P. Cable 0.1485 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 

Scrap Value (Copper Wire and bronze 

parts) 0.11 per lb. f.o.b. Chicago 

1% was added for sag. 

TABLE XVI. POLE COSTS : IRON POLES 



Size, 


Length, 


Weight, 


Cost 
pole 
only 


Set in 
street 


Set 
inside 


in. 


ft. 


lb. 


in con- 


curb in 








crete 


concrete 


4-5-6 


28 


503 


$14.83 


$20.83 


$25.45 


4-5-6 


30 


532 


15.63 


21.63 


26.25 


5-6 


30 


546 


16.02 


22.02 


26.64 


5-6-7 


30 


675 


19.55 


25.55 


30.17 


5-6-7 


311/2 


955 


• 27.25 


33.25 


37.87 


5-6-7 


31 


689 


19.95 


25.95 


30.57 


5-6-7 


33 


731 


21.11 


27.11 


31.73 


4-5-6-7 


33 


722 


20.86 


26.86 


31.48 


5-6-7 


35 


778 


22.27 


28.27 


32.89 


4-5-6-7 


40 


852 


24.40 


30.40 


35.02 


5-6-7-8 


40 


1,052 


29.95 


35.95 


40.57 


5-6-7 


45 


950 


27.15 


33.15 


37.77 


6-7-8 


30 


829 


23.80 


29.80 


34.42 


6-7-8 


31 


876 


25.10 


31.10 


35.72 



1618 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Size. 


Length, 


Weight, 


Cost 
pole 
only 


Set in 
street 


Set 
inside 


in. 


ft. 


lb. 


m con- 


curb in 








crete 


concrete 


6-7-8 


33 


916 


26.30 


32.30 


36.92 


6-7-8 


35 


966 


27.55 


33.55 


38.17 


6-7-8 


40 


1,087 


30.90 


36.90 


41.52 


6-7-8-9 


40 


1,273 


36.00 


42.00 


46.62 


6-7-8 


45 


1,273 


36.00 


42.00 


46.62 


6-7-8-9 


45 


1,428 


40.30 


46.30 


50.92 


6-7-8-9 


50 


1,602 


45.04 


51.04 


55.66 



(Bracket Type complete.) 
3-4-5-6 30 913 



31.00 



41.62 



TABLrE XVII. POLE COSTS ; WOOD POLES 



Diam. 


Length, 
ft. 


Cost 


Cost of setting 


of top, 


of 


(labor, material, 


in. 


pole 


cartage) 


6 


20 


$1.00 


$2.80 


6 


25 


2.00 


3.50 


6 Special 


30 


1.95 


3.95 


7 


30 


4.45 


4.05 


8 


30 


6.10 


4.05 


6 


35 


4.45 


4.05 


7 


35 


6.10 


4.05 


8 


35 


7.30 


4.20 


6 


40 


6.13 


4.20 


7 


40 


7.30 


4.20 


8 Special 


40 


7.30 


4.20 


6 


45 


7.30 


4.60 


7 


45 


9.00 


4.60 


8 


45 


9.00 


4.60 


6 


50 


9.00 


5.00 


7 


50 


12.00 


5.00 


8 


50 


12.50 


5.00 


7 


60 


16.00 


5.00 


Stub 


30 


6.10 


4.05 


Stub 


35 


7.30 


4.20 



Total 
cost 

$3.80 
5.50 
5.90 
8.50 
10.15 
8.50 
10.15 
11.50 
10.33 
11.50 
11.50 
11.90 
13.60 
13.60 
14.00 
17.00 
17.50 
21.00 
10.15 
11.50 



TABLE XVIII. UNIT COSTS OP SPAN CONSTRUCTION OP 
VARIOUS TYPES 

A. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 

Total 

2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.50 

2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

2 Straight line hangers. W. E. Type A or equal, at $0.40.. 0.80 

2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 

45 Pt. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.36 

Labor 2.50 

$5.86 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.29 

Total $6.15 

B. Two Trolleys — Section Insulators — Span Construction — 
Two Iron Poles. 

Total 

2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.50 

2 Brooklyns (mediums, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 9.00 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1619 

45 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 , . . 0.36 

Labor 2.50 

$13.56 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.68 

Total $14.24 

C. Two Trolleys — Feeder Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 

Total 

2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt) , at $0.25 $0.50 

2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

2 Wood strains, 1^4 -in. by 9 1/2 -in., at $0.15 0.30 

2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 

30 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 3.54 

15 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.12 

Labor 2.50 

$9.06 
Incidentals and waste at 5% .45 

Total $9.51 

D. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — One Wood and One Iron 

Pole. 

Total 

1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.25 

1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 0.60 

1 Steel eyebolt, 12-in., at $0.05 0.05 

2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40. . . . 0.80 
2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 

40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.32 

Labor 2.50 

$5.02 
Incidentals and waste at 5% .25 

Total $5.27 

E. Two Trolleys — Section Insulators — Span Construction — One 

Wood and One Iron Pole. 

Total 

1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.25 

1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 0.60 

1 Insulated eyebolt, at $0.16 0.16 

1 Wood strain, 1^4 -in. by 91/,-in., at $0.15 0.15 

2 Section insulators (Phila. Type), at $4.50 9.00 

35 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 4.13 

12 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.10 

Labor 2.50 

$16.89 
Incidentals and waste at 5% .84 

Total $17.73 

F. Two Trolleys — Feeder Span Construction — One Wood and 

One Iron Pole. 

Total 

1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.25 

2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

2 Wood strains, 1 14 -in., 9 Vz -in., at $0.15 0.30 

1 Insulated eyebolt, at $0.16 0.16 

2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 

30 Ft. 4/0 W. P. wire, at $0,118 3.54 



1620 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

12 Ft. 5/16-m. span wire, at $0.008 0.10 

Labor 2,50 

$8.95 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.45 

Total $9.40 

G. Two Trolleys — Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 

Total 

2 Insulated eyebolts, at $0.16 $0.32 

2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 0.80 

2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 

30 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.24 

Labor 2.50 

$4.36 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.22 

Total ' $4.58 

H. Two Trolleys Feeder Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 

Total 

2 Insulated eyebolts at $0.16 $0.32 

1 Globe strain, 2i^-in. at $0.25 0.25 

1 Wood strain, li/4-in. by 91/2-in., at $0.15 0.15 

2 Solid feed hanger ears, at $0.45 0.90 

30 Ft. 2/0 W. P. wire, at $0.77 2.31 

20 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.16 

Labor 2.50 

$6.59 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.33 

Total $6.92 

I. Two Trolley — Section Insulators — Span Construction — Two 

Poles. 

Total 
2 Insulated eyebolts at $0.16 $ 0.32 

1 Wood strain, li^ by 9i^-in., at $0.15 0.15 

2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 9.00 

45 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.36 

Labor 2.50 

$12.33 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.62 

Total $12.95 

K. One Trolley — Span Construction — Two Iron Poles. 

Total 

2 Pole bands (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $0.50 

2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40. . . . 0.40 

1 Ear, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.25 

40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0,008 0.32 

Labor , 2.00 

Labor 2.00 

$4.67 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.23 

Total $4.90 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1621 

N. One Trolley — Span Construction — One Iron and One Wood 

Pole. 

1 Pole band (solid 2-bolt), at $0.25 $ 0.25 

1 Brooklyn (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 o!60 

1 Insulated eyebolt at $0.16 16 

1 Wood strain, 1 % in. by 9 Va in., at $0.15 ! o!l5 

1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 . . . 0.40 

1 Ear, 12 in. clinch, at $0.25 25 

40 Ft. ^Vie in. span wire, at $0,008 0.32 

Labor 2.00 

$4.13 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.21 

Total $4.34 

O. One Trolley — Span Construction — Two Wood Poles. 

Total 

2 Insulated eyebolts, at $0.16 $0.32 

1 Straight line hanger, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 0.40 

1 Ear, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.25 

1 Wood strain, 1^4 -in. by 9i^-in., at $0.15 0.15 

40 Ft. 5/16-in. span wire, at $0.008 0.32 

Labor 2.00 

$3.44 
Incidentals and waste at 5% \ 0.17 

Total $3.61 

P. Two Trolleys — Center Pole Construction — One Iron Bracket 

Pole. 

Total 

2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal, at $0.40 $0.80 

2 Ears, 12-in. clinch, at $0.25 0.50 

Labor 2.50 

$3.80 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.19 

Total $3.99 

Q. Two Trolleys — Section Insulation — Center Pole Construction 
— One Iron Bracket Pole. 

Total 

2 Section insulators (Phila. type), at $4.50 $ 9.00 

2 Brooklyns (medium, malleable iron), at $0.60 1.20 

Labor 2.50 

$12.70 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.64 

Total $13.34 

R. Two Trolleys — Feeder Tap — Center Pole Construction — One 
Iron Bracket Pole. 

Total 

2 Straight line hangers, W. E. type A or equal at $0.40 $ 0.80 

2 Ears, 12 in. feed tap (cast lug), at $0.30 0.60 

20 Ft. 4/0 w. p. wire, at $0.18 2.36 

Labor 2.50 

% 6.26 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.31 

Total $ 6.57 



1622 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

S. Two Trolleys — Under Elevated Structure, 

Total 
2 Guide troughs, 30 in. by 12 in. by 3 in. wood, at $1.50 ... $ 3.00 

2 Barn hangers, at $0.40 0.80 

2 Ears, 12 in. clinch, at $0.25 0,50 

Labor 1.50 

% 5.80 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.29 

Total $ 6.09 

T. Two Trolleys — Under Elevated Structure. 

Total 

2 Guide troughs, 30 In. by 12 in. by 3 in. wood, at $1.50 ... $ 3.00 

2 Barn hangers, at $0.40 0.80 

2 Ears, 12 in. feed tap (cast lug), at $0.30 0.60 

12 ft. 2/0 w. p. wire, at $0.077 0.93 

Labor 1.50 

% 6.83 
Incidentals and waste at 5% 0.34 

Total $ 7.17 

In appraising the transmission line the construction was separated 
into the following types of spans : 

A, Two trolleys — span construction — two iron poles, 

B, Two trolleys — section insulators — span construction — two 

iron poles. 

C, Two trolleys — feeder span construction — two iron poles. 

D, Two trolleys — span construction — one iron and one wood 

pole. 

E, Two trolleyg — section insulators — span construction — 'One 

iron and one wood pole. 
P. Two trolleys — feeder span construction — one iron and one 

wood pole. 
G. Two trolleys — span construction — two wood poles. 
H. Two trolleys — feeder span construction — two wood poles. 
1. Two trolleys — section insulators — span construction — two 

wood poles. 
K. One trolley — span construction — two iron poles. 
N. One trolley — span construction — one iron and one wood pole. 
O. One trolley — span construction — two wood poles. 
P. One trolley — center pole construction — one iron bracket pole. 
Q. One trolley — section insulators — center pole construction — 

one iron bracket pole. 
R. One trolley — feeder tap — center pole construction — one iron 

bracket pole. 
S. Two trolleys — under elevator structure. 
T. Two trolleys — feeder tap — under elevated structure. 

In inventorying the line these general types of span were esti- 
mated and also every variation of type. For example, an estimate 
was made of general type A and of 24 variations of this type. 
Usually these variations are in minor details and change the cost 
per span only a fraction, so that we give here only the itemized costs 
of the general types as in Table XVIII, 

In estimating the wearing life of trolley wire, 1/0 was assumed 
to have a wearing value of SOi/o lbs. per 1,000 ft. and 2/0 of 106.8 
lbs. In a few instances the trolley wire was found to have reached 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1623 

the estimated wearing value,' and to be in need of removal, but 
still in service. The report, therefore, indicates it as having " ex- 
cessive wearing value." 

Feeder System. — On account of the absence of data on the year 
of installation or renewals of feeders, and on the interchange of 
wire from and to the various sections, each section was inspected 
to determine the present worth. A summary of the valuation of 
the feeder system is given in Table XX. 

Bonding. — In estimating the cost of electrical track bonding, the 
various types of track and special work were inspected, and the 
quantity, size, and kind of wire, etc., used were noted in detail, and 
in depreciating the life of 20 years was taken. Table XXI gives 
the amounts and values for electrical track bonding. 

Conduit Line. — The small amount of conduit line was estimated 
as follows : 

Material Cost new 

7,912 ft. of 6-duct conduit and 18 manholes $ 9,494.40 

Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 1,424.16 

$10,918.56 

TABLE — FEEDER SYSTEM 

Material Cost new 

Feeder, copper, 1,745,559 feet (330.586 miles) $367,942.83 

Feeder, labor, 330.586 miles ($72.01 average per mile) . . 23,807.04 

Feeder, equipment, part 1 50,599.92 

Feeder, equipment, part 2 6,506.27 

Feeder, equipment, part 3 4,881.44 

Feeder, equipment, part 4 18,715.10 

Feeder, equipment, part 5 75.31 

Feeder, equipment, part 6 395.22 

Feeder, equipment, part 7 614.78 

Feeder, equipment (C. & P.) 1,863.73 

$475,401.64 
Organization, engineering and incidentals, 15% 71,310.25 

$546,711.89 
Storeroom stock. Center and Racine Aves 2,149.69 

Total $548,861.58 

Weight of Materials for Span Wires. Data, January, 1914. The 
following materials usually make up the span on double track 
construction. 

4 — strain insulators. 
2 — straight line hangers. 
2 — trolley ears. 
— seven-trand galvanized iron wire. 

Straight-line hangers ■ 3.25 lb. each 

Ears 0.8 lb. each 

^4 -in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.125 lb. per ft. 

yi6-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.21 lb. per ft. 

%-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.295 lb. per ft. 

7/i6-in. galvanized wire, 7-strand 0.415 lb. per ft. 

4/0 trolley wire per ft 0.6393 lb. 



1624 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

3/0 trolley wire per ft 0.5073 lb. 

2/0 trolley wire per ft - 0.4024 lb. 

1/0 trolley wire per ft 0.3194 lb. 

Strain insulators 2.25 lb. each 

Unit Costs of Overhead Construction. The following are esti- 
mated costs of trolley line work on the Pacific Coast prior to the 
war. 

Plain Insulated Span Wires. 

Hauling and distributing: Two helpers at $0.30 per hr., with a 
team and teamster at $0.75 per hr. can cut and distribute 24 span 
wires per hr., at a cost of $0,044 per span wire. Use $0.05. 

Making Up: One lineman at $0.50 per hr., using a helper at 
$0.30 per hr. one-half of the time, can make up one span, with one 
eyebolt and two strain insulators, four spans in one hr., at a cost 
of $0.16 per span. 

Placing: One lineman at $0.50 per hr., using a helper at $0.30 
per hr. half the time can bore the holes and place wire in 30 mins., 
at a cost of $0.32 per span. 

Foreman's time: Allow 10% of the above labor cost for foreman's 
time, amounting to $0.03 per span. 

Material : 

45 ft. of -yie in. galvanized strand at $0.99 per C $0.45 

2 % in. by 14 in. eye bolts, at $0.08 . 0.16 

2 wood strain insulators, at $0.23 0.46 

Total material $1.07 

Labor : 

Hauling and distributing 0.05 

Making up 0.16 

Placing 0.32 

Foreman 0.03 

Total labor $0.56 

Total material and labor $1.63 

Straight Line Hangers: 

Labor Placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., and a team and 

teamster at $0.75 per hr., can place 6 straight line hangers, with 

ears, and line up the trolley in one hour. 

Labor per hanger $0.29 

Foreman's time 10% of above 0.03 

Total labor $ 0.32 

Material : 

1 straight line hanger 0.45 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

Total material $0.70 

Total material and labor $1.02 

Single Pull Hangers on Standard Curves: 

Labor placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., one helper at $0.30 
per hr., and a team with teamster at $0.75 per hr. can make strand 
into ring, place hanger and ear and line up trolley at rate of 2 per hr. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1625 

Cost per hang-er $1.02 

Foreman's time 10% of above 0.10 

Total labor $1.12 

Material : 

1 single pull hanger 0.45 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

30 ft. Vi in. galvanized strand at $0.66 per C. ft 0.20 

0.6 wood strainer insulator, at $0.23 0.14 

1 2 in. galvanized ring 0.08 

Total material $1.12 

Total material and labor . $2.24 

Single Pull Hangers on Old Curves: 

Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear 
and line up trolley at rate of 3 per hr. 

Labor per hanger $0.70 

Foreman's time. 10% of above 0.07 

Total labor $0.77 

Material : 

1 single pull hanger 0.45 

0.6 wood strain insulator at $0.23 0.18 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

20 ft. 14 in. galvanized strand at $0.66 per C. ft 0.13 

Total material $1.01 

Total material and labor $1,78 

Double Pull Hangers on New Curves: 

Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear, 

make strand into ring and line up the trolley at the rate of 1 14 

per hour. 

Labor per hanger $1.37 

Foreman's time, 10% of above 0.13 

Total labor $1.50 

Material : 

1 double pull hanger 0.51 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

1 wood strain insulator 0.23 

35 ft. 14 in. galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.23 

1 2 in. galvanized iron ring 0.08 

Total material $1.30 

Total material and labor $2.80 

Double Pull Hangers on Old Curves: 

Labor placing : Same crew as above will place hanger and ear 

and line up the trolley at the rate of 2 per hr. 

Labor per hanger $1.02 

Foreman's time, 10% of above 0.10 

Total labor $1.12 

Material : 

1 double pull hanger 0.51 

1 suspension ear 0.25 



1626 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

1 wood strain insulator $0.23 

25 ft. of % in, galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.17 

Total material $1.16 

Total material and labor $2.28 

Bridge Hangers: 

Labor placing: One lineman at $0.50 per hour and one helper at 

$0.30 per hour can place hanger and ear and hang up trolley at rate 

of 5 per hr. 

Labor per hanger $0.16 

Foreman's time, 10% 0.02 

Total labor 0.18 

Material : 

1 bridge hanger 0,42 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

Total material $0.67 

Total material and labor $0.85 

Double Pull Hangers in Spans: 

Labor placing: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., with a tower wagon 

and driver at $0.75 per hr.. can set a double pull hanger and ear in a 

straight span and line trolley in 20 mins. 

Labor per hanger $0,58 

Foreman's time, 10% of above 0,06 

Total labor $0.64 

Material : 

1 double pull hanger 0.51 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

Total material . . $0.76 

Total material and labor $1.40 

Trolley Circuit Breakers: 

Labor placing: The same gang under same conditions will place 
circuit breaker in 30 mins,, at a cost of $1.13 

Material : 

1 trolley circuit breaker $3.50 

Total material and labor $4.63 

Trolley Strain Guys: 

All guys for holding switch-pans, curves, and trolley, etc, in 
place are designated as " Strain Guys," 

Labor placing : The same gang as above under same conditions 
will make up and place a strain guy in 20 mins. 

Labor per guy $0.71 

Material : 

1 wood strain insulator 0.23 

60 ft. 5/i6 in. galvanized strand, at $0.99 per C 0.59 

Total material $0.82 

Total material and labor $1.53 

Trolley Strain Plates: 

Labor Placing: % 

1 lineman at $0.50 per hr $0.50. 

1 helper at $0.30 per hr 0.30 

can place 2 strain plates per hr. for $0.80 

averaging, each 0.40 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1627 

Material : 

1 strain plate . .". 0.45 

Total material and labor $0.85 

Crossings, Live: 

Labor placing-: Two linemen at $0.50 per hr., a helper at 
$0.30 per hr. with a team and teamster at $0.75 per 
hr. will place crossing- while lining trolley in 30 mins., 
at a cost of $1.03 

Foreman's time. 10% of above 0.10 

Total labor $1.13 

Material : 

1 live trolley crossing 3.25 

Total material and labor $4.38 

Crossings, Insulated, Adjustable: 

Labor placing: The same gang- working under same condi- 
tions will place crossing in 1 hr., at a cost of $2.26 

Material : 

1 adjustable insulated crossing 4.05 

Total material and labor $6.31 

Switch Pans: 

Labor placing: : The same gang working under same condi- 
tions will place switch pan in 30 mins., at a cost of .... $1.13 

Material : 

1 trolley switch pan 2.10 

Total material and labor $3.23 

Trolley Section Switches: 

Labor : 

1 lineman II/2 hrs., at $0.50 $0.75 

1 helper li/^ hrs., at $0.30 0.45 

$1.20 
Foreman's time, 10% 0.12 

Total labor $1.32 

Material : 

1 200-amp. 600-volt switch and box $6.50 

25 ft. 2/0 w. p. wire at $0.0779 1.95 

6 insulators at $0.17 1.02 

6 standard pins at $0.02 0.12 

1/2 lb. solder at $0.20 0.10 

Miscellaneous material 0.10 

Total material o.^^'^^ 

Total material and labor $11.11 

Cost of Signal Apparatus. 

Stringing Block Wire: The cost of labor and material per loop 
mile of #10 w. p. iron wire is $83.75. Placing Block Lights and 
connecting : 

1 lineman, 2 hrs., at $0.50 $1-00 

2 helpers, 2 hrs., at $0.30 1-20 

Total, 2 hrs $2.20 



1628 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

In 2 hrs. this gang place and connect two block lights, an average 
of $1.10 each. This allows for time used in moving from one end 
of block to the other. 

Hauling: Block lights are placed after the system is in operation. 
On the basis of $0.30 per car mile a lineman and helper can dis- 
tribute 30 block lights per day. The car travels 40 miles in a day. 

40 miles at $0.30 $12.00 

1 lineman 4.00 

1 helper 2.40 

Total for 30 block lights $18.40 

The aiverage per block is $0,61. 
Summary: 

1 set block lights $230.00 i 

120 ft. w. p. iron wire, at $0.006 0.72 

2 %-in. machine bolts at $0.05 0.10 

4 %-in. round washers 0.01 

12 porcelain knobs at $0.01 0.12 

4 locust pins at $0.02 0.08 

2 2-pin cross arms at $0.35 0.70 

10 ft. wood moulding at $0.02 0.20 

4 standard glass insulators at $0.04 0.16 

Total material $232.09 

Labor placing and connecting $ 1.10 

Hauling 0.61 

Labor on switch 2.00 

Total materials and labor $235.15 

Hand Operated Semaphores: 

The approximate cost of labor and material is $10. 
Placing overhead switches: 

1 lineman, 8 hrs., at $0.50 $ 4.00 

1 helper, 8 hrs., at $0.30 2.40 

12 car miles at $0.30 3.60 

Total per day $10.00 

This gang can place 5 overhead switches, an average of $2.00 
each. This includes time of moving from one end of block to the 
other. 

Srimmary: 

1 switch $12.50 

80 ft. #10 w. p. iron wire at $0.006 0.48 

4 std. glass insulators at $0.04 0.16 

4 locust pins at $0.02 0.08 

Labor 2.00 

Total material and labor . $15.22 

Overhead Signal Switches: 

Labor Placing: Signal switches are placed after the switches are 
in operation and a line car is used in distributing material. Car 
mileage is figured at $0.30 per mile and the crew will cover about 
5 miles per day. 

1 This price is for light only. A light and disc semaphore cbst^ 
3,bout $25 more. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1629 

1 foreman, 8 hrs., at $0.56 . , .<.»...< $ 4 48 

2 linemen, 8 hrs., at $0.50 8 00 

2 helpers, 8 hrs., at $0.30 4.80 

5 car miles, $0.30 1.50 

Total labor for 10 switches $18.78 

Labor per switch $ 1.88 

Material : 

1 switch ' $ 2.50 

60 ft. 5/i6-in. gal. strand, at $0.99 per C 0.59 

2 %-in. by 14-in. eye bolts, at $0.08 0.16 

2 insulators, at $0.23 0.46 

1 feeder type tap ear 0.25 

40 ft. 2 pr. #6 standard r. c. copper, at $0.07 2.80 

Solder, tap and misc. material 0.25 

Total material $ 7.01 

Total material and labor $ 8.89 

Cost Knife Switch: 

1 600 volt, 600 ampere knife switch $10.50 

25 ft. 300 M. cir. mils, cable, at $0.176 4.40 

6 insulators, at $0.17 1.02 

6 pins, at $0.02 0.12 

1/2 lb. solder at $0.20 0.10 

Switch box 1.50 

Misc. material 0.10 

Total material $17.74 

1 lineman, 1 1/2 hrs., at $0.50 0.75 

1 helper, " " " 0.30 0.45 

Foreman's time, 10% 0.12 

Total material and labor $19.06 

Overhead signs. These will be placed after the system is in 
operation. On the basis of $0.30 per car-mile one motorman and 
one lineman can place 65 signs in two days, covering about 75 mis. 
It will take about 10 hrs. of this time running the car, but this is 
included in the $0.30 for car mileage. The remaining 6 hrs. are 
used in placing the 65 signs, 

75 mi. at $0.30 $22.50 

1 lineman 6 hrs. at $0.50 3.00 

1 motorman, " " 0.30 1.80 

Total for 65 signs, at $0.42 $27.30 

The signs cost about $0.50, hence the total cost is $0.92 in place. 

Cluster Lights: 
1 lineman at $4.00 and one helper at $2.40 can install 4 

clusters per 8 hr. day, averaging $1.60 

1 bracket and reflector 3.00 

5 16-cp. 120-volt lamps, at $0.15 0.75 

1 3-ampere 600-volt switch and fuse block 0.4^ 

10 ft. wood moulding, at $0.02 0.20 

2 lag screws, at $0.017 0.03 

10 ft. #10 w. p. iron wire, at $0,006 0.06 

1 glass insulator 0.04 

Total material and labor $6.11 



1630 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Feeder Taps on Single Track: 

Labor placing: The same gang- as for overhead signal 
switches will make up, place on poles and tap to trolley 
and feeder in 1 hr., at a cost of $2.26 

Material : 

15 ft. of %6-in. galvanized strand, at $0.99 per C 0.15 

35 ft. 2/0 double braid w. p. copper, at $16.40 per C 4.11 

2 %-in. by 12-in. eye bolts, at $0.08 0.16 

2 wood strain insulators, at $0.23 0.46 

1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 

1 suspension bar 0.25 

Tape, solder, paste, etc 0.05 

Total material $5.48 

Total material and labor $7.74 

Feeder Taps on Double Track: 

Labor placing: Allow 15 mins. additional time over 
single track for placing extra hanger and ear, 
making 1% hours, at a cost of $2.75 $2.75 

Material : 

Same as single track $5.48 plus 

1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

Total material $6.03 

Total material and labor $8.78 

Feeder Taps on Mast Arm. Construction: 

Labor Placing : This gang can make up and place and tap to 
feeder and trolley in 1 hr. 

1 lineman, 1 hr., at $0.50 $0.50 

1 helper, 1 hr., at $0.30 0.30 

$0.80 
Add 10% for foreman's wages 0.08 

Total labor $0.88 

Material : 

15 ft. 2/0 w. b. w. p. copper $1.14 

1 feeder tap hanger and bolt 0.30 

1 suspension ear 0.25 

Tape, solder, paste, etc 0.05 

Total material $1.74 

Total material and labor . $2.62 

Mast Ar^ns: 

Labor Placing: Allow for distributing $0.10 per mast arm. One 
lineman at $0.50 and a helper at $0.30 per hr. will place mast arm 
ready for hanger in 30 mins. at a cost of $0.40. 

Total labor $0.50 

Material : 

1 mast arm ^«-19 

2 i/a-in. by 3y2-in. lag screws, at $0,013 0.03 

8 ft. of % in. galvanized strand, at $0.66 per C 0.05 

1 %-in. by 14-in. eye bolt 0.08 

Total material f o"a^ 

Total material and labor $3.06 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1631 

Mast Arms — Angle Iron : 
Labor placing : 

Same as above $050 

Material : 

1 Mast arm 2 50 

Total material and labor "$3^00 

Steady Strain Arms: 

Labor, placing and distributing $0.13 

Material : 

1 strain arm 090 

1 strain ear !!!!!!....!. 0^22 

$1.12 

Total material and labor $1,25 

Messenger Insulators: 

Labor placing $0.03 

Material : 

1 insulator and pin ' 0.57 

Total material and labor $0.60 

Catenary Construction: 

Lgibor : 

Labor per mile $113.20 

Train rental and power 12.00 

Total labor $125.20 

Material : 

1 mile yi6-in. gal. strand, at $0.01 per ft $ 52.80 

1 mile (3,392 lbs.) 4/0 grooved trolley, at $15.90 per lb. 537.74 

352 gal. catenary hangers, at $23 per C 88.00 

Total material $678.54 

Total material and labor $803.74 

Trolley wire 1/0 Round: 
Labor placing : 

Unloading, per mile $ 0.25 

Hauling to job, per mile 2.00 

Two linemen at $0.50 per hr, and one helper at $0.30 per 
hr. and two teams and teamsters at $0.75 per hr. can 
string, pull up and tie to spans, with iron wire, one 

mile of trolley Avire in 8 hrs., at a cost of 22.40 

Foreman's time, 10% of above 2.50 

Total labor $27.15 

Material : 

1 mile of 1/0 round copper trolley 264.49 

Total materials and labor $291.64 

Trolley wire 2/0 Round: 
Labor placing : 

Same as 1/0, except add $0.50 per mile for hauling. 

Total labor $27.65 



1632 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA . 

Material : 

1 mile 2/0 round copper trolley (2,128 lbs.) 330.03 

Total material and labor $357.68 

Feeder, 250 M. dr. mil.j Triple Braid, W. P.: 
1 team and teamster and 1 helper can haul 1 load for $3.60 
as there are two reels of 1,600 ft. each per load, the 

cost per mile is $ 5.94 

Stringing-, tying and splicing 59.14 

Total labor per mi $ 65.08 

Material : 

1 mile cu. mil. stranded copper wire (5,343 lbs.), at 

$16.15 per C. lbs $852.72 

47 tie wires, at $0.05 2.35 

47 insulators, at $0.08 3.76 

47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 

Miscellaneous material 0.50 

Total material $860.27 

Total material and labor $925.35 

Feeder, 250 M. air. mil. Bare Stranded: 

Crew : 1 team and teamster and 1 helper can haul one load 
for $3.60. As there are two reels of 1,800 ft. each 

per load, the cost per mile is $ 5.28 

Stringing, tying and splicing 59.14 

Total labor $ 64.42 

Material : 

1 mile cir. mil. stranded copper wire, (4,026 lbs.), at 

$16.15 per C. lbs $650.20 

47 tie wires, at $0.05 2.35 

47 insulators, at $0.08 3.76 

47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 

Miscellaneous material 0.50 

Total material $657.75 

Total material and labor $722.17 

Feeder, 350 M. cir. mil. — Bare Stranded: 

Hauling : 

1 team and teamster, 1 day $ 6.00 

1 helper, 1 day 2.40 

21/2 loads per day, at $3.35 $ 8.40 

Add $0.25 for unloading equals $3.60 per load. 

As there are 2 reels of 1.700 ft. each per load, the cost 

per mile is $ 5.60 

Stringing, tying and splicing 55.47 

Total labor $ 61.07 

Material : 

1 mile stranded copper wire (5.636 lbs.), at $16.15 per 

C. lbs $921.45 

47 tie wires, at $0.05 v. 2.35 

47 insulators, at $0.08 3.75 

47 locust pins, at $0.02 0.94 

Miscellaneous material 0.50 

Total material $928.99 

Total material and labor $990.06 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1633 

Grounds^ 500 ilf. Cir. Mils.: 

Material : 

75 ft. of wire, at $0.28 $21 00 

35 ft. of 2-in. iron pipe, at $0,108 '.\\ a'go 

Miscellaneous material 2.OQ 

Total material $26.80 

Labor : 

Dig-ging- and refilling trench $ 2.50 

Placing iron pipe 0.20 

Splicing (1 splice) \ 0.25 

Bending (6 contacts) 0.50 

$ 4.20 
Foreman, 10% 0.40 

Total labor $ 4. 60 

2.75 sq. yds. asphalt pavement, at $3.80 10.45 

Total material and labor $41.85 

Unit cost per ft 0.56 

Grounds, 4/0 and 1/0 : 

Material: 4/0 1/0 

55 ft. of wire $6.45 $3.55 

Miscellaneous material 0.35 0.25 

Total material $6.80 $3.80 

Labor : 

Digging and refilling $1.75 $1.75 

Placing wire 0.25 0.25 

Splicing (1 splice) 0.20 0.20 

Bending (1 contact) 0.15 0.15 

$2.35 $2.35 

Foreman, 10% 0.25 0.25 

Total labor $2.60 $2.60 

Total material and labor $9.40 $6.40 

Track Bonding on an Interurban. The following was the cost 
of bonding an interurban road. The work consisted of removing 
the continuous rail joints on 60 and 70 lb. rails and Weber joints 
on other main line rails and angle bars on sidings, chipping rails 
with cold chisels where bonds were soldered, and putting on one 
250,000 cir. mils, or one 4/0 Chase Shawmut soldered bond at each 
joint, and replacing rail joint. 

New track bonded 12.792 miles with 2,058 (250,000 cir. mils.) bonds 
Old " " 10.513 " " 3,430 (mostly 4/0) 

Total " " 23.305 " " 5,488 

Cost of 5.488 Bonds: 

Labor : 

287 hr., foreman, blacksmith, time-keeper, etc., at 

$0.41 $ 118.34 

Miscellaneous labor other than construction crew 84.00 

4,696 hr. labor on new line at $0,268 1,231.99 

7,105 hr. labor on old line at $0.305 2,169.70 

Total labor $3,604.03 



1634 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Material : 

2,940 bonds 250.000 cir. mils, at $0.50 $1,470.00 

2,548 bonds 4/0 cir. mils, at $0,495 1,258.72 

$2,728.72 

Cable for cross bonds 85.18 

Tools 137.00 

Solder, 858 lb. at 23 ct 197.52 

Zinc, 150 lb. at 12 ct 17.82 

Gasolene, 840 gal. at 23 1^ ct 197.50 

Muriatic acid (42 g-al. at 69 ct. and 234 lb. at 3.4) .... 39.30 

Cotton rope and sash for wipers 3.90 

Freight and cartage 39.09 

Personal expense account 29.55 

Temporary construction prorated 147.00 

Superintendence not on pay roll 120.00 

Total material $3,742.58 

Total material and labor .. $7,346.61 

This is equivalent to $0.66 for labor and $0.67 for material, or a 
total of $1.33 per bond. 

Cost of Track Bonds, Street Ry. The following were the costs 
in a Pacific Coast city in 1906 to 1909. 

Chase Shawmut Bond. 4/0 : 

Cost of bond $0,294 

Material (mis.) 0.030 

Labor ... 0.080 

Total material and labor $0,404 

Stranded Copper Bond, 3/0 : 

Cost of bond, 36 in. long at 18.03 ct. per lb $0,346 

Labor 0.150 

Material (misc.) 0.040 

Total material and labor $0,536 

American Steel and Wire Co. Bond : 

Cost of bond $0,384 

Material (misc.) 0.020 

Labor 0.100 

Total material and labor $0,504 

The detail cost of 120 B. B. bonds was as follows: 
Material : 

120 B. B. bonds at $0.50 $60.00 

26 lb. solder at $0.19 4.94 

15 gal. gasoline at $0.15 2.25 

11^ gal. acid at $0.80 1.20 

4 10-in. files at $0.12 0.48 

1 White's blast 5.10 

40 lb. 4/0 solid copper at $0.04 1/4 1.70 

Total 120 bonds at $0.63 $75.67 

The labor averaged $0.30 per bond, making a total of $0.93 per 
bond for material and labor. 

Cost of Bonding, Chicago. The following costs are taken from 
tables in Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 5, 1910, and were used 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 



1635 



in making the valuation of the properties of the Chicago Consoli- 
dated Traction Co., by B. J. Arnold and G. W. Weston. 

2-joint bonds made of 2/0 stranded copper, 3 ft. long, cost $0.25 
for labor, $1.10 for material, a total of $1.35 each. A scrap value 
of $0.14 was assigned to these. 

Cross bonds, of 2/0 stranded copper, 23 ft. long, cost $0.80 each 
for labor and $1.40 for material, total of $2.20. To these was 
given a scrap value of $1.04. 

Ground returns, 500 M cir. mils, stranded copper, length 2,640 ft., 
were given a labor cost of $17.50; material, $613.80; total, $631.30; 
and a scrap value of $447.15. 

Ground returns, 1000 M cir. mils, stranded copper, length, 135 
ft., cost $8.00 for labor; $63.20 for materials, a total of $71.20. 
Scrap value, $46.00. 

Cost of Bonding. The following were the costs of jobs done on a 
railway in Washington in 1910. Wages were 30 cts. per hr. 

TABLE XIX. COST OF BONDING 



No. of 
bonds 


Kind of bonds 


' 


—Unit 
Misc. 


cost 


* 






Bond 


mat'l. 


Labor 


Total 


190 


Old 500 M.C.M. 
cable, 62 lb. at $0.20 


$0,065 


$0.$38 


$0,145 


$0,248 


120 


8-in. 


0.230 


0.032 


0.086 


0.348 


5 


B.B. 


0.490 


0.052 


0.150 


0.692 


10 


Home made 


0.097 


0.053 


0.150 


0.300 


61 
160 


Home made 


0.290 








B.B. 


0.490 


0.031 


0.175 


0.688 


4 


Home made (3.5 lb. at $0.15) 


0.525 








50 


B. B. 


0.490 


0.134 


0.204 


0.831 


300 


Sin. 
Home made 


0.220 


0.023 


0.184 


0.427 


30 


2/0 cable (1.8 lb. at $0.16i/4) 


0.292 


0.059 


0.210 


0.561 


142 


B.B. 


0.490 


0.072 


0.164 


0.726 


26 


Sin. 


0.220 


0.047 


0.096 


0.363 


70 


B. B. 4/0 


0.400 


0.029 


0.136 


0.565 


32 


Home made small cable 


0.162 


0.045 


0.0S2 


0.289 


272 


Sin. 


0.220 


0.032 


0.106 


0.358 


150 


Channel pin 


0.275 




0.050 


0.325 



Cross Bojids. The following costs are the averages from job 
records : 

Single track : length 5 ft. 

51/4 lb. M.C.M. cable at $0.18 $1.00 

Material, solder, gasoline, solder, etc 0.50 

Labor 0.50 



Double track, 12-ft. centers; length 21 ft. 

4/0 

35 lb. cable at $0.18 

22 " " " " 

15 " " " " '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. $2'.76 

Misc. material 0.75 

Labor 1.00 

$4.45 



$2.00 

300 M.C.M. 500 M.C.M. 
$6.30 
$3.95 



1.00 
1.00 

$5.95 



1.50 
1.25 



$9.05 



1636 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XX. COST OF BONDING SWITCHES AND FROGS 

Am't. and kind of Bonding Misc. 

Bonding mat'l. used mat'l. mat'l. Labor Total 
29 lb. 300 M.C.M. W. P. cable at 

$0.16% per lb $4.71 $2.33 $1.25 $8.29 

42 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable 6.83 2.44 3.30 12.57 

72 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 20.88 4.35 3.00 28.23 

145 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 21.02 4.26 3.00 28.28 

65 lb. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 1 

71/2 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15 | 19.97 4.48 4.00 28.45 

13 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15 1 

21 lb. 300 M.C.M. bare cable at $0.15. ] 2.80 1.27 3.01 7.08 

172 lb. 300 M.C.M. W. P. cable at $0.29 12.47 3.70 4.75 20.92 
36 lb. 4/0 bare cable at $0.15. 

14 1b. 500 M.C.M. W. P. cable at }- 3.83 2.53 3.75 10.11 
0.16% 



] 



Cost of Bonding. C, D, Wesselhoeft, in Data, June, 1915, gave the 
following, 

,. Cost per joint > 

Labor Material Total 

2 — 500,000 cir. mil. bonds soldered to head of 

third rail $0.66 $1.23 $1.89 

2 — 500,000 cir. mil. pin-expanded concealed 

bonds applied to track rail 0.69 2.05 2.74 

2 — 400,000 cir. mil. compressed terminal con- 
cealed bonds applied to track rail ... 1.90 

2 — 0000 bonds compressed terminal con- 
cealed bonds applied to track rail 0.50 1.00 1.50 

Railway Cars. The following costs are from the accounting 
records of a railway company on the Pacific Coast, which was 
appraised by H. P. Gillette in 1911. The trucks were standard 
gage, 4 ft. 8% ins. 

PASSENGER CARS 

Exclusive of Electrical Equipment. 

Bodies: Closed single truck type, length 16 ft., over all 24 

ft., width over sills 6 ft., over all 7 ft. by 4% ins. 

Length of each platform 3 ft. 6 ins. Height to trolley 

board 11 ft. 
Trucks: Single, 7 ft., 6 ins. wheel base, Lobdell C-61 wheels, 

3 3 -in. diam.. 3-in. tread, 1 in. by 1 in. flange, 4 in, axles. 
Brakes: Brill lever. 

Cost, each car $1,850 

Bodies: Closed single truck type, length 22 ft., over all 31 

ft., each platform 4 ft., width over sills 6 ft. 6 ins., over 

all 7 ft. 8 ins. Height of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 

10 ins. 
Trucks: Single, 8 ft. 6 ins., wheel base with spoke wheels of 

3 3-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in, by %-in, flange, 4-in. axle. 
Brakes: Vertical wheel and gear. 

Cost,' each car $2,800 

Bodies: Open, single truck type, length 25 ft., over all 27 

ft. 6 ins., width over sills 6 ft. 2 ins., over all 7 ft. 10 ins. 

Height to trolley board, 11 ft. 
Trucks: Single, 7 ft. wheel base, spoked wheels, 30-in. diam. 

3-in. tread, flange 1-in. thick, 3%-in, axles. 
Brakes: Lever. 

Cost, each car $1,600 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1637 

Bodies: Open, single truck, type, length over all 27 ft., 

width over sills 6 ft. 2 ins. over all 7 ft. 10 ins., height to 

trolley board 11 ft. 
Trucks: Single 6 ft. 10 1/^ Ins., wheel base, spoked wheels, 

33-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 3%-in. axles. 
Brakes: Old fashioned hand wheel. 

Cost, each car $1,600 

Bodies: Trailer made by railway co. Closed vestibule, single 

truck type, length 21 ft., over all 31 ft. 10 ins. Length of 

each platform 4 ft. 3 ins. Width over sills 6 ft. 1 in., 

over all 7 ft. 7 ins., height to trolley board 10 ft. 10 ins. 
Trucks: Single. 8 ft. 6-in. wheel base with spoke wheels, 

3 ft. 3-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. 

axles. 
Brakes: Lever type. 

Cost, each car $1,850 

Bodies: Combination open and closed single truck type, 

length 29 ft., over all 30 ft., each platform 10 ft. width 

over sills, 6 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 1 1/^ ins. Height 

of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 3 ins. 
Trucks: Single 8 ft. wheel base with spoke wheels of 33-in. 

diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
Brakes: Vertical hand wheel. 

Cost, each car $2,200 

Bodies: Closed, single truck type, length 21 ft., over all 31 

ft. Length of each platform 4 ft., width over sills, 

6 ft. 5 ins., over all 7 ft. 8 ins. Height to trolley board 

11 ft. 8 ins. 
Trucks: Single 8 ft. wheel base, with spoke wheels of 33-in. 

diam., 3-in. tread. 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
Brakes: Vertical wheel and gear. 

Cost, each car $2,200 

Bodies: Open double truck type, length over all 44 ft., width 

over sills, 7 ft. 4% ins., over all 9 ft., 6 ins. Height of 

trolley board above rail. 10 ft. 9 ins. 
Trucks: Double. 4 ft. wheel base, with wheels 33-in. diam., 

3-in. tread, flange 1-in. by 1-in and 4-in. axles. 

Cost, each car $2,350 

Bodies: Closed, double truck type. Length 32 ft., over all 

41 ft. 6 ins., length of each platform 4 ft. 8 ins., width 

over sills. 7 ft. 2 ins., over all 7 ft. 4 ins. Height of trol- 
ley board above rail 11 ft. 10 ins. 
Trucks: Double, 4 ft. wheel base with wheels 33-in. diam., 3- 

in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
Brakes: Straight air brakes and hand brakes. 

Cost, each car $3,150 

Bodies: Closed, monitor roof, double truck type. Length 35 

ft., over all 47 ft., length of each platform 5 ft. 6 ins., 

width over sills 8 ft. 3 ins., over all 8 ft. 4% ins. Height 

of trolley board above rail. 12 ft. 
Trucks: 2 double, 4-ft. wheel base with wheels 33-in. diam., 

%-in. by 1-in. flange, 4% -in. axles. 
Brakes: Straight air brakes. 

Cost, each car $3,350 

Bodies: Closed double truck type, length 35 ft., over all 47 ft., 

width over sills 8 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 41/2 ins. Height 

of trolley board 11 ft. 6 ins. 
Trucks: Double, wheel base 4 ,ft. 6-in. with cast iron spoke 

wheels of 33-in. diam., 3-in. tread, % by %-in. flange, 

4 14 -in. axles. 
Brakes: AUis-Chalmers. 

Cost, each car $4,020 

EXPRESS CARS 

Bodies: Double truck express, length 41 ft., over all 43 ft. 
6 ins., width over sills 8 ft. 2 ins., over all 8 ft. 6 ins., 
height of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 



1638 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Trucks: Double 4-ft. wheel base with spoke wheels 33-in. 

diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 4-in. axles. 
Brakes: National air brakes and hand wheel. 

Cost, each car $1,350 

FLAT CARS 

Bodies: Local make, single truck flat, length over all 16 ft. 

width over all 7 ft. 
Trucks: Local single pedestal type with 7-ft. wheel base, 

spoke wheels, 30-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by %-in. 

flange, 3 %-in. axles. 
Brakes: Horizontal hand wheels. 

Cost, each car $ 550 

Bodies: Double truck flat, length 40 ft, over all 43% ft., 

width 7 ft. 10 ins. over all. fitted with pocket couplers. 
Trucks: Jewett double with Standard (solid) wheels 33-in. 

diam., 414-in. tread, 1 %-in. flange and 4%-in. axles. 
Brakes: Air brakes, inside wheels, metal brake beams. 

Cost, each car $1,050 

Bodies: N. P. make, flat, length 30 ft., over all 33 ft., 

width over sills 7 ft. 7 ins., over all 8 ft., fitted with 

American pocket couplers. 
Trucks: Double with staif^ard (solid) wheels 33-in. diam., 

4 %-in. tread, 1%-in. by 1%-in. flange, standard axles. 
Brakes: Air — outside wheels, wood brake beams. 

Cost, each car $ 700 

Bodies: Local make flat, 33 ft. long, over all 35% ft., width 

over sills 7 % ft., over all 7 ft. 1 in. 
Trucks: Local make, double, with cast wheels, 2 4-in. diam., 

4-in. tread. 1-in. by 1-in. flange, 3 %-in. axles. 
Brakes: Hand wheel. 

Cost, each car $ 600 

Bodies: Local make flat. 41 ft. long, over all 43 ft. 5 ins., 

width over sills, 8 ft., over all 9 ft., pocket couplers. 
Trucks: Double, with cast wheels 33-in. diam., 4%-in. tread, 

1%-in. by 1%-in. flange, 5-in. axles. 
Brakes: Air and wheel hand brakes. 

Cost, each car $ 700 

LINE CARS 

Bodies : Local made, single truck box car with rising platform, 
length over all 22 ft., width over all 8 ft. 4 ins., height 
of trolley board above rail 11 ft. 5 ins. Inside filled with 
shelves and lockers. 

Trucks: Single 7-ft. 6-in. wheel base, with spoked wheels 
30-in. diam., 3-in. tread, 1-in. by 1-in. flange and 3 %-in. 
axles. 

Brakes: Hand wheel. 

Equipment: 2-25 hp. motors, with inside suspension, pinion 
14-T, gear 67-T, furnished with 2 K-10 controllers. 

Cost, each car $2,300 

Dump Cars: 6 yd., two-way dump gravel cars. 

Cost, each car $ 420 

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF CARS. 

Two-motor equipments 35- or 38-hp. inside suspension, pinion 
17-T, gear 67-T, furnished with 2 K-10 controllers, or 2 
K-6 controllers. 

Cost, each equipment $1,500 

Four-motor equipments, 38 hp. outside suspension, pinion 
17-T, gear 67-T, each equipment provided with 2 K-6 con- 
trollers. 

Cost, each equipment $2,800 

One-motor equipment, 15 hp., inside suspension, pinion 14-T, 
gear 67-T. furnished with K-10 controller. 

Cost, each equipment , $1,100 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1639 

One-motor equipment, 25 hp., inside suspension, pinion 14-T, 
gear 67-T. furnished with 2 K-10 controllers. 

Cost, each equipment $1,250 

Four-motor equipments, 40 hp., outside suspension, pinion 
17-T, gear 69-T, each equipment furnished with 2 K-28 
controllers. 

Cost, each equipment $2,375 

Cost of Rolling Stock in Cliicago. The following data are from 
the Chicago valuation report previously referred to, by B. J. 
Arnold and George Weston, year 1910. 

CAR BODIES 

CLOSED CARS 

Semi-convertible with smoking compartment, Pay-as-you-enter 
type, price new, for body only, $3,441. These are Kuhlman double 
truck cars ; length, over bumpers 47 ft. 6 ins. and over body 31 ft. 
9 ins. ; width, over all, 8 ft. 9 ins. ; vestibuled platforms ; monitor 
type roof. Seating capacity, 40 ; seats, 16 fixed cross, 4 longi- 
tudinal ; 21 electric lights ; 1 Calumet fender ; passengers push 
buttons ; 1 sand box ; iron rod window guards ; 2 Hunter adjustable 
illuminated signs in vestibule, 1 in side window ; double end hand 
brakes, bevel geared hand wheel ; double fare registers ; 1 pair track 
scrapers. 

The price new of a car very similar to the above except that it 
was not a Pay-as-you-enter, was $3,088 for body only. 

Closed, passenger body, price new for body, $1,504. These are 
Pullman single truck cars, length, over bumpers, 30 ft. 6 ins., over 
body, 20 ft. ; width, over all, 7 ft. 6 ins.; vestibuled platforms 50 ins. 
long; monitor type roof; seating capacity, 26; seats, longitudinal 
type ; 10 electric lights ; 2 Berg improved fenders ; 2 Ham sand 
boxes ; signs, end, 2 illuminated, Calumet pattern, side, brackets 
for 2 wood signs ; hand brakes, double end, hand wheel ; double 
fare register ; 2 pair track scrapers. 

The price of a similar car, length 18 ft. 8 ins. over body, and 
with a seating capacity of 24, was $1,418 for body. 

OPEN CAR BODIES 

The price new of an open, 16 bench body car, with 18 in. aisle 
between the rows of seats, was $1,317. These are St. Louis cars, 
single truck ; length, over bumpers 27 ft. 2 ins. over corner posts, 
17 ft. 9 ins. ; width, over posts, 7 ft. 11 ins. ; open platforms, 51 ins. 
long, monitor type roof; 4 entrances at platforms, 40 ins. wide; 
seating capacity, 32; seats, 16 reversible; 20 electric lights; wire 
screen side guards ; brackets for sheet iron end signs and wood 
side signs; double end, rachet hand brakes; double fare register. 

Open, 10 bench body cars, no aisle, were priced at $1,231. 

The cars were made by the Pullman Co. ; single truck ; length, 
over bumpers, 30 ft., over comer posts, 20 ft. ; width, over posts, 
7 ft.; open platforms, 37 ins. long; monitor type roof; entrances 
on each side ; seating capacity, 50 ; seats, 4 fixed at bulk-heads, 6 
reversible with spindle backs; 10 electric lights; wire screen side 



1640 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

guards ; brackets for 2 sheet iron signs on each end, for 2 wood 
signs on each side ; double end, rachet hand brakes ; fare registers. 
The price of an open trailer of the same length and general 
type was $1,193. An open trailer, length, over bumpers, 27 ft. 4 ins., 
over body, 18 ft. 2 ins., and with a seating capacity of 45, was priced 
$1,058 ; one with a length of 23 ft. 8 ins. over bumpers and 17 ft. 
3 ins. over the body and seating capacity of 40, $908. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENTS 

The following prices are for complete motor equipments, f.o.b. 
factory, for trolley cars. 



Maker 
G. E. 
G. E. 
G. E. 
Ray 
West. 
G. E. 
West. 
West. 
G. E. 
Ray 



Motors per 
equipment 

4 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

2 

4 

4 

1 



Type 
52 or 54 

800 
W. P. 30 

Lorain 
W. P. 50 
Lorain 

70 or 80 



Hp. per 
motor 

25 

27 

30 

30 

30 

35 

35 

35 

40 

40 



Price per 

equipment 

$1,874 

1,040 

1,040 

900 

770 

1,040 

1,158 

2,168 

2,489 

900 



TRUCKS 

The following prices are for trolley cpr trucks complete, f.o.b. 
factory : 

Price 

McMcGuire pressed steel sgl. $250 

McGuire Al and A2 suspension sgl. 275 

Curtis sgl. 275 

Peckham, 7BX sgl. 253 

Lovejoy sgl. 200 

Brill 21E sgl. 280 

Taylor sgl. 240 

McGuire pedestal sgl. 150 

Du Pont sgl. 250 

Brill 27G dbl. 625 

Calumet MCB dbl. 650 

Pressed steel MCB dbl. 700 

MISCELLANEOUS CAR EQUIPMENT 

Price 

Peter Smith heater No. 2 (installed) $135 

Germer heater No. 2 (installed) 125 

Calumet stoves 22.50 

Consolidated electric heaters 25 

National air brakes, AAl compressor 275 

D4 " 450 

upright " 300 

Resistances for Mosher headlights 4.50 

Mosher arc headlights 20 

New Haven double fare registers 30 

Hunter adjustable illuminated signs 20 

Calumet pattern " " 5 

AVooden deck signs 3 

Automotoneers 12.50 

25-lb. wrecking frogs 2.50 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 



1641 



Motorman's stools $125 

Oil headlights '.'."' 12.50 

Summary of Rolling Stock: 

119 box motor car bodies $156,000 

127 open '" " " 131,600 

43 open trailer bodies 39,300 

5 box " " 5,500 

294 passenger car bodies $332,400 

294 single trucks 72,920 

199 motor equipments (2 motors each) 107,464 

Total passenger cars $512,784 

50 miscel. service cars 42,082 

Total $554,866 

Further details are given in Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 
28, 1910. 

Weight and Price of Trucks. Table XXI was compiled from 
data gathered by Henry L. Gray in the course of making appraisals 
in the state of Washington. 





TABLE XXI. 


COST OF STANDARD GAUGE 


TRUCKS 








FOR 


CARS 








tVh 


leel base 


Diam. 






Cost, 


f.o.b. 


yt. 


Ins. 


wheels, ins. 


Weight, lbs. 


Factory 


8 


6 


33 




5900 




$270 







33 




5500 




260 







34 




6850 




260 




6 


34&21 




5260 




246 







33 




5900 




270 




6 


33 




5500 




260 




6 


34 




7220 




267 







33 




6790 




260 







34 




6820 




263 




6 


34&21 




5200 




281 




6 


34 




7000 




260 


6 


41/2 


34 




7950 




294 


6 


41/2 


34 




8200 




344 


4 


6 


34&21 




5500 




280 


5 


10 


34 




7100 




260 



The above were prices prior to the world war. 



Appraisal of tlie Elevated Railways of Chicago. Condensed from 
Engineering and Contracting, May 15, 1912. 

These railways are the South Side Elevated, the Metropolitan 
West Side Railway, the Northwestern Elevated and the Chicago & 
Oak Park Elevated. A physical valuation of these properties was 
necessary to further progress of plans to arrive at a satisfactory 
scheme for the operation and rnaintenance of all the transportation 
facilities within the city. The City Council, through its committee 
on local transportation, Mr. Peter Reinberg, chairman, appointed 
the three tnembers of the present Harbor and Subway Commission 
to undertake the valuation of the elevated railroad properties. This 
committee consisted of Messrs. John Erickson, E. C. Shankland 
and J. J. Reynolds. Mr, George Weston of the Board of Super- 



1642 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

vising Engineers was later added to the committee, which was 
known as the Valuation Committee. The representative of the 
Chicago elevated railways, who was also appointed as a member 
of this committee, was Prof. George F. Swain. 

After several meetings of the Valuation Committee it was found 
that the members representing the city and the representative of 
the railways could not agree on all the methods of valuating the 
various items of physical property. Prof. George F. Swain there- 
fore withdrew from the committee and presented an independent 
minority report. We give herewith tabular abstracts of the re- 
port of the Valuation Committee submitted to the Council com- 
mittee on May 8, 1912, and the report of Prof. George F. Swain, 
submitted at the same time. The elevated lines, not including 
surface tracks, contain the following mileage : 

282,000 ft. double track 
78,500 ft. third 
38,000 ft. fourth " 
4,300 ft. single 

COST OF REPRODUCTION NEW, ESTIMATED BY 
COMMITTEE 
Items 

1. Real estate and right of way' $16,490,728 

2. Foundations and public utilities 2,230,841 

3. Structural steel 11,127,025 

4. Track work 2,323,946 

4A. Pavement 262,200 

5. Third rail 318,483 

6. Special work 185,957 

7. Storage yards, including track, special work and 

Interlocking C43,831 

8. Interlocking plants and block signal 388,399 

9. Power stations 3,962,672 

10. Sub-stations and batteries 1,652,025 

11. Transmission lines, overhead and bonding 1,192,366 

12. Rolling stock 9,700,887 

13. Stations, buildings and platforms 1,784,887 

14. Office fixtures, tools and supplies 359,000 

Taxes during construction 150,000 

$52,673,247 
Add 18% overhead charges 9,481,185 

Total $62,154,433 

The Committee estimated the depreciated 'value at $53,451,181. 

COST OF REPRODUCTION NEW, ESTIMATED BY 
PROF. GEO. F. SWAIN 
Items 

2. Foundations $ 2,600,000 

3. Structural steel 12,884,132 

4. Track work 2,347,431 

4A. Pavement 251,400 

5. Third rail 329,700 

6 Special work 189,775 

7. Storage yards, including track, special work and 

interlocking 550,270 

8. Interlocking plants and block signals 412,000 

9. Power stations 4,166,325 

10. Sub-stations and batteries 1,753,458 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS 1643 



Items 



11. Transmission lines, overhead trolley and bonding ... % 1,360,104 

12. Rolling- stock 10,098,652 

13. Stations, buildings and platforms 2,250,000 

14. Office fixtures, tools and supplies 359,000 

Total without real estate and rights of way, or 

overhead charge $39,552,247 

Overhead on physical i 11,865,674 

Total without real estate and rights of way $51,417,921 

Real estate and rights of way (J. Milton Trainer's 

figures) 44,551,498 

Brokerage on real estate and rights of way 5% .... 2,227,575 

Total $98,196,994 

Prof. Swain estimated the depreciated value at $93,279,143. 

1 Percentages for cost of construction, organization, etc., included 
in item overhead on physical. 

Cost of Contact- Rail Construction. The following data are 
quoted from the American Handbook for Electrical Engineers by 
Harold Pender. The estimates in Table XXII include the cost of 
(1) handling and distributing the material from the storehouse to 
the place where it is used; (2) the solder, gasoline, etc., used in 
bonding contact rail; (3) putting 3 coats of paint on the protec- 
tion; (4) bending rails on curves; (5) 5% for breakage; (6) 
foremen's and engineers' salaries. They do not include the cost of 
tools or of jumpers. 

These estimates are approximately correct where existing traffic 
does not materially impede the work. Under less favorable condi- 
tions the cost may rise 50% or more over the figures given. 

The estimate on the top-contact type is based upon the Inter- 
borough Rapid Transit Co.'s construction. New York (Stillwell- 
Slater patent), the wt. of rail, however, being slightly less than 
on that railway. The estimate of the under-contact type is based 
upon construction similar to that used by the New York Central 
R. R. (Wilgus-Sprague patent). 

TABLE XXII. COST PER MILE OF CONTACT-RAIL 
CONSTRUCTION 

Top contact Under contact 

Material : « Amount Cost Amount Cost 

Rail, 70 lb 55 tons $1,815 55 tons $1,815 

special ... 1.2 40 

Inclines 11 47 11 47 

Insulators, std 511 92 1,000 165 

special ... 25 13 

Brackets or pedestals 515 62 500 250 

Brackets, special . . ... 15 7 

Bolts 515 10 515 90 

Lag screws 1,030 20 1,515 30 

Clips 1,030 41 

Drive .screws ... 80 gross 24 

Soldered bonds 350 168 350 168 

Splice plates and bolts ... 350 53 180 31 

Protection 793 ... 642 



1644 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Top contact Under contact 

Material : Amount Cost Amount Cost 

Paint $49 ... $82 

Felt separator . ... ... • • • ^ 

Long ties, excess only i . . 505 ' 177 505 177 

Total $3,327 $3,583 

Labor : 

Installing-, bonding and 

protection of third rail 800 1,000 

Installing long ties 101 101 

Total $901 . $1,101 

Total $4,228 $4,684 

1 This item includes only the difference in cost between the long 
ties which carry the insulators and the cost of the same number 
of standard ties. 

Cost of Grinding Rail Corrugations and Joints. The following 
data are quoted from the Electric Railway Handbook by Albert S. 
Richey. Mr. C. L. Crabbs gives the following cost data covering 
1 year's work on track of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. The 
average cost per ft. of grinding 21,725 lin. ft. of corrugation of an 
average depth of 0.01 in. was: labor, $0,112; material, $0.0227; 
total, $0.1347. During the same period, 1,418 joints and dishes of a 
depth approximately 0.05 in. were ground, the average cost per 
joint being: labor, $0.8322; material, $0,193; total, $1.0252. This 
work was done with a reciprocating grinder, but Mr. Crabbs states 
that his experience with considerable grinding of joints with wheel 
machines shows very nearly the same costs. 



CHAPTER XXI 
MISCELLANEOUS 

Asbestos. The following are costs of various asbestos materials. 

Asbestos building felt and sheathing in less than ton lots costs 
3% cts. per lb. for the light material weighing from 6 to 30 lbs. 
per 100 sq. ft.; 4 cts. per lb. is charged for the heavy asbestos 
weighing from 45 to 56 lbs. per 100 sq. ft. 

Mill board is made in standard sheets, 40 X 40 ins., and 41 X 40 
ins. It varies in thickness from ys2 to % in. and in weight from 
2 to 27 lbs. per sheet. The net price in 100-lb. lots is 5 cts. per lb. 

Transite, asbestos wood, used for flreproofing, ventilators and 
smoke jackets, comes in standard sheets, 36 X 48 ins. and 42 X 96 
ins. The prices f.o.b. factory are as follows : 

Thickness, Weight, Price per 

ins. lbs. sq. ft. 

Vs 1 $0.08 

% 2 .16 

% 3 .28 

Va 4 .32 

% 5 - .40 

Vs 7 .48 

1 8 .52 

11/2 12 .64 

2 16 .80 

Asbestos cements are used for covering boilers, domes, fittings, 
etc., and all irregular surfaces, and may be used over asbestos 
air cell boiler blocks, when it makes an excellent covering. When 
mixed with water to a consistency of mortar and applied with a 
trowel, it forms a light porous coating which is the most efficient 
non-conductor. The cost of this cement is $33 per ton. 

Chain. Prices per 100 lbs., f. o. b. Pittsburg, are as follows: 

MACHINE MADE CHAIN 

Size, ins. Proof 

3-16 $8.25 

% 5.70 

5-16 4.70 

% 4.15 

7-16 3.85 

% and 9-16 3.65 

% 3.55 

% 3.45 

Ys 3.35 

1 3.25 

ly^ and IVs 3.35 

1645 



BB 


BBB 


$9.50 


$10.00 


6.95 


7.45 


5.95 


6,45 


5.40 


5.90 


5.10 


5.60 


4.90 


5.40 


4.80 


5.30 


4.70 


5.20 


4.60 


5.10 


4 50 


5.00 


4.60 


5.10 



1646 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



% 
% 
% 
1 

1^ 
1% 



HAND-MADE CHAIN 

rrt ci3.a 

•J ojO^ 

S --OS 



to lyg 



m 
m 

PQ 
$7.95 
7.15 
6.70 
6.15 
5.75 
5.65 
5.55 



m 

$8.20 
7.45 
6.90 
6.40 
5.95 
5.90 
5.75 



5 bfi^^ 

.2.^0 
^^■^•^ 

^ c 5 " 

P. 

$9.15 
8.45 
7.95 
7.45 
6.90 
6.85 
6.80 



Cj C W M 

o t o o 



$9.15 
8.45 



Chain Blocks. Chain blocks kept well oiled and kept under 
cover where grit and dirt cannot enter the gears should have a 
life of from 5 to 20 years. On outside work where sand and grit 
is allowed to enter the gears the life of a block is reduced very 
much, and repairs may cost as much as 50% of the first cost 
annually. 

TRIPLEX BLOCKS 



Capacity 


Hoist 


Weight, lbs. 




Extra hoist 


in tons 


in^eet 


(net) 


Price 


per It. 


V2 


8 


53 


$ 28 


$0.72 


1 


8 


80 


36 


.76 


IVa 


8 


124 


48 


.80 


2 


9 


188 


56 


.84 


3 


10 


200 


72 


1.20 


4 


10 


290 


88 


1.28 


5 


12 


380 


112 


1.72 


6 


12 


390 


132 


1.72 


8 


12 


470 


160 


2.16 


10 


12 


570 


192 


2.60 


12 


12 


800 


240 


3.44 


16 


12 


1,000 


288 


4.32 


20 


12 


1,375 


315 


5.20 



Sizes 3 to 20 tons have a lower as well as an upper block. 



DUPLEX BLOCKS 



Capacity 


Hoist 


Weight, lbs. 




Extra hoist 


in tons 


in feet 


(net) 


Price 


per ft. 


Vz 


8 


43 


$ 21.25 


$1.00 


1 


8 


57 


25.50 


1.27 


IV2 


8 


76 


34.00 


1.50 


2 


9 


104 


42.50 


1.70 


3 


10 


200 


63.75 


1.85 


4 


10 


225 


80.75 


2.05 


5 


12 


340 


119.00 


2.55 


6 


12 


360 


153.00 


3.20 


8 


12 


390 


178.50 


3.40 


10 


12 


570 


232.75 


3.60 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1647 



DIFFERENTIAL BLOCKS 

Capacity Hoist Weight, lbs. Extra hoist 

in tons in feet (net) Price per ft, 

% 5 11 $ 9.00 $1.40 

% 6 22 9.00 1.40 

% 7 30 10.50 1.40 

1 8 51 14.00 1.50 
11/2 81^ 81 18.00 1.60 

2 9 122 22.50 1.70 

3 91/2 180 30.00 2.00 

Gages and Cocks. The following tables give prices of typical 
gages and cocks, 

AIR COCKS 

Size, ins. Hexagon Double ends Bibb, nose 

Vs $0.15 $0.19 $0.25 

% .19 .23 .29 

% .23 .27 .34 

% .30 .38 .42 

COMPRESSION GAUGE COCKS 

Size, ins. Price 

1/4 $0.36 

% 41 

% 45 

% 50 

The above cocks are soft seat and plain, for cocks with stuffing 
boxes 10 cts. is added to the above prices, 

ASHTON IMPROVED HYDRAULIC GAUGE 

Size of dial, ins. Iron case and brass ring Brass case 

12 $44 $50 

10 36 40 

8% 28 32 

6% 20 24 

6 14 16 

5 12 14 

The above hydraulic gauges are for high pressures above 1,000 lbs. 

COMBINED PRESSURE AND RECORDING GAUGE 

Size of dial, ins. Brass case N, p, case 

G% $28.00 * $29.40 

8V2 35.00 36.40 

10 45.50 ^ 47.50 

12 59.50 62.50 

ASHTON IMPROVED PRESSURE GAUGE 

Size of dial, ins. Iron case, brass ring Brass case 

12 $17.50 $26.30 

10 11.20 14.00 

81/2 7.70 10.50 

6% 5.60 7.00 

6 . 4.50 5.60 
514 3.50 4.20 
5 2.80 3.85 



Prices include cocks. 

Prices of vacuum gages in the above sizes are approximately 
the same as these for pressure gages. 



1648 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

ALTITUDE GAUGES 

Size of dial, ins. Iron case, brass ring Brass case 

12 $21.00 $28.00 

10 14.00 17.50 

81^ 10.50 14.00 

6% 7.00 8.75 

6 5.60 7.00 

5% 4.90 5.60 

4y2or5 4.20 4.90 

Prices include cocks. 

WATER GAUGES 

Finished parts with rough body All finished 

Glass, Pipe, Two Three Four Two Three Four 
ins. ins. rod rod rod rod rod rod 

Va % $1.38 $1.75 

% % 1.50 2.00 $2.50 $1.88 $2.50 $3.25 

% % 3.00 4.00 4.25 4.00 4.75 5.00 

Hose. The following are approximate prices for hose. 

LINEN FIRE HOSE 

Size, ins. Net price per foot 
% $0.11 

1 12 

1% 14 

iy2 15 

1% 16 

2 17 

2% 18 

2-V2 20 

3 28 

The above sizes are for 500 lbs. pressure. For 550 lbs. pressure 
an increase Of 1 ct. per foot is added on the first five sizes and 5 cts. 
per foot on the last four. 

COTTON RUBBER LINED FIRE HOSE 

Size, ins. Net price per foot 

1% $0.32 

1% 35 

21/8 40 

2% 45 

Indicators. The following prices are for indicators. 

Thompson Iviproved Indicator, for obtaining indicator diagrams 
or cards from steam engines cost with two springs about $50 each 
f.o.b. shipping point. 

Thompson Improved Ammonia Indicator, made entirely of steel 
so that the action of ammonia will not affect the indicator, cost with 
two cocks, one spring, scales, wrenches, etc., $67.50 each f.o.b, 
shipping point. 

Jacks. The following prices are for liydraulic jacks. 

HYDRAULIC JACKS 

Plain Jacks: 

Tons lift 4 7 10 20 

Run out, inches 12 18 24 18 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1649 



Height, inches 24 

Weight, pounds 50 

Price, dollars 48 

Broad Base Jacks : 

Tons lift 4 

Run out, inches 12 

Height, inches 25 

Diam. of base, inches 9% 

Weight, pounds 65 

Price, dollars 50 

Screw Jacks: 

Number 1 

Diam. of screw, inches 1% 

Height when down, in 8 

Net rise, inches 4 

Whole height, in 12 

Est. lift cap., in 5 

Weight, pounds 9 ^/^ 

Price $2 



32 


39 


33 






75 


110 


155 






58 


88 


116 


•• 


•• 


7 


10 


20 


30 


50 


18 


18 


18 


18 


12 


31 


31 


321/2 


33 


28 


10 


12 


13 


13^ 


15 


97 


130 


206 


260 


320 


60 


70 


110 


150 


190 


4 


8 


13 


17 




IV?. 


1% 


2 


2y2 




12 


16 


20 


24 




7 


10 


13 


18 




19 


26 


33 


42 


. . 


8 


12 


15 


20 




22 


33 


45 


82 




$3 


$4 


$6.40 $10.40 





Lubricators. The following are approximate prices of lubrica- 



tors. 



GREASE CUPS, COMPRESSED AIR TYPE 



Capacity, ounces 


Polished 




Plain 


1/2 




$0.60 




$0.50 


1 




.80 




.65 


3 




1.00 




.75 


6 




1.25 




.90 




AUTOMATIC COMPRESSION TYPE GREASE CUP 






Shank pipe 


Finished 


Nickel 


Capacity, ounces 


thread, ins. 


brass 


plated 


^M 




Vs 


$0.45 


$0.55 


1 




% 


.60 


.70 


11/2 




Vi 


.75 


.85 


3 




% 


1.00 


1.10 


6 




% 


1.30 


1.50 


10 




y2 


1.80 


2.00 






SCREW FEED GREASE CUPS 








Shank pipe 


Finished 


Nickel 


Capacity, ounces 


thread, ins. 


brass 


plated 


1/^ 




% 


$0.45 


$0.55 


1 






.55 


.60 


IV2 




y. 


.70 


.80 


3 




% 


.85 


1.00 


6 




V2 


1.20 


1.45 


10 




V2 


1.75 


2.00 




SNAP LEVER OIL CUP 


WITH SIGHT FEED 








Shank pipe 


Finished 


Nickel 


Capacity, ounces 


thread, ins. ' 


brass 


plated 


% 




% 


$0.60 


$0.70 


1 




14 


.65 


.75 


IV2 




1^ 


.70 


.80 


21/2 




% 


.75 


.85 


4 




34 


.85 


.95 


5 




% 


1.10 


1.15 


10 




% 


1.45 


1.60 


18 




1.85 


2.00 



1650 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

AUTOMATIC LUBRICATORS, ROCHESTER TYPE, SINGLE FEED 

, Size in pints Net price 

1/2 $17.70 

1 16.30 

3 22.70 

8 29.25 

LUBRICATORS WITH TWO COMPARTMENTS 

Size in pints Net price 

3 Double feed $36. 

8 Double feed 43 

8 Triple feed 55 

8 Quadruple feed 68 

The above lubricators are for air compressors and ice machines, 
etc., where different kinds of oils are used in different cylinders of 
the same machines. 

DUPLEX PISTON METERS FOR OIL 



Size, ins. 

% 


Weight, lbs. 
90 


Net price 
$38 


1^*:::;:: 

1 lA 


149 

218 

230 


45 
60 
66 


3 

4a 

6a 


280 

590 

2,150 

5,400 


77 
165 
340 
830 



The above prices are for meters with standard horizontal counter ; 
for meters with special vertical counter $10 will be added to the 
given prices. 

Lubricating Oils. Quotations continue without change, the fol- 
lowing figures being named for 5-bbl. lots: 

Neutral oils, filtered : 

Cents per gal. 

* Cylinder, dark 20 @ 27 

* Cylinder steam, refined 14@22 

Neutral oils, filtered : 

Stainless white, 32 to 34 gravity 28@29 

Lemons, 33 to 34 gravity 17@19 

Dark, 32 gravity 15@18 

Crank case oil 15 @ 17 

* Prices are according to test. 

Packing. Prices vary within wide limit, according to the brands 
of various dealers, but in general, packing can be purchased at the 
following quotations: Asbestos, wick and rope, 13 cts. per lb.; 
sheet rubber, 11 to 13 cts.; pure gum rubber, 40 to 45 cts.; red 
sheet packing, 40 to 50 cts. ; cotton packing, 16 to 25 cts. ; jute, 5 to 
6 cts. ; Russian packing, 9 to 10 cts. 

IVIachine Tools. The following prices are for miscellaneous ma- 
chine tools. 

Lathes. Engine lathe, 24-in. swing, 12-ft. bed, compound rest, 
power cross feed, steady rest, two-face plates, friction countershaft, 
2-in. hole through spindle and cabinet legs. This machine weighs 



MISCELLANEOUS 1651 

5,500 lbs. A second-hand machine of this kind can be bought 
for $375. 

Engine Lathe: 25-in. swing, 12-ft. bed, compound rest, power 
cross feed, complete with countershaft and full equipment. Price, 
$375. 

Engine lathe: 26-in. swing, 10-ft. bed, complete, $500. 

Patented 2-in-l double spindle lathe : 24-in.-40-in. Bed 12 
ft. long, that turns 5 ft. between centers, triple geared, com- 
plete with countershaft and full regular equipment. This ma- 
chine has back gears, hand and power feed, automatic stop, quick 
return, wheel and lever feed. Spindle is counterbalanced. The 
table has vertical adjustment on column by means of handle oper- 
ating gear in rack. Shafts are made of steel. Gears are cut two 
to one and cone has four steps, Si^le ins. to S^ie ins. diameter. 
Price $970. 

Quick change gear lathe: 14-in. swing. 6-ft. bed, takes between 
centers on bed 2 ft. 10 ins. ; diameter of hole in spindle 1 in. and 
speed of countershaft, 130 r.p.m. ; standard threads from 2 to 128, 
Including 11 1/^, and feeds from 7 to 450 per inch are obtained with- 
out the removal of a single gear. Provision is made, however, so 
that odd threads or feeds can be had with little trouble or expense. 
This lathe weighs packed for domestic shipment 1,600 lbs. and can 
be bought for $375. 

Engine lathe: 18-in, swing, 10-ft. bed, with compound, steady 
and follow rests. One %6-in. lathe through spindle, counter-shaft, 
etc. Also independent chuck 4-jaw ; 16-in. reversible jaws to fit 
spindles of their lathe. Weight, 3,500 lbs. Cost, $643. 

Hand feed tilted turret lathe : Plain head, oil pump and pan 
and automatic chuck and with lever or screw feed cut-off. 

Automatic chuck capacity % ins. 1 in. 

Swing over bed 11 ins. 13 ins. 

Maximum distance, end of .spindle to face of 

turret 12 ins. 14 ins. 

Counter shaft speed, r.p.m 250 225 

Shipping weight, lbs 900 1,200 

Net price $300 $400 

Drills. A new 20-in. upright drill, with back gears, power feed, 
quick return and automatic stop. This weighs 700 lbs. and the 
price net is $90. 

Improved radial drill: Maximum height of drill when arm is 
up, 9 ft. ; maximum radial distance. 60 ins. ; vertical adjustment 
of arm on column, 26 ins. ; receivers under spindle over base, 
31/2 ins.; smallest diameter of spindle, IWia ins.; traverse of spindle, 
lOins. ; floor space for base, 6I/I ft. X 28 ins. ; speed of countershaft, 
350 r.p.m.; net weight of machine, 2,850 lbs.; net price, $500. 

Stationary head vertical drilling machine with geared power 
feed, automatic stop and back gears. 

Size, ins Weight, lbs. ' Net price 

21 1,300 $135 

24 1.550 200 



1652 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Sliding head drill press: 18 ins., with countershaft adjustable 
head and table. Height over all 7 ft. 5 ins., base plate 1 ft. 9 ins. 
by 4 ft. 6 ins. together with one table vice for this drill press,, 
jaws open 7 ins., width 8% ins., depth 2% ins. Weight of press 
1,600 lbs. ; vice 180 lbs., cost $238. 

Milling Machines. The following are costs of milling machines: 



Universal 
20 ins. 
71/2 ins. 
17 ins. 
37x 81/^ ins. 
16 
8 
16 1/2 to 404 

.006 to .100 ins. 

123 to 293 

2,500 

$750 



Heavy plain 
24 ins. 
10 ins. 
19 ins. 
48x1114 ins. 
16 
16 
12 to 384 

.005 to 268 ins. 
107 to 270 
3,700 
$650 



Type 

Table feed — automatic 

Cross adjustment 

Vertical adjustment 

Working surface of table 

Number of feed changes 

Number of spindle speeds 

Spindle speeds, r.p.m 

Feed per rev. of spindle. 

Speed of counter shaft pulleys, 

r.p.m 

Domestic shipping weight, lbs 

Net price 

Hand milling machine. 

Adjustment of table outward from column 3% ins. 

Total length of table feed 11 ins. 

"Vertical feed of knee 6 ins. 

Greatest distance from center of spindle to top of table 6 ins. 

Working surface of table 4x15 ins. 

Number of grades on cone 3 

Speed of countershaft, r.p.m 200 

Weight including arm, vise, vertical attachment and 

countershaft, lbs 600 

Net price without vertical attachment $225 

Net price with vertical attachment $255 

Miscellaneous Tools. A No. 2 standard bolt cutter, to thread 
bolts or tap nuts %-in. to 1%-in. right or left hand, weighs 1,200 
lbs. and can be bought second-hand for $175 net. 

A single end-punch or shear weighs about 4,500 lbs. and will 
punch 1-in. hole through %-in. plate or will shear 4-in. X %-in. bars. 
A second-hand one will cost $300 net, while a new one would cost 
about $500. 

A new 4-in. pipe machine for hand or power takes from 1-in. 
to I'-in. right or left, weighs 525 lbs. net or 650 lbs. gross, and 
can be bought for $170 net. 

A new three-geared ball bearing Upright, self-feed blacksmith 
post drill weighs 240 lbs. and costs $18.50 net. 

A new circular saw, with wood table, weighs about 300 lbs. and 
costs $50 net. 

A new 30 -in. band saw with iron table weighs about 850 lbs. 
and costs $100 net. 

Grindstone, machinist's : 30-in., heavy, mounted on an iron frame, 
with shield and water bucket, weighs about 1,500 lbs. and costs 
new about $50. 

Twenty-inch, back geared crank shaper: Automatic cross travel, 
24 ins.; vertical adjustment of table, 15 ins.; size of tool, l^^ by 
% in. ; nuTOber of speeds to ram, 8 ; minimum number of strokes 



MISCELLANEO US 1653 

per minute, 7 ; maximum number of strolces per minute, 105 ; num- 
ber of feeds, 16 ; r.p.m. of crank shaft, 280 ; net price, $500. 

Back geared crank shaper : Size 16 ins.; with vise for drill 
press, table support, telescope screw arranged for key seating, 
counter-shaft, etc., complete. Floor space, 2 ft. 1 in, by 3 ft. 10 
ins. Cost, $300. 

Pipe machine. Size, 2 ins. by 8 ins. with counter-shaft. Floor 
space, 2 ft. by 3 ft. Weight, 1,400 lbs. Either hand or power. 
Cost, $550. 

Tool grinder with column, complete with counter-shaft and 
hand rest. Arranged for 2 wheels 12 ins. diam. by 2 ins. wide. 
Floor space 1 ft. 3 ins. by 1 ft. 10 ins. Cost, $28. 

Metal power hack saw, with counter-shaft. Cost $126. 
Power bolt cutter and nut tapper: Size, % in. to li/4 ins., with 
counter-shaft, dies, etc. ; floor space 2 ft. 5 ins. by 4 ft. 11 ins. ; 
weight, 915 lbs.; cost, $132. 

Wood boring machines : Capacity, 2-in. hole, reversible ; size, 
B. W. ; cost $70. 

Band saw: Diameter of wheel, 36 ins.; table, 30 ins. by 32 ins.; 
1-in. saw; floor space, 3 ft. 2 ins. by 4 ft. 8 ins.; cost, $150. 

Wood frame, rip saw bench with counter-shaft and pulleys: 
Table. 3 ft. by 5 ft. ; pulleys 5 ins. by 6 ins. ; for saws 16-in. to 
20-in. diameter, 1%-in. bore.; speed, 2.000 r.p.m.; IY2 to 15 h.p. ; 
weight, 350 lbs. ; equipped with wire hood, saw guard with im- 
proved knuckle joint to take 23-in. saw — together with 1 — 20-in., 
1 — 17-in., 1 — 141/^-in., 1 — 15-in. and 1 — 12-in. saw; cost, $121.50. 
Steel screw punch: Capacity, i-%6-in. hole in %-in. plate; cen- 
ter of punch to back of gap, 2i,^ ins. ; cost, $35. 

Cost of Tool Operation in Engine iVlanufacturing. The following 
costs of machine-tool operations in steam-engine manufacturing, by 
Wm. O. Webber, appeared in the Engineering Magazine, Aug., 1910 : 
" Mr. Webber's cost data are gathered within recent years from 
his own experience in the management of machinery-building works 
in the eastern United States. Careful reconsideration of the figures, 
and comparison with like costs in other .shops, shows that any im- 
provement in tools since Mr. Webber's tables were compiled is 
about offset by rise in wages, so the data correctly represent aver- 
age present performances." 

Some results obtained experimentally in various classes of metal- 
cutting work are noted in the accompanying tables. The first of 
these tables shows machining costs on connecting rods for small, 
simple horizontal engines, where the work was done in lots of 20 
parts each. Some interesting data were obtained as to the rela- 
tive cost of forging and machining. For instance, these connecting 
rods were made largely from round iron with ends upset to form 
the rectangular parts to which the brasses and straps were at- 
tached, the rods being then turned a double taper from the center, 
reducing toward each end. Forging at the price given (which in- 
cluded the straps and keys for each size rod) left a surplus of 
stock to be turned off in the lathe between the square ends, or 



1654 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



















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MISCELLANEOUS 



1655 



(in shop parlance) the " stub ends." It was therefore determined 
to forge the rods more closely to the finished size ; but the saving in 
turning was more than made up in the extra cost of blacksmithing, 
lathe work costing only about 19 cts. an hour as against the cost 
of 45 cts. per hour for blacksmith, helper, and fire. 

TABLE II. COSTS OF OPERATIONS ON CENTER-CRANK 
SHAFTS 

Turning (each) Turning Slotting Key 

Size 1 Lathe 2 Lathes 3 Lathes discs. discs. seating 

8x12 $1.80 $1.15 $1.00 $0.35 $0.31 $0 20 

9x12 1.80 1.15 1.00 0.35 0.31 023 

10x12 2.00 1.40 1.23 0.40 0.33 24 

10x15 2.50 1.65 1.44 0.45 0.40 27 

11x15 2.60 1.70 1.49 0.50 0.40 0.30 

12x16 3.00 2.20 1.75 0.60 0.45 0.34 

14x16 3.15 2.40 2.00 0.70 0.50 0.38 



TABLE III. 



TIMES OF OPERATIONS ON SHAFTS OF VARIOUS 
SIZES 



S'S 

2% 
2% 

3% 
3% 
3% 

3 78 

4 

4% 

4% 

4% 

4% 

4% 

478 

51/8 

5% 

572 



o ^ o 



+-> be 



"=>... <M 



t-l 



^^.^ 

1.23 
1.33 
1.42 
1.62 
1.66 
1.71 
1.80 
1.85 
2.02 
2.07 
2.12 
2.17 
2.23 
2.29 
2.37 
2.49 
2.54 
2.80 



61/2 

7 

772 

8 

81/2 

9 

9 72 

10 

101/2 

11 

12 
13 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 






a£bc 

2.98 
3.22 
3.42 
3.51 
3.84 
4.03 
4.22 
4.41 
4.59 
4.78 
5.16 
5.54 
5.90 
6.29 
6.67 
7.04 
7.42 



31/2 

3% 
3% 

3 78 

4 

474 

4% 

41/2 

4% 

4% 

4 78 

51/8 
5% 

5 72 



"ai'^ 



(§-- 

18.17 
21.80 
25.73 
27.87 
34.67 
37.10 
39.61 
42.19 
47.60 
50.40 
56.44 
59.53 
62.69 
65.94 
69.28 
72.68 
79.80 
87.08 
91.05 



672 

7 

V^ 

8 1/2 

9 

91/2 
10 

10% 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 



o '^ 

ft 

Sit; . 
.^^^ 

^<^B 

bc'rj, " 

107.21 
124.71 
143.50 
163.65 
185.05 
207.76 
231.89 
257.29 
283.92 
311.92 
341.43 
404.04 
472.08 
545.16 
631.68 
715.68 
806.40 
900.48 



Some more interesting figures were obtained in different methods 
of doing the work, that is machining straps on the shaper as against 
doing the same work on a planer, and milling brasses on a milling 
machine, as against doing the same work on a shaper. 



1656 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

It will be noted also that there are two prices given for lathe 
work, the price for two lathes being cheaper than that for one 
lathe. In this latter case the workmen would rough out on the 
one lathe and finish on the second. This difference of price in con- 
nection with the use of more than one tool is emphasized in the 
turning of crank shafts for these same center-crank engines for 
instance. 



TABLE IV. 



COSTS OF VARIOUS MACHINE OPERATIONS ON 
STEAM ENGINES 



BEDS 

Drilling Babbetting 

Size of Pillow Other and putting 

engine blocks holes Planing in studs 

8x12 $0.12 $0.27 $0.50 $0.90 

9x12 0.12 0.29 0.50 0.90 

10x12 0.14 0.29 0.60 1.05 

10x15 0.16 0.35 0.70 1.15 

11x15 0.18 0.40 0.80 1.25 

12x16 0.20 0.45 0.90 1.60 

CYLINDERS 

Size of Boring Vise Turning 

engine 1 mch. 2 mch. Planing work heads Drilling 

8x12 $0.76 $0.60 $0.50 $1.15 $0.22 $0.25 

9x12 0.80 0.64 0.65 1.20 0.25 0.29 

10x12 0.88 0.70 0.70 1.20 0.30 0.32 

10x15 0.96 0.77 0.85 1.30 0.30 0.34 

11x15 1.02 0.82 0.85 1.60 0.35 0.37 

12x16 1.12 0.90 0.95 1.60 0.10 0.40 

14x16 1.44 1.15 1.20 2.25 0.60 0.45 

PISTONS 

Size of Bolt cutter Rings, 

engine Turning Drilling on rods turning 

8x12 $0.80 $0.12 $0.12 $0.13 

9x12 0.88 0.15 0.15 0.14 

10x12 1.00 0.20 0.20 0.15 

10x15 1.00 0.20 0.20 0.15 

11x15 1.20 0.20 0.20 0.16 

12x16 1.25 0.25 0.25 0.17 

14x16 1.50 0.30 0.30 0.19 

SLIDES STEAM CHEST COVERS 

Size Planing top Drilling Size -Planing Milling 

8x12 $0.00 $0.07 8x12 $0.27 $0.15 

9x12 0.40 0.07 9x12 0.30 0.17 

10x12 0.40 0.07 10x12 0.30 0.20 

10x15 0.45 0.07 10x15 0.32 0.22 

11x15 0.55 0.07 11x15 0.35 0.25 

12x16 0.70 0,08 12x16 0.40 0.25 

14x16 1.00 0.10 14x16 0.50 0.30 



In roughing out the workman could easily run two lathes or in 
finishing it paid him to hire an apprentice at a fixed rate to assist 
him in running the three lathes. 

A large saving in cost was made by tapping the holes which had 



MISCELLANEOUS 1657 

TABLE V. TIME REQUIRED TO TURN. KEY-SEAT AND 
BALANCE, PULLEYS, PER INCH WIDTH OF FACE 

Allowance is made for pulleys in rough, hours and decimal parts of 

an hour 



c 



-^t^ -Sj^ ^^^ 

t^^ 2JS^ l^s 

6 .283 54 1.789 100 3 23 

8 .346 56 1.852 102 3',29 

10 .408 58 1.915 104 3.35 

12 .471 60 1.977 106 3.41 

14 .534 62 2.040 108 3.47 

16 .585 64 2.100 110 3.54 

18 .648 66 2.160 112 3.60 

20 .711 68 2.220 114 3.66 

22 .774 70 2.280 116 3.72 

24 .836 72 2.350 118 3.80 

26 .899 74 2.41 120 3.84 

28 .962 76 2.47 122 3 90 

30 1.026 78 2.54 124 3.96 

32 1.083 80 2.60 126 4.00 

34 1.151 82 2.68 128 4.06 

36 1.213 84 2.72 130 4.12 

38 1.276 86 2.79 132 4.18 

40 1.339 88 2.85 134 4.25 

42 1.402 90 2.91 136 4.31 

44 1.465 92 2.98 138 4.37 

46 1.528 94 3.00 140 4.43 

48 1.590 96 3.00 142 4.49 

50 1.663 98 3.16 144 4.54 



TABLE VI. COSTS OF VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON STANDARD 
BOILERS; HAND WORK 

Setting Flues 

1 14 -inch and 2-inch flues 5 cents 

3-inch flues 6 cents 

3 y^ -inch and 4-inch flues 8 cents 

6-inch flues 12 cents 

Punching and reaming flue holes 30 cts. per hundred 

Chipping edges of sheets of boilers 4 Mj cts. per lineal foot 

Caulking 2 cts. per lineal foot 

Punching rivet holes 15 cts. per hundred 

Riveting boilers with either steam or hydraulic rivets, 40 cts. per 

hundred rivets, an average day's work being about one thousand 

%-inch rivets. 
Stay bolts, 3% cts. each for tapping, putting in, and driving, 

to be threaded in the cylinders by machinery at the same time that 
the holes in the cylinders were being drilled; for instance, in a 10 
by 12 cylinder there are sixteen holes which average % in, and 
sixteen small holes for attaching the sections of the jacket to the 
cylinder. The price for drilling all of these holes was 32 cts., 



oH 



1658 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

or 1 ct. per hole ; which is very much cheaper than they could be 
tapped by hand afterwards. 

It may seem a difficult thing to make piece work prices on 
painting, including- the striping, of such things as engines, but for 

Engines 18 x 12 to 10 x 12 the price was $0.80, 
10x15 to 12x16 " " " 0.90, 

13 X 16 to 14 X 18 " " " 1.00, including varnishing. 

These prices included varnishing also. 

Machine Tools. Cutting Speed, Diameter of Cut, R.P.M., Length 
Finished per Minute. J. H. VanDeventer in Lefax gives the fol- 
lowing data applicable to lathe and boring mill work, when the 
diameter of the cut and the desired cutting speed are known : 

1 — The necessary r.p.m. to secure the cutting speed. 

2 — The length of cut finished per min. with a given feed. The 
latter is of great value in estimating time required to finish a 
given job, or to check up time records to see if a reasonable dura- 
tion has been exceeded. 

By means of the double scales, A and B, diam. from 0.7 in. to 
60 ins. are included in Fig. 1. The capacity of curves of 
reference may often be widely increased by shifting the decimal 
points in this manner, in the same way that the universal slide 
rule decimal point is shifted. 

By doubling values on the scale of cutting speeds, this chart of 
curves may be used up to a cutting speed of 200 ft. per min., which 
is as high as will be used in ordinary shopwork. In this case, the 
values of the A and B scales, both horizontal and vertical, should 
be doubled. 

Example 1 — What is the necessary r.p.m. for an 18-in. diam. to 
secure a cutting speed of 60 ft. per min.? 

Find the 18-in. curve as denoted on scale A at the top of the chart, 
and run down this curve to the horizontal representing 60 ft. cut- 
ting speed. Then drop vertically to bottom of chart and read 
12.7 r.p.m. on lower horizontal scale A, 

Example 2 — In this case, with 12.7 r.p.m. and a feed of % in. 
per revolution, what distance will be finished per min.? 

From 12.7 r.p.m. on horizontal scale A, run vertically to angular 
line representing %-in. feed. From this intersection, run horizon- 
tally to right vertical scale A, and read 1.58 ins. 

Example 3 — Given 40 ft. cutting speed, 2 ins. diameter of cut, 
%2 in. feed per revolution, what length will be finished per minute? 

From 2 ins. diameter on scale B at top of chart, run down the 
angular curve representing this diameter until it intersects the 
horizontal representing 40 ft. per min. cutting speed. Then ver- 
tically until the angular line represent %2-in. feed is intersected 
and from this point horizontally to right vertical scale B, and 
read 2.4 ins. 

The results obtained with these curves will be fully as accurate 
as slide rule results and obtained in one quarter the time. 

Practical Cutting Speeds. For detailed experiments on roughing 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1659 



cuts, see Taylor's Art of Cutting Metals. The following will 
serve as a guide to good modern practice using high speed steels. 

Cast iron Steel Brass 

per min. per min. per min. 

Soft 60 to 100 ft. 80 to 150 ft. 150 to 200 ft. 

Medium 40 to 60 ft. 60 to 80 ft. 80 to 150 ft. 

Hard 20 to 40 ft. 35 to 60 ft. 40 to 80 ft. 

Limits depend on the feed and depth of cut. Properly treated and 
ground tools should stand up at these speeds at least one hour 
between grindings. All tools should have the cutting edges rubbed 
with an oilstone after grinding, before putting in use. 

Standard shapes, angles and hardening methods must be adopted 
if standard cutting speeds are to be insisted upon and obtained. 
Tools should be ground only by an expert, and dry wheels should 
be abolished. 




Cutting SPEED - RPM - DiAMEITER OF CUT-LEN5TH FIMiSHEO P£R WINUTE 

Fig. 1. Cutting speeds of machine tools. 



Cutting Speed of High Speed Steel on Turret Lathes. H. I. 

Brackenbury (Engineering News, Aug. 18, 1910), states that on 
turret lathes the highest class of high-speed steel is now largely 
used, and tools with a very sharp cutting-angle are employed. A 
test, carried out at the works of Messrs. Alfred Herbert, gave the 
following result in reducing a mild-steel bar from l^/^ ins. to %-in. 
diam. at one cut, with tool clearance angle 7 degs. ; side slope 
35 degs ; cutting angle, 48 degs. 

Cutting 
speed, 



Tool R.p.m 

Carbon steel 149 * 

Class C, special high-speed 

steel 470 



ft. per 
min. 
58.5 

185 



Feed 

per 

rev. 

0.0134 

0.05 



Lbs. 
Feed removed 
per 
min. 
0.753 



per 
min. 



2.01 
23.5 



8.8125 



Cost of Tempering of Tools. The following from the Railway 
Electrical Engineer, Oct., 1915, gives some costs on tempering 
tools : 



1660 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Dies. Reports from four different sources show it is the gen- 
era-1 practice on this road to purchase dies for a small diameter 
bolt, as a rule %-in. size, and as they become worn they are 
softened, bored, rethreaded and retempered for use on %-in. 
size bolts. They are again used until worn down so not fit for 
further use and again pass through the same process as before 
increasing them to the next larger size. These several processes 
are carried on until the stock of the dies is so much used up it is 
impossible to go through with another, which usually ends when 
the dies have been worked up to 1 in. or 1% ins., thus the one 
die serves during its life for the several sizes if it is properly 
worked and handled. 

Costs. The costs herein used are an average obtained from 
several different shops taken independently of each other and then 
compiled and although an average is . used in no cases were the 
limits of high and low costs greater or less than 10% from each 
other ; therefore, should be quite correct. It will also be under- 
stood that costs of air are based on an electric driven blower cur- 
rent costing two cents per kilowatt-hour and on such tools that 
will require more than one heat to work them this is taken' into 
account per unit price each. 

DIES 

Labor to Retem- 

Size Softening increase size pering Total 

Va in. to % in $0.0383 $0.10 $0,041 $.1793 

% in. to % in 0378 .112 .04 .1898 

% in. to Vs in 0371 .121 .04 .1981 

% in. to 1 in 0365 .142 .038 .2165 

1 in. to 1% ins 031 .161 .038 .23 

1% in. to 1% ins 031 .164 .038 .233 

In making these figures, machinists' labor costs at 40 cts. per 
hr. were used and the blacksmiths' labor at 39 cts. per hr. 



TAPS 

Labor of 

Size Softening dressing Retempering 

1% in. to 1 in $0.0423 $0,123 $0.0542 

1 into % in 041 .119 .0540 



Total 
$0.2195 
.214 



REAMERS 



Nothing obtainable on this. 



MACHINE TOOLS 

Size Labor of dressing Tempering 

Small $0.0633 $0,043 

Large 0825 .052 

Very littls information was obtainable on these. 



Total 
$0.1073 
.1345 



CHISELS 

Size Labor of dressing 

Small $0,041 

Large 063 



Tempering 


Total 


$0,032 


$0,073 


.052 


.104 



MISCELLANEOUS 1661 

The last two items are usually of the best steel and it is neces- 
sary often to make more than one heat to work them. Some of 
the costs collected under the head of " Chisels " are considerably 
higher than here given. 

Cost of Tools and Equipment in tlie Shops of an Electric Railroad. 
The following costs of tools and equipment were taken from an 
appraisal by the authors in 1912: 

MACHINE SHOP TOOLS 

1 Pease planter 24 in. by 6 ft. stroke complete with counter- 
shaft $ 250 

1 Forsyth lathe with countershaft, 24 in 750 

1 20 in. Forsyth lathe with countershaft 450 

1 26 in. American lathe with countershaft 1,200 

1 24 in. American lathe 1,200 

2 air compressors 12 in. by 14 in., G. S. D. (made by Chicago 

Pneumatic Co.) complete with 2 36 in. by 8 ft. air tanks 
piping and 2 air gauges 1,800 

1 National brake and elec. air compressor, type V. S. 90, 225 
cu. ft. No. 118 A complete with induction motor, 40 h.p., 
2 phase 95-4/10 amps., 200 volt with air tank 5 ins. 
diam.. 11 ft. 10 in. long piping 2,150 

1 two-ton Sprague electric hoist 433 

4 10-screw car hoists (Hefferman Machine Works, Seattle, 

Wash.), equipped with G. E. 1,200 motor and A 2 con- 
troller 7,000 

8 wooden horses with iron roller used for handling rail on 

bulldozer 64 

1 250 lb. steam hammer 405 

1 1.100 lb. steam hammer (made by Bement Niles Co.) 1.500 

1 National bolt cutting machine complete with counter shaft 

and dies 500 

1 Q. and C. rail cut off machine with counter shaft and two 
saws, also 66 Faber cut off saw teeth. Complete 40 
Faber saw teeth. Wedges Faber saw teeth, yokes with 

set screws 1,500 

1 G. E. 714 h.p. induction motor, 10 amps., 220 volt 130 

1 G. E. 20 h.p. induction motor, 44 amps., 220 volt 292 

1 G. E. 25 h.p. induction motor, 56 amps., 220 volt 290 

1 G. E. 25 h.p. induction motor. 61 amps., 220 volt 290 

1 Beauford 48 in. boring mill with No. 27 Midvale self harden- 
ing steel tools 1,200 

1 22-in. Barns drill press 75 

2 20-in. Barns drill press 150 

1 24-in. Aurora drill press 75 

1 48-in. American radial drill press with countershaft 1,400 

1 26-in. back gear drill press 75 

1 Baudry automatic belt hammer 150 

1 American twist drill grinder with one emery wheel and 1 

carborundum wheel 65 

1 derrick with 12 in. by 12 in. wooden mast and 12 in. by 12 in, 

wooden boom 60 ft. long equipped with hoist manufac- 
tured by Am. Hoist and Derrick Co., St. Paul 1,800 

5 steel jib swing cranes 150 

4 steel jib wall cranes 120 

2 wooden jib swing cranes 20 

1 steel jib swing crane ' 75 

1 car wheel hoist crane ^5 

1 32-in. stroke complete with countershaft fiber pulley 8 in. 

diam., 4 in. face Cincinnati shaper machine 800 

Midvale self-hardening steel tools No. 38 30 

1 Septol shaper 24 in. stroke complete with countershaft ^50 

1 Niles Bement car wheel lathe complete with G. E. motor 
class C. 20 form B. 25 h.p., 500 volt, 43 amps., constant 
current 6,000 



16C2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Mid vale self -hardening- steel tool No. 120 $ 96 

1 18 in. American lathe with countershaft 750 

1 stamping machine with 60 assorted punches and dies for 

bloclving, breaking and drilling controller parts 700 

1 Highey rail cutoff saw machine complete with G. E. induc- 
tion motor, 10 h.p. 23 amps., 220 volt, and 2-30-in. Diss- 

ton saws 1.500 

1 Ajax bulldozer machine with 16 steel dies for bending rails. 1,400 

1 track grinder machine with 1 2-m. by 12-in. carborundum 

wheel and 1 3-in. by 12-in. wheel 250 

1 machine for grinding switch tongue with 1 2-in. by 20-in. 

carborundum wheel 150 

2 hand power shearing machines 20 

1 Doty jjower punch and shear combined No. 17 G 1,000 

1 Radial drill press with countershaft, No. 2 Bickford 700 

1 150-ton capacity Shaffer hydraulic wheel press 750 

1 snuiil hydraulic press with 7-in. i)lunger 200 

1 Putnam 30--in. planer 8 ft. stroke complete \Vith counter 

shaft 2.700 

1 Cincinnati 42-in. planer 14 ft. stroke complete with coun- 

tershaft 4.000 

Wheel grinder machine complete with countershaft 2 car- 
borundum wheels 21/2 by 18 in 350 

Westinghouse d.c. motor 2~iA h.p. 5 3/10 in. amps 60 

G. E. induction motor 7^2 a.j.p. 19 amps. 220 volt 130 

G. E. continuous current motor, open 15 h.p. closed 7 h.p., open 

25 1/2 amps,, closed 13 amps 240 

G. E. continuous current motor, 3 h.p., 5 43/100 amps., 500 

volt 60 

G. E. shunt wound 5 h.p. motor 9 amps., 500 volt 65 

2 G. E. induction motors 60 h.p.. 14 amps., 2,080 volt 1.362 

G. E. induction motor m h.p., 15 1/91 amps., 220 volt 130 

G. E. induction motor 7V2 h.p., 18 amps. 220 volt 130 

WOODWORKING MACHINERY IN CARPENTER SHOP 

1 J. A. Day tennoning machine, estimated value $ 150 

1 54-in. Royal invincible sanding machine (2nd hand cost 

$700) 700 

1 Foley band saw filing machine, value 45 

1 Eagon mortising machine 250 

1 double emery stand Northampton 45 

1 pattern lathe Eagon, 10-in. swing 65 

1 Oliver bench saw and trimming machine, cost about 35 j 

1 24-in. pony planer Eagon 450 

1 band saw 36-in. Crescent Mfg. Co 75 

1 wood 36-in. band saw 200 

1 Cordsman savv' bench 75 

1 Eagon 8-in. jointer 150 

1 Williamsport 4 sided 6-in. sticker 105 

1 Greenle rip saw, value 300 

1 American swing cut off saw 75 

80 ft. 2 1/2 in. shafting, 12 pulleys 300 

1 American 4 sided 7-in. sticker 150 

50 ft. 2-in. shafting, 10 pulleys 200 

1 25 h.p., 2 phase 200 volt, shop meter 275 

2 500 volt, 3 h.p., fan motor , 120 

1 Standaid sewing machine 35 

3 Wilcox bench vises 15 

1 steam glue pot 15 

ELECTRIC REPAIR SHOP TOOLS 

1 12-in. W. P. Davis speed lathe $ 50 

1 24-in. Armature banding lathe 175 

1 24-in. Commutator grooving lathe 200 

1 32-in. Peck. Stow & Wilcox cutting machine 40 

1 double head emery stand 15 



MISCELLANEOUS 1663 

1 3-in. bench vise % \q 

1 5-in. bench vise ....*...'.'..*.'.". 10 

2 6-in. bench vises ..'..'.','.. 10 

2 Field winding machines ..'.'.'.".',*.'.'..'* 150 

2 armature coil taping machines '..*..'.'.'. 150 

1 one ton electric hoist and carriage, Sprague Co .*.*.'.." 475 

Cost of Equipment for a Boiler and Blacksmith Shop. E. H. 
Jones (Bulletin of American Institute of Mining Engineers, July 
1914) in describing the equipment of the boiler and machine shops 
of the Arizona Copper Co. of Clifton. Ariz., gives the purchase price 
of tools and the labor required to install them as follows : 

Factory Freight Total 

1 No. 2 punch and shear (Hilles & Jones) $1,530 $435 $1,965.00 

1 No. bending rolls 580 75 '655.00 

One 1,100-lb. steam hammer (Niles-Be- 

ment-Pond Co.) 1 blower, size 5, type 

D (American Blower Co.) 1,015 408 1,423.00 

One 5-h.p. 440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle 1,720 

r.p.m. motor 160 19 179.90 

1 No. 5 swage block ... 35.08 

1 Peter Wright anvil, weight 497 lb ... 70.57 

10 in. galv. iron pipe and connections ... 106.63 

3 sheets steel, % in. by 48 ins. by 120 

ins = 16.02 

One 2-in. heading, upsetting and forging 

machine, (Acme Machinery Co.).... 2,790 440 3,230.70 

1 sisco anvil, 407 lb ... 46.60 

1 (Hay Budden) anvil, 420 lb 48.10 

40 ft. of 6-in. I-beam 12.62 

Castings ... 41.00 

Miscellaneous ... 29.14 



$7,859.31 



Cost of Equipment for a Smelter Plant Machine and Blacksmith 
Shop. In describing the equipment of the machine shops of the 
Arizona Copper Co. of Clifton, Ariz., Mr. Jones gives the purchase 
price of material and the labor cost of installing as follows : 

Cost 
installed 

1 (Prentiss) machine bench vise. No. 2 $20.15 

1 machine bench vise. No. 21 20.16 

1 machine bench vise, No. 22 28.85 

1 machine pipe vise, No. 2A. , 2.38 

1 machine pipe vise, No. 4A , 7.77 

1 stationary bench vise. No. 56 20.72 

40 ft. of IVo-in. pipe 2.97 

1 No. 48 power grindstone 56.62 

2 emery wheels 8.90 

1 emery wheel grinder 17.00 

1 No. 40 special turning machine 36.22 

1 set faces for wiring machine 5.56 

1 gauge 2.35 

1 burr machine and stand }. 

1 No. 17 S. P. crimper and stand 10.77 

1 No. 3 beading machine oaI^ 

1 No. 0236 squaring shears 180.86 

1 stake-holder and stakes ^oif 

1 rivet set 2.65 

1 No. 101 tinner's rule o I 

1 power hack saw No. 3 , . . 29.63 



1664 MECHANIC4L AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Cost 
installed 
1 radial drill press, 42 ins $752.20 



Miscellaneous 

1 50-in. cornice brake 

1 16-in. rip saw 

Castings 

1 No. 1 drill chuck . . . 

1 No. 21/2 drill chuck . 
72 hack saw blades . . . 



21.92 

155.96 

4.30 

10.10 
5.61 
7,02 
5.55 



1 surfacer, 20 in. by 6 in 

1 No. 50 hand saw 

1 lathe, 14 in. by 8 ft 

1 lathe (McCabe) patented double 
spindle , 

1 Crescent saw table 

One 20-in. (Rockford) shaper 

One ^-in. bolt cutter 

1 (Crane) pipe machine 2 in 

1 (Crane) pipe machine 4 in , 

1 (Crane) pipe machine 12 in 

Small tools, miscellaneous equipment. . 
Total cost of all equipment 



Factory 

$180.00 

175.00 

563.75 

2,111.00 
168.75 
425.00 
355.00 
192.00 
480.00 

1,500.00 



Cost 

Freight installed 

$26.70 $206.70 

27.45 202.45 

81.40 645.15 



277.15 
51.34 

175.07 
47.10 
16.56 
44.10 

163.59 



2,388.15 
220.09 
600.07 
402.10 
208.56 
524.10 

1,663.59 

394.36 

$8,953.13 



Cost of Brass, Iron and Lead Pipe, 
various kinds of pipe. 



The following costs are for 



SEAMLESS BRASS PIPE 















Weight 




Weight 




Size in ins. 


per ft, lbs. 


Net price 


per ft. lbs. 


Net price 


% 


.25 


$0,080 


.370 


$0.12 


14 


.43 


.136 


.625 


.20 


% 


.63 


.168 


.830 


.22 


% 


.90 


.228 


1.200 


.30 


% 


1.25 


.300 


1.66 


.40 


1 


1.70 


.408 


2.36 


.56 


1^ 


2.50 


.600 


3.30 


.80 


IV2 


3.00 


.720 


4.25 


1.02 


2 


4.00 


.960 


5.46 


1.30 


21/2 


5.75 


1.380 


8.30 


2.00 


3 


8.30 


1.990 


11.20 


2.68 


3V2 


10.90 


2.730 


13.70 


3.42 


4 


12.70 


3.300 


16.50 


4.30 


4y2 


13.90 


3.890 


19.47 


5.45 


5 


15.75 


4.750 


22.80 


6.85 


6 


18.31 


5.65 


32.00 


9.90 




WROUGHT IRON BLACK 


PIPE 




Size, ins. 


Weight 
per ft., lbs. 


Price 
per ft. 


Price 

for 

cutting 


Price 

for cutting 

and threading 


% 


.244 


$0.0165 


$0.02 


$0.03 




.424 


.0180 


.02 


.03 


% 


.567 


.018 


.02 


.03 


V2 


.850 


.0255 


.02 


.03 


3/ 


1.130 


.0287 


.02 


.03 


1 


1.678 


.0425 


.02 


.03 


1% 


2.272 


.0575 


.03 


.04 


iy2 


2.717 


.0670 


.04 


.05 


2 


3.652 


.085 


.05 


.07 


2V2 


5.792 


.135 


.07 


.10 



MISCELLANEO US 1665 



Weight 


Price 


lerft.lbs. 


per ft. 


7.575 


.176 


9.109 


.211 


10.790 


.262 


12.538 


.305 


14.617 


.355 


18.974 


.418 


23.544 


.642 


28.554 


.778 


33.904 


.930 


40.483 


1.110 


45.557 


1.250 


49.562 


1.370 


54.568 


1.510 


58.573 


1.650 


62.579 


1.750 



Price 


Price 


for 


for cutting 


cutting 


and threading 


.10 


$.15 


.13 


.20 


.13 


.20 


.17 


.25 


.20 


.30 


.27 


.40 


.33 


.50 


.40 


.60 


.67 


1.00 


.83 


1.25 



Size, ins. 
3 

3y2 

4 
5 



9 
10 
11 

12 49.562 1.370 1.17 1.75 
13 
14 
15 

Prices per ft. for galvanized wrought iron pipe are 10% more than 
those given above. 

EXTRA STRONG WROUGHT IRON PIPE 

Size, ins. Weight per ft., lbs. Net price per ft. 

Vs 314 $0.0565 

% 535 .0353 

% 738 .0353 

% 1.087 .0517 

% 1.473 .0480 

1 2.171 .0705 

1% 2.996 .096 

11/2 3.631 .117 

2 5.022 .142 

21/2 7.661 .216 

3 10.252 .288 

31/2 12.505 .350 

4 14.983 .555 

4% 17.611 .665 

5 20.778 .770 

6 28.573 1.070 

7 38.048 1.410 

8 43.388 1.610 

SPIRAL, rtlVETED PIPE 

Net price per 100 ft. 



Thickness * 


With bolted joints complete 




Birmingham 
wire gage 








ins. 


Plain 


Ashphalted 


Galvanized 


4 


18 


$19.76 


$21.48 


$30.74 


5 


18 


23.40 


23.70 


37.14 


6 


16 


33.05 


35.76 


49.73 


7 


16 


37.58 


40.76 


56.82 


8 


16 


43.17 


46.80 


65.00 


9 


16 


50.06 


50.10 


74.22 


10 




66.42 


71.08 


96.15 


11 




71.20 


76.57 


102.24 


12 




83.75 


89.15 


118.30 


13 




89.67 


96.55 


127.98 


14 




99.14 


105.51 


138.85 


15 




108.05 


114.89 


151.92 


16 




117.53 


124.82 


166.58 


18 


12 


167.43 


175.95 


226.44 



* Made in both lighter and heavier gages at corresponding differ- 
ences in price. 



1666 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Net price per 100 ft. 



Tt 


lickness 

Birmingham 
wire gage 
12 
12 
12 
10 
10 
10 


With 


bolted joints 


complete 


ins. 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 


Plain 
$183.79 
200.48 
219.92 
280.20 
301.32 
324.81 


Ashphalted 
$193.30 
210.64 
231.07 
292.41 
314.89 
399.15 


Galvanized 

$248.39 
269.21 
293.99 
370.78 
395.37 
430.64 



The quotations are f.o.b. factory, freight equalized with New 
York, being figured at a discount of 50, 10 and 10% from list. 
These are for orders amounting to approximately $250. For large 
orders, prices are cheaper by 121^4 to 20%. 



, Size, ins. — 

Destination 4 and 6 4 and larger 4 

New York $20 to $21 

Chicago $26 

Birmingham $19.50 

The above are net prices per ton. 
Gas pipe is $1 per ton higher in all. 



6 to 12 Over 12 
$24 $23 



LEAD PIPE 

Size Weight per Size 

ins. foot, lbs. ins. 

%A ly^ 11/4 A 

%B 1 11/46 

% c % 1 Vi c 

y2A 1% 11/2 A 

y2B 11/4 ly^B 

y2C 1 ly^c 

% A 2 Va 2 A 

% B 2 2 B 

% C lya 2 C 

% A 3 3 A 

% B 214 3 B 

% C 1% 3% A 

1 A 4 3 ya B 

1 B 31^ 4 B 

1 C 21/2 4 C 

A = Strong. B = Medium. C = Light. 



Weight per 

foot, lbs. 
.... 4.% 
.... 3% 

3 

. ... 6i1j 
5 

.... 4y4 

8 

.... 7 

6 

13 

9 

15 

10 

13 



Net price for lead pipe under normal conditions to jobbers and 
large consumers is 5.75 cts. per lb. and to small consumers 6.4 
cts. per lb. 



. 


" STANDARD " CAST IRON FLANGED FITTINGS 


Size, ins. 


Tee 


Cross 


Elbow 


2 


$1.60 


$2.20 


$1.10 


2y2 


1.70 


2.40 


1.15 


3 


1.90 


2.60 


1.30 


3y2 


2.20 


2.90 


1.50 


4 


2.50 


3.30 


1.70 


4y2 


2.80 


3.80 


2.00 


5 


3.20 


4.40 


2.25 


6 


4.10 


5.70 


2.90 


7 


5.30 


7.30 


3,80 



MISCELLANEOUS 



loc; 



Size. ins. 


Tee 


Cross 


Elbow 


8 


$6.80 


$9.20 


$4.80 


9 


8.40 


11.50 


6.00 


10 


10.00 


14.00 


7.20 


12 


10.50 


21.00 


10.50 


14 


20.00 


29.00 


14.00 


15 


23.00 


33.00 


16.00 


16 


27.00 


38.00 


19.00 


18 


35.00 


49.00 


23.00 


20 


43.00 


62.00 


29.00 


24 


64.00 


92.00 


42.00 



Forty-five degree bends cost about the same as elbows and Y' 
about the same as crosses. 

The above fittings are for pressures up to 125 lbs. per sq. in. 

COST OF DRILLING PER " STANDARD " CAST IRON FITTING 



Size, ins. 


Tee 


Elbow 


Cross 


2 


$0.39 


$0.26 


$0.52 


2% 


.46 


.33 


.65 


3 


.46 


.33 


.65 


SVa 


.46 


.33 


.65 


4 


.75 


.52 


1,04 


4^2 


.75 


.52 


1.04 


5 


.75 


.52 


1.04 


6 


.75 


.52 


1.04 


7 


1.50 


.98 


1.95 


8 


1.50 


.98 


1.95 


9 


1.55 


1.04 


2.10 


10 


1.55 


1.04 


2.10 


12 


2.35 


1.56 


3.10 


14 


2.85 


1.80 


3.65 


15 


3.10 


2.10 


4.15 


16 


3.40 


2.35 


4.75 



Net cost for drilling 45 deg. bends, is the same as for elbows and 
Y's about the same as crosses. 



" STANDARD " CAST IRON COMPANION FLANGES 



Size, ins. 


1 


X 4 


ly* 


X 4y2 


iy2 


X 5 


2 


X 6 


2y2 


X 7 


3 


X IV2 


3y2 


X 8 Ms 


4 


X 9 


4y2 


X 9% 


5 


X 10 


6 


xll 


7 


xi2y2 


8 


xl3i/a 


9 


xl5 


10 


xl6 


12 


xl9 


14 


x21 


15 


x21 


15 


x22^ 


16 


x23y8 


18 


x25 


20 


x27ya 


22 


x29M! 


24 


x32 



Faced 

$0.26 

.27 

.29 

.32 

.37 

.42 

.47 

.56 

.65 

.73 

.83 

1.15 

1.30 

1.75 

2.00 

2.70 

3.70 

4.70 

4.70 

5.80 

7.15 

7.80 

8.80 

10.60 



Faced and drilled 
$0.32 

.35 

.37 

.39 

.52 

.59 

.65 

.78 

.87 

.95 
1.04 
1.50 
1.70 
2.15 
2.40 
3.25 
4.15 
5.45 
5.45 
6.80 
8.15 
8.85 
10.00 
12.00 



1668 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

" EXTRA HEAVY " CAST IRON FLANGED FITTINGS 



Size, ins. 


Tee 


Cross 


Elbow 


2 


$2.45 


$3.25 


$1.65 


21/2 


2.65 


3.50 


1.80 


3 


3.00 


4.00 


2.00 


31/2 


3.30 


4.50 


2.25 


4 


3.80 


5.20 


2.55 


41/2 


4.40 


6.00 


2.90 


5 


5.00 


6.80 


3.30 


6 


6.40 


8.80 


4.30 


7 


8.25 


11.50 


5.60 


8 


10.50 


14.50 


7.00 


9 


13.00 


18.00 


10.00 


10 


16.00 


22.00 


11.00 


12 


23.00 


31.00 


16.00 


14 


32.00 


43.00 


22.00 


15 


37.00 


50.00 


26.00 


16 


42.50 


57.00 


30.00 


18 


55.00 


72.00 


38.00 


20 


68.00 


90.00 


47.00 


24 


100.00 




70.00 



Forty-five deg. bends cost about the same as elbows for all 
sizes over 5 ins. ; the smaller sizes, howeA'-er, cost about 8% more 
than prices given above. Y fittings are about the same as those 
for crosses. 

The above fittings are for pressures up to 250 lbs. per sq. in. 

COST OF DRILLING PER " EXTRA HEAVY " CAST IRON FITTING 



Size in ins. 


Tee 


Cross 


Elbow 


2 


$.61 


$.81 


$.40 


21/2 


.71 


1.00 


.50 


3 


.71 


1.00 


.50 


31/2 


.71 


1.00 


.50 


4 


1.20 


1.62 


.81 


4y2 


1.20 


1.62 


.81 


5 


1.20 


1.62 


.81 


6 


1.20 


1.62 


.81 


7 


2.30 


3.05 


1.52 


8 


2.30 


3.05 


1.52 


9 


2.40 


3.25 


1.62 


10 


2.40 


3.25 


1.62 


12 


3.65 


4.85 


1.45 


14 


4.45 


5.70 


1.85 


15 


4.85 


6.50 


3.25 


16 


5.25 


7.30 


3.65 


18 


6.10 


8.10 


4.00 



20 8.10 10.50 5.25 

24 12.25 16.20 8.10 

Net cost for drilling 45 deg. bends are the same as for elbows 
and Y's about the same as for crosses. 



" EXTRA HEAVY " 


' CAST IRON COMPANION 


FLANGES 


Size, ins. 


Faced 


Faced and drilled 


1 X 41/2 


$0.40 


$0.50 


114 X 5 


.42 


.54 


li/ox 6 


.44 


.56 


2 X 61^ 


.48 


.60 


2y2x 7y2 

3 X 8% 


.56 


.80 


.64 


.90 


sygx 9 


.72 


1.00 



BELTS. SHAFTS AND MOTOR DRIVES 1669 



Size, ins. 


4 


xlO 


4% X 101/2 


5 


xll 


6 


X 121/2 


7 


X 14 


8 


X 15 


9 


xl6^ 


10 


X 171/2 


12 


x20 


14 


x 221/2 


15 


X 23 1/2 


16 


x25 


18 


X 27 


20 


X 291/2 


22 


x3iy2 


24 


x34i^ 



Faced 


Faced and drilled 


1.86 


$1.20 


1.00 


1.32 


1.12 


1.46 


1.28 


1.60 


1.74 


2.30 


2.00 


2.60 


2.70 


3.30 


3.10 


3.70 


4.20 


5.00 


5.50 


6.40 


7.20 


8.40 


9.00 


10.40 


11.00 


12.40 


12.00 


13.60 


13.60 


15.60 


16.40 


18.40 



Wood Stave Pipe. Key to table of dimensions and prices given 
in Table V. 

A — Machine banded fir stave pipe, f.o.b. ships tac^jile, Port- 
land or Seattle. Pipe packed and crated for export. 

B — Pipe made of Oregons or Douglas fir, with li/> in. shell. 
Lengths of pipe from 8 to 16 ft., with not more than 10% less than 
10 ft. Inserted joint couplings made of the pipe (slip joint), one 
end of pipe being trimmed off for 3 ins., forming a tenon, the 
other end to be reamed to receive tenon. The wire gauge used to 
be W.-M. Standard, No. 4 being 0.225 and No. 2 being 0.263 ins. 
in diameter. (B 1) — "Wood sleeve coupling to be of same class 
of material as the pipe sections, and not less than 6 ins. in length. 
No sap wood allowed in couplings. Couplings to be spirally wound 
with wire having a spacing not greater than one-half of spacing 
of wire on pipe. (B 2) — Individual band coupling to be made 
of staves and in same manner as wood sleep coupling, except that 
individual bands of round mild steel of size designated shall be 
used for the banding. Each band to be headed and threaded and 
supplied with nut and washer, and a malleable cast iron or drop 
forged shoe to be used in clinching the bands. The wire used 
shall be galvanized and have a strength of not less than 60,000 
lbs. per sq. in. The prices given are f. o. b. cars, Portland, Ore. 

C — Fir pipe of li/^ in. staves, with 8 in. sleeve couplings, each 
with three individual Y2 in. round mild steel bands. 

D — Similar pipe to C, but with steel adjustable clamp couplings. 
Weight per foot approximately the same as C. 

E — Similar to C but with i/^ in. bands (spaced as shown in 
table) instead of spirally wound wire and shipped "knocked 
down." The weight of the lumber used would be about 2,200 lbs. 
per thousand board feet of lumber, and the weight of the bands 
per thousand lineal feet of pipe as shown in the table. 

F — Pipe similar to E but with steel couplings similar to those 
used in D. The prices of pipe under C, D, E and F are given 
f.o.b. cars, dock, Tacoma. 

G — Redwood pipe, machine banded, built in sections of random 
lengths of from 8 to 20 ft. Wire having tensile strength of 60,000 
to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in, shall be spaced with a safety factor of 4, 



1670 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

O O OS O r-l 

P -^J Jad 8DUd us «o to oo OS 



SuiO-BdS ^ ^^ g^ §^ 



§ 



PU^ aSllBS 9JTM 



o 


SI 


(sqi) W 




:^J aad eouj 


eg 









;^ 




;^ 




;^ 




;?J 




t- 




OS 


OS 






P3 


M 


U3 








T-i 




eg 




eg 


eg 


(M 


s 


d 

o 


s 


5 


S 


6 


S 


5 


s 


5 



S^ ^^ -^^ ';^ 

(Mi^ iH(^ tHi<^ tH 



Ill 
I— I 

Oh 
M 

Q ( suT ) SuTxdnoo pu^ 

O 9dTd JO -ui^ip ^pIs:^no 

I 

o 

H O So 

y SuTOBdS ^ aj -^r,* „• 

'*'< ("SQT) '11 00rHt-O'*«0«^00CT>U3 

w a9dmsx8M ^ 3 S ?5-^' 1^ ^ ^ S ^' 

o 

g ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ 



c^ 


ci 


Bj 


l«r^ 


wO 


tnO 


•^^r/5 


.s-« 


.S<^J 


^o S 


t^o.S 


;^,=>' 


;:^'A^ 


^^M 


rH^( 



0>^0 O^'O O'wO O^'O 



'^ "SUI 'SU^'BaO SUI t> OS rH M lO 

H' -pnpui 'Lu-Bip ^pls:^ho '"' ih (m eq m 

1-1 



OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



lO O U5 O U5 O lO O U5 O »i5 O in O in O krt o vo o 

*JJ P'B8JJ cgioc-OMusc-ocgmt-oiMint-o«gmt-o 



•SUI '9ZIS r-l 



MISCELLANEOUS 1671 



(ij -no) s9ATs:>s 
s:jU9:juoo oiqno 



(•sqi) j-iaed 



(•sqi) -j-ijed 



•^j jad 90ij<j 



s:^u8:juoo qno 



(•sqi) •:^J 
aod :mSia^ 



U aad ooiJ<j 



^ fe •:^Ja^d^OLI^^ ;* 

< Csqi) iJH-iQd g 

Eh spuBq jo ^mSia^i S 



(■sui) 9ot?ds ^ ;|J s^;|; ;:?J;^ ;f?;^ ^ 

pUB 'aziS pu^a o a> 00 t> «> 



•:>j J9d aoud 



lftOU5o'^®"'<=>lftOlfiiOU50lrtOlrtOlOO 



•SUI '9ZIS rH 



1672 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

The staves shall be beveled and further provided with a small 
tongue and groove. Price f.o.b., dock, San Francisco. 

H — Continuous redwood stave pipe, shipped " knocked down." 
Lengths of staves to be from 10 to 20 ft. with about 30% of 12 
ft. stock. Ends of staves to have metallic tongues made from 
1% X % in. band iron. Bands spaced with a factor of safety of 
4, to be round mild steel with malleable iron shoes. The rods to 
have a tensile strength of 58,000 to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in. Prices 
f.o.b. dock, San Francisco, Cal. 

Cost of Wood Pipe on Pacific Coast. Table VI gives the cost 
of wood pipe on the Pacific Coast in 1912. 



TABLE VI. COST OF WOOD PIPE 



Size, 


Head 


Spacing, 


Wire, 


Shell, 


Price 


ins. 


in ft. 


ins. 


No. 


ins. 


per ft. 


18 


50 


3 


2 


l^^i 


$0,831^ 




100 


11%6 


1 




.97 




150 


1% 


1 


" 


1.121/2 




200 


11%6 


1 


1% 


1.32 




250 




1 




1.45 Vo 




300 


% 


1 


" 


1.59 V2 




350 


9A6 


1 


1% 


1.71 




400 


Ya 


1 




1.81% 


16 


50 


3 


2 


1% 


0.73% 




100 


1% 


2 




.83 




150 


1%6 


1 


" 


.92 




200 


11/46 


1 


1% 


1.13 




250 


Vs 


1 




1.23 




300 


mie 


1 


" 


1.371^ 




350 


% 


1 


1% 


1.48 




400 


%6 


1 




1.57% 


14 


50 


3 


4 


1% 


0.59% 




100 


1%6 


4 




.69% 




150 


1%6 


2 


" 


.76% 




200 


1 


2 


" 


.89% 




250 


% 


2 


" 


.97 




300 


% 


2 


ll 


1.09% 


12 


50 


3 


4 


0.46% 




100 


11%6 


4 


1% 


.52 




150 


1%6 


4 


" 


.58% 




200 


1% 


2 


iy4 


.64% 




250 


• 1 


2 




.70 Vo 




300 


1%6 


2 


" 


.76% 


10 


150 


17/i6 


4 


1^^ 


.046 V2 




175 


1% 


4 




.48% 




200 


liAe 


4 


" 


.52% 


8 


150 


11%6 


4 


" 


0.35 




175 


1%6 


4 


" 


.36% 




200 


WXQ 


4 


" 


.38% 


6 


150 


2%6 


4 


" 


0.25 Vo 




175 


2 


4 


" 


.26% 




200 


11%6 


4 


" 


.27% 


4 


175 


2 


4 


1% 


.191/^ 




150 


2% 


4 




.161/^ 




200 


1% 


4 


• 


.191/2 



Approx. 
wt., per 
ft. -lbs. 
27.2 
30.5 
35.2 
41.6 
45.1 
49.2 
54.2 
57.2 
24.3 
26.5 
29.4 
35.3 
37.8 
42 
46 
50 
20.6 
22.8 
25 
28.5 
30.1 
33.8 
16.2 
17.5 
19.4 
22.8 
24.5 
26.4 
15.7 
16.25 
17.1 
12.4 
12.8 
13.3 
9.2 
9.5 
9.7 
6.4 
6.0 
6.6 



The 14-18 in. sizes are banded, the 16-12 in. sizes coupled and 
the 4 in. size has an inserted jointed wood sleeve. 
Rope. The following are costs of rope. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1673 



T~>- 


Approximate 


Approximate 


Length in 


inch6s 


wt. in lbs. 


breaking 


ft. required 




per 100 ft. 


strength 


for splice 


% 


20 


4,500 


8 


7s 


26 


6,125 


8 




34 


8,000 


10 


1 % 


43 


10,125 


10 


1^/4 


53 


12,500 


10 


1% 


65 


15,125 


12 


1% 


77 


18,000 


12 


1 % 


90 


21,125 


12 


1% 


104 


24,500 


12 


2 


136 


32,000 


14 



MANILA TRANSMISSION ROPE 

Smallest 

diam. 

of 

sheave 
28 
32 
36 
40 
46 
50 
54 
60 
64 
72 
Price 11 to 15% cts. per pound. 

Scales. The following are the costs of various types of scales. 
Portable Platform Scales adapted to the weighing of all kinds of 
general merchandise. 

Capacity, lbs 440 x % 800 x % 1500 x V2 2500 x % 

Size of platform, ins 16x22 17x26 21x28 26x34 

Weight, approx., lbs 125 200 300 400 

Price without wheels $13.00 $20.00 $30.00 $48 

Price with wheels 15.00 22.00 33.00 51 

Wheelbarrow scales, with runs on both sides for wheelbarrows 
and hand trucks. 

Capacity, lbs 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 

Platform, ins 42x30 42x30 44x35 45x36 

Price without wheels $42.00 $48.00 $49.00 $69.00 

Price with quick weigher. . . . 66.00 .... .... .... 

Price with wheels 45.00 51.00 60.00 75 

Price with quick weigher.... 69.00 .... .... .... 

A Steel Pitless Wagon Scale which can be easily moved at a 
cost of $20 to $30, complete with frame and scale costs as follows: 

4 ton, weight 1,400 lbs. Price $100.00 

5 ton, weight 1,500 lbs. Price 110.00 

Standard wagon and stock scales without timber or foundation 
cost as follows : 



Capacity, tons 3 

Size of platform, ft 14x8 

Price $80.00 



5 


10 


15 


20 


14x8 


18x8 


22x7 


22x7 


$100.00 


$120.00 


$210.00 


$250 



A Gar Scale of 10 tons capacity, with a platform 4 ft. 6 ins. X 8 
ft., costs, without platform, framing, or material for pit, $150. 
The frames take about 1,000 ft. b. m. of lumber and cost erected 
about $45. The foundation, including the boxing of the pit, will 
cost from $75 to $100. 

A Steelyard or Weighmaster's Beam with a capacity of 2,000 
lbs., beam 7 ft. 10 ins. long, weighing 127 lbs., costs $28. 

A Track Scale for weighing of material in small cars costs as 
follows ; 



1674 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Capacity- 
tons 2 3 5 6 

Size of 

platform ... 5 ft. x 30 ins. 5 ft. x 30 ins. 5 ft. x 30 ins. 12 ft. x 30 ins. 

Weight, lbs 750 780 900 1,500 

Price $72 $80 $88 $130 

Wooden parts for 2 and 3 ton scales $28 extra. For double 
beam add $5. 

Cost of Track Scales. On the New York Central a 100-ton track 
scale, 42 ft. long, cost as follows, in 1902 : 

Scales and materials $1,760 

Labor 640 

Total $2,400 

8.7 tons rails (relayers), at $20 174 

15 ties at $0.60 9 

Miscellaneous material 150 

Labor laying track, etc 70 

Grand total $2,803 

No piles were used in foundation. 

The cost of 50-ton track scales, 42 ft. long, on the Northern 
Pacific, in 1899, averaged as follows: 

Scales, delivered $ 580 

Other materials 170 

Labor ($175 to $300) 250 

Total $1,000 

The cost of 80-ton track scales, 50 ft. long, in 1905, was as 
follows : 

Scales and materials $1,250 

Labor ($500 to $700) 650 

Total $1,900 

Steel. The following costs of steel are subject to considerable 
variation with the market. 

Structural ShaiJes. The following prices were abstracted from 
Engineering and Contracting : 

Structural shapes f.o.b. Pittsburgh : 1912 1917 

Cts. per Cts. per 

lb. net lb. net 

I-beams and channels, 3 to 15 ins 1.50 4.50 

I-beams over 15 ins 1.65 4.60 

Angles, 3 to 6 ins 1.60 4.50 

Angles over 6 ins 1.65 4.60 

Tees. 3 ins. and up 1.65 4.50 

Checkered and corrugated plates 2.80 9.00 

Prices at Chicago for shipment from stock are as follows : 

Angles, 3 to 6 ins 2.0 5.0 

Angles over 6 ins. . 2.1 5.1 



MISCELLANEOUS 1675 

Beams and channels 2.0 5.0 

Beams over 15 ins 2.1 5.1 

The New York quotations for structural shapes are as follows: 

Beams and channels, 3 to 15 ins 1.66 @ 1.71 5 25 

Aqgles, 3x3 up to 6x6 1. 66 @ 1.71 5.25 

Tees 1.81 @ .. . 5.25 

Steel bars, full extras 1.71 @ 1.76 5.1 to 5.6 

Plates. The corresponding prices for plates f.o.b. Pittsburgh 
on the basis of net cash in 30 days are as follows: 

Tank plates, %-in. thick, QV^ ins. up to 100 ins. wide, 1.55 cts. to 
1.60 cts. base. 

1912 1917 

Gages under ^ in. to and including %6 in $0.10 9.0 and over 

Gages under %« in. to and including No. 8 15 

Gages under No. 8 to and including No. 9 25 

Gages under No. 9 to and including No. 10 30 

Gages under No. 10 to and including No. 18 40 - 

Sketches, 3 ft. and over in length 10 

Complete circles, 3 ft. diameter and over 20 

Boiler and flange steel 10 

A. B. M. A. and ordinary fire box steel 20 

Still bottom steel 30 

Marine steel '. 40 

Locomotive fire box steel 50 

Plates in widths over 100 ins. to 110 ins 05 

Plates in widths over 110 ins. to 115 ins 10 

Plates in width over 115 ins. to 120 ins 15 

Plates in widths over 120 ins. to 125 ins 25 

Plates in widths over 125 ins. to 130 ins 50 

In widths over 130 ins 1.00 

Prices at Chicago for shipment from stock are as follows: 

1912 1917 

34-in. and heavier, up to 72 ins $2.00 9.0 and over 

Over 72 ins 2.10 ' 

%6-in. thick 2.10 

No. 8 2.15 " " 

The following were the New York quotations on plates, the 
prices being based on carload lots, with 5 cts. extra for less than 
carload lots. Terms, net cash in 30 days: 

1912 1917 

Tank plates %-in. thick, 61/, to 100 ins. wide. 1.71 @ 1.76 9.0 and over 

Flange and boiler steel 1.81 @ 1.86 " " 

Marine 2.11@2.16 " " 

Locomotive and fire box 2.21^9)2.26 " " 

Still bottom 2.01@2.06 " " 

Plates more than 100 ins. in width, 5 cts. extra per 100 lbs. ; 
plates 3/,g in. in thickness, 10 cts. extra; gage Nos. 7 and 8, 15 cts. 
extra; No. 9, 25 cts. extra. 

Sheets. The corresponding minimum prices for mill shipments 
from Pittsburgh on sheets in carload and larger lots are as fol- 
lows: 

1912 
Galvanized roofing sheets No. 28, 2 1/2 -ins. corrugations, per 

square $3.00 

Painted roofing sheets, No. 28, per square 1.70 



1676 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



1912 
Galvanized sheets $2.50 to 3.85 



Black annealed sheets 
Blue annealed sheets 



1.70 to 1.90 
2.20 to 2.55 



1917 

$9.0 to 10.25 

9.0 to 10.25 

7.85 to 8.35 



Freight Bates (1917). On finished steel products in the Pitts- 
burgh district, including plates, structural shapes, merchant steel, 
bars, pipe fittings, plain and galvanized wire nails, rivets, spikes, 
bolts, flat sheets (except planished), chains, etc., the following 
freight rates are effective in cents per 100 lbs. : 



Baltimore 15.4 

Boston 18.9 

Buffalo 11.6 

Chicago 18.9 

Cincinnati 15.8 

Cleveland 10.5 

Denver 68.6 

Kansas City 43.6 

Cost of Drafting Equipment. 

cal drafting equipment : 



1 beam compass 

1 dotting pen 

railroad pen 

set drawing instruments 



Minneapolis 32.9 

New Orleans 30.7 

New York 16.9 

Pacific Coast (all rail) 75.0 

Philadelphia 15.9 

St. Louis 23.6 

St. Paul 32.9 



The following are costs of typi- 



German silver protractors 



i 4 in. . 



I 6in.. . 

engineers' triangular scales, 12 in. 
architects' triangular scales, 12 in. 

45 deg. triangles j ^g in 

30-60 {iglS:::::::::::'::::::::; 



1 set railroad curves 

1 set French curves 

f36 in 

2 T squares -{ 36 in 

[30 in. X 42 in 

1 blue print frame 

1 plan case 

Thumb tacks 

Water colors, 20 colors at $0.18 

a pan 

Higgins Inks, 16 colors at $0.25 
a bottle 

1 current meter 

2 leveling rods, Philadelphia 

2 Florida rods, 12-ft 

3 range poles, 10-ft 

3 plumb bobs 

Stake tacks 

2 tape mending tools 

2 steel tapes, 100-ft 

2 steel tapes, 50-ft 

1 cloth tape, 100-ft 

1 planimeter 

1 pantograph 



oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 



lb. 

lb. 
oz. 
lb. 



5 lb. 
5 lb. 
3 lb. 
3 lb. 

%lb. 



lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 



each 
each 
each 
each 



oz. each 

oz. each 

oz. each 

oz. each 



each I 

each I 

each 
each r 
each A 



50 lb. each 



each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 
each 



3.00 



$6.00 to $12.20 
0.80 to 6.80 
2.00 to 
6.16 up 
1.35 
3.15 

1.20 each 
2.00 " 

.36 " 

.76 " 

.24 " 

.52 " 
6.9? 
11.9 
9.26 

.44 

.84 
13.05 

18.00 
1.28 

3.60 

4,00 
45.50 
13.50 each 

9.00 " 

2.25 " 

1.80 " 

1.35 

3.60 
10.32 

6.00 

3.28 
25.20 

4.50 



Cost of Transits. A low priced and yet reliable transit, known 
as a builder's transit, weighs 6 lbs. and costs $85 ; with compass, 
3-in. needle, $100. The tripod weighs 6 lbs. 



MISCELLANEO US 1677 

A light mountain transit with a 7i/2-in. telescope, a 4-in. needle, 
complete, costs $200. Weight, instrument 51/2 lbs., extension tripod, 
7 lbs. 

Mountain and mining transits with 9i^-in. telescope and 4-in. 
needle, cost complete $235. Weight, instrument 10 lbs., tripod 9 lbs. 

Surveyors' transits with a 5-in. needle weigh 16 14 lbs. and 
cost $160. 

Engineers' transits complete cost from $175 to $250 and weigh 
from 9 to 15 lbs. 

Valves. The following are costs of typical valves. 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

10 • $45 22 $210 

12 64 24 240 

14 88 25 260 

15 100 26 280 

16 110 28 320 

18 140 30 360 

20 170 

Straight-way w^edge gate valves with bolted cap and flanged ends, 
for working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 

STANDARD BRASS 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

14 $0.55 1 $1.25 

% 58 1^ 1.70 

y2 68 11/2 2.25 

% 95 2 3.50 

Straight-way wedge gate valves with screwed cap and ends, for 
working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 

STANDARD IRON BODY AND BRASS TRIMMINGS 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

2 $4.50 5 $14.50 

21/2 5.75 6 18.50 

3 7.40 7 22.50 

3% 9.00 8 27.00 

4 11.00 9 31.00 

41^ 12.00 10 35.00 

Straight-way wedge gate valves with bolted cap and screwed 
ends, for working steam pressures up to 125 lbs. 

STANDARD BRASS GLOBE VALVES 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

i/s $0.40 11/2 $2.10 

% 42 2 3.40 

% 48 . 2% 5.00 

2 55 3 7.25 

% 80 31/2 10.00 

1 1.10 4 13.50 

11,4 1-60 

These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
pressures up to 125 lbs. 



1678 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

STANDARD IRON BODY GLOBE VALVES V^^ITH BRASS TRIMMINGS 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. . Net price 

4 $8.00 7 $23.00 

41/^ 10.00 8 30.00 

5 12.00 9 38.00 

6 17.00 10 45.00 

Bolted cap and screwed ends, for working steam pressures up 
to 125 lbs. 

For flanged end connections there is about 10% increase on the 
above prices. 

EXTRA HEAVY IRON BODY • 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. - Net price 

4 $22 9 $60 

4% 25 10 72 

5 28 12 105 



35 14 150 

43 15 200 

54 16 250 



Straight-way gate valves with bolted cap and flanged ends, for 
working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 

EXTRA HEAVY BRASS GLOBE VALVES 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 
Vi $0.80 114 $3.30 



.92 11/2 4.70 

1.10 2 8.00 

1.60 21^ 11.00 

2.30 3 16.00 



These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
pressures up to 250 lbs. 

EXTRA HEAVY BRASS GLOBE VALVES 

Size, ins. * Net price Size, ins. Net price 

14 $0.80 1% $3.30 

% 92 11/2 4.70 

% 1.10 2 8.00 



Ji 



1.60 2V2 11.00 

2.30 3 16.00 



These valves have screwed cap and ends, for working steam 
pressures up to 250 lbs. 



EXTRA HEAVY BRASS VALVES 



Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

% $2.20 11/4 $5.00 

1/2 2.30 11/2 6.60 

% 2.85 2 10.50 

1 3.80 2% 15.00 



MISCELLANEOUS 1679 

These valves are straight-way wedge gate valves with screwed 
cap and ends for working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 

EXTRA HEAVT IROX BODY AND BRASS TRIMMINGS 

Size, ins. Net price Size, ins. Net price 

2 110 5 126 

21^ 13 6 32 

3 15 7 40 

3% 18 8 50 

4 20 9 60 

4y2 23 10 71 

Straight-way wedge gate valves with bolted cap and screwed 
ends, for working steam pressures up to 250 lbs. 

Etching Tools for Identification Purposes. J. J. O'Brien (Power 
and the Engineer, Jan., 1909) states that the best way to mark 
names or initials on metal tools is to etch them. The mark is 
ineffaceable and easily done, with a little experience. 

The first step in the process is to spread a thin layer of soap 
over the surface intended to be used. Next, with a sharp stick, 
or scratch awl, cut the name in the layer of soap, exposing the 
metal. Then drop into the letters enough of the following solution 
to commence an oxidizing action on the metal exposed : One ounce 
salt, 2 ounces copper sulphate (bluestone), and 1 quart of vinegar. 
A few drops will sufRce, and a few trials will teach how long to 
let the solution work before wiping it off with a cloth. 

Painting iVlaterials Required and Surface Covered per Gallon. 
G. B. Barham in the Surveyor, Apr. 25. 1913, gives in Table VII 
the amount of materials of ordinary kind required to make one 
gallon of paint mixed in linseed oil and the area covered therewith. 

TABLE VII. PAINTING MATERIALS REQUIRED AND 
SURFACE COVERED 

Pounds Weight and Sq. ft. Sq. ft. 

Paint of volume of covered covered 

pigment paint first coat second coat 

Red lead 22.4 30.4 =1.4 630 375 

White lead 25.0 33.0 =: 1.7 CO'O 300 

Iron oxide 24.75 32.75 = 2.6 600 350 

Graphite 12.5 20.50 = 2.0 630 375 

Asphalt 17.5 30.0 =4.0 500 300 

Light structural steel work averages about 250 sq. ft. per ton 
of metal; heavy work about 150 sq. ft. per ton; corrugated steel 
(No. 20) about 2,400 sq. ft. of surface per ton. Roughly, V2 gal. 
of paint per ton of structural steel is required for a first coat, and 
% gal. for second coat, under average conditions. Detail costs of 
labor and materials for painting are given in Gillette's Handbook 
of Co.st Data. 

Cost per Sq. Yd. of Cleaning and Painting Draft Tubes. Barry- 
Dibble (Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 8, 1915) gives the 



1680 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

following costs for the Minidoka plant, U. S. Reclamation Serv- 
ice. 

In scraping we found an excellent adherence between the metal 
and the tar paint, which had been on 1^^ years at that time. 
Where it was scraped down to the metal it left a bright surface. 
On one patch, of about 1 sq. yd., apparently the iron had not been 
well cleaned before applying the paint, as it was in a place difficult 
to reach, and here scale had formed on the iron, but this was the 
only place the iron had not been protected from the water. There 
was a marked difference in the ease with which this tar was 
cleaned off preparatory to repainting as compared with the work 
involved on surfaces which had been covered with red lead paint, 
and which had become pitted. 

There was quite a variation in the consistency of the water-gas 
tar purchased at different times. As ordinarily obtained, it was 
necessary, in the cool weather during which we painted, to mix a 
little gasoline with it. Usually the mixture was about 1 quart of 

TABLE VII. COST OF CLEANING AND PAINTING FIVE 
DRAFT TUBES 

Total 

Total surface, sq. yds 850 

Area cleaned and painted, sq. yds 750 

Cost of scaffolding: 

Labor $52.32 

Material 22.74 

Cost of cleaning: 

Sharpening scrapers 52.76 

Labor 321.78 

Cost of painting, labor : 

First coat (water-gas tar) 41.62 

Second coat (coal-gas tar) 59.96 

Third coat (coal-gas tar) 8.50 

Total labor, painting only 110.08 

Material (all coats) 10.39 

Total cost $570.07 

Cost per sq. yd. cleaned and painted : 

Scaffolding, labor and material . . ; $0,100 

Cleaning, sharpening scrapers, and labor .499 

Painting — 

Labor „ .147 

Material .014 

Total per sq. yd $0,760 

gasoline to from 3 to 5 gals, of tar. This tar was then spread 
on carefully with a brush in the same manner as ordinary oil 
paint, working it carefuly into all pits and around rivets. One 
gallon of tar covered about 30 sq. yds. with one coat. The cost 



MISCELLANEOUS 1681 

was about 15 cts. per gallon, about one-half of which was freight 
charge from Chicago to Minidoka. 

The tar is rather slow in setting even if the weather is warm. 
It hardens when the thermometer drops, but when the weather 
warms up will become sticky even after a considerable period. 
As most of our work was done in cool weather, it was possible to 
apply the second coat within 10 to 14 days. In only one case 
were we able to get a third coat on prior to the time when the 
weather turned so bad that it was impossible to do outside work. 
It does not appear to affect the tar to put it into the water before 
it is thoroughly hardened. 

Cost of Sand Blast Cleaning of Structural Steel. G. W. Lilly 
(Proceedings of American Society of Civil Engineers, February, 
1903) states that in cleaning several steel viaducts in Columbus, 
Ohio, in 1902 two Newhouse sand-blast machines, mounted on 
light trucks, so that they could be moved about and placed where 
convenient for the work, were used. A wire-bound, l^/^-in., rubber 
air-hose, 50 ft. in length, connected each machine Avith the 2-in. 
air pipe. Old rubber hose, which was much cheaper than new, 
was used for the sand hose, part of it being 2^4 and part 2i/^ ins. 
in diameter. The nozzles used were %-in., extra heavy, gas pipe, 
of various lengths, from 12 to 24 ins. A length of at least 12 ins. 
seems to direct the blast with more effect than a shorter one. 
This was used instead of tool steel or other hard pipe because 
it was believed that it would last nearly as long and cost much 
less. The average length of time one nozzle lasted was about 
5 hours, as shown by the length of pipe used and the total hours 
run. The nozzle was connected to the sand hose by a heavy, 
special cast reducer, about % in. thick. This reducer was made 
thick, to sustain the wear caused by the deflection of the sand 
into the small nozzle pipe. The most severe wear of the nozzles 
is at a point 3 ins. from the connection with the reducer. 

It will be noted that the sand, in passing from the large sand 
hose to the small nozzle, is deflected so as to produce a cross-fire, 
striking with greatest force against the sides of the small pipe 
near the reducer end. A like wear upon the rubber sand hose 
occurs near its connection with the pipe from the machine, which 
is a 1^4 -ill- pipe, and the spreading out of the sand to form the 
larger stream causes it to strike against the sides and then deflect 
to follow the direction of the hose. One foot in length, or some- 
times a little more, cut from this end of the hose occasionally, 
fitted it for further use. The length of sand hose used varied 
from 25 to 65 ft., being regulated by the di.stance of the work 
from the place where the machine had to be placed. As the ma- 
chines could not be placed upon scaffolding, in this work, at least 
35 ft. of hose were required on nearly all the work, so as to 
reach from the ground to the floor system, from 16 to 20 ft. above 
the tracks, and in some places out over the tracks as far as 30 
to 40 ft. 

The nozzlemen should be men of some judgment and intelligence, 



1682 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

so that they will understand how to manage the nozzle to make 
the blast most effective. When ready for work the nozzleman 
wore a helmet of tin, with cloth curtains hanging to the shoulders 
to keep out the dust, as far as possible. Instead of using wire 
gauze in the helmet, two pieces of glass were used for the nozzle- 
man to see through, because it excluded the dust more effectually. 
When frosted over by rebounding sand, the glasses were removed 
and new ones inserted. After a little experience, a good nozzleman 
will learn how to hold the nozzle in any given case, varying its 
distance from the working point according to the manner in which 
he finds it is operating. Heavy scale requires him to hold the 
nozzle close, and light cleaning can be done more rapidly by 
holding it farther away and permitting the blast to spread some- 
what and thus cut a wider swath. On moderately hard places 
about 5 to 6 ins. is the proper distance. To make it clean most 
rapidly he must also direct the blast so as to cut a swath clean 
as he goes, passing first in one direction and then in the other, 
across the member being cleaned, so as to leave no spots to which 
he must go back and thus waste the force of the blast on clean 
metal around them. The nozzle should generally be directed so 
as to strike the surface at a slight inclination from the normal, 
say 20 to 30 degs. away from the nozzleman, thus blowing the 
dust and sand away. The cleaning should be carried forward 
from the nozzleman, so that the blast will always act upon the 
exposed edge of scales, rust, or old paint, and, by getting under 
any loose portions, throw them off without first having to break 
them up. 

The compressed air was supplied from a compressor with an 
air cylinder of 14 ins. diameter and a stroke of 12 ins., compressing 
the air to a gauge pressure of 50 to 60 lbs. The number of strokes 
was regulated automatically so as to keep the pressure nearly 
constant. The air was led from the compressor to a large re- 
ceiver, and then, by a line of 2-in. steel pipe, to a small receiver 
at the viaduct where the work was to be done. From this re- 
ceiver (having a capacity of about 9% cu. ft.) the air was con- 
ducted to the sand-blast machines. The pressure at the machines 
was usually from 30 to 40 lbs. The requisite length of 2-in. pipe 
varied from about 1,250 to 2,200 ft. The small receiver had a 
pet-cock in the bottom to let out accumulated water, and it re- 
moved much of the moistui^e from the air used. 

The compressed air was paid for by the city, at the rate of 40 
and 45 cts. per hour for one machine, and 60 cts. per hour for 
two machines in operation. For 18% of the time only one machine 
was in operation. This made the work cost more, because two 
machines could have been operated for about one and one-half 
times what one would cost. A foreman, 2 nozzlemen and 3 la- 
borers could operate 2 machines and dry the sand for them. The 
foreman was paid 35 cts., nozzlemen 25 cts., and laborers 15 cts. 
during one-half of the time, and after that 17% cts. per hr. 

The sand used was from Lake Erie. An attempt was made to 
secure rather coarse, clean and sharp sand ; but it was at times 



MISCELLANEOUS 1683 

impossible to do this without some delay, and some of the sand 
used was too fine and made much dust on account of the silt it 
contained. The sand was at first dried in two old locomotive 
ash pans, with old ties for fuel. This required almost constant 
attendance by one man, to stir it up and keep it from becoming 
so hot as to make the grains brittle and ineffective. 

The dryer was made by fitting a sheet-steel hopper on an old 
cast-iron stove. The wet sand would not fall through the %-in. 
holes in the lower part of the hopper, but would as soon as dry. 
The sand was permitted to cool for a few hours before being 
used, as hot sand caused steam and was likely to choke the small 
opening in the bottom of the hopper, around the end of the siphon 
nozzle. The objection to this kind of a dryer is that the fire-pot, 
being surrounded by sand in contact with it, burns out in a short 
time. Two fire pots were required in six months' service. 

All the viaducts named have buckle-plate floor systems, ex- 
posing a large amount of steel surface to the action of rust and 
corrosion. It may be well to state the conditions under which the 
work of cleaning had to be done, in order to give a better under- 
standing of the items making up the cost. The data here given 
may then be better analyzed and applied to any other proposed 
sand-blast cleaning. The first four viaducts named were erected 
during 1893 and 1894 and all were repainted during August and 
September, 1896, and none of them had been repainted since that 
time. No. 5 was erected in the latter part of 1893, repainted in 
August, 1896, and again in October, 1899. The cleaning done 
before repainting, in each of these cases, was only hand-cleaning. 
All appearances indicate that the steel of No. 4 must have been 
in better condition than that of any of the other viaducts, and a 
better quality of paint must have been applied at the time of its 
erection. This is judged largely from the condition of the portions 
of the viaducts above the level of the street pavement and pro- 
tected by it from the direct action of the blast and gases from 
the locomotives. The portions belovv^ the pavement, on all the 
others, are subjected to greater wear by the locomotive blast on 
account of their small clearance above the stacks, their clearness 
above the level of the railroad tracks being only 16.33 to 16.75 
ft., while this viaduct has a clearance of 20.33 ft. Tn cleaning 
them, therefore, it was impossible to swing any staging below 
the clearance elevation, in the case of four of them. No. 5 and 
No. 2 do not afford sufficient space above the lower surface of the 
plate girders in which a man can work, and it was necessary to 
work from movable trestles, about 12 ft. high, made as light as 
possible, so that they could be moved off the tracks whenever a 
train or an engine was about to pass, and be replaced and the 
work continued when the track was clear. 

Under the first three viaducts mentioned there are two main 
tracks and one side track, with a .spur track from the middle of 
the first, making four tracks under the east half of it. 

Movable trestles were also used, part of the time, in cleaning 
the cover plates on the bottom of the girders and the portion of 



1684 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the work along the abutments of No. 3 ; but a large portion of 
the cleaning was done from staging resting upon the lower cover 
plates and angles of the plate girders. 



TABLE IX. 



COST OF SAND-BLAST CLEANING OP VIADUCTS 
AT COLUMBUS, OHIO 

Average 
pressure 
at sand- 
blast, in 
pounds 
per square 
inch 
35 
37 
35 
30 
33 



33 









Square 


Square 


No. 


Number of 

square feet 

cleaned 


Cost per 

square 

foot 


feet 

cleaned 
with 1 
cu. ft. 

of sand 


feet 

cleaned 

per hour 

by one 

sand-blast 


1 


24.900 


$0.0283 


17.1 


64 


2 


8.000 


0.0362 


10.4 


49 


3 


17,000 


0.0263 


18.2 


66 


4 


63.000 


0.0174 


25.2 


89 


5 


22.600 


0.0688 


6.1 


23. 


Totals and 






average;- 


1^5.500 


$0.0302 


14.8 


54 


Excluding 








No. 5 


112.900 


0.0225 


20.0 


74 




Fig. 



Newhouse sand blast machine. 



Electric Arc Welding Apparatus. Standard 300 amp., single 
unit belted type, with two metallic circuits or one graphite and 
one metallic, cost $1,325. 

Standard 300 amp., motor generator set, consisting of a welding 
generator, and either d.c. or a.c. motor, with two metallic circuits 
or one graphite and one metallic circuit, cost $1,650, 



MISCELLANEO US 1685 

Cost of Electric Welding in a Pittsburgh Shop. An electric 
welding outfit used by the Pittsburgh Railway Co. is described in 
Electric Railway Journal, Nov. 18, 1911, as follows: 

Current for welding is furnished by an old GE booster set 
consisting of a 30-h.p. shunt-wound motor and a 60-volt, 300-amp. 
generator. Nevertheless, the actual output of the generator can 
be varied from 300 amps, to 700 amps, at 80 volts to 110 volts, ac- 
cording to the conditions desired. There is enough reactance in 
the generator to take care of sudden surges when the welding arc 
is broken. The shunt field of the booster is directly excited from 
the trolley circuit through a resistance connected in series with it 
across the line instead of being shunted around the series winding 
of the generator. The switch controlling this separately excited 
shunt-field circuit is locked to prevent anyone from breaking this 
circuit when the set is running free. The grid resistances, which 
are inserted in the series field in series with the armature, can 
be varied from 0.02 ohm. to 0.045 ohm., depending upon the am- 
perage desired. 

The welding flux consists of . 17 parts borax, 1% parts brown 
oxide of iron and 1 1^ parts red oxide of iron. The electrodes are 
usually of carbon, but cold rolled steel is used for such w^ork as 
welding sheet steel on a gear case, the melting of the electrode 
itself furnishing the required new metal. 

The economies of this method of welding may be appreciated 
from the following typical cases, which give the price of certain 
parts new, their value as scrap and the cost of rehabilitating them 
for service. In each case 15% is added to the shop cost to allow 
for overhead shop charges. Welding labor is figured at 30 cts. 
an hr. and electrical energy at %ct. per kw.-hr. 

TABLE X. COST OF ELECTRIC WELDING 



Article 

Bemis side frame $26.25 

Lord Baltimore side frame.. 28.00 
McGuire Columbian side frame 35.00 
Westinghouse No. 56 motor ^^^ ^ ^^ 

frame 0.99 0.17 2.16 0.50 

Westinghouse No. 62 motor ^ ^ ^ , ^ 

gear case lugs 0.22 0.21 0.48 0.14 

Cost of Electric Welding in a Railroad Shop, G. W, Cravens 
(Railway Electrical Engineer, June, 1913) states that electric 
welding outfits supplied by the best makers consist of the motor- 
generator, controlling panel, electrode holders, head and hand 
shields for the operators and a supply of electrodes. The head 
shields have a window of red and blue glasses to protect the eyes 
of the operator from the blinding glare of the arc. The combina- 
tion system outfit includes a patented combination electrode holder 











uS 




S-i 

(J) 




o <u 




o 


N 


J 


O 


0* 


o 


$0.88 


$0.37 


$1.92 


$0.48 


0.33 


0.05 


0.72 


0.17 


0.33 


0.05 


0.72 


0.17 



1686 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

for taking both a graphite and a metallic electrode, so it is pos- 
sible to change from one to the other method by simply throwing 
a switch on the holder. 

With the Bernardos system, using a carbon or graphite electrode, 
the current required will range from 110 to 800 amps, per circuit, 
and with the Slavinoff system, using metallic electrodes, the current 
will vary from 25 to 200 amps., depending upon the nature of the 
work, the size of the piece being manipulated and the material. 
The usual operations with the metallic electrode, however, require 
but from 50 to 100 amps., and with the graphite electrode from 
300 to 500 amps., the latter being used for cutting purposes fre- 
quently. 

The following figures show the cost of several actual jobs done 
with the electric welding arc outfits, the labor being paid at 30 
cts. per hr. and the current at 2 cts. per kw.-hr. All of these 
were done by men of ordinary ability after being instructed by 
the manufacturer's demonstrators : 

Steel castings, shrinkage crack 6 ins. long by 1 in. 

deep • 8 min. $0.04 

Steel casting, riser 4 ins. by 4 ihs. cut off 4 min. .05 

Forged .steel locomotive frame, broken in 2 places 20 hrs. 18.28 

Crack in back sheet of locomotive boiler, 12 in. 

long 9 hrs. 5.47 

Building up worn driving wheel instead of turn- 
ing down 2 hrs. .72 

Welding 67 cracks in old fire box (saving over 

$1,000) 2 weeks 52.60 

Cast steel tender frame, broken in 3 places 27 hrs. 19.00 

Steel shaft. 2 in. diameter, welded ready for re- 
turning 1 hr. .60 

Broken railway type motor case, cast steel 3 hrs. 1.95 

Enlarged holes in brake levers, steel bars 4 min. .05 

Building up 2-in. armature shafts, worn in jour- 
nals 3 hrs. 1.80 

Air brake piston rods, broken 30 min. .35 

Leaking axle boxes, cracks, welded in place 15 min. .15 

The foregoing covers but a few of the many kinds of jobs which 
continually arise in locomotive and car shops, but will give a fair 
general idea of what can be done. The following list shows what 
was done in one of the largest street railway shops in the far 
West with a graphite arc outfit: 

Cost New 

Armature .shaft repaired in place $1.70 $ 4.72 

Armature shaft repaired in place, large '. 1.97 15.13 

Railway motor axle cap, large 22 3.51 

Railway motor armature bearing cap 27 6.07 

Railway motor gear case, top half 48 7.30 

Truck side frame. Brill 27-G 72 44.40 

Brake-heads, building up worn sockets 06 1.15 

Grip crotches 72 10.00 

Truck side frame, Peckham 14-B 90 46.98 

Motor frame, GE-90 railway type ,. 2.88 16.80 

The following figures have been compiled in various steam rail- 
road shops and show the comparative savings which can be ef- 
fected by using the electric arc system for making repairs. The 



MISCELLANEOUS 1G87 

comparisons here are made between the electric system and the 
old methods, whatever they may be :. 

Cost Old 

Engine main frames, both broken $11.80 % 56.20 

Driving- wheel built up 3/16 ins. on tread 72 8.00 

General repairs on fire box side sheets 66.51 342.62 

Filling in worn knuckle joint buSh hole 75 7.50 

Locomotive cylinder casting, 7 cracks 22.35 367.15 

Broken mud ring on locomotive boiler 32.07 118.06 

Cost of Electric Welded Rail Joints in Camden, N. J. In weld- 
ing rails in Camden. N. J., in 1906 it is stated in Street Railway 
Journal. Jarn. 6, 1906, that all of the joints' welded were in a more 
or less battered condition, so that the joints had to be raised be- 
fore being welded. This was done by raising the receiving rail 
so that the lowest point in this rail was level with the head of the 
abutting rail, after which the elevations were ground off with a 
corundum wheel. It has been found that the electric weld holds 
the rail absolutely firm and that the rolling of wheels across the 
joint since the work was finished has tended to make the joint 
smoother than it was immediately after the welding. It is true 
that by grinding off a portion of the head of the rail some of its 
wearing qualities are sacrificed. The experience at Camden, how- 
ever, has been that this is necessary and that the battered end of 
the rail must be ground level before a good joint can be obtained. 

The following table summarizes the cost of electrically welding 
joints, including contract price of $5.25 per joint. As will be seen 

TABLE XI. COST OP ELECTRICALLY WELDING 3087 JOINTS 
IN CAMDEN. N. J. 

Cost of labor $7,031.24 

Cost of material . 581.09 

$7,612.33 
Credit from sale of old fi.sh-plates and bonds 2,816.59 

$4,795.74 

Cost of welding 3087 joints, at $5.25 each $16,206.75 

Cost of replacing asphalt, 899.6 yds., at $2.53; 117 yds., 

at $2.51 2.569.65 

Total cost of operation $23,572.14 

First cost per joint, labor 2.277 

First cost per joint, material .188 

First cost per joint, labor and material 2.465 

Cost per joint, labor and material, after credit is de- 
ducted 1.553 

Final cost per joint, all labor, material, welding and as- 
phalt charges 7.635 

Cost per mile, under similar conditions, 30-ft. lengths. . 2,687.52 

Cost per mile, under similar conditions, 60-ft. lengths. . 1,343.76 

from these tables, the cost per joint varies from $6,632 to $10,438. 
with an average of $7,635. This price, however, should be con- 
sidered in connection with the maintenance charge of the joint 
with which this price is comnared. It is estimated that the life 
of the welded rail on the Haddonfield Pike will be 8 years, whereas 



1688 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

during the last 2 years with angle plate joints this track has cost 
the company about $1 per joint each year for tightening bolts and 
shimming. This maintenance work has only temporarily relieved 
the situation, for each year the joint has been worse, and it was 
estimated that at the end of 4 years the rail would have been so 
bad at the joints that the track would have to be relaid. In 
other words, it is expected that in this particular case, by elec- 
trical welding, the life of the rail will be practically doubled at a 
less cost than would have been required simply for maintaining 
angle plate joints during the life of the rail. 

Costs of Electric-Arc Welding for typical jobs in railway loco- 
motive shops were given by G. W. Cravens, Manager of Welding 
Department, C & C Electric Manufacturing Co., Garwood, N. J., 
in a paper before the Southern & Southwestern Railway Club, at 
Atlanta, Ga., in 1915. There was quoted $32 for repairing a broken 
locomotive-boiler mud ring (cutting out corner of plate, welding 
ring in place, welding back pieces of plate and driving a few new 
rivets) compared with $118 for the old method (stripping, re- 
moving ring for welding in blacksmith shop, resetting, replacing 
locomotive parts, etc.). Applying new fireboxes cost $56 (welding 
three short sheets) compared with $777 by the old scheme (strip- 
ping, transferring boiler, removing old firebox and building up 
new one, adding stay and crown bolts and mud ring, overhauling 
and refitting, etc.). With an outfit costing $2,000, the following 
was done with current at 2 cts. per kw.-hr. and labor at 30 cts. 
per hr. : 

Welding Old methods 

Mending both main frames $11.80 $56.20 

Driving wheel built up 3-16 in. on tread. , . . 2.72 8.00 

General repairs on firebox side sheets.... 66.51 342.62 

Filling in worn knuckle-joint hole .75 7.50 

Repairing seven cracks in cylinder casting. 22.35 367.15 

The following costs had no old figures for comparison : 

Cost 

Steel casting, shrinkage crack 1 x 6 in. in 8 min $0.04 

Forged-steel locomotive side-frame, two breaks in 20 hrs 18.28 

Welding 67 places in old firebox in 12 days 52.60 

Cast-steel tender frame, broken in three places, in 27 hr. ... 19.00 

Cast-steel motor case, welded in 3 hrs 1.95 

Welding broken air-brake piston rod, in 30 min 35 

Leaky axle box, crack welded without removing box, in 15 

min. 15 

Cost of Electric Welding in Railroad Shop Repair Work. The 

accompanying data on repair costs due to electric arc welding 
have been compiled by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufactur- 
ing Company from the shop records of railroad companies. One 
railroad company which has kept continuous records of the savings 
made by arc welding reported that the total cost of welding by 
this process during one week was $106.62, while the total cost 
of the same work if done by other means would have been 
$1,779.04, representing a net saving of $1,672.42 in favor of arc 
welding. In addition a great saving in time was made. In an- 



MISCELLANEO US 1689 

other case, where an entire firebox had to be taken out, the work, 
including 35 ft. 7 ins. of linear cutting, was done in 38 mins. 
with approximately 500 amps. 

TABLE XII. COST OP ELECTRIC WELDING IN REPAIR 
WORK 

Energy Labor Material Total 

Cracked door sheet on fire box $0.09 $0.30 $0.12 $0.51 

Cracked .side sheets and door sheets in 

fire boxes , ... ... ... 4.23 

Cracked crown sheet 1 hr, ... 0.36 

Broken frame , 7 hr. . . . 3.29 

Worn wrist pin 0.10 0.75 0.15 1.00 

Cracked .steel bolsters 0.54 5.42 0.75 6.71 

Cracked guide yoke 0.07 0.45 0.10 0.62 

Cracked mud ring 0.27 1.95 0.37 2.59 

5 draw-head stops 1.30 1.15 0.18 2.63 

Broken cylinder 0.80 0.65 0.11 1.56 

Cost of Electric Welding in Railroad Shops. Some interesting 
figures on the cost of electric welding and the time required for 
various jobs are shown in the accompanying table of data based 
on the experience of several leading railroads as reported to the 
shop-practice committee of the Association of Railway Electrical 
Engineers in 1913, 

Steel casting, crack 6 ft. long by 1 in. deep, 8 min $0.04 

Steel casting, ri.ser 4 in. by 4-in. cut-off, 4 min 0.05 

Forged-steel locomotive frame, two breaks, 20 hrs 18.28 

Crack 12 in. long in boiler back-sheet, 9 hrs 5.47 

Cast-steel tender frame, three breaks, 27 hrs 19.00 

Broken railway-type motor case, cast steel, 3 hrs 1.95 

Enlarged holes in brake levers, steel bars, 4 min 0.05 

7\ir-brake piston rods, broken, 30 min 0.35 

Cracked axle boxes, welded in place, 15 min 0.15 

Speed of Electric Welding. O. A. Kenyon (Boiler Maker, Apr. 
1914) gives the curve. Fig. 3, showing the time in minuies re- 
quired to weld steel plates of different thicknesses and by different 
methods of cutting the joints. In these curves no allowance has 
been made for time required to change welding pencils or prepare 
the work. They cover simply the actual time of welding. Ten 
seconds is sufficient time to allow for changing a welding pencil 
by properly trained men. 

Thermit Process Welding. Thermit is a mixture of finely divided 
aluminum and iron oxide. When ignited in one spot, the com- 
bustion so started continues throughout the entire mass without 
supply of heat or power from outside and produces superheated 
liquid steel and superheated liquid slag (aluminum oxide). The 
thermit reaction produces an ' exceedingly high temperature, the 
liquid mass attaining 5,400 degs. in less than 30 sees. The liquid 
steel produced by the reaction represents one-half of the original 
thermit by weight and one-third by volume. 

Welding by the thermit process is accomplished by pouring 
superheated thermit steel around the parts to be united. Thermit 



1690 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

steel, being approximately twice as hot as ordinary molten steel, 
dissolves the metal with which it comes in contact and amal- 
gamates with it to form a single homogeneous mass when cooled. 
The essential steps are to clean the sections and remove enough 
metal to allow for a free flow of thermit steel, surround them with 
a mold, preheat by means of a gasoline torch and then pour the 
steel. 



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Fig. 3. Speed of electric welding. 



The following detailed outfit is suitable for repair work on a 
small railroad or the equipment of a contractor, where the sec- 
tions of wrought iron or steel do not exceed 4X6 ins. in size. : 



Item Price 

1 automatic crucible No. 6 $ 16.50 

1 double burner thermit preheating torch complete 75.00 

1 tapping spade .50 

300-lb. thermit mixed with 1% manganese and 1% nickel 

thermit 78.90 

10 lbs. yellow wax at $0.35 : '. 3.50 

1 bbl. special moulding material for facing 4.00 

45 lbs. mild steel punchings at $0.02 y.^ 1.13 

1 lb. ignition powder .90 

Total cost, f. o. b. Jersey City $180.43 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1G91 



The preheater is a permanent appliance and will last indefinitely, 
while the crucible will last from 16 to 20 reactions, after which 
it may be relined with magnesia tar in the feld or at the factory 
for $11.50. Each crucible requires 135 lbs. tar at 3 cts. per lb., 
and one magnesia stone. No construction equipment is required 
except that it will be necessary to make a mold box out of sheet 
iron. Five extra packages of plugging material and four extra 
thimbles are supplied with each crucible. Extra packages and 
thimbles cost 10 cts. each. 

The prices of other sizes of appliances are as follows : 

Weight 

Item (lbs.) Price 

Preheater torch, single burner 175 $50.00 

Preheater torch, double burner 200 75 00 

Automatic crucible. No. 1, for 4 lbs. thermit 40 3 50 

Automatic crucible, No. 2, for 7 lbs. thermit 60 5.50 

Automatic crucible, No. 3, for 16 lbs. thermit 110 6 50 

Automatic crucible. No. 4, for 24 lbs. thermit 125 8.00 

Automatic crucible, No. 5, for 45 lbs. thermit 150 11.00 

Automatic crucible. No. 6, for 75 lbs. thermit 225 16 50 

Automatic crucible. No. 7, for 135 lbs. thermit 385 30.00 

Automatic crucible, No. 8, for 200 lbs. thermit 480 35.00 

Automatic crucible. No. 9. for 260 lbs. thermit 5X0 43.50 

Automatic crucible. No. 10, for 400 lbs. thermit. ... 720 55 00 

* Tripods, No. 1 11 2.10 

* Tripods, Nos. 2-3 19 2.50 

* Tripods, Nos. 4-5 24 3.00 

* Tripods, Nos. 6-7 65 5 50 

Flat bottom crucible, No. 2, for 4 lbs. thermit. ... 18 1.75 

Flat bottom crucible. No. 3, for 8 lbs. thermit.... 27 3 00 

Flat bottom crucibles. No. 4, for 16 lbs. thermit. ... 65 4.75 

Flat bottom crucibles, No. 5, for 40 lbs. thermit. ... 95 7.00 

Tongs for flat bottom crucible, No. 2 6i^ 2 00 

Tongs for flat bottom crucible. No. 3 171/2 2.50 

Tongs for flat bottom crucible, No. 4 25 3.25 

Tongs for flat bottom crucible. No. 5 30 14 4.50 

Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 2 .75 

Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 3 1-25 

Cost of relining flat bottom crucible. No. 4 2.50 

Cost of relining flat bottom crucible, No. 5 4.00 

Thermit (sold only in 50 and 100-lb. drums). 

50-lb. drum 55i/. 12.50 

100-lb. drum 110 25.00 

Thermit with 1% manganese and 1% nickel thermit. , „ . ^ 

50-lb. drum 56V2 13.15 

100-lb. drum 112 26.30 

Ignition powder, i/l>-lb. cans l^ 

Ignition powder, 2-Ib. cans 1»0 

Metallic manganese, per lb -^o 

Nickel thermit, per ib -^ 

Yellow wax, per lb • • - j^ 

Special moulding material, per bbl 375 4.00 

* (For welding connecting rods and driving wheel spokes, etc.) 

The proper quantity of thermit required for the weld may be 
calculated by multiplying by 32 the weight of the wax necessary 
to fill all parts of the fracture and reinforcement, or else by 
calculating the number of cu. in. in the fracture and reinforce- 
ment, multiplying by 2. To produce 41/2 ozs. or one cu. in of 
steel requires ? o?s. of thermit, Jf more than 10 lbs. of thermit 



1692 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

are to be used it is necessary to mix steel punchings, not exceed- 
ing % in. in diameter, or particles of steel into the powder. For 
10 lbs, or more of thermit 10% of punchings should be added ; for 
50 lbs. or more, 15% of small mild steel rivets should be mixed 
in 1% each of manganese and nickel thermit should be added also. 

Method and Cost of Welding Rails by the Thermit Process. 
The following account of the methods and cost of welding a large 
number of rail joints by the thermit process has been obtained 
from Mr. M. J. French, engineer maintenance of way of the Utica 
& Mohawk Valley Electric Railway. 

Thermit Process. The process of welding consists in pouring 
molten mild steel from a melting crucible into sand and flour 
molds placed around the rails at the joint. It is in detail as 
follows : 

The rails having first been lined and surfaced, the joint is thor- 
oughly cleaned with a sand blast or wire brush. Then the rails 
are heated by a gasoline or oil blow-torch to expel all moisture, 
and by heating the rails to a dull red better results are secured 
as the temperature of the molten steel is not reduced as much when 
coming into contact with the rails. After the joint is cleaned 
and heated a pair of molds made of an equal mixture of common 
clay and sand, or, preferably, of sand and 10% of cheap rye flour. 
is clamped firmly to the rails. The molds are held by a wrought 
iron framework provided with handles to facilitate carrying. The 
molds being in place, the rail head is painted with a watery solu- 
tion of red clay which the heated metal immediately dries up to 
a thin coating, the purpose of which is to prevent the molten slag 
or steel from uniting with or burning the rail head. After thor- 
oughly luting all joints of the molds with clay of the consistency 
of putty, earth is packed around the outside of the molds. The 
molds and the rails are then given a final warming with the blow- 
torch, the flame being directed inside the molds to expel any 
remaining moisture. The crucible on its tripod is then set over 
the mold with its pouring hole directly over and about 2 ins. 
above the gate in the mold. After placing the tapping pin. iron 
disc, asbestos disc and refractory sand in the bottom of the cru- 
cible to act as a plug for the opening the thermit compound is 
poured in and in the center of the top is placed about one-third 
teaspoonful of ignition powder. A storm match starts the chem- 
ical process. 

The thermit compound is composed of aluminum and iron oxide, 
both in granular or flake form ; the ignition powder is composed 
of aluminum and barium peroxide in much finer foim. When the 
match is applied the barium peroxide ignites and relea.ses its 
oxygen to the aluminum very quickly. The heat produced is so 
intense that it causes the iron oxide to release its oxygen, which 
in tijrn is seized by the aluminum and almost instantly the entire 
contents of the crucible are a boiling and seething mass. By this 
reaction the piire steel is liberated and settles immediately to the 
bottom of the mold. The crucible is then tapped by striking the 
tapping pin with a special iron spade and the molten steel runs 



MISCELLANEOUS 1693 

into the mold followed by the aluminum oxide and corundum slag. 
The chemical reaction described is completed in about 30 sees., 
and in five minutes the molds can be removed. 

Molds. The molds are made by baking a mixture of sand and 
rye flour shaped on models. At first a mixture of one part clay 
and one part sand was used, but it resulted unsatisfactorily. The 
molds shrunk and checked badly in baking and required a great 
amount of careful luting to close the joints. Also the clay was 
baked like a brick by the great heat of the welded joint and was 
quite difficult to remove, adding somewhat to the expense. At the 
suggestion of an old foundryman trial was made of a mixture of 
clean, sharp sand, with 10% of coarse rye flour; the mixture was 
moistened just enough to retain its form when pressed in the 
hand. This mixture proved satisfactory. It came away from the 
model without adhering, baked without shrinking and was hard 
enough to stand ordinary ha.ndling. By adding a teaspoonful of 
linseed oil to the mixture for a pair of molds it baked as hard as 
concrete — unnecessarily hard for ordinary purposes, but most de- 
sirable for special molds for broken or combination joints. 

The molds are baked in a brick oven having a flat iron plate 
above the firebox to baffle the heat and above this two racks 
capable of holding twelve sets of molds. For baking a moderate 
heat, about the temperature required for baking bread, has proved 
the most satisfactory ; a higher temperature burned the rye ffour 
and destroyed its cementing properties. One man receiving 15 
cts. per hour makes and bakes the molds and he can turn out 
12 sets every five hours, or 24 sets per day. This gives a cost 
for labor of about 6 14 cts. per set. The molds actually cost about 
10 cts. a set, counting in materials and lost time due to the full 
output of the oven not being required each day. 

Criccihles. The crucibles furnished by the Goldschmidt Thermit 
Co. cost $7.25 each, but since using up the first six bought the 
railway company has made its own, buying magnesia tar from 
the Goldschmidt Thermit Co. at 21/2 cts. per lb. The tar is mixed 
with 25% of old crucible material finely powdered. These crucibles 
last on an average for about 30 joints. They are baked in the 
oven previously described with a higher temperature than that 
required for the molds. The cost of the crucibles is $2.40 each, 
made up of the following items : 

48 lbs. magnesia tin at 2^2 cts $1.20 

12 lbs. old crucible powder, labor 0.15 

6 hrs.' labor at 15 cts. molding and baking. . . . 0.90 

Fuel 0.15 

Total ?2.40 

Cost of Welding. The welding was done by a gang of 1 fore- 
man and 3 laborers. This gang has never exceeded 20 welds per 
10-hour day. The wages paid were: Foreman, $2.50 per day. 
and laborers, $1.50 per day. The welding portion consists of 16 
lbs. thermit and 2 lbs. iron punchings, or 15 lb.s. thermit and 3 
lbs. iron punchings, if a lower temperature seems desirable. The 



1694 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

total cost of the welding portion, including igniting powder, tap- 
ping pin, and plugging materials for crucible, consisting of asbestos 
washer, iron disc and refractory sand, is $4.25. The cost of weld- 
ing 100 joints on T-rail 7 ins. high, 6 ins. base and 3 ins. head 
during 1906 was per joint as follows: 

Cost of mold $0.10 

Cost of crucible 0.10 

Cost of casting materials 0.20 

Foreman 0.25 

Laborers 0.91 

Thermit portion 4.25 

Total $5.81 

To this is to be added $1.63, which is about the average cost of 
removing and replacing brick pavement at each joint for labor 
and materials, using old broken stone for concrete and cleaning 
old paving blocks. This addition brings the total up to $7.44 per 
joint welded. The cost of welding 600 joints in 1905 on 9-in. 
tram head rail, including all labor, materials, tools and patterns 
incident to the work, experimenting with mold materials and cost 
of oven, was $5.86. The cost of the original outfit for welding was: 

1 Automatic crucible $ 7.25 

1 Set mold models 12.00 

1 Set mold clamps , 6.00 

1 Tapping spade 1.00 

1 Tripod for crucible 4.00 

1 Set mold boxes 2.50 

Total $32.75 

Precautioyis. Certain precautions are necessary to get the best 
results by the thermit process, and some of these we quote from 
Mr. French as follows : 

" When we began welding this 7-in. rail we found that we could 
sledge off the welds and that the iron from the thermit compound 
had not united with the rail ; also that the iron came up to the 
top of the rail head. We subsequently found that the mold 
models had become mixed, and we had used one of too small 
horizontal cross-section, and consequently the rail chilled the small 
volume of molten iron coming in contact with it. Upon enlarging 
the mold model so that the thermit portion furnished only enough 
iron to come up under the rail head, we obtained welds that 
resisted the most vigorous sledging that could be given with a 
10-pound hammer. We were able to batter the weld out of shape, 
but could not separate it from the rail. This sledging test is 
now applied to all welds. 

" We found when welding in the morning with rising tempera- 
ture that tightly-closed joints often humped up when welded. This 
proved to be due to the latent compression in the rails that did 
not manifest itself unil the rail ends became soft. These humped 
joints were ground down with an emery wheel grinder. We had 



MISCELLANEOUS 1695 

only a few of these joints when we realized the cause, and readily 
prevented such action by welding on cooler days or when the tem- 
perature was falling. We obtained the best results with joints 
open about Vie to y^-i in., the expansion in welding closing tightly 
such an opening. "We have made excellent combination welds be- 
tween 80-lb. T-rail, 7-in. 70-lb. and 95-lb. T-rails and 9-in. girder 
rails. In making combination welds we found that it was essential 
to a get a good body of metal between the upper side of the base 
of the deepei rail and the under side of the shallower section in 
order to secure the strongest type of weld. 

" Thus far there has been no appreciable excess wear in the 
head of the rails at the welds and the heated portion seems to 
take the original temper, as it cools down slowly in about the 
same way as when coming from the rolls. 

" A few portions of thermit, not over six, have been lost through 
failure of the workman to tap the crucible properly, or lack of 
luting around the joints of the molds. We have had but one 
explosion during our entire experience. That occurred after using 
the process 18 months, and was caused through carelessness in 
welding on a rainy day and in not thoroughly luting the molds 
near the top. The slag came in contact with the wet earth around 
the mold, but aside from the scare occasioned by the report and 
a slight burn on the foreman's arm from flying slag no harm 
was done, and the weld turned out to be a good one." 

Cost of Cutting Off Steel Sheet Piles with the Electric Arc. 
F. C. Perkins (Engineering and Contracting, 1907) describes the 
use of the electric arc in cutting off steel piles at the New Hoff- 
man House foundation work in New York city. 

The steel piles being cut are % in. thick, in the web and 3 ins. at 
the interlocking points. It is stated that the time required in 
burning the %-in. steel is four minutes per foot and the time taken 
at the interlocking points is said to be 8 minutes. 

The arc light carbon is held in a metal clamp fastened to a 
metallic rod and socket, which is in turn bolted to a long wooden 
pole, the cable conducting the current being flexible and con- 
nected to the metal clamp of the carbon terminal. The steel to 
be cut is connected to the other conductor from the alternating 
current circuit. The men are protected from the extreme heat 
and terrific glare by goggles and asbestos masks as well as gloves, 
as it has been found that the carbon fumes produced by the high 
power electric arc. affected the lips and other parts of the face 
and hands. 

About 1,200 amperes are utilized at 50 volts pressure, alter- 
nating current being employed stepped down to the above volt- 
age from the high pressure service of 2,500 volts. Single phase 
alternating current is employed, taken from the street service 
mains, the frequency being 60 cycles per second. 

The cost of cutting steel piling with current at 10 cts. kw. 
and the attendant at 50 cts. per hour, is stated to be as follows 
per foot of piling cut; 



1696 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA. 

Cost of current $2.56 

Labor 0.40 

Total $2.96 

This is rather high, and the hack-saw would probably be cheaper. 
However, with current at say 3 cts. per kw.-hr. the cost per foot 
would be but $1.17. Even at this rate, with labor competent to 
use a hack-saw at 25 cts. per hour, the saw would be the cheaper. 

Miscellaneous Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting Co^ts. The 
costs in Tables XITI to XV have /been accurately obtained. Davis- 
Bournonville apparatus was used. 

TABLE XIII. COSTS OF BUTT WELDING PIPE 

Labor at 42 cts. per hour. Oxygen and acetylene at 2 cts. per 
cu. ft. Welding wire at 10 cts. per pound. 

















Gas pressures 








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4-in. 


6 min. 


2.84 


2.49 


5 oz. 


i%4 in. 


6 


12 1b. 


6 1b. $0.18 


6-in. 


12 min. 


5.68 


4.98 


8 oz. . 


%2 in. 


6 


12 1b. 


6 1b. .34 


8-in. 


16 min. 


7.58 


6.65 


12 oz. 


%6 in. 


6 


12 1b. 


6 1b. .47 


10-in. 


18 min. 


8.53 


7.48 


16 oz. 


5/i6 in. 


6 


12 1b. 


6 1b. .54 


12-in. 


26 min. 


12.32 ' 


10.81 


20 oz. 


21/64 in. 


6 


12 1b. 


6 1b. .77 


16-in. 


42 min. 


33.18 


29.40 


32 oz. 


% in. 


8 


16 1b. 


6 lb. 1.75 


Average Cost of Cutting Pipe (4 cuts made ( 


of each size) 


4-in. 


625 


0.781 


0.125 




i%4 in. 


2 


20 1b. 


31b. $0.02 


6-in. 


0.87 


1.087 


.174 




%2 in. 


2 


20 1b. 


3 1b. .03 


8-in. 


1.5 


1.775 


.3 




5/i6 in. 


2 


20 1b. 


3 1b. .05 


10-in. 


1.77 


2.118 


.355 




•yi6 in. 


2 


20 1b. 


3 1b. .06 


12-in. 


2.1 


2.625 


.42 




21/64 in. 


2 


20 1b. 


3 1b. .07 


16-in. 


3.62 


4.531 


.725 




% in. 


2 


20 1b. 


3 lb. .13 




TABLE XIV. 


COST 


OP BUTT WELDING PIPE 


C5ir» 


« «-e 


Welding Cost of labor Total cost 


Cost for 


felZc UJL 


time 


placing and of welded 


dresser 


pipe 


min. 


turning pipe joints 




couplings 


2-in, 


, I. D. 


3 




$0.09 


$0.18 




t$0.53 


4-in, 


. O. D. 


6 




.165 




.34 




.69 


6-in, 


, O. D. 


10 




.245 




.52 




1.29 


8-in. 


, O. D. 


15 




.33 




.70 




1.49 


10-in, 


O. D. 


16 




.365 




.80 




2.09 


16-in. 


O. D. 


40 




.46 


* 


2.50 




3.89 



* Two welders employed. 

t The cost of couplings is shown without the necessary labor to 
install. 



The Pacific Gas and Electric Co., with welder at 47 cts. per 
hr, and gases at 2 cts. per cu. ft., has obtained very low cost in 
butt welding gas mains of various sizes of pipe, including the 
labor cost of placing and turning pipe, and makes interesting 
comparison of the cost of welded joints with the cost of recessed 



MISCELLANEOUS 1697 

coupling-s as formerly employed. The welding was done with 
portable outfits. See Table XIV. 

Cost of Various Cxy-Acetylene Cutting Operation. The costs 
of miscellaneous work in Table XV were obtained under ordinary 
working conditions in the field, where continuous operation is fre- 
quently impossible owing to other labor involved, or the necessity 
for moving from place to place. 



TABLE XV. < 


COST OF VARIOUS CUTTING OPERATIONS 


U, 






C*^' 


5; 




5 


11 




|5 






^ 




1^ 


K 


^ 


J 


o 


< 


S 





6-in. I-beams 


20 


75 min. 


28 


10 


$1.33 


?.0665 


8-in. I-beams 


4 


6 min. 


8 


2 


.25 


.0625 


12-in. I-beams 


4 


8 min. 


16 


4 


.47 


.1175 


15-in. I-beams 


10 


45 min. 


40 


10 


1.35 


.1350 


15-in. I-beams 


1 


1 ft. 23 in. 


3 


1 


.092 


.092 


5-in. T-rails 


20 


75 min. 


37 


12 


1.55 


.0775 


8-in. T-rails 


4 


10 min. 


20 


6 


.60 


.15 


9 -in. street car rails 10 


45 min. 


40 


10 


1.35 


.135 


12-in. Lackawanna 














piling 


88 


9 % hrs. 


350 


60 


12.57 


.143 


?/i6-in. boiler plate 


40 ft. 


60 min. 


20 


2 


.90 


.0225 per ft. 


^-in. boiler plate 


55 ft. 


180 min. 


130 


40 


4.72 


.086 per ft 


1-in. boiler plate 


80 ft. 


150 min. 


250 


56 


7.27 


.091 per ft. 


% -in. web of rail 


.33 ft. 


50 min. 


90 


13 


2.45 


.074 per ft. 



Cost of Oxy-Acetylene Welding of Pipe. Under ordinary con- 
ditions, it is stated in Engineering News, Feb. 4, 1915, a skillful 
operator can weld in an hour about one joint on 12-in. pipe and 
from three to five joints on 4-in. pipe. The cost is^ said to be 
from 25 to 40% less than that of a recessed screw* joint, including 
the cost of the coupling and its application. 

With the welded pipe, the branches, laterals, drips and various 
other fittings are made integral parts of the continuous ^.lain, 
while with screw-joint pipe they are separate and special parts 
whose numerous joints are often a source of trouble. Laterals 
are inserted at any point by cutting a hole in the main (with the 
cutting blowpipe) and welding in the end of the lateral. The 
only material required to make up these specials are odd lengths 
of pipe of the required sizes, which can be cut and connected at 
any point and in any way. The cost of making the Y, with two 
8-in. pipes connecting to an 8-in. main, is about 76 cts., as given 
in Table XVL 

A great advantage of such continuou.sly welded mains is that 
leaks from the joints, always a large source of loss in every 
gas distribution system, are wholly prevented. Thus these mains 
are especially advantageous for natural gas and oil pipe lines as 
well as for city gas distribution. For ammonia, and other re- 
frigeration system-s, elimination of leakage is important for safety 
as well as economy. 

Certain cost figures compiled by the makers of the Oxweld ap- 



1698 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

TABLE XVI. COST OF WELDING PIPE JOINTS AND YS 

6 -in. pipe 16-in. pipe 

Labor, 30 cts. per hr 20 min. 10 cts. 90 min. $0.45 

Oxygen, 2 cts. per cu. ft 10 ft. 20 cts, 40 ft. 0.80 

Acetylene. 2 cts. per cu. ft 9 ft. 18 cts. 36 ft. 0.72 

Filling wire, 12 cts. per lb % lb. 9 cts. 2 1b. 0.24 



Total 57 cts. $2.21 

,. 8 X 6 -in. Y ^ 

Cutting Welding 

Labor, 30 cts. per hr 3 min. 1.5 cts. 22 min. 11 cts. 

Oxygen, 2 cts. per cu. ft 3 ft. 6.0 cts. 12 ft. 24 cts. 

Acetylene, 2 cts. per cu. ft 1ft. 2.0 cts. 10 ft. 20 cts. 

Filling wire, 12 cts. per lb 1 lb. 12 cts. 

Total 9.5 cts. 67 cts. 

paratus used in Chicago are as follows : For 4 -in. butt-welded 
pipe, 43.5 cts. per joint. The segregation was 15 mins. labor, 7.5 
cts. ; 8 cu. ft. oxygen, 16 cts. ; 7 cu. ft. acetylene, 14 cts. ; % lb. 
filling wire, 6 cts. Six-in. pipe welds cost 57 cts. each ; 8-in., 
$1,055; 12-in.. $1.57, and joints for 16-in. pipe, $2.21. For the 
last named pipe IV2 hrs. of labor cost 45 cts.; 40 cu. ft. oxygen, 
80 cts. ; 36 cu. ft. acetylene, 72 cts., and 2 lbs. filling wire, 24 cts. 
An 8-in. pipe was welded into an 8-in. main to form a tee at a 
cost of $3.04. A 6-in. 60-deg. Y required 10 mins. to cut and 
45 mins. to weld. The total cost was $2.14. 

Cost of Oxy-Acetylene Welding in an Electric Railway Shop. 
L. M. Clark (Electric Railway Journal, Jan. 4, 1913) gives in 
Table XVII the cost of welding in an electric railway shop in 
Indianapolis : 

TABLE XVIL COST OF OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING IN AN 
ELEC-TRIC RY. SHOP 

Amount of Material Time, Cost of 

Name of part Oxy. Acet. Filler hours welding 

Motor axle cap 5 3 1 1 $0.48 

Armature housing 5 3 1 1 0.48 

End bearing for mixer 190 104 5 10 9.44 

Cutting anti-climber 30 18 . . 2 1.43 

1 bumper iron 70 42 IY2 3 3.02 

1 journal box, 5x90 90 54 2 5 4.40 

1 brake valve body '10 6 i^ 1 0.67 

1 scissors 5 3 % 1 0.52 

6 motor axle caps 30 18 1 3 1.75 

1 motor frame 340 204 5% 20 15.92 

1 magnet frame 20 12 1/2 2 1.23 

l%x7 journal box 50 30 1 3 2.58 

Peck, truck side frame 170 102 2 12 8.40 

Peck, truck frame 150 90 1 1/2 10 7.25 

6 motor axle caps 30 18 1 3 1.75 

5 Lorain compressor shells 100 60 2 7 5.26 

15x9 journal box 40 24 1 2 1.95 

1 door sheave 20 12 Brass 1 1.04 

5 motor caps 35 21 1 3 1.91 

1 Peck, truck side frame 190 114 2% 10 8.56 

Cam for stoker engine 45 27 5 2 2.43 

1 armature shaft 280 178 3 H 11.73 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1699 



Amount of Material 

Name of part Oxy. Acet. Filler 

1 truss rod anchor 15 9 1 

Heating 2 tires 15 9 

Standard truck frame 220 132 . 3% 

1 pipe vise 5 3 ^2 

Annealing wheels 30 18 

Steam trap 20 12 1 

Coal elevator cam 40 24 1 1^ 

Side frame on truck 215 129 21/2 

Cut hole in boiler 30 18 

3 coal elevator cams 140 84 ZY2 

Cut 6-in. I beam 15 9 

Peck, truck side frame 175 105 2 

Westinghouse top motor frame.. 400 240 4 

I beams cut-off 50 30 

Westinghouse pinion axle cap... 100 60 4^4 

Peckham truck frame 250 150 4 

Peckham truck frame 50 30 % 

Anti-climber castings cut 50 30 

"Westinghouse pinion axle cap.. 100 60 2 

Westinghouse top motor frame. 400 240 7 

Westinghouse pinion axle cap.. 150 90 3 

Peckham truck frame 150 90 3 

Loraine bottom inotor frame. . . . 100 60 2 

Westinghouse top motor frame. . 400 240 4 

Westinghouse top motor frame.. 140 84 3 

Westinghouse motor frame 450 270 5% 

Westinghouse top motor frame. .300 180 4 

Anti-climber castings 50 30 

4% X 7 Symington fire boxes 350 2.10 5% 

Westinghouse compressor gear 

case corer cap 25 15 1 



Time, 


Cost of 


hours 


welding 


1 


0.79 


1 


0.72 


11 


9.82 


1 


0.52 


2 


2.42 


1 


1.02 


3 


2.25 


12 


9.84 


4 


2.20 


5 


6.37 




0.72 


4 


6.56 


20 


17.16 


2 


2.00 


7 


5.25 


15 


11.39 


5 


2.72 


2 


2.00 


10 


5.74 


20 


17.36 


10 


7.10 


15 


8.23 


3 


3.91 


20 


17.16 


12 


7.24 


15 


18.48 


18 


13.61 


2 


2.00 


15 


15.38 



0.( 



Speed of Cutting with Oxy-Acetylene Torch. J. M. Morehead 
in a paper before the New York Railroad Club gives the Table 
XVIII of cutting speeds attained in ordinary practice. 

TABLE XVIII. CUTTING SPEEDS 



Up to 





1. 






U 


is 








It 


c-2 


S i 


.£§ 


cS 




•^0 


io 


1" 






Fh 


a 


ffi 


u. 


Qj 


1/2 in. . . 


. 12 


151/2 


60 


14-18 


to 11/2 in. 12 


151/2 


75 


14-18 



p ■•-> 

O) o 

fi 

125 
125-150 



■A u 

CiP. 

50 
30 



While very desirable in welding, in cutting it is quite essential 
that the oxygen be pure. I;f any appreciable amount of nitrogen 
is present, this nitrogen expands with the heat and prevents ftie 
acetylene from entering the slot. This results in a wide kerf and 
unsatisfactory work, while at the same time the amount of oxy- 
gen necessary for any given work increases enormously. Table 
XIX sho^^'s how the qu-^ntity of oxygen necessarily varies with 
its purity. It will be observed that with oxygen containing 



1700 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



J^OSM ^ ^ 



00 co?o^ lH<^^ "*^ 



CO ^C35 

o a; be 
o bjos 
bJ3o 







o -^o »: 1^ 


# 


CO « 


kH 


t- 


(M* T-l r.-- U5 "M' 00 oo 




_w> 


Eh 




oiioto^ oio 


o 


-ij 






lO tH 


tH 


^3 


S 








"siiJ 






o ;:|?^^ ^ 


^ 


Sl1 


CO 


Irt t~ t- rH '^1 t- '-I 


Ci 


C5 
1— 1 




OiC^^OrH ^» 


CO 




CO 


^ 




P^ 


lO 


Co'cOf-^'^M-^rS 


CO 


a; nJ 




05 '-0 -X> ^ «5 CO 
00 


CO 




§g 


rt< 


00 ■:^00 r-\ ^ 

cd' o CO ^ M -t^ r^ 

CO 


CO 
CO 


1% 



^^' 

^^ 

OH 
Eh 

O 

o 

I— I 
U 

o 

w 



^001- ^ ^ 



o ;::^'t-ico ^ 

(M 00 CO t- cri r-I tH !5 



CO ^lofo <p"S 

tH oi'Mt-t-^iHOO-^^ 
OS t- CO ^JPrn 

. 0) 



IJ^ 






.2 ■:^ <^ ? 4j ^ 
^ -J -^ o <M q 

^ O ^-: ^O 



("CtW 



.^a 



0) i2 .^ B 5; '"^ oS 

3 .3 O O !^'-S D 

P4^HHOEh(1i 






tn 

^ c^ on 

a> f-^ 5 "5 
^.^'^■^ 



ft 



ft I ^ 

erf 



o oS '-I 






MISCELLANEOUS 



1701 



18% or more of impurities it is practically impossible to do satis- 
factory cutting- work. 

Costs of Various Acetylene Operations. E. F. Eg^gert (Auto- 
genous Welding, July, 1914) gives the cost of cutting out numer- 
ous small parts used in ship construction. Pieces Nos. 1 and 3, 
Fig. 4. are examples of the anglesmiths art, only they were 
made by an acetylene operator; No. 1 is the boxed end of a staple 
angle, used in making a deck or bulkhead water tight, where a 
Z-bar passes through it ; and No. 3 is an angle corner with the 
flange of the angle turned outward, used in bounding decks and 
bullvheads to form connections and make them water-tight. An 



1 — pnti^Mi ' 1 


VL^in 


7i mm m ^ ^ 


^ f -1 


MpMEpI 




^J^ 



Fig. 4. Miscellaneous parts made with an oxy-acetylene torch. 

anglesmith, in making No. 1, has to take a long heat, cut V-shaped 
sections out of the flange, bend the web twice, as near to the 
proper point as he can, dress the job to get the dimensions right, 
and then make two welds in the flanges. The acetylene operator 
makes one V-shaped cut in the flange, and removes the end of 
the flange; this with the cutting torch and to exact dimensions. 
Then he draws his torch along the line on the web Avhere the 
angle should be bent, gets it hot, and it bends as easily as copper 
wire • the dimension is correct and the corner square without dress- 
ing After making the second bend, he makes two straight-line 
welds in the flange, and the job is done. In a 2 by 3-in angle^ 
this job costs about 50 cts. ; the welds are sound and will stand 



1702 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

any amount of hammering to prove it ; the under surface is smooth, 
so the flange can be calked water-tight. Piece No. 3 is made in 
the same way, save that a square insert is welded in the flange, 
needing two straight-line welds. Cost about 30 cts., including cost 
of cutting the square insert. 

Pieces Nos. 2, 5 and 10 go to make hose and nozzle racks for 
ship-board installation. The hose is hung over No. 2, being held 
to the bulkhead by No. 5, consisting of two clips, riveted or tap- 
bolted to the bulkhead ; the strap is hinged to the one on the 
left, and pinned to the one on the right. By taking out the pin, 
the strap swings clear and the hose can be removed. The orifice 
of the brass nozzle slips over the downward projection of No. 10, 
and its base rests on a simple angle clip. 

In making No. 2, circular rings are cut on the pantograph ma- 
chine ; a piece of pipe is cut to length ; the rings are cut in two, 
the pipe split lengthwise, and a half ring welded to the end of 
each half pipe. This costs about 80 cts. much less than a cast- 
ing. 

The clips of No. 5 are cut from bar steel, and bent as described 
above ; the strap is cut from the same bar. The hinges are made 
of %-in. extra-heavy iron pipe, each hinge of three pieces; the 
strap and clips being laid together lengthwise ; the three pieces 
of pipe for each hinge, held together by a bolt running through 
them, are laid in place and tacked there by the welding torch. 
Then the two bolts are removed, disassembling the clips from the 
strap, and the welding of the pipe completed. This saves ex- 
pensive forgings and the machining thereof, and costs only 90 cts. 

The nozzle keeper, piece No. 10, consists of a short piece of 
% -in. extra heavy iron pipe, welded to a little angle clip ; it avoids 
a casting, and costs only 30 cts. 

Pieces Nos. 4 and 6 are pad eyes ; eyes made parts of pads 
which are riveted to a deck or a bulkhead for a tackle, or brace, 
to hook into or secure to. The eyes are not completed in these 
samples ; they would be formed by punching or drilling. These 
pad eyes were made by cutting them from scraps of T- or I-bars, 
finishing by knocking off the rough on a grinder. Thus, forgings 
are avoided, and pad eyes produced at 10 cts. each. If a thicker 
eye is wanted, it can be formed by welding two pieces of angle 
bar back to back. 

Piece No. 7 is a scupper lip, secured under a pipe discharging 
over the side to throw the water clear of the side, so as not to 
streak it. It is formed of two pieces of plate, cut to proper shape; 
the Ijp is then bent to shape and welded to the flange. This 
method obviates a casting, and the scupper lip costs 80 cts. 

Piece No. 8 is a hinge, made of two pieces of plate and a piece 
of %-in. extra -heavy iron pipe. The pipe is cut in three pieces, 
the pieces being held together by a bolt slipped through them ; 
the two pieces of plate are laid edge to edge, the pipe laid length- 
wise on the crack, and then welded. This saves two forgings, or 
castings, and the necessary machining, the hinge costing 45 cts. 
This is, of course, a special, heavy hinge, and is not a commercial 



MISCELLANEOUS 1703 

article ; and usually these special fittings are wanted in a big 
hurry. 

No. 9 is a stanchion foot, cut from the end -of a stanchion. It 
is made of 2-in. pipe, to the end of which is welded a %-in. 
washer; and on the washer is welded a piece of %-in. extra- 
heavy pipe. In quantities, this is a forging-machine job, requiring 
dies, and is by no means cheap ; in small lots it is a hand- 
forging job. With the torch, it costs 15 cts. 

Piece No. 12 is another hinge, a very heavy one, made by cut- 
ting two pieces from the web of a bulb angle or T-bar. Then the 
pieces are cut to mesh together, and a hole drilled through the 
bosses thus formed. All the cutting is done with the torch. It 
makes a very strong hinge, saving forging and machining, and 
costs but 40 cts. 

Piece No. 13 is a stanchion or batten clip; riveted to the deck, 
it receives and holds in position the bottom of a stanchion or 
batten used in a storeroom, or magazine, to hold stacked packages 
in place. It is made of a piece of U-bar with a piece of plate 
welded across the end ; it avoids expensive anglesmithing, or a 
casting, and costs but 10 cts. 

Pieces Nos. 14, 15 and 17 are quite similar, being made of i/^-in. 
round bar, bent in the vise, and welded to li/^-in. punchings. 
No. 14 is a wing nut, costing 20 cts. ; No. 15 is a dog handle, 
costing 10 cts., and No. 17 is a grab rod, costing 15 cts. In 
large lots these are jobs for the drop hammer, or the forging 
machine ; but in small lots of special sizes the torch price is 
pretty low. 

The mast band, piece No. 16, would ordinarily be made by a 
smith ; he would roll up the ring and " jump on " the three eyes. 
In this case the acetylene operator rolled up the bar cold, and 
welded it together; then welded on the eyes. The eyes to the 
left and right are the heads of two shouldered eyebolts ; but to 
show that he is independent of the stock of eyebolts, the top eye 
was formed of a piece of i/^-in. round. This job co.st only 60 cts. 

Piece No. 18 is a butterfly nut made by welding two thin 1-in. 
punchings, to an ordinary %-in. nut, smoothing up the job by 
adding metal. It met a hurry-up requirement, and cost only 15 
cts. for the one. 

The handwheel, piece No. 19, shows how an emergency job 
can be quickly done; a piece of scrap plate was cut to form the 
spokes and hub, a 1 1/2 -in. wa.sher welded to the hub to form a 
boss, and a piece of %-in. round was bent, welded together and 
welded to the spokes to form the rim. It saved a casting, and 
cost $1.50, less than the pattern would cost. 

The 3-in. elbow. Piece No. 20, was a sort of exhibition job; it 
is made of plate, every section being cut, rolled and welded ; the 
flanges were also cut with the torch. It cost $2.24, and so is not 
very economical ; but it is a good-looking job and a strong one, 
and may be a good thing to know in an emergency. 

No. 21 is a steel bucket handle, made of 1/2 -in. round and two 
pieces of plate; and at 15 cts. is pretty cheap. 



1704 MECHANICAL AXD ELECTRICAL COST DATA 



Piece No. 22 is a claw wrench, fitted over the spokes of the 
handwheel of a valve ; the rod is extended to a remote and usually 
higher place, universal joints taking- it around corners, and its 
purpose is to make it possible to operate certain valves from a 
distance. The claw is made from 3-in. iron pipe; a piece of ^-in. 
plate cut out round, is welded to the end of the claw, and the 
whole then welded to a 1-in. rod. It cost |1.35. and is much 
cheaper than the forging previously used. 

Cost of a Davit Collar and Pump Repairs. When cutting open- 
ings in steel plate P. G. Coburn (American Machinist, July 23, 



r^^ 


-^ 








,:-«<| 


i 


1 '^^^M ^ 


■^^iS;^'' M 


1 '-. 




. ^flBi... 



Fig. 5. A Davit 



i.iade with an bxy-acetylene torch. 



1914) states that some operators first drill around, then the torch 
operator's job is to cut tiie edges straight. The proper way to do 
the job is to cut it with the torch in the first place, using a 
motor-driven torch. The cut will look as if it had been planed. 
The cut can be made in less than one-tenth the time necessary 
to drill it. 

There are some cutting jobs that are so complete that the smith 
is eliminated altogether. In Fig. 5 is shown the rough forging 
of a davit collar. It is hardly right to call it a forging, for it 
was not forged, but the term will answer, as it is in about the 
same condition as the smith would put it for the machine shop 
— except that there is slightly less finish to remove — a scant 
% in. This collar was cut directly from the billet in 15 minutes. 



MISCELLANEOUS 1705 

The excess material is in three large pieces, which can be utilized 
in the forge shop ; hence, there is no material waste. A smith 
could not make a good start on this job for what it cost complete 
by the torch. 

Cost of Making Ascetylene. The ordinary charge for car- 
bide in ton lots is $70, or 3 1^ cts. per lb., and 25 cts. per hun- 
dred would deliver it at most points, but we will add 50 cts., 
which would make the total cost 4 cts. per lb. 

A pound of good lump carbide will yield 4 1/(> cu. ft. or more of 
acetylene. This would make the acetylene cost a little less than 
0.9 ct. per ft. Suppose we add the 0.1 ct. for the work of gen- 
eration and call the cost 1 ct. per ft. 

Handling Scrap by Magnets and Locomotive Cranes. The fol- 
lowing from Railway Electrical Engineer, October, 1915, gives' 
costs with crane magnets : 

In railroad work, the field of application of crane magnets is 
rather limited. They are at the present time used principally in 
scrap yards, around store-room platforms, etc., where it is neces- 
sary to handle iron and steel rapidly and economically. For this 
class of work, magnets are generally used in connection with 
locomotive cranes, making a self-contained, self-propelled unit 
which may be operated over shop and yard tracks as required. 
The use of this combination has reduced very greatly the cost 
of handling both new and scrap material, both by reducing the 
actual expense of handling and by enabling the material to be 
handled much more rapidly. In this connection a few examples 
may be cited. One road has handled with a locomotive crane 
and magnet 41 tons of old locomotive grates in 40 mins., 56 tons 
of old track spikes in 33 mins. and 44 tons of miscellaneous scrap 
in 35 mins. Another road is handling this class of material at a 
cost of less than $0.02 per ton as compared with $0.25 to $0.35 
by hand. A road using four cranes, three equipped with magnets 
and one with a clam shell bucket, is handling scrap at $0.05 per 
ton. Specific figures given by one road are as follows : 

Kind of .scrap. Crane cost Hand cost 

No. 1 wrought iron $0.04 $0.22 

Bushel ing. No. 2 wrought iron, and malleable 

iron 02 .10 

Cast iron and mixed steel .* .02 .09 

Sheet steel 20 .30 

On some roads where traffic is very dense, a locomotive crane 
with magnets is used to pick up and load scrap along the line. 
The scrap, consisting of old rails and other track supplies, is 
collected and put into small piles along the track by the section 
gangs ; a locomotive crane with a magnet is then sent over the 
line in a work train, thus handling the scrap cheaply and rapidly. 

In shop work, cranes are ' also used to a limited extent, for 
handling parts such as car-wheels, castings, etc. 

As can be seen from the foregoing, crane magnets will be used 
on outdoor work practically altogether. This requires that the 
construction of the magnet be such as to be unaffected by weather 



1706 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

conditions, as reliability is a prime factor in economical operation. 
The failure of a magnet will, in most cases, seriously cripple the 
section of the yard where it is in use. All of the manufacturers of 
magnets now on the market have apparently taken this point into 
consideration and are using very rugged construction, so that the 
magnets are practically indestructible. 

Another very important point in magnet construction is that of 
insulation ; due to self induction the voltage impressed on the 
magnet may, at the time the circuit is opened, rise to four or 
five times normal, thus setting up stresses which may break 
down the insulation in case it is in any way defective. In some 
makes of magnets this inductive discharge is shunted through a 
resistance, by means of suitable contacts in the controller. This 
is a desirable feature as it eliminates the high voltage and reduces 
the strain on the coil insulation. 

Direct current is, of course, essential to the operation of crane 
magnets. They are usually wound for 220 volts, although 110 
volt magnets may be obtained. The operation of magnets from 
550 volt circuits is not recommended, due to the high voltage 
induced at the time the circuit is opened, even when discharge 
resistance is connected in circuit. 

The controllers used in connection with crane magnets are of 
simple construction. They may be either of the magnetic or of 
the drum type. Three operating points are usually provided, these 
points being — "lift," "drop" and "off." When the control handle 
is placed in the lifting position, the magnet is connected across the 
line, thus energizing it and enabling it to pick up the desired 
material. When the handle is thrown to the drop position, the 
current through the magnet is reversed, thus giving an instantane- 
ous re-release and effecting a slight saving in time by eliminating 
the sluggishness of release w^hich is sometimes found when hand- 
ling pieces which completely span the magnetic poles, or parts con- 
sisting of hard steel which retains a considerable amount of 
residual magnetism. In the off position, the magnet is dead. 

The controllers are usually arranged so that the handle will not 
remain on the " drop " point, a spring being provided which throws 
the handle to the off position as soon as it is released by the 
operator. 

Where magnets are used in connection with traveling or loco- 
motive cranes operated by direct current, power can, of course, 
be taken from the crane supply circuit. On steam operated loco- 
motive cranes, a small engine or turbine driven generator sup- 
plies the necessary direct current for the magnet, although power 
may in many cases be taken from a shop circuit through re- 
ceptacles located at convenient points. Where the area to be 
covered by the crane is small, the connection to the supply circuit 
ca'n often be made permanent, a flexible cable of suitable length 
being used. 

The life of this cable, as well as of that connecting the magnet 
to the controller, may be materially increased by the use of some 



MISCELLANEOUS 1707 

automatic device for taking- up slack. One manufacturing com- 
pany builds a simple motor driven take-up which has proved 
very satisfactory in operation. 

In general, the information obtained indicates that the cost of 
maintenance on crane magnets is practically negligible and con- 
sists, in most cases, simply in the renewal of cable. Wliere power 
for operating the magnet is supplied by generating equipment 
mounted on the crane, there will be also some slight maintenance 
expense for this apparatus. The simpler construction of the small 
steam turbines driven set as compared with engine driven equip- 
ment would seem to make the former somewhat preferable, as 
requiring less attention. This is especially the case in view of the 
fluctuating nature of the load on the generator. 

In addition to the circular type, which is in most general use 
in railroad work, other forms of magnets are obtainable, arranged 
for handling special material. Among these types are the flat 
magnet for handling plates, the bi-polar type for handling rails, 
rods, pipes, etc., also magnets with specially shaped pole pieces 
for handling material such as car-wheels. However, the circular 
magnet will be found the most generally useful and it will take 
care of practically any class of work. 

The use of magnets undoubtedly constitutes the simplest and 
cheapest method of handling iron and steel, and your committee 
suggests that the members of our association familiarize them- 
selves with this class of apparatus, with a view to applying it to 
a greater extent than has been the case up to the present time. 

Ratio of Average Load to Connected Load. A. M. Dudley 
(Transactions of American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Mar. 
10, 1911) states that users are apt, in flguring their power con- 
sumption, to take the capacity from the name plate of the driving 
motor or motors and consider that as the average consumption. 
If. as is more often the case than not, this unit has been liberally 
allowed for, the ultimate calculated consumption of power is in 
error by even more than the ratio of the maximum to the average 
consumed. When these facts are considered, it is not so hard to 
understand why the cost of power is sometimes figured in error 
by 400'%. As an illustration of how serious this error may be, 
figures are submitted showing the ratio of the average load to the 
connected load, which are the result of a number of observations 
and fairly represent the average condition. These figures are as 
follows : 

Per cent. 

Cement mills nrV' qc\ 

Textile mills, cotton and woolen 75 to 80 



Tanneries 



55 



Ice machines and refrigerating plants 53 

Marble works , W 

Flour mills %^ 

Carriage and v.'agon works ^» 

Machine shops ^^ 



Breweries 



33 



Boiler shops 28 

Sheet metal manufacturing 'i ' 



1708 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

Per cent. 

Soap manufacturing 28 

Rubber manufacturing 25 

Wood working 10 to 35 

General average of all industries (approx.) 33^^ 

See the latter part of Chap. I where load factors are discussed. 

First Cost and Maintenance of Portable Batteries for Automatic 
Signals. A detailed account of the operation of these storage 
batteries is given in a paper read before the Railway Signal 
Association March 20, 1911, by A. H. McKeen, signal engineer 
of the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Co., and of the 
Southern Pacific Co. lines in Oregon. 

The methods of transportation to and from the charging plants 
vary with local conditions. On portions of the line where local 
passenger service is available, the batteries are loaded into the 
baggage car and distributed at each station by the batteryman, 
who accompanies the batteries. From the stations they are taken 
to the various battery locations by the maintainer on a velocipede 
or motor car, the discharge batteries being returned in the same 
manner to the station, where they are picked up by the batterman 
and brought back to the charging plant on the return train in 
the evening. On other sections of the line the batteries are loaded 
into a specially arranged battery car and handled on local freight 
trains, stops being made at each battery location, where the bat- 
teries are changed by the batteryman and the maintainer on that 
district. The car containing the discharged batteries is sent back 
to the charging plant on the first freight train. Another arrange- 
ment consists of a charging plant built in a box car, which car is 
moved on tUe daily way freight and is set out at each alternate 
station ; in one end of the l^ar is located the gasoline engine, gen- 
erator, switchboard, and cooling tank. A large gasoline tank 
holding sufficient gasoline for one month's supply is suspended 
under the body of the car. The center part of the car is used as 
a battery room and is suitably fitted up with a battery bench, 
lead-lined sink and a large water tank for battery washing pur- 
poses. The other end of the car is arranged as living quarters 
for the batteryman. The car is equipped with heavy draught 
gear in order to avoid any damage due to rough handling while 
in transit. During the three years that this portable arrange- 
ment has been in service, it has given the best of results, handling 
on one district, 832 colls monthly on a territory of 150 miles of 
single track signals. An important advantage in this method is 
that on the 150-mile district referred to, only 80 extra cells are 
required for changing out purposes ; this being only 10% of the 
total number of cells in service on the district. 

On the Harriman Lines there are 52 charging plants; each of 
which (except the portable plants) is located at the headquarters 
of the assistant supervisor, where a shop building is provided. 
Since part of this shop building is used to house the charg- 
ing machinery no special building is necessary. The average 
territory covered by each plant is 104 miles. Wherever current 



MISCELLANEOUS 1709 

can be obtained from local power companies, a mercury 
arc rectifier or motor generator set is installed, and at other loca- 
tions where electric power is not available a gasoline engine and 
generator charging outfit is used. Each charging plant is in charge 
of a special batteryman, whose duties consist of charging, inspect- 
ing and cleaning the batteries and assisting the maintainers in 
changing out the cells on their districts. All cells are returned 
to the plant monthly and are thoroughly inspected and cleaned 
before being put on the charging circuit. A record is kept in a 
book, provided for the purpose, of the voltage, specific gravity 
and condition of each cell on arrival at the plant and each cell 
is examined for short circuits and other faults ; the hard rubber 
covers and connectors being cleaned and sediment removed if 
necessary. Once a year the old electrolyte is replaced with new 
in order to discard all impurities held in solution. 

In the case of stationary batteries it is the usual practice to 
give an overcharge several times a month, the overcharge having 
the effect of driving the sulphate out of the plates and keeping 
them in a healthy condition. Portable cells which are charged 
once a month only, are subject to considerable sulphating and 
therefore require a long charge to bring them up to capacity. It 
is the practice to continue the charge for two or three hours after 
the voltage and specific gravity has ceased to rise. The uniform 
gassing of all cells on charge is a good indication of their con- 
dition and the failure of any cell to gas is investigated before the 
charge is continued. During the charge, voltage and specific 
gravity readings are taken and recorded in the book and any 
cells not coming up to the proper voltage and gravity are closely 
watched and given special treatment if necessary. Maintainers 
are required to make weekly inspection of all cells in service, 
examining them for loose connections, taking voltage readings and 
replacing any evaporation of electrolyte that may occur during 
the time the cells are in service. In replacing the evaporation, 
only water whose purity has been previously passed on is used. 
In localities where pure water is not obtainable, distilled water 
is provided. 

In charges subsequent to the initial charge the general rule is 
that the amount of current put into the cell should be twice the 
amount delivered by the cell during the 30 or less days elapsing 
since the previous charge. Under normal conditions and service 
the amount of current required of a cell will vary from 46 to 75 
ampere hours per month. 

The batteries are housed in the lower case of the signal, which 
makes them easily accessible for inspection. The lower signal 
case also serves to accommodate the track and line relays. At 
the end of sidings on single track or other locations where two 
signals are opposite each other, one set of batteries is used to 
operate both signals. After the batteries have been in service 
fifteen days, the maintainer interchanges them with the butteries 
of the distant signal, this having the effect of equalizing the dis- 
charge to a considerable extent on all cells in service. It also 



1710 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

avoids the necessity of charging cells for different lengths of time 
on their return to the charging plant and eliminates the pos- 
sibility of cells being discharged to a point that might result in 
a signal failure. 

COST OF STORAGE CELLS 

1 cell SS-7 storage battery complete $4.85 

2 battery connectors, at 8 cts. each .10 

Electrolyte .03 

Freight charges .30 

Total cost $5.34 

Cost of charging machinery and apparatus in 52 plants, 

at $450.00 each $ 23,400.00 

Cost of 48,516 storage cells, complete, including freight 

charges 259.075.44 

Cost of 12,129 carry cases, at $2.60 each 31,535.40 

Total cost $314,010.84 

COST OF PRIMARY CELLS 

1 350-ampere-hour primary cell, complete $2.00 

Freight charges .20 

Total cost $2.20 

Cost of 178,480 primary cells, complete, including freight 

charges $392,656.00 

Cost of 9.026 concrete battery wells, at $25.00 each 225,650.00 

Freight charges on 9,026 concrete battery weils, each 

weighing 1.600 lbs., at $20.00 each. 180,520.00 

Charges for work train and locomotive crane or derrick 
with crew for unloading and placing 9,026 battery 
wells, 90 days at $50.00 per day (estimated) 4,500.00 

Cost of labor for* digging holes and setting 9,026 battery 

wells at $10.00 per well (estimated) . 90,260.00 

Total cost $893,586.00 

COST OF MAINTENANCE OP STORAGE CELLS PER FEAR 

Interest on investment of $314,010.84 at 5 per cent $ 15,700.54 

Depreciation on 52 charging plants costing $23,400, at 10 

per cent 2,340.00 

Depreciation on 48,516 positive groups costing $1.57 each, 

at 22 per cent 16,757.43 

Depreciation on 48,516 negative groups costing $1,835 

each, at 25 per cent 22,256.71 

Depreciation on 12,129 carrying cases costing $2.60 each, 

at 10 per cent 3,153.54 

Cost of renewals of broken jars, covers and separators 

on 48,516 cells at 9 cts. per cell per year 4,366.44 

Cost of electrolyte renewals on 48,516 cells at 3 cts. per 

cell, per year 1,455.48 

Cost of current, gasoline, oil, etc., at charging plants per 

year at 18 cts. per cell 8,732.88 

Total cost $74,763.02 

COST OF MAINTENANCE OF PRIMARY BATTERIES PER YEAR 

Interest on investment of $893,586, at 5 per cent $ 44,679.30 

Cost of renewals for 178,480 cells, per year at $1.00 each 178,480.00 
Cost of renewals of broken jars and covers on 178,480 

cells per year, at 7 cts. per cell per year 12,493.60 

Total cost $235,652.90 



MISCELLANEOUS 1711 

With reasonable care, the average life of SS-7 portable cells 
and their component parts are found to be as follows : 

Positive elements 4% years 

Negative elements 4 years 

Rubber jar's 10 years 

Rubber covers 10 years 

Rubber separators 10 years 

Wood separators 2 years 

Carrying cases 10 years 

No cSiarges are made for transporting storage batteries either 
when handled on passenger or freight trains; and even though a 
nominal charge should be assessed, the amount would not exceed 
the freight charges over foreign lines for renewals for primaiT 
batteries. This item is therefore not included in the foregoing 
cost of maintenance of storage or primary batteries ; neither is the 
expense for labor for charging, inspecting and changing out stor- 
age cells or making renewals to primary cells taken into con- 
sideration, for the reason that so far as it can be ascertained 
from Western roads using primary battery, the cost for labor for 
maintaining primary batteries is practically the same as with 
portable storage battery.. The battery man looks after the charg- 
ing of the storage batteries on a district averaging 104 miles, 
the maintainers assisting in distributing the batteries, w^hich re- 
quires on an average two days time of each maintainer monthly. 
Maintainers' districts range from 14 to 20 miles according to the 
number of signals, local conditions, etc. The average district is 
approximately 16 ' miles with 32 signals. Maintainers have no 
helpers and are required to look after all work in connection with 
the maintenance of signals on their Histrict, including the care 
of signal lamps. 

The prices as shown for both portable storage batteries and 
primary batteries are the regular list prices less the usual trade 
discount. The freight charges are figured on an average basis 
for the entire system and are reasonably accurate. 

The cost for current for operating motor-generator or arc-rec- 
tifier plants varies from % ct. to 5 ct.s. per kvv. and the cost for 
generating current with gasoline engine-generator sets is about 
10 cts. per kw. Taking an average for the entire system the 
annual cost for charging current is 18 cts. per cell. 

Cost of Electric Riveting. The cost of riveting with Eveland 
electric riveters in which alternating-current energy is used only 
to heat the rivets, the heads being formed by a single manual 
operation, is given in Electrical World, Mar. 14, 1914. The figures 
are based on actual tests with rivets of ordinary length and repre- 
sent only the cost of energy at 10 cts. per k.w.-hr. 

Rivet diameter, ins. Energy cost per 1,000 

0.25 $0.04 to .$0.05 

0..31 25 0.08 to 0.10 

0..375 0.12 to 0.14 

0.5 to 0.625 0.20 to 0.25 



1712 MECHANICAL AND EI.ECTRICAL COST DATA 

Larger sizes can be riveted at a cost practically proportional to 
their volume. The labor cost is low with the electric riveter, as 
one man with a helper can do more work than two men and a 
forge attendant using pneumatic or other power apparatus. 

Cost of Thawing Water Pipes by Electricity. On the basis of 
125 house services thawed by electricity in Rutland, Vt., in Feb- 
ruary, 1904, the cost of the thawing per service was as follows: 

Electricity $1.68 

Labor 1.85 

Teams and drivers 58 

Total $4.11 

On the average 17 amps, of alternating current at 2,200 volts 
were required, and at 10 cts. per k.w.-hr. the current cost was 
$1.68, as shown above. The average time consumed was 27 mins. 

Cost of an Electric Sign. An electric sign installed over the 
entrance to the Grays Harbor Railway & Light Company's branch 
office at Hoquiam, Wash., is described in Electrical World, Oct. 
21, 1916, as strictly a home product, the designing, construction, 
painting, wiring, etc., having been done by local workmen. The 
sign measures 8 ft. high and 10 ft. long with white letters 16 ins. 
high on a blue-black background and is very legible during the 
day as well. The letters are not of rough construction, the sheet 
metal was cut out according to design, suitable holes were punched 
to allow the insertion of the sign receptacles, the wiring was then 
done, and the two sides were Anally bolted onto a wooden frame 
made of 2- by 4-in. timber and the sign was ready for the painter. 

It reads as follows : " Electric Power. Light — Electric Power 
— Electric Light," and then all out and then all on again and 
starts the cycle over. 

The cost of this home-made 284-lamp sign was as follows: 

Sheet-metal work — construction $ 19.05 

Wiring receptacles, etc 63.32 

Painting 15.00 

Hanging, etc 15.14 

Lamps 54.18 

Flasher 39.99 

Transforiner 17.00 

$223.68 

Power Required for iVIotor- Driven Farm IVIachinery. Since most 
farm operations are essentially seasonable in character special 
motors are not usually required to drive each particular machine. 
Advantage has been taken of this diversity by a number of farm 
owners who have electrical installations by mounting one or more 
motors on skids or trucks so that these portable units can be 
moved about to operate machines in the various barns, stables and 
fields. The motors are provided with runs of cables ending in 
plugs which can be attached to fused connection blocks mounted 
at convenient points about the farm. 

The University of Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana, 111., made 



MISCELLANEOUS 1713 

tests in 1912 with the assistance of the General Electric Company's 
staff, to determine the energy consumption required to thresh 
various grains. The threshing machine used had a 28-in. cylinder 
and a 42-in. separator and was driven by a 15-h.p. motor. While 
the energy required to thresh a bushel or volume-measure of grain 
was found to vary greatly, the consumption in terms of tons 
handled was fairly constant. The results obtained are reproduced 
herewith in Table XX. 



TABLE XX. ENERGY CONSUMPTION TO THRESH GRAINS 

/ Yield per acre ^ Kw. hr. 

Tons of grain Bushels Kw.-hr. to to thresh 

Kind of grain and straw of grain thresh 1 ton 1 bushel 

Oats 1.99 73.6 2.62 070 

Barley 2.27 49.9 2.36 0.108 

Wheat 1.97 27.9 2.27 0.160 

Table XXI lists the sizes of motors recommended for operating 
standard farm machines. A single-hole sheller with a sacker 
attachment, driven by a 1-h.p. motor, requires about 0.025 k.w.-hr. 
to shell a bushel of corn, shelling at the rate of 26 bushels per hr. 
Test of a 25-bushel grain elevator capable of unloading 25 bushels 
of corn in 3 mins. has shown that 45 bushels can be elevated 19 
ft. at an energy consumption of 0.1 k.w.-hr. 

TABLE XXI. SIZES OF MOTORS TO DRIVE FARM 
MACHINES 

Machines H.p. Machines H.p, 

Feed grinders (small).... 5 Grain graders 0.25 

Feed grinders (large) .... 15 Grain elevators 3 

Ensilage cutters 15-20 . Concrete mixers 5 

Shredders and buskers. ... 15 Hay hoists 5 

Threshers, 19-in. cylinder .15 Root cutters 2 

Threshers, 32-in. cylinder. .40 Cord-wood saws 5 

Corn shellers, single-hole . 1 Wood splitters 2 

Power shellers 15 Hay bailers 7.5 

Fanning mills 0.25 Oat crushers 5 

Comparative Costs of Gas and Fuel Oil in Heating Japanning 
Ovens. E. F. Lake in Machinery, Aug., 1916, describes the meth- 
ods in use for handling and japanning springs in the factory of 
the Jackson Cushion Spring Co. A method of heating the japan- 
ning oven with fuel oil is described and its cost is compared to the 
cost of heating with gas, which had previously been used. 

Method of Using Fuel Oil. In the construction of the oven, the 
heat is not applied directly to the work, as in heat-treating fur- 
naces, but pipe coils are laid in the bottom of the oven and the 
oil flames are sent through these. In this way the ovens are 
heated by radiation, much as steam radiators are used for heating. 
The purpose of this arrangement is to prevent any of the products 
of combustion from entering the baking compartment to discolor. 



1714 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

dull or otherwise ruin the smooth, glossy surface of the japan. 
Furthermore, the currents qf air are prevented from starting up 
in the oven and stirring up dust particles that settle on the fresh 
japan. It is important to prevent this as far as possible, as these 
dust particles raise small lumps on the smooth japan surface, 
which are pyramidal in form so that they radiate light from all 
sides, which makes them appear much larger to the eye than they 
really are. When the pipe coils are arranged in this way, a dry 
heat is secured which bakes the japan quicker and harder than 
when moisture is present, as in the case of an open flame or when 
using steam heat. The atmosphere in the oven is also kept neutral, 
because there is no open flame to burn up the oxygen and leave 
an excess of nitrogen. Owing to these facts, less than 2% of the 
work requires to be done over, while in the case of gas fires or 
steam-heated japanning ovens, from 10 to 20% of the work has 
to be re-japanned and re-baked. 

Details of Oil Burning Apparatus. Five burners are arranged 
along each side of the 50 -ft. length of oven and each burner shoots 
the oil flame into a separate coil of 10-in. wrought iron pipe. A 
sheet metal pipe is used to convey the spent gases to a central 
stack that goes to the roof at the point where the coil leaves the 
oven. The fuel oil is vaporized inside the megaphone and com- 
bustion first takes place at this point, so that only the clean flame 
shoots into the pipe coil, as shown. This arrangement allows the 
operator to see the flame that enters the pipe coil and adjust the 
burner in such a way that there will be complete combustion of 
the fuel oil. If there should be an excess of oil, it would drop 
to the floor at the end of the megaphone. The importance of the 
megaphone burner should be emphasized in connection with con- 
struction of this kind, as without its use, the pipe coils will be 
destroyed in a few weeks, while with the construction advocated 
they will last several months. Another point of importance is 
that the pipe coils should be supported on rollers so that the ex- 
pansion and contraction will not crack the piping. If any of 
the small details of this system are neglected, the result will be 
failure, but when all details are perfect the process works success- 
fully and is b5^ far the cheapest of any in fuel consumption and 
upkeep of which the writer has knowledge. 

A special casting is placed in the outlet end of the pipe coil to 
reduce the 10-in. diam. to 4 ins., which leaves a large enough 
opening to carry away all the spent gases and holds the heat 
inside the pipe coil where it will radiate to the japan baking oven. 
If this were not done, 40% of the heat generated by the oil flame 
would pass through the pipe coil and out of the stack. In one 
case known to the writer, a heavy sheet metal stack 3 ft. in diam. 
was burned through by these gases some 2 ft. above the roof of 
the building and 50 ft. away from the heating coils, as meas- 
ured by the piping through which the burning oil gases travel. 

With a 10-in. pipe left open to the draft from a stack, the 
burning gases travel fairly quickly through vent pipes like that 
at C, and their heat will not be effective until they accumulate in 



MISCELLANEOUS 



1715 



TABLE XXII. COMPARATIVE COSTS OF GAS AND FUEL 
OIL IN HEATING JAPANNING OVENS 



General Information 



Truck and carrier capacity, cu. ft. . 
Oven or compartment capacities, cu. 

ft 630 

Cubic-feet of springs baked per 21-hr. 

day (24 heats day and night). 15,120 
Cubic feet of springs baked per day 

(30 heats in 10 hrs.) 

Cubic feet of springs baked per 

month (25 working days) 378,000 

GalJons of fuel oil burned per (25 

working days) 

Cost of fuel per month * $225.00 

Cost of fuel per cubic foot of springs 

baked * $0.0006 

Cost of fuel per month t 

Cost of tuel per cubic foot of springs 

baked t 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 378,000 cu. ft. per month) 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 390,000 cu. ft. per month) * 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 585,000 cu. ft. per month)* 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 378,000 cu. ft. per month) f 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 390,000 cu. ft. per month) t 

Saving in cost of fuel (spring capac- 
ity 585,000 cu. ft. per month) f 



Gas fuel — f^^?!— F}^±«ii " 
3 ovens 

105 



I compart- 
ments 


2 compart- 
ments 


260 




780 


520 


23,400 


15,600 


585,000 


390,000 


3,325 




$182.88 





$0.0003 
$116.38 


$0.00028 


$0,002 


$0.00017 


$112.50 






$124.80 


$175.50 




$149.40 






$167.70 


$234.00 





• Gas, 70 cts. per thousand feet 
t Gas, 70 cts. per thousand feet: 



fuel oil, 514 cts. per gal. 
fuel oil. 3% cts. per gal. 




/rT^gT-T-Ton 



Fig. 6. Sectional view of ovens, showing method of installing 
pipe coils for fuel oil heating. 



1716 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

the larger stacks outside the building. In an oven arranged like 
this, with ten burners and pipe coils venting into one central 
stack, it can be readily seen that there would be an intense heat 
at the point of concentration unless the flames were held back 
in the pipe coils until they had burned out. The simplest method 
of doing this is by means of a casting which reduces the outlet 
end of the pipe coil, thus obviating the necessity for dampers 
which burn out too easily. 

Fig. 6 shows a floor plan and elevation which indicates the 
location of these pipe coils and oil burners. It will be seen that 
a heat insulated partition F extends clear to the floor and sepa- 
rates compartments 1 and 2 from compartment 3. This arrange- 
ment permits compartment 3 to be fired alone. 



INDEX 



Accounting, 31, 88 
Accrued depreciation, 92 
Acre-foot, 1327 
Active load, 62 
Additional cost rate, 62 
Aerial cable, see Cable 
Aerous, 1163 

Age, average weighted, 84 
Air compressor, see Compressor 
Air drill (see also Drill), 1168, 
1170 

duct, 848 

hammer, 1164 to 1167, 1171 

lift, efficiency, 1295 

motor, 1161 

pipe (see also Pipe), 210, 600 

pump, 209 

receiver, 1136, 1137 

reheating, 1160 

tools, 1166 

washer, 1431 
Alternative plant, 36, 46 
Alternator, 276, 845 
Altitude gage, 1648 
Aluminum wire, see Wire 

aluminum 
Alvord method, 46, 48' 
Ammeter, 860, 880 
Amortization (see also De- 
preciation), 89 
Ampere. 488 
Anchor, 9 43, 9 47 

guy, see Guy 

log, 893 

rod. 950 
Annual depreciation (see De- 
preciation) 
Anthracite (see Coal) 
Anvil, 1663 

Apparent diversity factor, 62 
Arc lighting, see Lamp, see 

Light 
Arm, see Cross-arm 
Arrester. see Lightning Ar- 
rester 
Asbestos. 1645 

Ash (see also Coal ash, see 
Conveyor) 

ejector, 849 

handling, 354, 360, 363, 370, 
372, 375, 376, 464, 474, 
546, 574, 792, 818, 1101. 

pan, 568 
Attached business, value of, 40 
Automatic stoker, see Stoker 
Auxiliary power (see also 

Spare units), 492 
Average age, weighted, 84 

1717 



Average cost fallacies, 54 
life, misleading, 112 
price, 14 

Balance bucket, 367 

Baler, hay, 1713 

Ballast, see Track ballast. 

Ball-bearing, 1090 

Barge life, 126 

Basin, see Pond 

Battery, see Storage battery 

Bearing, friction, 1087 

Belt, 105, 571, 682, 683, 1079, 
1081, 1083, 1090, 1091, 
1108, 1218, 1353 

Belt conveyor (see also Con- 
veyor), 356, 368, 369, 
371, 467, 1130, 1340 to 
1345, 1353. 

Belt drive. 1085 

Benches, see Gas benches 

Bending roll. 1663 

Benzol, 330 

Bin, 188, 338, 362 

Bituminous coal, see Coal 

Blacksmith shop, 1663 

Blast furnace, 199 ' 

Bla.-^^t furnace, gas, see Gas. 

Bleeding of steam, 446, 454 

Blocks, chain, 16 46 

Blower (see also Fan) 106, 208, 
220, 265, 267. 419, 818, 
829, 1188, 1194, 1196, 
1198, 1214, 1218, 1221, 
1230. 1475, 1477 
turbo, 1220 

Blow-off tank, 568 

Boat (see also Ship), 125, 126 

Boiler, 201, 219, 261, 282, 317, 
390. 419, 420, 421, 493, 
532. 538, 564. 565. 567, 
568, 574, 575, 577, 578, 
579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 
584. 627, 629. 631, 633, 
652, 702, 770, 777, 809, 
810, 813, 815, 818, 822, 
823. 826, 841. 842, 843, 
1101, 1187, 1196,, 1214, 
1218, 1220, 1229, 1256,' 
1265. 1304, 1305, 1311, 
1430, 1559. 1561 
brick required, 283 
compound, 421 
depreciation, 105,. 113, 421, 

438, 511 
efficiencv, 379. 388, 440. 461, 

501. 1101. 1306, 1448 
feed pump, see Pump feed 



1718 



INDEX 



Boiler, floor space, 278, 281, 282,' 
283. 584 
foundation. 58 4, 568 
house, 360, 361, 575, 823 
installing-. 577 

life, see Boiler depreciation 
making-, 1657 
operating (see also Power), 

1272 
plant building- 279 
power, ratio to frontag-e, 386 
pump, see Pump feed 
ratio to station capacity, 385 
repairs, 421 
scaling, 1176 

setting", 261, 273. 274, 277, 
285, 567, 568, 582, 583, 
585, 770 
shop. 1663 
tubes, 426, 586 
weight. 578, 579, 580, 582 
Bolt cutter, 1652, 1664 
Bond discount, 12 
Bond, see Rail bond 
Booster. 1559, 1561, 1563 
Boring Mill, 1661 
Boring- wood, 1653 
Box, installing-, 1075 
Brace, see Cross-arm brace 
Bracket, 893, 924, 937, 1567 
Brake, horsepower, 387, 486 
Brake, air, life, 105 
Branch-ofC, see Track, Special 

work 
Brass, 1664 

Breeching, 106. 237. 823, 1561 
Brick work, 131, 175, 194. 195, 

196, "204, 283, 828, 1353 
Brick building, see Building 
Bridge, 105, 134, 1528 
Briquetting, 308. 310 
Brokerage, 12, 1192, 1194, 1210 
Bucket Conveyor, 365, 367, 371 
Bucket elevator (see also Ele- 
vator bucket), 356, 374, 
Buggy, 1191 

Building. 145, 317, 387, 420, 
574, 575, 584, 644, 760, 
769, 777, 809, 810, 812, 
813, 817, 821, 827, 828, 
831. 838, 841, 847, 850, 
1186, 1203, 1204, 1211. 
1212. 1217, 1228, 1309, 
1312, 1323, 1421, 1512 
1531, 1557, 1559, 1562, 
1563, 1654 
Buildings, annual variation in 
cost, 173 
barns, 201 
brick, 176, 1293 
camp, 186 
concrete, 157, 163 to 171, 176, 

179. 181, 201 
costs, 128 
depreciation. 106, 150, 171, 

511, 1039 
fireproof, 153 
heating, see Heating 
illumination, 1030 



Buildings, life, see Buildings, de- 
preciation 

lighting, see Lighting. 

mill, 154, 157, 162, 170, 174, 
177, 186, 188, 263 

office, 153 to 155 

operating cost, 475 

power plant, 281, 283 

pumping station. 186 

repairs, 128, 150,*" 444, 476 

shed, 177 

shop, 169 188 

steel 170, 205 

storehouse. 154, 157, 160, 165, 
169, 177, 183, 

wiring, see Wiring 
Bulkhead, life, 106 
Bunker, see Coal bunker 
Bus-bar aluminum, 853 

copper, 853 

system, 816 
Business, attached, 40 
Butt treatment, see Pole 
By-product Theory, 53, 57 

Cable (see also Wire), 80, 849, 
850, 982, 990, 1053, 1530, 
1532, 1568 

aerial, 962 

installing, 9 62, 1020 

lead, 1532 

lead covered telephone, 951 

lead covered, weight, 952 

life, 106 

messenger, 1599 

pulling, 1010, 1018, 1021 

removing, 1009 

rodding, 1009 

splicing, 1011, 1018, 1020 

steel-taped, 991 

telephone, 1007. 1021 

underground, 1007, 1009 
Cake ovens, 314 
Calender, 1107, 1108, 1109 
Calorific value, see Fuol heat 

value 
Canal, 696 
Candle-power, 1025 
Canvas, 1079 
Capacity factor, 487, 497, 741 

cost, 62 

load-factor, 62 

nominal, 487 

normal, 490 

rated, 408 
Capitalized cost, 34, 484, 1333 

value, 34, 35, 737 
Carbon lamp, see Lamp 
Can^ienter v.^ork, 187, 192 
Carrving charge, see Interest 
Car, 1191, 1537, 1636 to 1641 

electric, 1533, 1580 to 1587 

freight, 1533 

heating. 1449 to 1456 

life, 106 

life and maintenance, 132 

reiDairs, 131, 136 

scales, 1673 

shops, 201 



INDEX 



1719 



Casting machine, installing, 

266, 270 
Catenary, 1598, 1604, 1608, 1609 
construction, 1600 
system, 9 63 
Cedar pole, see Pole 
Ceiling, 19 3 

Cell, see Storage Battery 
Cement work, 131 
Central stations, see Power 
plant, see Power, Elec- 
tric 
Central heating plant, see 

Heating 
Centrifugal pump, see Purnp, 

centrifugal 
Chain, 1645 
block, 1646 
drive, 468 

grate (see Stoker), 607 
Charcoal, 304, 316 
Charges, see Cost, see Expense, 
see Fixed charges 
independent, 441 
proportional, 441 
Check valve, see Valve 
Chestnut pole, see Pole 
Chimney, 131, 216, 219, 317, 
319, 532, 538, 568, 574, 
575, 583, 629, 631, 633, 
652, 767, 809, 818, 823, 
843, 1102, 1559, 1563 
acid gases, 232, 233 
brick, 231, 1561 
concrete, 216, 221, 222, 225 
demolishing, 226, 233 
foundation, 237 
life, 106, 110, 216 
radial brick, 226, 229, 230 
removing, 238 
smelter, 232 

steel, 236, 240, 241, 1220 
weight, 236 
Chipping, 1163 
air. 1170 

hammer (see Air Hammer), 
1167 
Chisel, 1660 
Choke coil. 854, 950 
Cinders, see Ashes 
Circuit breakers, 269, 1565 
Circulating pump, see Pump 

water, 826 
Clamps, 9 46 

Classifier, installing, 263 
Clearing, 838, 934, 940-941. 946, 

1527 
Clinkering machine, 266, 269 
Coal (see also Power), 291, 292, 
304, 438, 524, 526, 563, 
791, 1433 
analysis. 300. 500 
briquetting, 308 
buggies. 1231 
bunker, 810, 823, 1185 
chutes, 568 
consumption, 499 



Coal gas (see Gas) 
Coal handling, 354, 364, 371, 
373, 773, 818, 1385, 1391, 
1559 
handling plant, 108, 305, 420, 

574, 813, 816, 843, 1231 
heat value, 299, 303 
hoppers, 842 
lignite, 292, 304, 500 
moisture, 381 
pocket repairs, 357, 575 
powdered, 222, 307 
samples, 301 
selection, 29 6 
size, 300 

specifications, 293, 297 
storage plant, 337, 1559 
weathering, 301 
Coaling station, locomotive, 365 
Cocks, 1647 
Coke, manufacturing, 312 

oven gas, 531 
Columns, 190, 191 
Composite life, 115 
Compressor, 209, 268, 829, 1132 
to 1136, 1139, 1140, 1144, 
1177, 1188, 1214,, 1218, 
1309, 1497, 1588, 1661, 
1681 
ammonia, 1497, 1502 
efficiency, 1157, 1164 
hydro, 1177, 1178 
installing, 266, 601, 1135 
life, 107 

lubrication, 1151 
operation, 1146, 1150 
power needed, 1143 
weight, 1132, 1133, 1134, 1135 
Concentrator, life, 107 
Concentrating machinery, in- 
stalling, 263 
Concrete, 203, 828, 1575 
bases, pole, 885 
buildings, see Buildings 
chimney, see Chimney 
mixers. 1713 
penstock, 715 
pole, see Pole, concrete 
Concrete work, 187 
Condenser (see Pond, cooling), 
209, 261, 268, 271, 428, 
513, 523, 532, 587, 633, 
777, 809, 810, 813, 817, 
819, 823, 826, 834, 843, 
1187, 1194, 119&, 1221, 
1230, 1559 
ammonia, 1497 
depreciation, 107, 511 
installing, 266, 834 
jet, 209 
tubes, 261 
Condensing water, 387, 391, 454 
Condition, per cent., 93 
Conduit, 80, 850, 964, 966, 970, 
974, 975, 979, 980. 982, 
983, 985, 986, 992, 1069, 
1071, 1074 



1720 



INDEX 



Conduit, concrete, 977 

bends, 1070 

depreciation, 107, 984, 1039 

enameled, 1062 

fibre, 991, 993, 975, 977, 987 

fibre duct, 974 

fiexible, 1074 

iron pipe, 975, 978, 986 

McRoy, 966 

pump log, 971 

wrapped, 1070 
Conductor, see Wire 
Connected load, see Load 

load-factor, see Load factor 
Connections flanged, 592 
Consumer cost, 63 
Contingencies, 13, 39, 827, 935, 

1192, 1194, 1210 
Control apparatus, see Switches, 

Lightning arresters, etc. 
Controller, 259 
Conveyor, 345, 1188, 1340 

belt, see Belt conveyor 

bucket, 1363 to 1375 

flight, 1346 to 1350 

life, 107 

pneumatic, 375 

repairs, 378 

rubber, 365 

screw, 1350 to 1353 

steam jet, 1378 

suction. 1375 to 1377 

system, 361, 363 
Cooking, 1421 

electric, 1459 to 1469 

gas, 1459 
Cooler, see Pond cooling 
Cooling tower, 532, 586, 849 

systems, 428 
Copper, 75, 853, 912, 951, 1568 

ingot, 958 

investment, economic, 915 

wire depreciation, 114, 798 
Corn grinder, 1111 

sheller, 1713 
Cost (see also Charges, see Ex- 
pense, see Price), 6, 46, 
63 
Cost, capacity, 62 

capitalized, 34 

data, how to use, 2 

data, imperfect, 1 

demand, 63 

development, 40, 45, 46 

direct, 7, 56 

distribution, 63, 66, 69, 80, 
258 

equated, 34, 37 

estimating, 826 

going, 40, 45 

intangible, 45 

of establishing a business, 45 

of production, 7 

output, 65, 66 

overhead, see Overhead cost 

production, 65 

sacrifice, 7 

variable, 67, 740 



Cotton gin, 1124 
Crane, 75, 208, 269, 270, 271, 
809, 810, 812, 820, 821, 
1340, 1385, 1559 1562, 
1661 
car, 1385 
electric, 1388, 1390, 1394, 

1395 
installing, 266, 289 
life, 107 

locomotive, 1370 
magnet, see Electro magnet 
operating costs, 357 
overhead, 1389 
repairs 357 
traveling, 1393, 1396 
Crank shaper, 1652 
Creosoting (see also Pole, creo- 

soting-), 893, 950 
Cribbing, life, 107 
Crossarms (see also Pole), 836, 
883, 892, 919, 923, 924, 
926, 933, 937, 939, 946, 
949. 953, 1529, 1564, 1597 
braces. 939, 955, 1566 
life, 107 
painting, 923 
pin, see Pin 
Cross bonding, see Track bond- 
ing 
Crossing, see Track special 
work 
construction, 938 
river, 948 
Cross-over (see Track, special 

work), 1544 
Crusher, 270, 1115, 1130 

installing, 262, 266 
Culvert, life, 107, 1528 
Customers diversity, 64 
Cut-outs, 9 37 
Cut stone, 828 
Cutter, 1661, 1662 
oxy-acetylene, 1697 
speeds, 1658 
steel, 1695 

Dam, 74, 107, 690, 692, 700, 703, 

823 
Damper regulator, 568 
Deferred maintenance, 86 
Deficit methods, 46 
Demand cost, 63 

factor, 63 
Depot, see Building 
Depreciation (see also Life), 
82, 87, 118, 171, 311, 317, 
328, 358, 377, 378, 420, 
443, 459, 465 510, 625, 
626, 669, 686, 694, 695, 
702, 720, 746, 759, 771, 
778, 779, 797, 808, 1039, 
1102 
annual, 85 
annuity, 63, 77 
amortized, 89 

formula, declining balance, 
92, 94 



INDEX 



1721 



Depreciation, formula, economic, 
100 
sinking- fund, 94 
straight line, 94 
unit cost, 9 8 
function of profits, 103 
functional, 33, 59, 61, 64 
fund, 92 

inspections and tests, 102 
natural, 59, 65, 82, 100 
table, 105 
Depreciated value. 91 
Derrick, 1384, 1661 
Development cost, 40, 45, 46 

expense, 45 
Diaphragm pump, see Pump, 

diaphragm 
Dies, 1660 

Diesel, see Gas engine 
Direct cost, 7, 56 
Distillate. 624. 1289 
Distribution charges, 489 
Distribution cost, 63, 66, 69, 80, 
258 
lines, 696 

system. 707, 806, 878, 911, 
922. 936, 1529 
life, 107 

per capita cost, 917 
underground, 964 
Ditch, 74 
Diversity factor. 62, 63, 64, 68, 

77, 781 
Dividends, 31. 44 
Docks, life, 107 
Dodge storage system, 345 
Doors, 192 

Draft (.'•ee Chimney, see Fan, 
see Blower), 415, 419, 777 
mechanical, 218, 220, 413, 568, 
587 
Drafting equipment, 1676 
Drains, life, 107 
Drav.bridge, power, 1112 
Drawings, structural steel, 188 
Drill. 1532, 1651. 1652 
press. 1661, 1664 
rock, 1139, 1150, 1153 
Drying, 447 
Duct,. see Conduit 
Dutch oven, 420 
Duty, see Pump duty 
Dyeing, 447 
Dynamo, see Generator 

Earnings. 31 
Ears, 1565 

Economic efficiency, 4, 5 
Economizer, 218, 568, 573. 577, 
587, 773. 777, 818, 843, 
849, 1561 

installing. 843 

life, 107 
Efficiency, 64, 406. 707, 1336 

compara,tive, 483 

economic, 4. 5 

investment, 483 

thermal, 479 



Ejector, 595 

Electric apparatus, installing, 
248 
arc, cutting, 169 5 
conduit, see Conduit 
drill, 1170 

drive, 443, 459, 490i {lO-g?, 
1099, 1106, 1107, 1111, 
1120, 1124, 1129 
generator, see Generator 
heating, see Heating 
lighting, see Lighting 
machinery, installing, 254, 

256 
motor, see Motor 
plant depreciation, 118 
labor, 507 
maintenance, 118 
repairs, 118, 125 
power, see Power, electric, 

and Power, steam 
railway, see Railway 
rates, 1124 
shovel, see Shovel 
weight, 271, 276 
wiring, see Wiring 
Electrical machinery, 844 
Electricity (see Power, elec- 
tric), 1434 
Electro-magnet, 1396, 1705 
Electrostatic ground detector, 

849 
Elevator, 155, 473, 476, 1188, 
1221, 1231, 1340 
bucket. 1355 to 1362 
freight, 1416 
passenger. 1406 to 1419 
Emery stand, 1662 
Employees, see Labor 
Energy (see Power), 741 
Engine (see also Gas engine, 
see Oil engine), 201, 317, 
390, 453, 494, 516, 520, 
538, 539, 564, 565, 568, 
569, 574, 575, 577, 587, 
588, 589, 591, 622, 627, 
629, 631, 633, 638, 644, 
652, 770, 777, 809, 811, 
815, 819, 825, 826, 831, 
842, 845, 1102, 1214, 
1218, 1221, 1269. 1310, 
1311, 1431, 1559, 1561 
building, see Buildings 
Diesel,- see Gas engine 
depreciation, 107, 117. 438, 511 
efficiency, 292. 388, 1101 
floor space, 278, 440 
foundation, 252, 264, 286, 568, 

575, 590 
gas, see Gas engine 
hoisting, 1401 
house, see Building 
installing, 252, 262, 286, 590 
life, see Engine depreciation 
manufacturing, 1653 
moving, 287 
oil, see Oil engine 
weight, 845 



1722 



INDEX 



Engine, turbine (see also Turbo- 
generator), 208, 268, 444. 
452, 453, 494, 532, 534, 
538, 544, 548, 551 565, 
612, 613 614, 617. 622, 
623, 644, 675, 747, 748, 
795, 811, 812, 841, 842, 
843, 847, 1269, 1305 
depreciation. 111, 117, 511 
floor space, 440 
installing, 265 
weights, 612 
Engineering (see also Overhead 

cost), 1, 5, 17, 326 
Equated, annual cost, 34, 37 

repairs, 61 
Equipment, see Car, see Power 
plant 
electrical, life, 107 
installation, 212 
shop, life, 107 
Erecting, see Installing 
Etching tools, 1679 
Evaluation, see Valuation, see 

Appraisal 
Evaporation tests, 300 
Excavation, 74, 156, 187, 200, 
202, 208, 212, 599, 828, 
843 972, 994, 1129, 1177, 
1323, 1526, 1541, 1547, 
1573, 1590 
Exciter, 209, 261, 703, 809, 810, 
819, 821, 835, 843, 854, 
860, 1096 
installing, 262, 266, 289, 835 
weight, 854, 1096 
Exhaust heads, 59 2 

heat, see Heat, exhaust 
pipe, 210 
Exhauster, 107, 1188, 1194, 

1195, 1230, 1475 
Expense, 64 .» 

Extractors, life, 107 • 

Factory, 153, 154, 155, 165, 169 

illumination, see Lighting 
Fair return rate, 34, 41, 64 
Fan (see also Ventilation, see 
Blower), 266. 270, 415, 
1431, 1474, 1662 
Farm machinery, 1111, 1712 
Feed grinder, 1713 

heater, see Feed water heater 
piping, see Piping 
pump, see Pump, feed 
Feeder arm, iron, 954 
system, see Railway 
Feed water heater, 107, 108, 
568, 574, 575, 583, 589, 
592, 593, 810. 823, ll87, 
1220, 1232, 1559 
meter, see Meter, water 
pump, see Pump, feed 
regulator, 849, 869 
Fence, 107, 1186, 1204, 1528 
Fibre duct, see Conduit 
Filter, installing, 263 
Fire alarm, 254 



Firebrick, 198 

Fish plate, see Track 

Fixed charges, 3, 31, 64, 150, 
221, 317, 328, 368, 370, 
387, 390, 391, 406, 420, 
430, 435, 438, 442, 443, 
449, 452, 455, 458, 465, 
470, 475, 488, 517. 520, 
523, 532, 534, 536, 541, 

544, 547, 552, 561, 563, 
618, 625, 626. 628, 631, 
634, 659, 663, 675, 677, 
678, 679, 686, 695,. 746, 
763, 772, 797, 808, 810, 
811, 822, 912, 915, 938, 
984, 1102, 1305, 1315, 
1361, 1480, 1512, 1513. 

Fixed cost, 67, 740 

Flight conveyor, see Conveyor 
flight 

Floor, 193, 206, 279, 831 

Floor lines, 700 
pipes, 703 

Flue, 199, 567, 575, 586 

Flume 723 

Forced draft, see Draft 

Forging machine, 1654, 1663 

Foundation, 199, 212, 260, 264, 
281, 283, 317, 511, 574, 
577, 584, 601, 651, 770, 
810, 812, 814, 821, 823, 
826, 828, 834, 838, 842, 
843, 848, 849 
machinery, life, 107, 809 
removed, 289 

Foundry, 1106, 1166 

Franchise value, 40, 45, 46 

Free air (see also Compressor), 
1144 

Freight car, see Car 
rates, 1676 

Friction, coefficient, 1336 

Frog, see Track 

Fuel (see also Coal, see Heat- 
ing, see Gas, see Oil), 
291, 498, 524, 539, 543, 

545, 624, 636, 742, 786, 
788, 808, 1330, 1433 

analysis, 500 

economizer, see Economizer 
gasoline, see Gasoline 
handling (see also Coal 

handling), 359 
heat value, 292, 298, 388, 501. 

1192 
oil, machinery (see Oil), 108 
Full cost rate, 64 
Functional depreciation, see De- 
preciation functional 
life, 113 
Furnace (see also Boiler, see 
Stoker), 144, 264, 379, 
610. 1434 

Furniture, life, 107 ^ 

Fuse, 1566 

Gage, 1647 
altitude, 1648 



INDEX 



1723 



Gag-e g-1 asses, 591 

i-ecording-, 1647 
Gains, see Pole 
Gallons, 1327 

Gas, 292, 304, 315, 316, 325, 
329, 495, 504, 518 to 537, 
652, 1182, 1193, 1222, 
1434, 1713 

apparatus, 792, 1186 

benches, life, 105, 1185, 1186, 
1195 

blast furnace, 531 

cake oven, 531 

filled lamp, see Lamp, nitrog^en 

fuel, 324 

generator - (see also Gas pro- 
ducer), 1186, 1213, 1217, 
1221 

heat value, 616 
valve, 79 3 

holder. 1185, 1189, 1194, 1196, 
1219, 1221. 1230 

holder, life, 108 

lighting-, 617, 1034, 1035, 
1043, 1045, 1058 

mains, see Pipe 

machinery, 327 

machine's life, 107 

oil, 1183, 1204 

pipe, see Pipe 

plant, 504, 527, 1182, 1193, 
1208, 1214^, 1215, 1219, 
1232, 1233, 1234 to 1240 

producer, 471, 529, 538, 616, 

617, 625, 630, 634, 638, 
640, 643, 645, 648 to 655, 
826, 1331 

depreciation, 511 
floor space, 647, 648 

power plant (see also Gas en- 
gine), 481, 535, 542, 616, 
617 

purifiers, 109, 1187, 1194, 
1196, 1218, 1230. 1559, 

scrubber, 110, 1187, 1194, 
1195, 1217, 1230 

service, life, 107 

sets, 1194. 1195. 1221, 1229 

wa.«her, 111, 1194, 1195, 1217 

water, 1183 
Gas engine (see- also Gasoline 
engine, see Oil engine), 
49t, 518, 519, 521, 530, 
566, 617, 620 to 6''5 628, 
630, 634 to 636, 641 to 

618, 651 to 656, 660, 6.65, 
666, 790, 811, 826, 1197, 
1263, 1266, J310, 1312, 
1502, 

depreciation, 107, 511 
Diesel, 331, 333. 496. 518, 
532, 534, 538, 558. .620, 
621, 667, 670 to 682 1269, 
1290, 1291. 1514 
efficiency. 1313. 1331 
floor space, 648, 649. 831 
operation, 1266, 1308, 1313 
plant, 550 



Gas eng-ine, repairs, 664 

semi-Diesel, 670 
Gasoline. 292, 316, 620, 624, 
1280 
engine, 621, 638, 1287, 1289, 
1299, 1318 
efficiency, 1316 
fuel, 1316 

operating, 1287, 1300, 1301, 
1316 
power, 541 
Gate valve, see Valve, gate 
General expense (see also Over- 
head cost), 64, 513 
Generator, 75, 272, 532, 627 to 
636, 652, 696, 702, 703, 
770, 809, 813, 819, 825, 
826, 842, 845, 847, 856, 
859, 860, 1042, 1178, 1559, 
1561 
depreciation, 117, 511 
efficiency, 505, 705, 707 
gas, see Gas generator 
installing, 252, 257, 262, 266, 

286, 289, 1072 
weight, 276, 845, 856 
Gin, cotton, 1124, 1126 
Girder, 191 
Going cost, 40, 45 

concern value, 40, 45 
value. 45 
Good will, 40, 45 
Governor, 591, 1188, 1190, 1194, 
1232 
gas, life, 108 
Grading, see Excavation 
Grate (see also Boiler, see 
Stoker), 1433 
area, 419 
Gravel plant, power, 1129 
Grease cups. 1649 
Grinder, 1661 
Grinding- corn. 1111 
Grindstone, 1652, 1663 
Grops operating earnings, 31 
Ground, see Land 
Grubbing-, 1527 

Guy (see also Pole), 894, 895, 
920, 926. 934, 943 
anchors, 950 
clamp, 937, 955 
pole, see Pole 
rod.s, 950 
stringing, 893 
thimbles, 9 37 
wire, see Wire 



Hack saw, 1653, 1663 
Hammer, see Air hammer 

belt. 1661 

steam, 1661 
Hangers (see also Trolley), 

1530. 1567 
Hardware (see also Pole), J52, 

947 
Hauling, 245, 880 
Hay baler, 1713 



1724 



INDEX 



Hazard (see also Insurance), 

42 
Head g-uys, see Guys 
Head works, 74 
Heat exhaust, 439 
radiation, 1449 
value, see Fuel 
Heater, see Feedwater heater 
Heater, electric, 1455 

hot- water, 1455 

Heating-, 151, 155, 174, 206, 446, 

454, 469, 472, 478, 517, 

519, 603, 828, 1421 to 

1458, 1476, 1478, 1713 

electric, 1450 to 1459, 1463 to 

1473 
steam, 131, 600 
Hoist, 1141, 1163, 1340 

electric, 1403, 1405, 1419, 
1661, 1663 
Hoisting-, 1166 
engine, 1141 
mine, 1401, 1402 
water, 1398 
Holder, see Gas holder 
Hole, see Poles 
Horses, 1191 

life, 108 
Horsepower hours, 487 

indicated, 386 
Hose, 1648 
Hot air, see Heating- 
Hotwater heating, see Heating 
Hotwater heat, 131 
Hot- well, 834 
House, see Building- 
Hydrant, life, 108 
Hydraulic jack, 1648 
plant, see Water power 
ram, 1253 
Hydro-compressor, 1177, 1178 
Hydro-electric (see also Water 
power), 448, 489, 701, 
plant, 62, 73, 77, 684 to 688, 
692, 695 to 697, 700, 702, 
703, 705, 706 
power, 455 
operating cost, 76 
overhead cost, 20 



Ice, 1480 to 1516 

making-, 1421 

storag-e, 1498, 1502 
Identical plant theory, 104 
Illumination, see Lighting 
Impulse wheel, see Waterwheel 
Inadequacy, 82 

Indicated horespower, 386, 486 
Indicator, 1648 
Indirect expense, 66 
Induced draft, see Draft 
Induction regulator, 937 
Industrial economics, 5 
Ingot copper, 853 
Injector, 583, 589, 594, 595, 

tank; 568 
Insulation, see Pipe covering 



Insulators, 75, 836, 924, 926, 
933, 934, 937, 939, 940, 
943, 946, 947, 956, 957, 
1529, 1530, 1565, 1597, 
1599 
suspension type, 956 
weight, 956, 957 

Insurance, 36, 59, 171, 221, 310, 
317, 384, 465, 475, 512, 
520, 541, 626, 677, 746, 
o50 
liability, 229, 1590 

Intangible, 40 
cost, 45 
value, 45 

Interest (see also Overhead 
cost), 11, 32, 36, 39, 41, 
46, 65, 512 

Internal combustion engine (see 
Gas engine, see Gasoline 
eng-ine, see Oil engine), 
616 

Interurban railway, see Railway 

Installing- machinery, 245 

Investment, 488 
efficiency, 483 

Iron pole, see Pole 

Iron work, 1473 

Ironing, 1473 

Irrig-ation pumping (see also 
Pumping-), 1314, 1315 

Jack, 1648 

Japanning- oven, 1713 

Jet condenser, see Condenser 

Joints, see Track 

Jolting, 1163 

Kauffman, lighting, 1059 
Kelvin's law, 911, 915 
Kerosene, 620, 624, 1035 
Kilo volt ampere, 488 
Kilowatt, 65, 387 
hour, 65, 487 

Labor, see the item in question 
Lagging, see Pipe covering 
Lag screws, 950 
Lamp (see also Lighting), 1060 

arc, 105, 776, 1046 to 1049, 
1053, 1054, 1056, 1058 .. 

candle-power, 1023 

carbon, 1062 

choice of, 1030 

Cooper Hewitt, 1056 

depreciation, 1026. 1039, 1041, 
1042 

dimensions, 1025 

flame-arc,' 1047 

gas (see also Gas), 1048 

incandescent, 776 

kerosene, 1035, 1059 

luminous-arc, 1050, 1051, 1053 

Mazda, 1061 

nitrogen, 1031, 1040, 1042 

outlet, 1063, 1065 

pole, see Poles, lamp 

Thoran, 1050 



INDEX 



1725 



Lamp,- tung-sten, 1031, 1033, 

1038, 1056 
Land (see alao Right of way), 
387, 548, 568, 647, 760, 
771, 816 
Lathe, 1532, 1650, 1661, 1662, 

1664 
Lead, 951, 1666 

Life (see also Depreciation), 
112 
composite, 115 
table of plant units, 104 
Light, see Lamp, see Lighting 
Lighting (see also Gas lighting, 
see Lamp), 206, 520, 776, 
1023, 1025, 1036, 1043, 
1055, 1629 
arc, see Lamp, Arc 
current requirements, 1027 
fixtures, street, 849 
gas, see Gas 
incandescent, see Lamp 
load, 555, 556 
pole, see Pole 
street (see also Lamp), 774, 

1038 to 1040, 1046 
various systems, 1033 
Lightning arresters, 829, 843, 
844, 849, 850, 937, 950, 
963, 1042, 1531, 1532, 
1565 
weight, 850 
Lignite, see Coal 
Lime, 425, 1115 
Line losses, 65. 912, 915 
shaft (see Shaft), 1089 
transformer, see Transformer 
Link belts, 1080 
Load, 62, 73, 553, 1707 
Load factor, 4, 55. 62, 65, 67, 
76, 77, 80, 382, 388, 389, 
408, 442, 444, 487, 497, 
524, 525, 527, 555, 556, 
562, 636, 663, 672, 678, 
742, 744, 748, 758, 779, 
781, 786, 792, 793, 808, 
811, 1109, 1116, 1119, 
1126, 1128, 1129, 1271 to 
1273, 1489, 1707 
Load, peak, 408 
Loading, 245 
Loading charges, see Overhead 

cost 
Locomotive, 1533 

crane. 365, 368, 370, 373, 1370, 

1384 
coaling station, 354, 356, 358, 

359 
fuel, 319 

l.ife, 108. 115, 134 
repairs, 140 
Lubricator, 1649 
Lubricating oil, 1650 
Lumber, handling, 1384 

Machine 1163 
oT^erations, 1656 
shop, 177, 1099 



Machine shop tools, 1650, 1658, 
1661 
works, 1120 
Machinery, see the item in ques- 
tion 
foundations, see Foundations 
hauling, 245 
installing, 212 
shop, life, 108 
Magnesia, 1438 

Magnet, see Electro-magnet / 

Mains, see Pipe 
Maintenance (see also Repairs), 

65, 84 to 88 
Manhole, 80, 853, 973, 987, 991, 
995 
brick, 1004, 1006 
concrete, 1005 
wooden, 987 
Manufacturing implements, 

1116, 1119 
Marble, 866, 867 
Marine equipment, life, 126 
Masonry, 131, 187, 847 
Mazda, see Lamp 
Mechanical draft, see Draft 
Messenger strand (see also 

Wire), 963 
Meter, electric. 78, 79, 81, 696, 
787, 841, 848, 1065, 1194, 
1196. 1532 
electric, depreciation, 78, 108 
diversity, 64 
efficiency. 707 

installing, 256, 262, 841, 849 
repairs, 258 
gas, 1187, 1190, 1203, 1211, 

1217, 1218, 1222, 1231, 
life, 108 

oil, 1232, 1650 

steam, 460, 849 

volt, 861, 862 

watt,. 849, 863, 864 

water, 108, 568, 843, 1232 
Methyl alcohol, 624 
Mill, see Building 

board, 1645 
Milling equipment installing, 262 

machines, 1652 
Minimum rate, 72 
Mining plant, 1138 

pumps, see Pump 
Molding machines, 1078, 1167 
Motor, 267, 269, 270, 468, 694, 
845, 1079. 1093, 1102, 
1103, 1106,. 1131, 1197, 

1218, 1309, 1310, 1413, 
1414, 1588, 1661 to 1663 

alternator, 845 

drive, see Electric drive 

installing, 257 

life, 108 

repairs, 141 

rewinding, 624 

spirits, 624 

weight, 276, 845, 1093, to 

1095 
wiring, 253 



1726 



INDEX 



Motor generator, 209, 259, 261, 
271, 821, 855, 1531 

efficiency, 707 

installing, 214, 252, 257, to 
262, 289, 1075, 1103 

weight, 855 
Motor cycles, 1191 
Motor truck, 1396 
Mortar, 193, 194 
Mortising machine, 1662 
Mule-back transportation, 247 

Natural depreciation, see De 
preciation, natural. 

draft, see Draft. 

gas, 292, 500, 531, 619 

life, 113 

net earnings, 31 
Nitrogen lamp, see Lamp 
Non-physical, 40 
Normal return, 33 
Nut tapper, 1653 

Oat Crusher, 1713 
Obsolescence (see also Depre- 
ciation), 82 
Office building, see Building 
Oil, 329, 482, 500, 506, 563, 638, 
671, 675, 676 
burning system 317 
cylinder, 627, 791 
engine, 332, 496, 516, 518, 
532, 621, 622, 628, 630, 
633, 635, 652, 669, 670, 
671, 673, 674, 677, 682, 
791, 826, 1270, 1285, 
1307 
fuel, 292, 319, 326, 500, 506, 

559, 1713 
gas, see Gas 
heater, 1221 
lubricating, 627, 679 
production, 336 
pump, 1218, 1270 
separator, 568, 605 
switch, see Switch 
system, 265, 267 
tank, 326, 532 
Operating charge, 488 

expense, 31, 65, 86 
Ordinary maintenance, 86 
Oro Electric Co. Power Plant, 

73 
Outlet (see Lamp outlet), 1071 

boxes. 1076 
Output cost, 65, 66 
Overhead cost (see Fixed 
charge). 7, 22, 31, 75, 
250, 489, 681, 813, 828, 
838, 839, 1185, 1192, 1194, 
1210, 1216, 1220, 1520, 
1538. 1548, 1554, 1556, 
1559, 1590, 1616 
equipment, life (see Trolley), 
108, 109 
Overhead line, see Distribution, 
Pole, Transmission, Wire, 
etc. 



Oxy -acetylene, 1696 to 1705 

Packing, 1650 
Paint, 152, 923 
sprays, 1163 
Painting, 137, 155. 208, 209, 210, 
213, 214, 602, 828, 837, 
839, 1160, 1198, 1679 
pipe, 1200 to 1202 
pole, see Pole 
Panel, see Switchboard panel 
Paper Calender, see Calender 
Pavement. 975, 986, 1006, 1189, 
1222, 1228, 1519, 1527, 
1555, 1590 
excavation (see also Excava- 
tion), 1590 
life, 109 
relaying, 1226 
repairing openings, 988 
Peak load, 65, 408, 490. 744 
or demand theory, 70 
ratio to capacity (see Load 
factor), 742 
Peat (see Coal), 304, 495 
Pelton, see Waterwheel 
Penstock, 74, 696, 700, 703, 710, 
715, 718, 738 
economical diameter, 724 
efficiency, 707 
steel, weight, 713, 714 
woodstove, 723 
Petroleum, see Oil, see Gasoline 
Physical, 40 

efficiencv, 479 
Piles, 179, 1528 

steel, cutting, 1695 
Pins, 836, 924, 926, 939, 943, 

954, 1564 
Pipe (see also Piping), 210, 600, 
844. 850, 978, 1177, 1185, 
1189, 1190, 1198, 1200, 
1201, 1202, 1210, 1216, 
1218, 1221 to 1227 1431 
brass, 1664 

cast iron (see also Pipe), 1666 
covering. 287, 568, 569, 577, 
579, 842, 843, 1431, 1436, 
1437. 1438 
economics, 724, 1332, 1338 
friction heads, 713 
gas, 108, 130 
laying. 1157 
lead, 1666 
leakage, 603 
life, 109, 722 

machine, 1652, 1653, 1664 
riveted. 1665 
sewer, 603 

steam (see also Piping), 1438 
steel (see also Penstock), 74, 

720, 731 
water. 111, 210, 600, 602 
welding. 1696, 1697 
wood, 74. 718, 719. 731, 736, 

1669, 1672 
wood, decay, 722 
wood, life, 143 



INDEX 



1727 



Pipe, wrought iron (see Pipe), 

1664 
Piping. 152, 209, 287, 420, 532, 
538, 568, 569, 574, 575, 
577, 583, 598, 599, 601, 
602, 603, 651, 652, 777, 
809, 810, 819, 823, 826, 
835, 842, 843, 1101, 1185, 
1189, 1197, 1214, 1217, 
1221, 1265, 1432, 1502, 
1559, 1561 
labor, 215, 263, 770 
life, 109 
Piston pump, see Pump 
Placing, see Installing 
Planer, 1106, 1662 
Plant, alternative. 36, 46 
Plant capacity, see Capacity 
charge (see Fixed charge), 

523 
factor (see Capacity factor), 

742 
location, 38 
retiring, old, 102 
unit. 65, 82, 83, 118 
Plastering, 130 
Plate. 1675 

girder, 191 
Plumbing, 134, 152, 155, 164, 

174, 1478 
Plunger pump,, see Pump 
Pneumatic tools, see Air tools 
hammer, see Air hammer 
conveyor, see Conveyor 
Pond, 429 

cooling, 427, 433, 434 
Pondage. 491 

Pole, 78. 836, 840, 848, 878, 881, 
888, 903, 933, 934, 935, 
937. 940, 946, 949. 1529, 
1564. 1591, 1595. 1596, 
1604, 1606. 1607, 1610, 
1613, 1615, 1618 
concrete, 887, 895. 896, 898, 

902 to 905, 908 
concrete, bases, 885 
concrete reinforcement, 887 
creosoting, 884, 891, 934 
dapping, 9 22 

depreciation, 109. 885, 888 
erecting, see Pole setting 
erector, 890 
gaining, 880, 936 
guying (see also Guy). 883, 

919, 935. 936 
hardware, 9 46 
hauling, 247. 889. 916, 922 
holes. 881, 882, 883, 916, 922, 

9 t6 
iron, 883. 909, 910, 942, 943, 

1561, 1615. 1617 
joint construction. 887 
lamp. 848, 905, 907, 1051, 

1053. 1058 
line, 916, 922, 926, 930, 937 
line, telegraph, 9 25 
telephone, 924. 926 
transmission, 75 



Pole, painting, 840, 841, 881, 889 

raising, see Pole setting 

rights, 943 

roofing, 880 

setting. 881, 882, 883, 889, 
890, 891, 918. 922, 924, 
926, 934, 942, 950 

shaving, 880, 883, 889 

stenciling, 882 

stepping, 881, 883 

steel, see Pole, iron 

telephone, 900 

tops, 1564 

treating (see Pole creosot- 
ing), 884 

trolley, 897, 904 

weight 879, 880, 891 
Political economy, 5 
Post lamp, see Pole, Lamp 
Powdered coal, see Coal 

powdered 
Powder, 379, 382, 385, 390, 395, 
405, 430, 435, 436, 441, 
443, 451, 452, 457, 477, 
478, 528, 539, 542, 543, 
544. 564, 572, 577, 1101 

apartment house, 474 

coal mines, 472 

efficiencies, 479. 481, 482 

electric, 439, 452, 470, 487, 
497. 523, 525, 542, 544, 
547, 553 632, 637, 651, 
653, 654 661, 666, 667, 
672, 677, 681, 682, 687, 
695, 696, 705, 707, 740, 
746, 748, 754, 757, 762, 
. 763, 765, 771. 772, 774. 
775, 779, 780, 781, 782, 
786, 787, 788, 808, 811, 
1327 

factor, 468, 487, 800 

gas, see Gas 

gasoline (see Gasoline), 544 

house (see Building), 75, 
197, 207, 264, 317, 695 

load factor, 383 

mill, 465 

piping, see Piping 
Power plant (see also Pump- 
ing), 200, 207, 383. 405, 
408, 444, 514, 527. 547. 
560, 563, 564, 573, 574, 
627, 702. 740, 766. 772, 
812, 813, 814, 815, 817, 
820, 821. 823. 825, 826, 
834, 1119, 1512. 1558, 
1561 

depreciation, 459. 511 

labor, 507. 750. 751, 756. 761, 
76?, 763, 765, 786, 788, 
790, 793, 810. 811 

life. 109 

load, 553 

repairs, 438. 511 

scraper, see Scraper 

transformers, see Transform- 
ers 

water, see Water power 



1728 



INDEX 



Pump, 208, 209, 267, 269, 604, 
770, 809, 810, 820, 823, 
842, 848, 1130, 1142, 1162, 
1175, 1188, 1196, 1198, 
1218, 1230, 1231, 1241, 
1248, 1249, 1251, 1252, 
1253, 1256, 1259, 1264, 

1266, 1268, 1293, 1297, 
1304, 1305, 1322, 1329, 
1559 

boiler, see Pump, feed 

brine, 1498 

centrifugal, 604, 1243, 1244, 
1251 

circulating, 209, 268 

depreciation, 109, 113, 114, 511 

diaphragm, 1247 

dredging, 1244, 1245 

duty, 1256. 1258, 1269 

efficiency 1254, 1262, 1294, 
1331 

electric, 1317 

feed 261, 267, 604, 568, 574, 
575, 577, 583, 589, 819, 
842. 1101, 1220, 1249, 
1250, 1251 

feed, installing, 265 

feed, weight, 1249, 1250 

foundation, 264 

hand, 1246 

house (see Building), 214 

installing, 214, 262, 265, 266 

losses, see Pump efficiency 

oil, 1218, 1270 

operating, see Pumping 

pit, 200 

pulsometer, 1244, 1246 

ram, 1253 

repairs, 1258 

rotary, fire, 1251 

sand, 1244 

suction, 1247 

vacuum, 209, 265, 268 

waterworks, 1293, 1296 

weight, 1248 

Pumping (see also Pump, see 

Power), 624, 695, 766, 

1241, 1253, 1257, 1258, 

1260, 1262, 1263, 1264. 

1267, 1269, 1271 to 1294 
■ 1296 to 1299, 1300 to 1314, 

1316 to 1321, 1324, 1325 
to 1327, 1328 to 1331 

draining. 1323 

electric 1262, 1264, 1314, 1319 

engine, see Pump 

gas-engine, 1263, 1266 

gasoline, 1287, 1299, 1318 

irrigation, 1322, 1330 ■ 

mine, 1327 

oil, 1270, 1307 

oil engine, 1285 

plant (see also Pump), 207, 
248, 1266, 1268 

power required, 1294 

stations. 1261. 1271 
Press, hydraulic wheel, 1662 
Pressure blower, see Blower 



Pressure gage, see Gage 

pipe, see Penstock 
Price, defined, 6 
Prime mover (see Engine, see 

Water wheel, etc.), 819 
Prime mover, weight, 273 
Producer, see Gas producer 
Production cost, 65, 66, 67, 77 
Profit, 326 

defined, 6, 33, 41, 65 

normal, 43 
Proprietary supervision, 41 
Prorating, 55, 57, 66 
Pulley, 1079, 1082 
Pulsometer, see Pump, pulso- 
meter 
Pulverizing Machinery, 327 

mill, 310 
Punch, 1663 
Purifier, see Gas purifier 

Radiation, 1429 

Rail (see also Track), 1527, 
1574 

bender, 1662 

bonds, Track bonding 

cutter, 1661, 1662 

grinding 1644 

guard, see Track special 

joints, see Track 

welding. 1687, 1692 
Railing, 1197 

Railway (see also Track), 1517 
to 1644 

Chicago, 1553 

contact-rail, 1643 

Detroit, 1554, 1589 

elevated, 1641 

gravity, 1378 

labor, 756 

load, 558 
Ram, hydraulic, 1253 
Rammer, sand, 1167 
Ransom e storage system, 349 
Rate, 66 

electric current, 62 

fair return, 34, 41, 64 

fuel cost, 64 
Rated minimum capacity, 408, 

487 
Rational depreciation formula, 

98 
Real diversity, 66 
Real estate, see Land 
Reamers, 1660 
Receiver, see Air receiver 
Reciprocating engine, see Engine 
Recorder, 848 
Recording gage. 1647 
Recovery valve, 92 
Rectifiers, 255 
Reel, 1008, 1010 
Reflector, 1032 

Refrigeration (see also Ice), 
1421, 1486 to 1489, 1496, 
1498, 1502 

skating rink, 1510 to 1516 
Register, 1432 



INDEX 



1729 



Regulator, 257, 849, 1190 
pressure, 1211 

Regulating apparatus, 75 

Reinforced concrete, see Con- 
crete ; see Building ; see 
Pole 

Reliability factor, 442 

Renewal (see Repair, see De- 
preciation), 87, 118 
expense, 85 

Rent, 148, 513 

Repair (see also Depreciation), 
35, 66, 82, 85, 87, 118, 
311, 317, 358. 363, 364. 
368, 369, 370, 373, 378, 
438, 444, 466. 475, 511, 
519, 520, 534, 541, 625, 
626, 655, 664, 668, 669, 
678, 682, 683, 686, 694, 
695, 720, 746, 748, 755, 
758, 760, 763, 771, 772, 
775, 778, 779. 780, 783. 
786, 787. 788, 789, 791, 
792, 797, 810. 811, 1054, 
1101, 1119, 1208, 1258, 
1290, 1293, 1305, 1322, 
1419, 1450, 1451, 1489 

Reserve capacity, see Spare 
units 

Reservoir (see Pond), 213, 1189 
life, 109 

Retiring old plant, 58 

Return on investment, 33, 34, 41, 
44, 64 

Right of way, 38. 696, 838, 9397 
940. 946, 947, 1536 

Riprap, 1528 

Risk insurance, 41, 42 

Rivet, 191 

Riveting, 205. 1171, 1173, 1175, 
1657, 1711 

Roof, 130. 164, 192, 201, 206, 
208, 215, 1675 

Roof trusses, 188, 205 

Roofing (see Poles), 828 

Roll bending, 1663 

Rolling stock, see Car 

Rone. 1380. 1672 
drive, 467, 1091 

Rotary converter, 777, 829 
life, 110 
pump, see Pump, rotary 

Rubber, 1079 

Rubble masonry, 187 

Sacrifice cost, 7 
Sag, see Wire sag 
Salvage value. 59, 93 
Sand blast, 1168, 1169, 1681 

sifter, 1168 
Sanding machine, 1662 
Saw, 1106, 1175, 1652, 1653, 

1662. 1663. 1664, 1713 
Scnl-s. 1231, 1673 

platform. 1673 

track. 1673 
Scow, life. 126 

repairs, 127 



Scrap value, 60, 93 

Scraper, power, 1130 

Scrapping a plant, 58 

Screen, 1130, 1168 

Screw jack, 1649 

Scrubber, see Gas scrubber 

Secondary power, 455 

Second-hand value, 60, 92 

Semaphore. 1628 

Semi-Diesel, see Gas engine, 

semi-Diesel 
Separate plant, theory of pro- 
rating, 51 
Separators (see Oil separator, 
see Steam separator), 601 
Service, 81, 1226 

boxes, 978, 979 

connection, 78, 983 
life. 110 

cost, 66. 70 

depreciation, 78 

entrance, 1065 

expense, 79 " , 

gas, 1190, 1202, 1217, 1227 

value, 9 3 
Setting up, see Installing 
Sewer, 130, 972 

system, 600 
Shaft. 571, 1079, 1080, 1103 

friction, 1086, 1089 

hangers, 1081 
Shaving, see Poles 
Shears, 1652, 1662, 1663 
Sheets, 1675 
Ships, life, 125, 126 

fuel for, 320. 333 
Shipbuilding, 1170 
Shoe factory, 4 69 
Shop, see Building 
Shovel, electric, 1114, 1129 
Shredding. 1112 
Shunt. 870 
Sidewalk, 1186 
Sign, electric, 1712 
Signals, 110, 254, 1627 
Sinking fund. 69 4 

formula, 92. 101 
Slate, 866, 867 
Slashing, 447 

Sliding scale, dividends, 44 
Slugs, see Anchors 
Smelter chimney, 207, 226 
Soda ash, 425 

Span wire, see Trolley, overhead 
Spare units, 406, 522, 540, 565, 

697, 810 
Special work, see Trolley, over- 
head 
Spikes, see Track 
Splicing, see Cable, splicing 

chambers, 978, 979 
Sprinkler .system, 174, 206, 1432 
Stack, see Chimney 
Stairs, 164, 193 
Stamn mill, 262 
Stamping machine, 1662 
Standby units, see Spare units 
Standpipe, 110, 1298 



1730 



INDEX 



station, see Building 
diversity, 64 
load, 66 

load, factor, 66, 67 
Steam, see Power, steam 
Steam boiler, see Boiler 
blower, 221 
cleaners, 586 

condenser, see Condenser 
consumption, 411 
eng-ine, see Engine 
exhaust, 445, 457, 848 
fitting", see Piping 
hammer (see also Hammer), 

1663 
heating, see Heating 
injector, see Injector 
meter, 460, 849 
metered, 1443 
pipe, see Pipe, see Piping 
plant, see Power, see Boiler, 

see Engine 
power, see Power 
pump, see Pump 
separator, 568, 569, 606, 835 
superheater, see Superheater 
trap, 615 

turbine, see Engine, turbine 
underground, 1434 
valve, see Valve 
Steamship, see Ship 
Steel, see Belt, Building, Chim- 
ney, Cutting, Piling, Pipe, 
Pole, Tower 
structural, 1674 
work, 156 
Stoker, 410, 420, 538. 567, 606, 
607, 608, 610, 611, 773, 
815, 823, 842, 843, 849, 
1559, 1561 
installing, 248, 849 
life, 110 

repairs, 144, 609 , 

Stone crushing, see Crusher 

work, 131 
Storage, see Coal, storage 

battery, 128, 831, 851, 852, 
1532, 1563, 1708 
life, 105 

maintenance, 128 
weight, 851, 852 
Storage water (see Reservoir), 

491 
Store house, see Building 
Straight line formula, 92 
Strain clamp, see Clamp 
Strain insulator, see Insulator 
Strainer, 848 
Strand, see Wire 
Stream flow curve, 493 
Street lighting, see Lighting, 
street 
railway, see Railway 

power, see Power ' 

Stringing, see Wire 
Structural estimating, 188 
Swage block, 1663 
Switch, see also Track 



Switch, 812, 816, 843, 844, 848, 
870, 873, 937, 950, 1527, 
1531, 1532, 1566 
air-break, 939 
boxes, 1566 
installing, 844, 1076 
knife, 1629 
oil, 260, 872, 874, 939 
weight, 872 
wiring, 1064 
Switchboard, 75, 209, 213, 259, 
261, 652, 703, 777, 809, 
810, 819, 826, 829, 831, 
834, 838. 842, 848, 860, 
865, 867, 1042, 1559, 1562, 
1563 
depreciation, 110, 115, 511 
installing, 252, 834, 838, 1073, 

1075 
panels, 868, 869, 1531, 1532 
shunts, 870 
Substation, 75, 827, 830, 831, 
838 
diversity, 64 
Suction conveyor, see Conveyor, 
suction 
pump, see Pump, suction 
Superheat, 411, 412 
Superheater, 412. 538, 567, 611, 
612, 820. 842 
installing, 413 
Supervision, 10 
Supplies, 810 
Surfacer, 1664 
-Surge pipe, 74 
Surplus, 31 
Suspension eyes, 946 
Swingbridge, power, 1112 
Synchroscope, 863 

■Tank, 263, 1189, 1198, 1218, 
1219, 1232 

blow-off, 568 

gas (see Gas holder), 1187 

gas regulating, 646 

ice, 1497 

life, 110 

oil, 262, 326 

steel, installing, 262 
Taps, 1660 

Taping machine, 1663 
Tar, 314", 676 

extractor, 1187, 1194, 1196, 
1230 
Taxes, 79, 221, 317, 328, 384, 
444, 512, 541. 626, 677, 
746, 780, 783, 808, 1361 
Teams, 110, 119 
Telegraph line, 925, 1529 

life, 110 
Telephone, 75, 254, 1529 

conduit, see Conduit 

life, 110 

line, 838, 933, 1537 

pole, see Pole 

repair and depreciation, 125 

system, 1570 
Telpher, 361, 363 



INDEX 



1731 



Tempering, 1659 
Tenoning- machine, 1106, 1662 
Textile mills, power, 443 
Thawing explosives, 1471 

water pipes, 1469, 1712 
Therm-^l efficiency. 440, 1336 
Thermit process, 1689 to 1695 
Thresher, 1111, 1713 
Ties (see Track), 1527, 1574 

life, 111 

plates, see Track 

rods, see Track 
Tile, see Conduit 
Timber, 82g 
Time clock, 254 

stamp, 254 
Tin, 951 
Tipple, 188 
Tools, 1661 
Tool grinder, 1653 

life, 110 
Towboat, see Boat 
Tower, 75, 9 30, 940 

erecting, 941 

foundation, 930 

line, 927, 930 

steel, 932 to 935, 947, 949 
weight, 9 29, 941 

wooden, 9 44 
Track (see also Raihvay, Rail, 
Ties, etc.), 1539 to 1549, 
1573, 1576, 1590, 1604, 
1614 

ballast, 110, 1527 

bonds, 110, 1530, 1570, 1623, 
1633 to 1636 

crossings, life, 107 

fastening, life, 110 

frogs, 1527 

grinder, 1662 

joint, 7 

laying. 111, 1527, 1576 

special work. 111, 1549 to 
1552, 1575 
Trailer, 1398 
Tramway, 343 

Transformer. 75, 78. 80, 703, 797, 
803, 805, 829, 830, 831, 
839, 841, 844, 848, 849. 
850, 860, 873, 875, 876, 
877, 937. 940, 943, 1178, 
1531. 1532 

diversity, 64 

efficiency, 705, 707 

anstalling, 255 to 257. 289, 
802, 805, 839, 841, 875 

life. 111, 798, 799 

losses, 799 

rating, 802 

tower, 9 39 

truck, 208 

weight, 276, 877 
Transit, 1645, 1676 
Transmission charge, 489 

economics, 911 

efficiency, -i55. 705, 707 

line, 76, 697, 836, 878, 916, 
931, 934, 935, 939, 940, 



Transmission 

942. 944, 947, 948, 1178, 
1325, 1529, 1537, 1593 
life, 111 
underground, 964 
Treatment, see Creosoting, see 
Water purification, see Pole 
Trench (see Conduit), 980 
Trestle, 1528 

with pockets, 368 
Trimming conveyor, 345 

trees, 922 
Trolley (see Railway), 1594, 
1604, 1617, 1618 to 1628 
hanger, 1600 
overhead, 1564 to 1572, 1569, 
1591, 1594, 1606, 1608, 
1612, 1613, 1615 
life, 108 
Trolley pole, see Pole 
Truck, see Car 

motor, 1397 
Trucking, see Hauling 
True diversity factor, 67 
Trusses, 191 
Tube scraper, 586 
Tubular pole, see Pole, iron 
Tugs, fuel for, 321 
Tungsten, see Lamp 
Tunnel, 74, 208, 1528 
Turbine, see Engine, turbine ; see 

Waterwheel, turbine 
Turbo-alternators, 845 
Turbo-compressor, 1136 
Turbo-generator (see also En- 
gine, turbine), 260, 261, 
523, 613, 777, 809, 810, 
815. 819, 825, 833, 848, 
858, 860, 1561 
installing, 259, 834 
life. 111, 117 
weight, 85, 613, 
Turning machine, 1663 

Underground, see also Conduit 

cable, 839 

system, 964 
Underestimates, 16 
Unit co.st, 6, 52 

depreciation formula, 98 

price, 6 

wage, 6 
Unwatering, see Pumping, see 

Water hoisting 
Upkeep co.st, 82, 85, 118 

analysis, 88 
Useful life, 116 

Vacuum conveyor, 376 

Dump, see Pump 
Value, 6, 13, 37, 46, 59. 60, 92. 93 
Valve, 601, 603, 614, 709, 1677 

check, 842 

life. Ill 
Variable cost, 67. 740 
Vault (see Manhole), 970 

brick, 1003. 1006 

concrete, 1001, 1004 



1732 



INDEX 



Ventilation, 1421, 1429, 1431 

"Vessel, see Boat 

Vise, 1663 

Vitrified ducts, see Conduit 

Volt. 488 

Voltmeter, see Meter volt 

Wagon, 1191 
Warehouse, see Building 
Washer, see Gas washer 
Watchman station, 254 
Water, 627, 634, 655. 791 
boiler feed, 513, 52l 
condensing (see Steam Con- 
denser), 387 
gage, 1648 
gas, see Gas 
heating, see Heating 
hoisting, 1398 
meter, see Meter 
pipe, see Pipe 

power (see also Hydro-elec- 
tric), 447, 449, 453, 454, 
455, 482, 485, 490, 516. 
546, 552, 569, 685, 701, 
706, 1177 
value, 38, 75, 450, 491, 690 
proofing, 179 
purification, 605 
softening, 421, 422, 426 
storage, 823 * 

treating (see Water soften- 
ing), 423 
Waterwheel, 75, 695, 696, 700, 
703, 706. 709, 710 
efficiency, 707 
impulse, 271, 289, 709 
installing. 271, 289 
turbine. 111, 696, 705, 709 
weight, 709 
Waterwork, see Pump, see 

Pumping 
Wattmeter, see Meter 
Weatherproof wire, see Wire 
Wearing value. 93 
Weighted average, 14 
life, 115 
prices, 14 
Welding, electric. 1684 to 1689 
oxy-acetvlene, 1696 
thermit, 1689 



Well, 770, 1189, 1219, 1292, 1308, 
1323 
gas, life. 111 
pumping, 1308 
Welsbach burner, 1034 
Wende storage plant, 353 
Wharf, life. 111 

Wire (see also Cable), 78, 837, 
937. 939, 943, 946, 947, 
949, 983, 1529, 1530, 1532, 
1568 
aluminum, 853, 912, 958 
changing, 922 
copper, 937, 958, 959, 1569 
guy, 949 
life, 111 

pulling, 1069, 1074 
rope, life, 1370 
goo* 959 

strand, 934, 962, 963 
stranded, weight, 959 
stringing, 75, 883, 911, 912, 
921. 926, 934, 936, 943, 
946, 949, 1069 
telegraph, 925 
trolley, 9 63 
life. 111 
waste, 959 

weatherproof, 9 37, 958 
stranded weight, 960, 961 
weight, 937, 961 
Wiring, 130, 155, 174, 259, 261, 
262, 652, 771, 834, 841, 
1023, 1063, 1065, 1066, 
1068, 1069, 1071, 1073, 
1077. 1102 
lamps, 253 
life, 111 
Winding machine, 1663 
Windows, 19 3 
Wisconsin method, 46, 49 
Working capital, 1192 

cash capital, 119 4 
Wood pipe, see Pipe, wood 
Wood, fuel, 292, 1331 
poles, see Poles 
splitters. 1713 
working machinery, 1662 
tools. 1106 
Worth, 13 
Wrecking a plant, 288 



CODEX PAPERS 

Diagrammatic Methods of Computation and Graphic Methods of 
Presenting Facts have had probably as much influence on the ad- 
vancement of modern engineering practice as any of the modem de- 
velopments in the art. A curve is not half so terrifying as a formula 
to the " practical man," and it is ever so much more convenient to 
handle for anyone. 

In the practice of so called " efficiency engineering," it is essential 
to make so many computations that the cost thereof would be pro- 
hibitive, and the time necessary for the calculations would be so 
great as to destroy much of their value were it not for such spe- 
cial aids to this process as the slide rule, the adding machine and 
specially ruled plates of paper, of which cross section and profile 
sheets were the prototype. 

The Construction Service Company, of New York, conducted ex- 
tensive investigations with a view to developing standards that 
v/ould be most useful in the office and field for general engineering 
work, mechanical and civil, and also for "efficiency" engineering. 
Most of the plates on the market were found to possess defects that 
were not very apparent on preliminary inspection but which made 
them often inconvenient and sometimes impossible to use satisfac- 
torily in practice. For instance, the logarithmic paper to be had of 
dealers in drawing instruments lacked the digit numerals, so that 
before commencing to plot anything the sheets had to be numbered 
up. Now, a person thoroughly accustomed to use logarithmic paper 
can number it very readily, but at the best it takes time, while 
to anyone not familiar with it, or just beginning to use it, the num- 
bsring requires quite a little thought and time. A great deal of 
decimal cross section paper is used, principally in the 1/10" and 
millimeter rulings. The fact developed that for plotting cross sec- 
tions the 1/20" ruling was sufficiently accurate and much more con- 
venient, to say nothing of the first cost of the materials, than the 
ordinary 1/10" paper. The latter as ordinarily obtainable was on 
large, unwieldy sheets, too large for a correspondence file, and too 
small to file properly with standard tracings. The pink ink gen^ 
erally used was found much less satisfactory than an olive green, 
and it was thought advisable to use a paper that could easily be 
blue printed, pencil marks on the paper, as well as the rulings, be- 
ing clearly visible on the blue print. 

Two standard sizes of sheets, 8i^"xll" for the office, and 
4''/4"x7%" for field use were adopted. These may be Inserted in 
the ordinary loose leaf books, the larger size being that of the usual 
office letterhead, the otherd the size of an engineer's field book. 

This paper is made up into pads of 100 sheets each and the de- 

1733 



17.34 MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST DATA 

mand for it was so great that it has been placed upon the general 
market and several hundred industrial companies are now using 
these pads. 

Besides affording great savings in time and labor, this paper costs 
less than other papers on the market and much less than tracing 
cloth. 

The Construction Service Company, at 15 William Street, New 
"York, is prepared to fill orders by mail for these pads and will fur- 
nish samples and a descriptive booklet upon request. 

Address Supply Department, Construction Service Company, 15 
William Street, New York. 



REGULATION AND POWER LOSS CALCULATOR FOR 
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS 

A Device for This Purpose on the general plan of a circular slide 
rule but a good deal more complicated in its design has been worked 
out by Mr. Ralph U. Fitting, and has been employed in a consid- 
erable number of engineering offices with very satisfactory results. 
Almost any engineer, when confronted with an electric transmis- 
sion problem, must go to his text books for the theory and after 
spending an hour or two in calculation is apt to feel not quite sure 
of the results. This device enables the computations to be made in a 
very few moments in the same manner as a circular slide rule and is 
accurate within 1% for power delivered, to any amount ; voltages, 
between 90 and 250.000; frequencies, between 16 and 60 cycles; 
transmitting distances, from a few feet to 250 miles; wire sizes, 
up to 10,000,000 circular mils ; wire spacing, from 1 to 25 ft. ; 
conductors, of copper, aluminum or steel center wires ; phases, any 
number ; all power factors, leading or lagging. 

The calculator is 6" x 8" in leather covers with complete instruc- 
tions for use. It will determine the wire size for a given power 
loss in per cent of delivered power with corrections for electrostatic 
capacity effect and also easily solves the charging current, the volts 
drop and regulation. 

The device is being placed on the market by the Construction 
Service Company, 15 William Street, New York, and costs $10.00. 
It will be sent to any member of the leading engineering societies 
for inspection upon request. 

Address Supply Department, Construction Service Company, 15 
William Street, New York. 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA 
By Halbert P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, 
Member A. S. C. E., A. S. M. E., A. I. M E. 

Flexible binding, 4| x 7 in $5 . 00 

1878 pages of costs, not prices. Almost every con- 
ceivable civil engineering operation, from cement side- 
walks to railroad systems. 

Contents. — Principles of Engineering. Economics. 
Earth Excavation. Rock Excavation. Quarrying 
and Crushing. Roads, Pavements and Walks. Stone 
Masonry. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Con- 
struction. Water Works. Sewers. Timber Work. 
Buildings. Railways. Bridges and Culverts. Steel 
and Iron Construction. Engineering and Surveys. 
Miscellaneous Cost Data. ♦, 

The value of the book lies in the fact that the condi- 
tions surrounding each operation on 'which costs are 
reported are so completely described that the costs may 
be accurately translated into terms of the same opera- 
tion under other conditions. 

Cement Age: "Systems of cost keeping are described 
in the first part of the book, which contractors will find 
valuable." 

The National Builder: "Mr. GUlette does not seem 
to have overlooked a single item in the contracting 
world, where costs and time are factors in making up an 
estimate." 

Railway Age Gazette: "The author was a practicing 
engineer and contractor for nearly twenty years before 
he prepared the first edition, so the reader inay feel that 
the book is not the work of an office man." 

Canadian Engineer: "It is safe to say that on any 
question on which the engineer requires costs, they may 
be found in this book." 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT 

By Richard T. Dana, Consulting Engineer, Member A. S. C E., 
A. I. M. E. 

Flexible binding, 4f x 7 in $5.00 

700 pages of the net prices, shipping weights and 
operating costs of all kinds of construction equipment, 
with an appendix giving the names and addresses of the 
principal manufacturers. 

Engineering Record: "Much valuable data are given 
as to the cost of operation of certain types of machinery 
— they furnish practically the first published basis for 
selecting machinery." 

The American City: "Mr. Dana's volume gives the 



1735 



HANDBOOK OF CONSTRUCTION PLANT (Continued) 
information most necessary to engineers in making esti- 
mates of construction costs and in executing plans," 

The Excavating Engineer: "Undoubtedly the most 
complete handbook of construction plant ever published. 
Every conceivable type of machinery and equipment." 

Concrete-Cement Age: "The descriptions include prac- 
tically every type of equipment, as well as cost data." 

Railway Review: " , . , presenting between two 
covers that which the engineer often searches through 
masses of trade catalogue and stacks of card index files 
to find." 

The National Builder: "Many machines, appliances, 
methods and contrivances the ordinary contractor knows 
but little about are here fully described and illustrated." 



HANDBOOK Of ROCK EXCAVATION; METHODS AND 

COST 

By Halbert P. Gillette 

840 pages; 184 illustrations; flexible binding, 4|x7 in.. .$5.00 
Best modern practice in drilling and handling rock of 
all kinds, under all conditions, illustrating latest ma- 
chines and methods, with costs of actual work done. 

Contents. — Rocks and Their Properties. Methods 
and Cost of Hand Drilling. Drill Bits, Shape, Sharpen- 
ing and Tempering. Machine Drills and Their Use. 
Cost of Machine Drilling. Steam, Compressed Air and 
Other Power Plants. Cable Drills, Well Drills, Augers 
and Cost Data. Core Drills. Explosives. Charging 
and Firing. Methods of Blasting. Loading and Trans- 
porting Rock. Quarrying Dimension Stone. Open 
Cut Excavation in Quarries, Pits and Mines. Railroad 
Rock Excavation and Boulder Blasting. Canal Excava- 
tion. Trench Work. Sub-Aqueous Rock Excavation. 



HANDBOOK OF EARTH EXCAVATION; METHODS AND 

COST 

By Halbert P. Gillette 

Over 800 pages; illustrated; flexible binding, 4| x 7 in. . . .$5.00 

A complete history and encyclopedia in modern earth 

moving methods, with detailed costs for the different 

methods and equipment used. 

Chapters. — Properties of Earth, Measurement and 
Classification, Boring and Sounding, Clearing and Grub- 
bing, Loosening and Shoveling, Wheelbarrows, Carts, 
Wagons, etc.. Scrapers and Graders, Cars, Steam Shovel 
Work, Bucket Excavation, Cableways and Conveyors, 
Trenching by Hand, by Machinery, Ditches and Canals, 
Embankments, Earth Dams and Levees, Dredging, Hy- 
draulic Excavation, Miscellaneous. 



1736 



HANDBOOK OF CLEARING AND GRUBBING; METHODS 

AND COST 

By Halbert P. Gillette 

240 pages; 67 illustrations; cloth binding, 4f x 7 in $2.50 

The only book at present in print dealing with this 
important subject. It takes up Cost Estimating and 
Appraising; Clearing and Grubbing Specifications; 
Clearing; Grubbing by Hand; Burning; Blasting; Stump 
Pullers; Heavy Plows. 



COST KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 
By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana 

350 pages; illustrated; cloth binding, 6 x 9 in $3.50 

This work is to the construction engineer what Tay- 
lor's "Shop Management" and "Principles of Scientific 
Management" are to the shop foreman and superintend- 
ent. The science of engineering management is just be- 
ginning to be recognized, and Gillette and Dana have 
done much, in this book, to forward and develop it. 
Mr. Gillette is the author of the now famous "Handbook 
of Cost Data," and Mr. Dana is the author of the com- 
panion work, "Handbook of Construction Plant." To 
those familiar with these two books this insures the 
practical nature of "Cost Keeping and Management 
Engineering." 

Chapters. — The Ten Laws of Management. Rules 
for Securing Minimum Cost. Piece Rate, Bonus and 
Other-Systems of Payment. Measuring the Output of 
Workmen. Cost Keeping. Office Appliances and 
Methods. Bookkeeping for Small Contractors. Mis- 
cellaneous Cost Report Blanks and Systems of Cost 
Keeping. 

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION; METHODS AND COST 
By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles S. Hill 

690 pages; illustrated; cloth binding, 6 x 9 in $5.00 

Devoted to the economics of concrete for the builder 
of concrete structures. The authors are constantly in 
touch with the best and cheapest methods of concrete 
construction; Mr. Gillette, through his field work, and 
Mr. Hill, through his editing. 

Contents. — Methods and Cost of Selecting and Pre- 
paring Materials for Concrete. Theory and Practice of 
Proportioning Concrete. Methods and Cost of Making 
and Placing Concrete by Hand. Methods and Cost of 
Making and Placing Concrete by Machine. Methods 
and Cost of Depositing Concrete Under Water and of 
Subaqueous Grouting. Methods and Cost of Making 
and Using Rubble and Asphaltic Concrete. Methods 



1737 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION; METHODS AND COST 
(Continued) 
and Cost of Laying Concrete in Freezing Weather. 
Methods and Cost of Finishing Concrete Surfaces. 
Methods and Cost of Form Construction. Methods 
and Cost of Concrete Pile and Pier Construction. 
Methods and Cost of Heavy Concrete Work in Forti- 
fications, Locks, Dams, Breakwaters and Piers. Meth- 
ods and Cost of Constructing Bridge Piers and Abut- 
ments. Methods and Cost of Constructing Retaining 
Walls. Methods and Cost of Constructing Concrete 
Foundations for Pavement. Methods and Cost of Con- 
structing Sidewalks, Pavements, and Curb and Gutter. 
Methods and Cost of Lining Tunnels and Subways. 
Methods and Cost of Constructing Arch and Girder 
Bridges. Methods and Cost of Culvert Construction. 
Methods and Cost of Reinforced Concrete Building Con- 
struction. Methods and Cost of Building Construction 
of Separately Molded Members. Methods and Cost 
of Aqueduct and Sewer Construction. Methods and 
Cost of Constructing Reservoirs and Tanks. Methods 
and Cost of Constructing Ornamental Work. Miscel- 
laneous Methods and Costs. Methods and Cost of 
Waterproofing Concrete Structures. 



THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER 

Revised, enlarged and brought up to date by Richard T. Dana 

and A. F Trimble, from the original of F. Kindelan 

400 pages; 85 illustrations; cloth binding, 4^ x 6j in $2.00 

Written to help the man on the track, by giving him 
the results of observation and study of track work on the 
railroads of the United States for the last twenty years. 
Contents. — Construction. Spiking and Gaging. 
General Spring Work. Drainage. Summer Track 
Work. Cutting Weeds. Ballasting. Renewal of 
Rails. Effects of the Wave Motion of Rail on Track 
Rail Moivements. General Fall Track Work. Fences. 
General Winter Work. Bucking Snow. Laying Out 
Curves. Elevation of Curves. Lining Curves. Moun- 
tain Roads. Frogs and Switches. Use and Care of . 
Track Tools. Tie Plates. Wrecking. Miscellaneous. 



HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST 

DATA 

By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana 

Over 1500 pages; illustrated; 4%x'an. ; ilexible keratol. .$6.00 

Ever since Mr. Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data for 
Civil Engineers was first published there have been fre- 
quent requests for a similar book for Mechanical and Elec- 
trical Engineers, but heretofore there has never been one. 

1738 



HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COST 
DATA (Continued) 

This new book by Messrs. Gillette and Dana is a 
masterpiece as a technical achievement and amply fills 
the longfelt want noted above. The compilation of the 
great mass of data in this book has been a stupendous 
task but the result has warranted the labor. 

Whether you desire to make an estimate for a new 
plant or for a single machine, you have the data, which 
have been carefully arranged, classified and indexed, 
immediately available in this handbook. 

The net prices, shipping weights, etc., of machines and 
appliances of many types, classes and sizes are given, 
together with costs of installation and operation. 

The costs are in such detail, with a resume of govern- 
ing conditions, that they are invaluable aids in making 
estimates and indispensable as a guide for the econom- 
ical operation of existing plants. 

Rates of wages and prices of materials are stated so 
that a proper substitution may be made for times and 
communities where different conditions prevail. 

Chapters. — General Economic Principles; Deprecia- 
tion, Repairs and Renewals; Buildings; Chimneys; Mov- 
ing and Installing; Fuel and Coal Handling; Steam 
Power; Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Pro- 
ducers; Hydro-Electric Plants; Complete Electric Light 
and Power Plants; Overhead Electric Transmission; 
Underground Electric Transmission; Lighting and Wir- 
ing; Belts, Shafts, Pulleys, Pipe and Miscellaneous 
Power Transmission; Compressed Air; Gas Plants; 
Pumps and Pumping; Conveyors and Hoists; Heating, 
Ventilating and Refrigeration; Electric Railways; Mis- 
cellaneous. 

HANDBOOK OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION; METHODS 

AND COST 

By Halbert P. Gillette and Charles R. Thomas 

Over 800 pages; illustrated; flexible binding, 4| x 7 in $5.00 

After the style of all the other works of which Mr. 
Gillette is author and co-author this book presents in 
great detail the unit amounts and costs of both labor and 
materials employed in the construction of every kind of 
road in common use. The methods are carefully de- 
tailed, thus furnishing invaluable hints for work about 
to be undertaken and money-saving suggestions for 
work already under way. 

Mr. Thomas has made a life-study of road construction 
and the benefits derived from combining the results of 
his work with the well-known practical experience and 
engineering ability of Mr. Gillette, are quite apparent 
in this new complete handbook. 

1739 



